1.

Definition of Research
Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an
open mind, to establish novel facts, usually using a scientific method. The word research is
derived from the French word ‘rechercher’, to search closely where "chercher" means "to look
for or to search".
The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the development of
methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific
matters of our world and the universe.
1.1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH
a) Scientific Research
Scientific research relies on the application of the scientific method. This research provides
scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the
world around us. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research can be subdivided
into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.
b) Artistic Research
Artistic research, is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific
methods in research for knowledge and truth.
c) Historical method
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use
historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various
history guidelines commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external
criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. Though items may vary depending on the subject
matter and researcher, the following concepts are usually part of most formal historical research:
1. Identification of origin date
2. Evidence of localization
3. Recognition of authorship
4. Analysis of data
5. Identification of integrity
6. Attribution of credibility

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1.2. STEPS INVOLVED IN RESEARCH
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though order of steps
may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of
most formal research, both basic and applied:
1. Observations and Formation of the topic
2. Hypothesis
3. Conceptual definitions
4. Operational definition
5. Gathering of data
6. Analysis of data
7. Test, revising of hypothesis
8. Conclusion, iteration if necessary
1.3. RESEARCH METHODS
1. The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge. This process takes three
main forms:
a) Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems
b) Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem
c) Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence
2. Research can also fall into two distinct types:
a) Primary research (collection of data that does not yet exist)
b) Secondary research (summary, collection and/or synthesis of existing research)
3. In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can
be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the
research:
a) Qualitative research (understanding of human behaviour and the reasons that govern
such behaviour)
b) Quantitative research (systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and
phenomena and their relationships)

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1.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNDERGRADUATE AND RESEARCH EDUCATION
The undergraduate/postgraduate research is clearly a less advanced qualification than the Ph.D.
in which the student is expected to master a content area and can be completed in two or three
year’s full-time study. Following are the main differences between undergraduate and research
education:
a) Duration of Research: The Graduate research is normally shorter than the Ph.D. thesis. It
is often used as a training course in advanced research work, and can be a preliminary stage for
the Ph.D. where it is necessary to learn the fundamentals of research and acquire new techniques.
A candidate for a graduate research must undertake an investigation but, compared to the Ph.D.,
the work may be limited in scope and the degree of originality.
b) Originality of Work: Considerably more emphasis is put on original work in the Ph.D.
and the Ph.D. thesis involves greater depth than a graduate research. Greater synthesis and
critical ability and also a more detailed investigation of any practical illustrations are expected
from doctoral candidates. The graduate research can be limited to the replication of research
already published.
c) Under your own management: In doctoral education, one has to take responsibility for
managing learning and for getting a Ph.D. Of course, there will be people around to help: –
supervisor(s), other academics in department, fellow students and so on. Some of them will tell
what, in their opinion, is to be done to obtain the degree, but the responsibility for determining
what is required, as well as for carrying it out, and remains firmly with Ph.D. student. But during
graduation syllabus, text books and exams are pre planned.
d) Specialization: In undergraduate study, students build a foundation of general
psychology knowledge. Classes are offered in a variety of disciplines. Students take the classes
and use the knowledge from those classes to decide what they would like to specialize in. Ph.D.
programs are often offered as a specialized degree and the program is meant to train students to
enter that specific field as a researcher or a therapist.
e) Class Load: The class load, credits-wise, is lighter at a graduate program. Most programs
recommend a student only take three or four classes. Ph.D. classes require more reading, more
papers, and fewer tests. Classes are generally held as a discussion, rather than a lecture.
f) Thesis: To graduate from a Ph.D. degree program, most programs require the student to
complete a thesis. A thesis is a personal research project and study performed by the student. It

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must follow strict guidelines and be approved by the Institute/university's review and ethics
board. Some undergraduate programs require a thesis if the student was in an honours program.

1.5. STATUS OF RESEARCH IN INDIA

Government-funded research councils provide studentships for full-time doctoral students in
science, social science and arts students. In the past they have taken a fairly relaxed view in
evaluating what happened after the studentship had been awarded, considering this a matter for
the academic discretion of the particular department and supervisor involved, but this is no
longer so. The historically high drop-out rate of students has led the councils in the past decade
to require universities to demonstrate that they have an effective student support system in place.
They have issued guidelines on what is good practice in matters such as induction sessions for
new students, research environments, supervisory arrangements and appeals and complaints
procedures. They have issued league tables of completion rates and universities who do not
perform satisfactorily run the risk of not receiving any allocation of research student grants. The
universities can apply for reinstatement after a period when they have to demonstrate that their
support arrangements have improved. The effect of these policies has been to make academic
institutions much more concerned to control the education which takes place during the PhD to
ensure that it is of high quality. They have reviewed their supervisory practices, established
doctoral programmes, and strengthened the procedures for monitoring the progress of research
students, and so on. Academics with overall departmental responsibility for doctoral students
have been appointed. The aim of research councils is to get a high proportion of full-time
doctoral students to complete within stipulated period, and universities work to bring this about.
The criterion of a successful completion for these purposes is defined as: the submission of the
thesis for first examination after registration as a full-time student. However this pattern differs
in different Institutes/ Universities as per their rules and regulations.

