UNIT THREE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO

THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

The Region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred as

- The cradle of humankind.
- Pre Historian the domestication of plants and animals took place about 11,000 or
10,000 B.C.
- In northern part of Ethiopia at Gobedra rock shelter (3000B.C) and Lalibela Cave
(500 B.C) these sites provides Neolithic material cultural such as axes, ceramics,
grinding stones, beads, stone figures
- In the horn of Africa first to be cultivated was ensat, teff and dagusa - 7,000 or more
years ago.
- About 4,000 or 3,000 B.C two other cereals, barley and wheat were introduced into
the Ethiopia region.
As state formation is a concomitant development of division of communities in to economic
classes the ancient states of Ethiopia
- Farming developments would in turn eventually lead to societies begin divided
between landowners and slaves.
- The external trade relation contributed to the social evolutions, economic
formations, and socio-cultural and political settings.
Factors for the emergence of states were:
 The beginning of sedentary agriculture
 War and conquest
 Social contract
 Abundant of resources

Remains of archaeological evidence; pottery, cooking utensils, metal tools, inscriptions

from places near Aksum suggest that long before the emergence Aksum this region was very
close commercial and cultural contact with Mediterranean and Arab world.

Punt
- The existence of a state comes from Egyptian Hieroglyphic writings and paintings
- The first documented expedition took place C.2700 B.C during the last and the
famous queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C).
- The captain of the expedition was a black Nubian Nehasi
- The land of Punt was source of many items like incense, ivory, rhinoceros horn, gold,
ebony, leopards and others.

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 - The paintings depict the expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King
Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters and followers.
- Where it was located?
o Scholars guess based on the items - because of the varieties of incense and
myrrh mentioned in the queen’s tomb at Deir el-Bahri writings many
scholars suggest northern or north-eastern Somalia.
o But to other scholars the gold, ebony and monkeys suggest northern Ethiopia.
These scholars reinforce their guess by arguing that at this early period of
Egyptian history its sailboats might not have been strong enough to pass
through the strait of Bab el-Mandeb into the Gulf of Aden and the Indian
Ocean.
- What is important is the clear indication that there was a state in the horn which over
a long period had extensive trade relations with Egypt.
Da’amat
- Located to the south of Aksum.
- Inscription of the king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC
- Unkown king of Damat used t h e S o u t h A r a b i a politico- religious title
known as Mukarib.
- Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Na’uran (light god),
Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped
- They used Sabeans as one of the lanugauges in their inscription
- Some argue that Northern Ethiopia was first colonized and settled by south Arabians
or other Semitic peoples.
- The reason for this is not the traditional explanation
o Rather the reason lies in the nearness of the sea to plateau where ivory, the
slaves and the animals for export were available.
o Aksum was not a state created by Sabean settlers and Aksumite culture was
not derived from that which the Sabean had developed in South Arabia.
- Aksum and the surrounding region were part of another state which had flourished
earlier and declined for some reasons we do not know.
- Like Punt, DM’T, other cities like Hawelti, Melazo, Yeha, Matara, Seglamien, Addi
Galamo and Adulis were
 Centre of organized societies
 Centre of culture and trade in the Horn Africa
- To conclude the argument Aksum did not create a new culture but simply
inherited one from the states or cities which preceded it

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The Aksumite State
- In the early first millennium AD a new state, the kingdom of Aksum (c.100–1000
AD) arose on the Tigrean plateau.
- It included most of Tigray and Eritrea.
- The rise of Aksum marked a new stage in the development of urbanism
- Etymology of Aksum
 C.Comti Rossini – Semitic root aksum signifies a green and dense
garden, full of grass
 Philologists- Aksum partially Agaw origin ‘’Ak’’ or ‘’Aku’’ means
water the suffix ‘’sum’’ is Semitic means chief.- Chief of water ---
more related with the northeast of Aksum-- Mai-shum (Queen Saba
bath)
 Traditional source- the name of a legendary Emperor Aksumawi –the
was the son of Ityopis, son of Kush ,son of Ham (Kam), son of Noah
 In Geez texts - (አክስመ) to dedicate the site of diamond
- Is Aksum a kingdom or Empire?
o In the inscription refers- King of King
o on the coin king – due to space
- From geographical stand point Aksumite extend beyond so empire is the more
appropriate
- According to Periplus of Erithrean Sea, Adulis on the western coast of the Red Sea
was the major port of Aksum.
- A port established by law, the account mentions 37 port-towns which traded with
Roman Empire, but of these he mentions only three as ports’’ established by law’’-
means
o Trading place where traders are protected by law ( commercial relations
between the Aksumite and Greco-Roman world were established law.
- Items of export of the Aksumite state consisted mainly of the natural products
such as ivory, myrrh, emerald, frank incense and some spices (like ginger, cassia
and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and
some curiosity animals like apes.
- Item of Import: manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt,
India, Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other

