DISASTER READINESS & RISK REDUCTION 11 - REVIEWER

LANDSLIDE

A landslide, also called “landslip,” is ground movement on a sloping terrains.

Landslides do not happen on flat grounds. Because of the angle on the ground, gravity
induces the land to move downward. The hazard of landslides can be induced further or
aggravated by rain. Water is a natural agent for erosion, and if rain or any source of water
frequently flows down a sloping area, the gravitational descent of loosened soil makes it
possible for landslide to occur. Areas with tropical climates such as the Philippines
experience prolonged rains especially during the wet season.

Types of Landslides

There are four different types of landslides and they are all caused by different effects
on the slope.

1. Soil Creep is a very slow movement and it is so hard to notice and hardly any damage is
done to the area.

2. Slumping is a faster movement than Soil Creep and the land will slip down the slope
this time.

3. Debris Flow happens when the slope becomes saturated with water, this then triggers a
landslide of water soaked mass of rock and soil that slides down the slope.

4. Rock Fall landslides are sudden slides caused by heavy rain the rock on the slope
loosens and then slides down the slope.

Natural Causes of Landslides

1. Climate

Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. A general reduction
in precipitation leads to lowering of water table and reduction in overall weight of soil mass,
reduced solution of materials and less powerful freeze-thaw activity. A significant upsurge
in precipitation or ground saturation would dramatically increase the level of ground water.
When sloped areas are completely saturated with water, landslides can occur. If there is
absence of mechanical root support, the soils start to run off.

2. Earthquakes

Seismic activities have, for a long time, contributed to landslides across the globe.
Any moment tectonic plates move, the soil covering them also moves along. When
earthquakes strike areas with steep slopes, on numerous occasion, the soil slips leading to
landslides. In addition, ashen debris flows instigated by earthquakes could also cause mass
soil movement.

3. Weathering

Weathering is the natural procedure of rock deterioration that leads to weak,

landslide-susceptive materials. Weathering is brought about by the chemical action of
water, air, plants and bacteria. When the rocks are weak enough, they slip away causing
landslides.

4. Erosion

Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents,
ice and waves wipes out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.
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5. Volcanoes

Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides. If an eruption occurs in a wet condition,

the soil will start to move downhill instigating a landslide. Stratovolcano is a typical
example of volcano responsible for most landslides across the globe.

6. Forest fires

Forest fires instigate soil erosion and bring about floods, which might lead to
landslides

7. Gravity

Steeper slopes coupled with gravitational force can trigger a massive landslide.

Human causes of landslides

1. Mining

Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides.

Vibrations emanating from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to
landslides. The weakening of soil means a landslide can occur anytime.

2. Clear cutting

Clear cutting is a technique of timber harvesting that eliminates all old trees from the
area. This technique is dangerous since it decimates the existing mechanical root structure
of the area.

SINKHOLE

Sinkholes are depressions or holes on the ground that resulted for the collapse of the
surface layer of the soil. Sinkholes occur in areas where the soil foundation is made of soft
minerals and rocks such as limestone, salt beds, or any acidic rocks. The rocks can be
weakened further by frequent submersion in waters, such as when there is repeated
rainfall or an unmanaged flood. The rocks dissolve in water and gradually weaken, curving
and forming spaces and underground passages for water. When the spaces underground
become bigger and the layer of bedrock above it can no longer support the weight above it,
a sudden collapse of the land surface dramatically takes places. The depth of sinkholes
varies from a few meters to even kilometers deep.

Types of Sinkholes

According to geologists, there are three main types of sinkholes – Solution, cover-
subsidence, and cover-collapse sinkholes. However, we also have artificial sinkholes,
caused by human activities.

Shall we have a detailed look at the types of sinkholes?

Cover Collapse Sinkholes

Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop abruptly (over a period of hours) and thus
cause catastrophic damages. They occur where the covering sediments contain a significant
amount of clay. Over time, surface drainage, erosion, and deposition of sinkhole into a
shallower bowl-shaped depression.

Cover Subsidence Sinkholes

Cover-subsidence sinkholes tend to develop gradually where the covering sediments

are permeable and contain sand. In areas where cover material is thicker or sediments

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contain more clay, cover-subsidence sinkholes are relatively uncommon and therefore may
not be seen frequently. They are smaller and thus may go undetected for long periods.

Solution Sinkholes

Solution sinkholes occur in areas where limestone is exposed at land surface or also
is covered by thin layers of soil and permeable sand. Dissolution of the limestone or
dolomite is most intensive where the water first contacts the rock surface. Aggressive
dissolution also occurs where flow is focused in preexisting openings in the rock, such as
along joints, fractures, and bedding planes, and in the zone of water-table fluctuation
where groundwater is in contact with the atmosphere. Solution sinkholes are generally
small in size and also slow to develop.