1.6. RESEARCH FUNDING/ FELLOWSHIPS

Most funding for scientific research comes from two major sources: Corporate research and
development departments; and government research councils such as the UGC, CSIR, DBT,
ICMR etc. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their

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time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers
to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit.
a) Meaning of Fellowship
A fellowship is an award given by an organization or institution to fund the education of a
selected student. Usually, the award can be used for consumables, books, room and board,
research, travel, or other education related expenses. Scholarship is bound up with the nature and
functions of the university or Institutes. It is highly valued in higher education. The ideal of the
scholar is frequently intimately associated with ideas about the essence of what universities are
for.
b) Duration of Fellowship
During research the fellowship is awarded for 2 years initially which can be further extended to
three years depending on the progress and requirement of research work. The contingency and
other allowances are also provided in research fellowship.
The grant is usually increased or decreased according to institutional and government laws.

1.7. RESEARCH ETHICS

It involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics

involving scientific research. These include the design and implementation of research
involving human experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic scandal,
including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication data and plagiarism), whistle blowing;
regulation of research, etc.

The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results
reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt
by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only if
the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated
with ethical scientific conduct.

There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious consideration for research. Sociologists
need to be aware of having the responsibility to secure the actual permission and interests of all
those involved in the study. They should not misuse any of the information discovered, and there
should be a certain moral responsibility maintained towards the participants. There is a duty to

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protect the rights of people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The
confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be carried out, keeping their anonymity
and privacy secure.

Codes and Policies for Research Ethics

Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that
many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted
specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies, such as
the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US
Department of Agriculture (USDA) have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential
research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to
Biomedical Journals (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code
of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical
Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American Psychological Association),
Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility (American Anthropological Association),
Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors), the
Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association).
a) Purpose of code of ethics
The purpose of code of ethics is to establish a set of principles and procedures to guide the
partners to achieve the goals and objectives of the project. The code outlines the obligations of
each of the partners through all of the phases of the project, from design of the research through
to the publication and communication of the experiences of the project.

The following is list of some ethical principles that various codes address:

(i) Honesty

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and
procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive
colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.

(ii) Objectivity

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Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where
objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal
or financial interests that may affect research.
(iii) Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action.
(iv) Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the
work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research
design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
(v) Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new idea
(VI) Respect for Intellectual Property
Honour patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished
data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper
acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
(vii) Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, and trade and patient records.
(viii) Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid
wasteful and duplicative publication.
(ix) Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make
their own decisions.
(x) Respect for colleagues
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
(xi) Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.

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(xii) Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other
factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
(xiii) Competence
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
(xiv) Legality
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
(xv) Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
(xvi) Human Subjects Protection
When conducting research on human subjects minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits;
respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable
populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
(xvii) Ethical Decision Making in Research
Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they
do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is
therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research
rules and how to make decisions and to act in various situations. The vast majority of decisions
involve the straightforward application of ethical rules.

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1.8. PUBLISHING AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN RESEARCH
Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary in order for academic scholars to peer
review the work and make it available for a wider audience. The 'system', which is probably
disorganized enough not to merit the title, varies widely by field, and is also always changing, if
often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. In publishing,
STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and
medicine.
Most established academic fields have their own journals and other outlets for publication,
though many academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several
distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of
knowledge or research vary greatly between fields; from the print to the electronic format.
Business models are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s,
licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major
trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access.
Types of Open Access Journals
1. Open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the
time of publication,
2. Self-archiving, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web.

1.9. PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism means using another’s work without giving credit. If you use others’ words, you must
put them in quotation marks and cite your source. Citations must be given when using others
’ideas, even if you have paraphrased those ideas in your own words. “Work” includes the words
and ideas of others, as well as art, graphics, computer programs, music, and other creative
expression. The work may consist of writing, charts, data, graphs, pictures, diagrams, websites,
movies, TV broadcasts, or other communication media The term “source” includes published
works books, magazines, newspapers, textbooks, websites, movies, photos, paintings, plays and
unpublished sources(e.g., materials from a research service, blogs, class handouts, lectures,
notes, speeches, or other students papers). Using words, ideas, computer code, or any work
without giving proper credit is plagiarism. Any time you use information from a source, of any
kind, you must cite it.

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 a) Web based Plagiarism

Online plagiarism is basically a growing phenomenon since it is quite easy to steal the content
from the website by just copying it and pasting it. This phenomenon is also known as content
scraping and is used by many blogs and sites. One of the reasons why this is done is to attract the
SEO generated traffic of the original website to one's own website an however; there are many
ways in which this can be prevented. There are many online tools which are today available for
finding and then preventing plagiarism. There are free tools which are available and many
methods which are available for finding out if any other website has copied their text and to limit
online plagiarism on the web pages. There have been several instances where such plagiarism
has been detected in the past and a notice has been sent for removal of the content from the
offending sited to convert them to profit through the online ads and sales of their own products
and services.

According to Kennedy (2006), "Plagiarism is the illegal practice of taking someone else's ideas,
data, findings, the language, illustrative material, images, or writing, and presenting them as if
they were your own."

Consequences of Plagiarism in Academia

Plagiarism is a serious offence for academia and no academic institution can turn a blind eye to
it. It undermines the rights of honest pupils and students; can seriously affect the moral rights of
some authors and it denigrates academic grades, degrees and even the academic institution itself.
Pupils and students cannot accept their graduation diplomas or degrees honestly if they know
they have plagiarized others' works. How will they perform and succeed in their future academic
careers, if they have not assimilated the academic ethics themselves?