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 places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Roman
Empire and Syria were imported.
The Periplus of Erithrean Sea, named the state and king to whom Adulis belonged. –
- The king of Aksum was called Zoscales.
- The territory he ruled over was not extensive and it did not include Zayla and Berbera.
- Zoscales is also described as being able to read and write Greek.
- This language was at this tme the language of the political, comercial and intellectual
elites and it was the ligua franca of the Greco-Roman world.
- Trade with the Meditreanian world could have been so vital for the Aksumites that by
this time the Egyptian or Greco Roman influence might have became stronger than
the Sabean

The Adulis inscription written in Greek about an unknown king, which eventually
was published in Cosmas Indicopleustes’ book, the Christian Topography, describes
- Commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.
- I t inscribed the names of all the peoples and territories that the unknown
Aksumite king conquered and annexed.
- It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant
region called Sasu, most probably in Beni Shangul and the adjoining lands
beyond the Blue Nile. A big caravan made up of close to five hundred merchants
some of them special agents of the kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle,
lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold. Yet, as they did
not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to be near to each other
to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without one
side seeing the other. This was a good example of silent trade.
- Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia,
China and Aksum) at the time.
- From the third to seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis,
Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II,etc. minted and issued different kinds of coins in
gold, silver and bronze for both overseas trade since
- Internal trade was conducted with salt and iron.
- Their shape and the size were similar to the Romans.
- It was written by lingua franca of the ancient world.
- They show the influence of the Greek language and South Arabian religion.

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Changes
- Wazeba I was the first ruler to use Ge’ez for the legend.
- The earliest Aksumite coins also carried representations of the sun’s disk and the
moon crescent and replaced by the cross
- It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh centuries.
- Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of timber for shipbuilding
- Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the
South Arabian region,
o Leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture.
o Sometimes such contacts involved conflicts between the two regions.
- One of such known recorded conflict between areas on both sides of the sea took
place around 200 A.D. Accordingly, peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in
present day Yemen, had difficulties in defending themselves against the army of the
Aksumite king, Gadarat.
Kaleb (r. 500-35)
- Revival of power and prosperity of Aksum after 150 years of Dark period
- During his time the Aksumite territory was greater than evre.
- Tributary countries of Aksum
o Yemenites , Homerites, as far as Nagran Nubia

- He also refered as Constantine or David

- He was the first to use biblical name
- The conflit between the Chritian Akumite and Byzantine Vs. local prince Dhu Nuwas
Judaism
Why
o Dhu Nuwas forced the Christian to convert to Judaism

o The persecution of Christian in south Arabia particulalry the Persecution of

Nagran 3,000 dead, 280,000 animals were looted by Dhu Nuwas

- Kalehu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia
that continued until 570 A. D.
- Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built church at Zur
Amba in Gayint.

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 - It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian Orthodox Church
liturgical songs and hymns.

The Aksumite state had begun to decline since the late seventh century because of
internal and external challenges.
- Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and possibly plague
infestation started to weaken it.
- The general change in international relations following upon the dramatic rise and
rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs. How
o The older diplomatic and commercial partners of Aksum; Byzantine Empire
now lost Egypt, Palestine and Syria;
o Persian Empire greatly transformed by Arab expansion and the spread of the
Islamic faith.
o The destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702, the
international lifeline of the state was cut.
o The whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the
control of the rising and expanding Arab Muslims, and Aksumite state
was isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic partners.
- This naturally led to the decline of its political and military power not only on
the Red Sea coast but also in its interior provinces, where Aksumite hegemony
was challenged by local rebellions. The recurring rebellions of the Beja, the
Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the
Aksumite state
Achivments of Aksum civilization
- Only surviving indigenous script and calendar
- EOC hymns and chants, paintings etc; St.Yared
- urbanization and sophisticated building traditions (palaces, stele, rock-
hewn churches…) like the palaces of Enda Mikael, Ta’akha Maryam ,
Dungur and Enda Sem’on
- It also developed complex administrative and governance system,
tributary system (vast empire) and agricultural system including irrigation etc.

The Estelle of Aksum

- The term Stela or stele is in general use to designate upright monolithic structure
from at least the 5th millennium B.C.

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 - Which was extracted at Gobedra hill 4km west of Aksum

Examples

The Great stela

- 33 m high and 520 tonnes weight

- The Great stela probably fell down attempt to erect
- Unlike all other stelae, the Great Stela was carved on all four sides.

King Ezana’s stela

- 24 m tall and 160 tonnes

- Manufactured and placed in honour of King Ezana (4th c)
- The stela of Aksum lay broken in several pieces when Italians transferred it to
Massawa as war booty and moved to Italy.

Why?
- Elite and royal burial tombs
o The occurrence of funerary stelae in Aksum goes back at least to the third,
perhaps late fourth century BCE, The number and type of vessels discovered
in some assemblages suggest that not only were ritual offerings
performed, but drinks and perhaps food may also have been partaken of
close to the stelae and the tombs. Interestingly, a täzkar, a kind of funerary
meal
o The stelae reproducing palaces are associated with large tombs which may
have been intended as multiple tombs for several members of the princely
and royal families

- Religious monuments
o Precluding the pagan practice of erecting burial stelae at the feet of each
obelisk together with the grave , there was also a sacrificial altar
o May be connected with the cult of ancestors
o Pre-Christian veneration of the ÷serpent is a recurrent theme

Symbolic Meaning

As is well known, the sculptured decoration of the big stelae represents

- Typical architecture Features of the stela

o Multi-storeyed buildings
o featuring a false door at the base,
o the ‘monkey’s heads’
o Several types of windows arranged in superimposed rows.

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 - Religion- Symbol was the disk with the crescent, also characterizing pre-Christian
Aksumite coins
- The metal pegs on the recessed surface where the plaques were fixed, hypothesized
that, at least in some cases, the cross was represented at the apex following the
adoption of Christianity by the Aksumite kings
- False doors at the foot, booth front and back implying the belief in a kind of afterlife.
- Aksumite royal Ideology- they consist of a round, disk-shaped enclosed by metal
frame. As two spears are represented on the front of Stela these rounded elements
may be shields could indeed be valid. In their coins also shields and spears as used as
a symbol

Challenges

 Structural collapse-
 Earthquakes
 Military incursions

Zagwe Dynasty

- There are three oppinions on the origin of Zagwe

o From christian name of Mera Tekle Haymanot – Zewge Michael

o From the Greez verb a ጒ yymeaning ‘’ to pursue, to chase or to persecute”

o The place where the tribe originated –the more probable since the previous
dynasty also took its name from locality -Aksum
- The long period between the eighth and twelfth centuries is not yet well known so
much so that some writers call the period ‘’ the Dark Age’’
- Middle of the twelfth century that the state reapears with its centre in what is to
today Lalibala in the Agaw interior of Wag and Lasta under a Christian rulling house
called the Zagwe Dynasty which means the Dynasty of Agaw.
- The beginning of the dynasty (130-375 years)and the number of monarches also
unknown. This due to the lack of material as a result of Ethipoian church view
Zagwe as illegitimate
- The Zagwe refute into ways
 Biblical- The dynasty descended from moses – reference Moses
married an ethiopian woman daoughter of King- dam on Tekezze to
divert nile
 Solomonic origin – maids of Queen Sheba
How the Zagwe came to power?

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 - When the power of Aksum declined in its northern provinces, it was among the Agaw
that the state took shelter maintaining its center at Kubar (somewhere between
Aksum and Roha -Lalibela) rural highland in the territory of the Agaw, for at
least four centuries.
o This apparently gave Agaw elites the opportunity to take part in Aksumite
state structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at least four
centuries.
o After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully
tookover the state administration.
- Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the
daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Merra-Tekle-Haimanot's successors
include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab,
Yetbarek etc. Notwithstanding the debates, the Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have
ruled from C. 1150 to 1270.