1.10. SKILLS HABITS AND ATTITUDES FOR RESEARCH

1 Reasons to decide towards a Ph.D
a) Significant Contribution: One of the most common aims at the beginning is the wish to make
a significant contribution to the chosen field. In these cases students have become particularly
interested in a topic during the course of their undergraduate degrees and wish to add something
to the current state of knowledge.

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b) Enhance Carrier Opportunities: Important aim for many Ph.D. students is to enhance career
opportunities and future earning capacity through possession of the Ph.D. degree. Some decide
on this course of action when considering plans for the future. Others decide on research when
they find it more difficult than they had expected to get a job in industry straight from university.
There are other career reasons for wanting to take a doctorate.
c) To get ‘Dr.’ As title: Some students find that they are being called ‘Dr’ by people coming in to
the laboratory or hospital department where they work and feel guilty at accepting the title they
have not yet achieved. Others feel that relationships with their medical colleagues may be easier
if they too have the title. Some are embarrassed at being alone in their academic group without a
title and succumb to their feelings of peer pressure in order to conform.
d) Getting Scholarship: Another reason for undertaking a research degree after doing well at
undergraduate level is simply taking up the offer of a studentship as a form of employment and
without having any real career aims.
2. Real Purpose of PhD
The aims of students do not remain the same throughout the period of registration for the higher
degree, however, not even for those students who do start because of the intrinsic satisfaction of
actually doing research and because of their interest in the work for its own sake. The students,
together with very many more enthusiastic new recruits, change their way of talking about their
Ph.D. as the years of learning to do research and become a full professional pass by. Towards the
end their aims become narrower: simply to reach the goal of the PhD – ‘got to get it’ – or else to
complete an unfinished task – ‘must finish’. It is important that research students eventually
realize that it is determination and application, rather than brilliance that is needed. The sooner
one learns this the better it is. Conducting a piece of research to a successful conclusion is a job
of work that has to be done just like any other job of work. Also, just like any other job of work,
an important objective should be to make a success of what you have set out to do.

1.11. PSYCHOLOGICAL PHASES OF PH.D. PROCESS:

The activity of getting a Ph.D. is inevitably a complex one. Students often embark on their
research with the naive view that, having identified their topic, they will follow a predictable
path to its conclusion. Unfortunately this is totally misleading. Even within the framework of the
scientific method there will be the need for guesses, reworking, backtrackings, and corrections

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and, above all, inspiration if the Ph.D. is to be achieved. Other conceptual paradigms provide
even less structure. Uncertainty is inherent in the doctoral process, and a degree of tolerance of
ambiguity is a prerequisite for successful research work. You therefore need some signposts for
understanding to help you along the way.
a) Enthusiasm
Postgraduates begin the period of their research full of enthusiasm for their new undertaking.
These changes during the time that it takes to complete the course. The main reason that initial
enthusiasm diminishes is the length of time that has to be spent working on a single problem.
b) Isolation
Students discover what not to do for their Ph.D. after they have spent some time struggling with
their own topic. Generally they have experienced disappointments in the amount of work they
have managed to get done during this period and usually feel that they should be much farther
ahead than they actually are.
Students become dissatisfied with the amount and quality of their interactions with their
supervisor. They also feel that they had very little in common with others in their department; in
addition, they do not talk with anyone about their work. The lack of intellectual stimulation and
exchange of ideas with either peers or supervisor eventually led to a loss of interest in his topic,
which he thought was of no importance or interest to anybody else.
Intellectual isolation is a necessary and desirable component of successful research. But there is
no need for this to be accompanied by social or emotional loneliness. Regardless of discipline,
topic, or university the postgraduates interviewed were suffering from the effects of the social
circumstances in which they were working rather than from the work itself. Nevertheless, the
effect of these feelings was to dampen their initial enthusiasm and slow down their pace of work
almost nil.
c) Increasing interest in work
As students develop self-confidence and gradually become independent of their supervisors, so
too do they become more involved with their work because of its own intrinsic interest. Once
you have learned how to interpret the results of your own efforts you will find that you can
grapple with problems as they arise instead of turning immediately to your supervisor for advice.
When this happens you will find that you become increasingly absorbed in the work that you are

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doing, and that the problem you are investigating demands more and more of your time and
attention.
d) Transfer of dependence from the supervisor to the work
As students become more involved with their work, so there is a lessening of the need for
external approval. In fact supervisor should be engaged in a kind of ‘weaning processes’ to
enable student to become more independent. The way that own increasing independence in the
work is related to a lessening of dependence on productivity. It is from the student’s output that
the supervisor is able to evaluate progress in the explicit terms necessary for giving feedback.
Therefore this indicates that simultaneous growth in independence from external approval
coupled with reliance on the information that is received while working on the topic. The more
can be relied on own judgement of the quality and standard of the work, and the longer
development in the thinking, the less needed to turn to supervisor for comment, criticism or
interpretation.
e) Boredom
About halfway through the period of research student tend to get fed up, confused and feel
completely stuck. This ‘getting nowhere syndrome’ has been remarked on by many creative
people, including those who discuss it as part of their own experience of doing research.
Supervisors too commented on it during the learning.
f) Frustration
As the research progresses, new ideas about how to follow up the results of work that student
have already done are constantly being generated. It is very tempting to pursue some of these
new avenues, but if student completes the agreed research programme in time it is important to
concentrate on the problem in hand and not be sidetracked. This becomes increasingly frustrating
as the original problem becomes more and more familiar. Not being able to follow up results,
ideas and theories is a constant source of dissatisfaction and frustration for most research
students during the thesis stage of their PhD.
g) A job to be finished
It seems to be important for the morale of most research students that they think in terms of a
goal – ‘got to get it!’ – or an unfinished task that needs completion – ‘must finish!’
If student have got to the point of realizing that his/her work, just like any other kind of work,
needs to be planned and developed and completed in a given period of time, one will have