Yimrha Kirstos
- He succeed his uncle Tantawidim (was not a devoted christian and interested in magic
- Yimrha Kirstos brought important reforms
o He prohibited the pagan practice of magic-witchecraft
o Christian life of Monogomy
o Inaugurated the Zagwe tradition of building rock- hewn churches.
 When he planned to build a church on site called Wegre Sihin
(Yimrhane Kirstos) he compensated the owner before expropriating the
land.
o He also harmonious with Egypt
- He was the first Zagwe king to canonized(yetekedese) by church as saint.
Harbe ( Gebre Mariam)

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 - Son of Jan Seyum and brother of Laibela
- Reforms – he asked Metropolitan Michael to consecrate seven Ethiopian bishops
language difficulties and unaware of conditions – inefficient church adminstration –
decline moral and educational standared of the clergy- Emanucipation from the
patriarchate of Alexandria but it was challenged by
 Will lose influence over Ethiopia
 Tribute paid by the Emperor

Lalibela – Gebre Meskel(1160-1211)

- He was son of Jan Seyoum governor of Bugna and his mother was Kirwerna
- She was a house maid (other tradition from noble family) of Jan Seyoum , she became
pregnant by him, his wife was angry and Kirwena was flee to Roha (Lailbela) and
gave birth to her son. She left him alone – swarm of bees (common legend in Greek,
Rome… Bee is a royal symbol.
- Harbe was angered by the prophecy(forecast or prediction)
- As a result Lalibela left Lasta and went Jerusalem , he return back and married
Mesqel Kebra
- He was flee(escape) for the second time , so how Lalibela would ascend the throne
o Harbe realize the inevitable of the prophecy so crowned him
o Through war- Lalibela got the support of Amhara and became victorious
When he came to power he removed all Agaw and replacing with Amhara by
proverb
- aGR ሲለምድ
- a ገው ሲሰደድ

Important advances

- He was the supreme administrator and judge

- He introduce a tax system based on the assessment of personal property
- Coins also minted called Afiqahus ( ingots of iron –impure)
- The growth of Christianity and moral standard
- Harmonious relation between Christian and Islam at this period- he assisted the
expansion of Christianity in eastern and southern Ethiopia

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 - Ethiopian tradition attributes the birth of the Amharic languages to the period of
Zagwe, it acquired wider importance and was spoken at the imperial court that is it
referred as Lisane Negus

- Which the Zagwe kings began, was to look outwards and to strengthen their
communications with Egypt and the Holy Land.
- In the year 1189, the famous Egyptian ruler, Salah al-Din,
- Gave the Ethiopians a number of churches in Jerusalem when he expelled the Latins
from the Holy City.
- They were able to buy land sufficient for their needs
- They were exempted(aykeflum discharched) from paying fees for entry to Jerusalem
- The close contacts which the Zagwe inaugurated (installed) with the eastern
Mediterranean region may have resulted in some literary activities in the form of
translations and original compositions and architectural history of the period.
- Conti Rossini also thought that the literary developments of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries must have started during the Zagwe era, which he called 'the dawn
of a new period in Ethiopian literature'.

There are three types of monolithic churches in Ethiopia; cave, semi-hewn and
monolithic churches:

- 1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-
Mesqel.
- 2. Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration and partial decoration outside. They
are not totally separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still
attached to rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete
Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el- Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
- 3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof and outside.
They are completely separated (carved out) from surrounding rock, eg. Bete
Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem

Why he construct so many churches, in varied size and type in one place?
Group I Group II Group III

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 - Bete Medhane Alem Bete Amanuel -paradise Bete Giorgis
- Bete Mariam - Bete Merqorewos- hell and purgatory
- Bête Michael Bete Libanos – support the throne of God
- Bete Meskal Bete Gebriel- - road to Heaven
o In his Gedle – God order him – after ascended to heaven
o Lalibela visited Jerusalem and Ethiopian Christian desire to visit the Holy
Land - he designed these churches to symbolize both the heavenly (group II)
and earthly ( group I)
o Danger of the journey – desert , pass through Muslim countries