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entered the final crucial motivating stage of the process. As with other jobs, the student will be
rewarded at the end of it; not in this case by a financial bonus, but by a higher degree.
h) Euphoria
After submission of the thesis there is a period of anxiety and expectation that the student have
to live through waiting for the day of the viva. This final stage is that which occurs after student
has had the viva and been told that you have been awarded the doctorate, or that you will have
the doctorate once you have made specific alterations to the text of the thesis within a limited
amount of time. Then you are overwhelmed with feelings of joy, light headedness and
achievement. The years you have been working now seem worthwhile just to get to the feeling of
euphoria that permeates your whole being once you have succeeded in what you set out to do all
those years ago.

STRESS POINTS DURING RESEARCH

a) Loss of Motivation
The best way to avoid loss of motivation is for students to really know why they want to do a
Ph.D. and to select a topic, institution and supervisor that they know will excite them for the long
run. Understanding motivation will also help the institution (through the supervisor) support and
encourage the student in the best way.
b) Experiments That Don’t Work
All scientists know the frustration that can arise when an experiment doesn’t work. If this
happens to a research student, he should seek help from his fellow students, from the supervisor,
from other researchers in the department and also from scientists working at other Universities
and research laboratories.
c) Problems With Data-Collection
Sometimes social science research students face problems collecting their data. This can be due
to difficulties in recruiting respondents. Sometimes their responses will not allow students to
address their research questions in the way they had expected. If numbers of respondents are
insufficient, the selection criteria may be extended or the number of case studies increased. If the
responses are not what were expected, there may be an opportunity to revise the theory or model
being tested and this may result in a better thesis.

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 d) Isolation
The further a student gets into his Ph.D., the more likely he is to experience isolation, a
consequence of studying something completely original. Joining student societies and trying to
maintain a life outside university are two ways of combating this. If there’s no doctoral student
society in place, a student could try to organise one.
e) Running out of Money
Ph.D. students on grants often find it very difficult to complete their studies once their grant has
run out, and part-time students are likely to find it hard to make ends meet throughout their
studies. In some countries, it is possible to suspend a doctoral registration, but it is not
uncommon that students who do this find it hard to re-start. If it is essential that a suspension be
put in place, students should keep in touch with both their research project and their supervisor
during the period of suspension. Maintaining links improves the chances of eventual completion
considerably.
f) Problems With a Supervisor
Problems with a research degree supervisor can arise from overwork, personality clashes, a
change of topic or a multitude of reasons. Whatever the reason, it is important that the student
discuss the situation openly with the supervisor. If that is impossible, go to the Departmental
Research Degree Coordinator or Head of the department/Institute. If none of these are possible,
talk with the student union or student association. It is a student’s right to have good supervision
and a university’s failure to provide it leaves it liable.
g) What if Someone Publishes a Student’s Original Idea Before He Does?
A student shouldn’t worry about this because it very rarely happens. If it does, and it is worth
reiterating that the chance of someone reproducing independently a student’s programme of
work is very, very slim. In that case, re-orientate the thesis so that it focuses on a different aspect
of the research. Think about drawing on a different aspect of the literature review or do some
additional empirical work to move the idea on. The latter option may not be a satisfactory
situation, but it may well save the doctorate the student has put so much work into.

MANAGING YOURSELF FOR PHD/ RESEARCH

Students often enter a doctoral program desirous of a research and teaching career, but with little
“hands- on” understanding of the demands of such a program. They then find themselves in a

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program that bears little resemblance to previous degree programs, they had successfully
completed. Due to the focus and importance of research in PhD, it is often believed that creating
new knowledge is the main goal of PhD. Though creating new knowledge is part of the PhD
training, the main objective of doing PhD degree is to become a competent researcher who can
conduct independent research in his or her chosen area. However, a key ingredient for success is
their ability to manage the program and they have to face the following problems like:
1. Poor planning
2. Methodological difficulties
3. Writing
4. Isolation
5. Personal Problems
6. Supervision

a) Self directed Learning and management

Because a PhD largely involves self-directed learning – self-management is critical. PhD is an

opportunity to develop an effective and highly efficient process for working and there should be
the proper consideration of following points during doctoral programme. So to overcome the
above problems, there is need to properly manage yourself before entering the research which is
possible through:

a) Estimate how long each task will take

b) Use of planning tools to establish important sequences
c) Enter start dates, milestones and completion dates in routine diary
d) Review and revise regularly your experiments
e) Write down everything you can so that you do not need to keep it in short-term memory
f) Hopelessly inaccurate estimates are much more efficient than no estimates at all
g) Make a list of your glassware, chemicals and technological needs and work out how
you’re going to get them

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 b) Managing your Writing

Writing is one of the most challenging tasks you will have to undertake during your research.
Make sure you start writing early on and regularly throughout your PhD. The more you write, the
better you will become at it. Even if you are not going to try and publish anything while you are
doing your work, you must get into the habit of writing down your ideas. Start with a modest
target (may be review), then give it to your supervisor and ask for feedback. Once you are
capable of writing a good review following the instructions of journal and standard guidelines,
you will be able to write the research paper also as well as become competent to academic
writing to some extent. Research scholars can also improve their academic writing skills by
attending conferences, seminars, workshops and by poster and oral presentations.

c) Habit of exploring research journals

Reflective journals are a very private form of leaning supervision. In essence of good journals
you become your own supervisor. A reflective journal is not a work log or diary. In the reflective
journal you record your experience of formulating questions and of how you came to find
answers, like a documentary of your journey of discovery. They are a chance for you to explore
your “blocks” and “dead ends” and to think about and plan strategies to overcome them.

d) What is your thesis about?

Before starting your research, you must aware of your research priorities on the basis of your
topic of interest and justification of gap studies. Following points can help the research scholar in
managing their research topic

1. Write your short research statement (25-30 words). It will change over time but it is
important that you formulate what it is, discuss it with your supervisor and reach an
agreement on your research direction.
2. Use SPQR (Situation-Problem-Question-Response) to help structure your research – it can be
quite helpful in writing early versions of your abstract which includes
I. How would you describe the current situation?

II. What is the key problem your PhD addresses?

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 III. What questions arise from problem?

IV. How did you respond to answer the question?

e) Find out what you are expected to do by:

1. Attending departmental orientation and technical programs

2. Attending conferences, seminars, workshops and trainings
3. Course handbooks
4. GSO (Global Standard Organisation) guidelines
5. Books and websites
6. Read excellent thesis

f) Abilities to develop by Research scholar

The ability to conduct research in an area requires deep knowledge in that area, knowledge about
related areas, and the experience of working on research problems, i.e. problems whose
outcomes are not known. To develop these critical abilities, most PhD programs have three
components in them – some course work to provide the breadth of knowledge, some methods to
develop the depth of knowledge in the chosen area of study, and a thesis that provides the
experience of working on research problems. Through these components a PhD candidate should
expect to develop the following abilities, which form the foundation of a career in research:
1. Breadth in the discipline – can be provided through courses.
2. Expertise in a vertical area in which the PhD candidate can say “I am an expert in this”.
i.e. an area in which he has full knowledge of what is known, what is missing, etc.
Developing this expertise requires ability to search for relevant work done in an area, as
well as the ability to critically read and understand research papers, reports, and
monographs and appreciate the subtle or complex issues that may be involved.
3. Ability to identify research problems. This is one of the most important abilities for a
researcher. This ability requires a good knowledge of the recent developments in the area,
and the ability to create a bigger picture and see how the different work fit and what
might be missing. Formulating a problem properly is half the research done. In fact, most
PhD candidates spend much of their time in defining the problem. This skill is

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 strengthened as the person develops the subjective ability of judging results and
problems. This skill is also needed by a PhD person as a member of the research
community where one is called upon to review other peoples work.
4. Ability to actually do the research. Behind every research there is some new idea, some
hypothesis, which forms the foundation of the research work. But doing research is much
more than getting an idea. The idea has to be developed using the established paradigms
of scientific research, through which the researcher shows the value of the idea. Spending
time grappling with research issues, actually doing research, and studying research work
of others can help in developing this ability. That is the main reason why doing
independent research is always a part of a PhD program.
5. Ability to write and present the results. This is very important and very difficult. Not
only are issues of communication involved, but one has to convince a group of peers
(who review it and later read it, if published) that the work is worthy of their time, the
results have been put in context, the value is clearly articulated, etc. Publishing the results
of research has been the time honored tradition and benchmark, and perhaps the only
reliable method to subject a research work to scrutiny as well as use by others.

EMPATHY AND RELATIONSHIP WITH SUPERVISOR, COLLEAGUES AND

SUPPORTING STAFF

To carry out research in a lab or in a organization is not a process of isolation. Though you need
privacy and concentration during your research but you have to be in the contact of many
persons like your supervisor, colleagues, staff members and persons not related to your
department or organization but related to your research. So to carry out your work effectively,
smoothly, timely and with patience, there is need of better understanding between you and the
persons linked to you during your research process.
a) Empathy and Relationship with Supervisor

In addition to choosing the research topic and paradigm, a doctoral student must also select a
supervisor who will accompany him or her throughout the doctoral research. Choosing a
supervisor, however, unlike choosing the research topic or paradigm, is mutual; not only does the
student choose the supervisor, but the supervisor must also agree to supervise the student. This
mutual selection leads to the formation of a professional and significant relationship for the

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doctoral student, due to the many facets of academic supervision, such as active guidance in the
execution of the research and in choosing academic study courses, assisting research students in
their professional, academic development, guidance on issues that pertain to the organizational
culture of the university and the discipline, assistance in obtaining financial resources, and many
more.
The supervisory empathy or understanding and relationship is the most important academic
connection you will have throughout your PhD. It is critical that you learn to manage it
efficiently by

1. Distinguish between what you want to do and what your supervisor wants you to do
2. Work out the best way of getting in contact with your supervisor
3. Know your supervisor’s strengths/weaknesses

As soon as possible find out your supervisor’s:

1. Research Interests
2. Recent publications
3. Experience supervising
4. How much time they will have?
5. Will you be able to get on?
6. What kind of role does your supervisor expect?