Regarding the architects and builders of these churches, various theories have been
offered,
- Gedle Lalibela -Built by Lalibela and Angels joined the workmen- double the amount
of work
- Oral tradition- Most of them favouring non-Ethiopian workmanship. The works of
Copts, a Christian were subjected to persecution and between 4000 and 5000 came to
Ethiopia.
- It must be remembered, however, that the architectural forms and artistic details of all
these churches are based on those which are seen on the Aksumite steles, and on the
palaces and churches which have been dug out in the Aksumite region.
- The architectural continuity between the Aksumite and the Zagwe monuments is so
close and obvious that only architects deeply imbued with the building traditions of
Aksum could have engineered the rock churches of the Zagwe period.
- There are 200 other monolithic churches in same regions but this not means that there
is possibility of foreign influence. The Swastika design visible in Bete Mariam
originated in Egypt
He order the local governors to undertake similar projects in their regions – Monolithic
church of Yeka Michael and Adadi Mariam
Besides their obvious patronage of Ethiopic literature and Christian arts, the Zagwe kings
also seem to have started to expand the territories of the Christian kingdom. There is an
eyewitness report that the Zagwe had a large army, estimated in 1209 as consisting of more
than 60,000 soldiers. The same document also indicates that the Zagwe monarch who reigned
in 1209 led successful expeditions outside his domains. Local traditions about the same
period seem to show that the Zagwe had launched a policy of expansion into the pagan areas

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to the west and south. The territory of the Zagwe kingdom extended from most of the
highland provinces of the ancient Aksumite kingdom in the north down to northern Shewa in
the south; the Lake Tana region and the northern part of what is today Gojjam in the west.

The Zagwe Dynasty came to end due to

- Internal problems of royal succession- The chracterstic weakness in the system of
Zagwe succession to the throne greatly facilitated the anti-Lasta movement
 The trouble had already started in the region of the second Zagwe King
Tantawidim Vs. Yimrha Kirstos
 Harbe Vs Lalibela (self, exiled, poisened by his half sister in favor of
Harbe
 Na’akuto La’ab Vs. Yitbarak
- Oppositions from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum and
with its leading clergy actively engaged. The latter considered Zagwe kings
“illegitimate rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba. The legend was in
turn based on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was
translated from Coptic to Arabic in 1225 at the time of Lalibela and Bishop Giyorgis
in Ethipoia but the Ethiopic (Geez) copy could not be made right way because the
book says legend, “ T h o s e w h o r e i g n n o t b e i n g I s r a e l i t e s a r e
transgressors of the law’’. The power claimants contend that
“Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite state until its power was “usurped” by
the Zagwes.Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last
Aksumite king Dilna’od, organized his forcesbeing assisted by the
ecclesiastical hierarchy (Iyasus Mo’a of Dabra Hayq, Monastic centres of Aksum
and Dabra Damo) and engaged the last king of Zagwe, Yetbarek in battle.
Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power contending
the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty.
- But undoubtedly the most decisive factor for the decline of the Zagwe and the rise of
the new dynasty was the emergence of Zeila as a new gateway to Ethiopia stretched
to southern Ethiopia interior. The relative proximity of the Amhara region could
effectively block Zagwe access.

Agriculture and Land Tenure System

Land has always been one of the most precious posessions in ancient states' economy in

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highland areas was plough agriculture.

The most ancient system of land –holding

- Communal land tenure system.

o This applied throughout the three major environmental zones.
o Communal right to land on the family, the clan and other larger linage
grouops.
o Communal right to land is a group right
o This has specially been a persistent features of the inhabitants of the eastern
and western enviromental zone predominantly nomadic pastoralists and
maintained their clan organization.
o Essentially the same Communal or group right to land also applied in early
times in the central highlan zone.

There are three technical terms connected with this ; Rest, Gult and Rest – Gult

Rest

- The form of communal land right which developed in northern Ethiopia and for
which we have documentation since medieval times.
- It is kind of birth right to the land; in the area their ancestors had settled and lived
over long periods of time
- It is a group right and inherited from generation to generation

Gult

- It is not land right rather a right to levy tributes on the owners of rest and the
products of their rest land
- He represented the state there and exercised important administrative, Judicial and
military powers over his gult lan and its inhabitants
- It could not originally be inherited

Rest-Gult

- It is apparent that some well- placed officials of state began to be succeeded by their
offspring in their official positions, thus inheriting the gult right over generation
- It was still not a land right; only a right to impose tribute

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