b) Problems related to scholar and supervisor

The relationship between the student and the supervisor is unequal and hierarchical. The
supervisor plays many roles as "adviser", "promoter", "boss", "teacher", "friend", "principal
investigator” etc. This multiplicity of roles may lead to conflict between the supervisor and
students. The main problems which may arise from supervisor and student side are discussed as
below

c) Problems related to research scholar

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1. Lack of guidance
2. Not available for discussions
3. Fault-finding
4. Unreasonable expectations
5. Not interested
6. Lack of resources or facilities
7. lack of support in process of research (techniques, data analysis)

d) Problems related to Supervisor

1. not honest about progress

2. lack commitment
3. don’t realise how much work it takes
4. Lack of effort
5. absent from lab/desk
6. Oversensitive
7. don’t accept challenge
8. No enthusiasm
9. don’t follow advice

e) Basis of problems

1. False expectations
2. Failure to see whole picture
3. Survival of the fittest?
4. Personality clash
5. Other pressures
6. Lack of communication

f) Managing Relations

There are at least two patterns from which to choose with regard to working with supervisor. The
first has already been mentioned: the student needs constant support and reassurance, and the
supervisor needs continual feedback in order to give instruction, thus providing direction for the

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research. The second pattern is a relationship in which the student needs time to think about the
work to be done and needs the freedom to make mistakes during early attempts to get started,
before discussing what has been happening with the supervisor. In this relationship the
supervisor must feel relaxed about giving the student time to learn by trial and error. Such
supervisors are content to give guidance at regular intervals rather than the direction provided by
those who stay much closer to the students and their work. Thus good communication and
rapport between students and their supervisors are the most important elements of supervision
and needs to balanced throughout the research program.

RELATIONSHIP WITH COLLEAGUES AND SUPPORTING STAFF

Socialization of doctoral students in academia takes place mainly through their interaction and
experience within the research group or groups to which they belong. Since they are at the same
stage as you, they have some understanding of your own experience. Throughout the whole of
your course this group will enable you to compare not only how your research is progressing, but
also your feelings about it. The reality of this situation is that all personal relationships within the
academic community, as elsewhere, have to be worked at and take time to develop.
Working towards the PhD is often experienced as an isolating and lonely time. This need not be
the case. If you can arrange to meet regularly with others in your situation you will find that you
can help yourself and them in several ways. The first, and most obvious, is that you are no longer
in solitary confinement, with nobody interested in your work, aware of what you are doing, or
concerned about how you are feeling with regard to the research degree. You will discover, when
you feel depressed and discouraged and are thinking seriously about dropping out, that this is
part of the general malaise of postgraduate life and not peculiar to you and your inadequacies.
Once you become aware that such feelings are experienced by the majority of research students
from time to time, you will be able to put them into perspective as part of the process that has to
be got through, instead of seeing them as proof of your own incompetence. Further, once you are
able to share these feelings and to talk about them and their effect on your work, you will all start
to feel better. As one of the group confronts the problems, the others will be able to help, and
when it comes to their turn they will remember how it was and know that it is possible to get
through it. A more pragmatic function for your group or peer (just one other postgraduate at your
stage of the PhD is sufficient) is to help in keeping you to deadlines. Each of you states what

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work you want to do and sets a time limit for its completion. This commitment serves as a
motivator. It is evident that the professional relationships between doctoral students and their
colleagues are important during the doctoral research period (and probably also after that), and
that such relationships may serve as a source of support, attrition, professional development, and
so on.
Despite the colleagues, a research scholar must have good relationships with the other staff
members of departments or of other departments. Supervisor has limited time for guiding the
scholar and then the scholar gets much help from the supporting staff regarding the department,
equipments/ instruments as well as about the chemicals.
DURATION AND STAGES OF PHD PROGRAMME

Generally PhD is considered to be of three years of duration but this is not a harden and fasten
rule. Duration of PhD is generally dependent on many things like length of the research work,
availability of techniques, standard methods, chemicals and equipments in the lab, interest and
capabilities of research scholar and more importantly the relationship between supervisor and his
student.

The duration of PhD which is generally considered for three years involves preparation of
synopsis by reviewing the literature in first six months, presentation of synopsis and planning to
conduct the experiments and collection of raw materials in the next six months. The second year
of PhD involves optimization and standardization of your experiments. The first six months of
third year require analysis of results and the last six months involve preparation of theses and its
submission

There are some common “mistakes” students make in their doctoral program that often hinder
their ability to manage their progress. These mistakes are avoidable when they can be identified
and the students can see them within the larger context of the program and the stages through
which their program develops. This idea of stages of development in a doctoral program can help
students benchmark their progress and circumvent common mistakes. While the pace and acuity
of development might vary by student based on their capability, motivation, and ability to
manage their program or manage their advisor, the stages generally remain the same.

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Figure 1: Maturity model of Ph.D. student growth

Stage I: The Stage of Exploration

The Stage of Exploration epitomizes first year students. Despite the plethora of voluminous
research many students do when searching for the right program, the pendulum does not swing
until they are actually in the program. Here is when they realize that doctoral study is outside the
scope of their previous reality from what they envisioned coming from a professional masters
program. Here, they listen to senior students tell them how hard they need to work, the battles of
the job market, comprehensive exam pressures, and the importance of working on research
outside the classroom. Many of these concepts are new to the first year students and they have to
battle this noise as they deal with seminars and research articles not written for the common man,
and statistical techniques that they never knew existed. This becomes a trying time, and to
succeed, they need to take a deep breath and explore, question, and learn about where they are,
what they are doing there, and where they are going.
At this point, it is necessary for students to recognize that the nature of a doctoral program is
fundamentally different from their other experiences and they need to assume more
responsibility for their success. Internalizing this concept requires students to focus on getting a

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good understanding of the faculty members, student and institutional resources surrounding
them, understanding the political landscape, and then proactively trying to position themselves to
maximize learning and success. In this stage first year doctoral students must take advantage of
the resources available to actively begin molding their program. While failure here may not
result in failure in the program, making mistakes early could be costly. Such mistakes could lead
the doctoral student into a vicious circle that is difficult to counteract as the program proceeds,
resulting in a dismal path of counterproductive results.
The biggest challenge in the Stage of Exploration is trying to position oneself within the new
context. There are four key negative characteristics students must identify and overcome in order
to avoid the most common mistakes: doctoral students are: 1) too reactive; 2) do not seek help;
3) do not build an asset base; and 4) are not politically astute. While these “mistakes” should be
recognized in the first stage, they must be considered in all stages in order to maximize the
quality and efficacy of results.

Stage II: The Stage of Engagement

The Stage of Engagement is further up the value-added axis. This is exploration with a purpose.
Doctoral students begin to have a sense of doctoral study, their position in their institution, and
perhaps their chosen profession. This is the stage where students engage with faculty members,
with published work, and with research ideas. They also begin to sense their path of success
through the program, including the colleagues and faculty members they will need to interact
with and a sense of research areas and methods they particularly enjoy. It is still a struggle for
many to prioritize because opportunities increase and students straddle the broad view and the
more narrow personal view of research.
At this point, the pace of the program picks up and it is necessary for students to begin
considering relations with faculty members, evaluating potential opportunities, creating
synergies between projects, and to start taking advantage of the resources available to actively
begin molding their programs. Since this stage is still prior to comprehensive exams (or the
equivalent system in place that qualifies the student for the dissertation stage), the mistakes
mentioned earlier are still applicable, but the probability of failure associated with making them
increases. For instance, cases were observed where doctoral students have not cultivated a good
working relationship with a faculty member (i.e., by not being responsible about meetings and

25
deadlines), which could eliminate an important option of working with this faculty member in
the future. This makes it more difficult to counteract the spiraling vicious circle.
The biggest challenge in the Stage of Engagement is to navigate the broad view of the field while
managing personal research projects. Here is where two more common mistakes manifest
themselves: 1) doctoral students do not create synergy; and 2) doctoral students do not carefully
evaluate opportunity costs.

Stage III: The Stage of Consolidation

The Stage of Consolidation is when ideas crystallize. Doctoral students in this stage are more
engaged and committed to their research, and the institution is irreversibly committed to the
students particularly if the students pass their comprehensive examinations and are admitted to
candidacy. The student at this stage should have a very good sense of his or her field and its
structure, and the ability to position research within that structure. Dissertation ideas should be
developed in this stage, as the personal view of research dominates the latter part of this stage.
The students should also develop their level of engagement with the broader profession as they
package themselves for the job market. By this stage the student is more comfortable within the
program and has worked very hard up to this point. After students pass their comprehensive
examinations is the start of the stage where the program makes its turn and begins to head into
the final phase of the dissertation and program conclusion. The biggest challenge in the Stage of
Consolidation is to engage in deep research and establishties with professionals in the field.
Failure at this stage is fatal in most cases, deterring a student from ever finishing the program. In
this stage, the previous mistakes impede progress and compound the vicious circles as they
interact with other “mistakes.” Doctoral students that have not been proactive, cultivated good
relationships with faculty members, sought help, built some core competencies, managed their
time well, and/or created synergy across their projects will have a much harder time developing a
research topic and engaging in the profession. Further, students tend to make five more common
mistakes important for the post-comprehensive stage: doctoral students 1) fall into a stillness; 2)
do not carefully select their committee; 3) do not manage their advisor; 4) are too ambitious; and
5) do not seek resources.
Stage IV: The Stage of Entry

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Finally, The Stage of Entry is the final thrust before the doctoral student formally enters the
profession as a peer. Broader notions of career, research stream, and tenure enter the student’s
consciousness, as do family, location, and job satisfaction. The “light at the end of the tunnel”
keeps the student going as the process culminates with a doctoral degree.
The biggest challenge in the Stage of Entry is to manage the transition as the student has one foot
in the home institution and another foot trying to move outside it. However, often doctoral
students do not make appropriate tradeoffs resulting in problems with completion of the
dissertation or getting a job. In other cases, the temptation of getting a head start in their career
prompts them to leave before their final defense, leading to the last career threatening mistake:
doctoral students leave too early. So, the two common mistakes in this stage: doctoral students 1)
do not make appropriate compromises and 2) leave too early.

TIME MANAGEMENT
It is a truth universally acknowledged that a PhD student in their first year will spend most of
that year sitting in a library wondering what on earth they should be doing. They will then spend
the next two or more years wishing they had put that year to better use and then they get
frustrated. We now have to consider the conceptual and practical tasks that have to be undertaken
to obtain a PhD. Since these have to be achieved within a limited period, timetabling and time
management become crucial to success. You will probably have three years full-time after your
taught component in which to design, conduct and complete your PhD, or an equivalent amount
part-time, spread over five or six years. Of course, you will have some idea of what you will be
doing during those years but how much thought have you given to just how and when you will
be undertaking specific activities?
These activities operate at two levels: first, the general level at which the tasks required to
complete a PhD must be realistically charted if they are to be accomplished in the time available;
and second, the detailed level concerned with setting timetable deadlines for particular tasks, and
achieving them. In addition, the activities must be seen as both part of the research task and part
of the essential structure into which the timetabling of the PhD falls.

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a) Taking a modular approach

To get a grip on your research project, it is wise to take a modular approach. Modules are clearly
identifiable, intermediary tasks which have to be completed in order to finish your dissertation.
Examples include outlining the research problem, making an inventory of theoretical
perspectives, designing new models, and collecting, analyzing, or interpreting data.

The research, therefore, will have to be broken down into several modules that will serve as the
stepping stones to your final destination: the manuscript. Instead of getting scared of the book
that needs to be finished, these intermediate goals are much more manageable targets on which
to focus.

Ideally the results of these different tasks will be written down, for the simple reason that the
dissertation itself will also be a written product. What's more, such written reports really force
you to spell out the argument as fully and strongly as possible, and, eventually, make it easy for
other people to look at your work and criticize it.

b) Time planning

Having identified the modules of your project, it is of course essential to schedule them with the
help of a time plan. You should not strive for a railroad-like timetable, but aim for a loose, but
nevertheless concrete, plan that clearly outlines the modules.

c) Items for your planning:

1. Writing/outlining the research problem

2. Training: skills courses
3. Teaching
4. Appointments with your (daily) supervisor and dissertation committee
5. Data collection/fieldwork
6. Analyzing data/reporting measurements
7. Writing papers/chapters/articles

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8. Rewriting papers/chapters/articles
9. Conferences/seminars/workshops
10. Drafting and rewriting the manuscript
11. Finding a publisher/lay out
12. Administrative duties
13. Holidays
14. The unexpected!

All these activities are placed on a time scale. Now you can not only see how much time each
activity will take, but also how many of them coincide. This will certainly help you to find
the right mix of activities for each period. At the start of the project, it is a good idea to
supplement your often long and lonely days while you are getting acquainted with the
theoretical perspectives of your research. Take a couple of courses that will improve your
knowledge of the field or your research skills.

d) Long and Short term goals

Not only should you set useful goals, you should also set both short-term and long-term goals.

Short-term goals are ones that you will achieve in the near future (e.g., in a day, within a week,
or possibly within a few months).

Long-term goals are ones that you will achieve over a longer period of time (e.g., one semester,
one year, five years, or twenty years).

Short term goals are of prime importance as they help us achieve a long-term goal. These goals
are like stepping stones that help us measure our progress toward reaching longer-term goals and
help in

e) Structured Planning of Work

If you do not take this kind of structured approach to planning your PhD work, then one result
will inevitably be a much greater dependence on your supervisor for feedback concerning your

29
progress. Evaluating your own work will also be more difficult. If you define short-term goals it
will be less necessary to rely on external sources of information, such as supervisors, because the
step-by-step structure will be clear. This clarity results in information on progress that you can
interpret for yourself with very little difficulty. First, you will know whether you have managed
to do what you said you would do; next, you will know whether you managed to do it in the time
allocated.
f) Management of work
In time you will be able to do this evaluation for yourself; but the best way of learning how to
judge your own efforts is to pay careful attention to your supervisor’s comments. If, on the other
hand, you discover that you have not managed to complete the projected work in the time
assigned to it, you will be in a good position to analyse the reasons. You might estimate how
much was due to circumstances that could neither have been foreseen nor prevented, and how
much was due to your own inexperience, inactivity or inability to estimate the amount of work
accurately. This last is the most usual discovery. Typically, research students gradually realize
that progress is slower than they had expected. This realization eventually leads to a
reassessment of what may, realistically, be achieved. As this happens with short-term goals the
related longer-term goals can be adjusted too.

DEADLINES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Deadlines create a necessary tension between doing original work and reporting its progress,
either orally or in writing. Very few people are able to work well without some pressure (either
internal or external). Knowing that a deadline is looming is usually sufficient for most people to
get on and do whatever it is they are supposed to do. In fact it is not at all unusual for people
to leave things until the very last minute because they find it difficult to work well if they
are not under pressure – a strategy not to be recommended. But neither is it desirable, when
you have a long period of time in which to complete something, to have no steps along the way.
Such a lack of structure in the task or its timing is not conducive to effective working. For these
reasons it is crucial to ensure that you have firm deadlines all the time.
For many students, though, the timing of the work that they have to complete is not marked
except by the final submission of the thesis. In such cases it is imperative that pseudo-deadlines
are created. Pseudo-deadlines are time limits accepted by the student as a motivating device.

30
They may be set by your supervisors, agreed between you, or set by and for yourself. Even if this
last is the case, you must ensure that you have somebody to report to once the deadline has been
reached. The public commitment that you have set up in this way strengthens your motivation. It
may be that a friend, colleague or relative will agree to help, but this should be only in order for
you to take smaller steps than you have agreed with your supervisor. Your overall agreement
with your supervisor must include provision for regular reporting meetings. While it may not
always be necessary to provide a written report for such occasions, it is certainly advisable, as
one of the most important things that you have to do during the course of your research degree is
to keep writing. Deadlines are as important for monitoring the development of thinking as they
are for ascertaining that an agreed amount of reading or practical work has been completed.
Whatever the short-term goals, regular opportunities to discuss progress and exchange ideas are
vital to the development of the project and your continuing enthusiasm.

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