Artificial Sinkholes

As stated earlier in this article, humans also can create sinkholes. Artificial sinkholes
are actually quite common, especially in urban areas. That’s why you are advised to
conduct a thorough investigation before you begin to construct a building.

These types of sinkholes can be caused by various human activities, including

groundwater pumping and construction activities. However, the most common activities
that result in artificial sinkholes are mining, drilling, considerable changes in weight, as
well as a tremendous increase in water flow, such as a construction of an artificial pond.
So, how does all these cause sinkholes?

Landslide and sinkholes are among the common geohazards associated with heavy
rainfall. These geohazards happen because the water-saturated soil becomes a weak
foundation for heavy structures. However, even without structures, these hazard are bound
to happen, but not sooner, because of the natural tendencies of the top player of soil to
loosen due to its type, porosity, and slope elevation.

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS

The Philippines is located within a typhoon belt in the Pacific and is vulnerable to
approximately 20 typhoons annually. In addition to typhoons, the country suffers from
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, storm surges, flooding, and landslides. The Philippines
has endured disasters that involve national and international assistance. (Philippines
Disaster Management Reference Handbook | March 2018)

Hydrometeorological conditions also can be a factor in other hazards such as

landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues, epidemics, and in the transport and dispersal of
toxic substances and volcanic eruption material.

HYDROMETEOROLOGY - a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or

oceanographic nature that may cause...

a. loss of life, d. loss of livelihoods and services,

b. injury or other health impacts, e. social and economic disruption, or

c. property damage, f. environmental damage

TYPHOON

A Typhoon is a low-pressure area or a tropical cyclone that is large and violent. It

rotates counterclockwise with warm air raising above the warm water of the Western Pacific
Ocean. On the other side of the world, some call it hurricane or wilywily.
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 According to Landesa (n.d.) hurricane and typhoon are terms also used for tropical
cyclone. Holland (1993) defined tropical Cyclone as “the typical term for nonfrontal synoptic
scale low pressure system over tropical or subtropical waters with organized convections
such as thunderstorms and wind reaction.” In addition, Holland (1993) likewise indicates
that tropical cyclones are defined in three categories:

1. Tropical Depression - if tropical cyclones has a maximum sustained wind of less than
17 m/s or 34 kt, 39 mph

2. Tropical Storm - the tropical cyclone has a wind of at least 17 m/s or 34 kt, 39 mph

3. Typhoons or hurricane - if tropical cyclone winds move to 33 m/s or 64 kt, 74 mph.

THUNDERSTORM

A thunderstorm is a weather condition generally characterized by heavy rain

characterized by thunder and lightning and possible a tornado. A typical thunderstorm
occurs when the sun heats a large body of moist air near the ground. The moist air rises in
the air and is cooled by expansion; this cooling condenses water vapor and forms a
cumulus cloud. When the process continues, cumulus nimbus clouds are produced; in this
case, the turbulent air inside cloud produced rain drops and strong electrical charge that
result in lightning. Thunderstorm at night are due to the cooling of the upper layers of the
air messes that goes like a wedge near the ground that forces warmer air to raise above
(DepEd, 2008). This atmospheric condition can kill if it strikes any living thing. It can also
cause damage to properties when large objects like trees are blown off the ground.

FLOOD

A flood is generally referred to as the running and overlaying of water on land that
are ordinarily covered by it. The formation of flood is characterized by:

“the rise of water from stream, water drainage, enclosed bodies of water, and rivers
that is overflowing on adjacent lands; the overflowing is a result of continuous heavy
rainfall due to weather conditions such as monsoons, tropical cyclones, and intertropical
convergence zone (DepEd, 2008, p.26)”

Flood is also defined as superfluous water that swamps land and property that are
ordinarily dry (Haddow, Bullock and Coppala, 2011). In addition, Arsulamy and Jeyadevi
(2011), pointed out that flood hazard is “compounded by the problems of sediments
positon, drainage congestion, synchronization of river floods with sea tides in the coastal
plain (Haddow, Bullock and Coppola, 2011, p.16)”.

STORM SURGE

Storm surge is generally described as the ‘’masses of water that are pushed toward
the shore by meteorological forces (Haddow, Bullock, and Coppola, 2011, p. 39).’’ It is
basically described as an escalating seawater to the coast above the normal sea level.
Formation of storm surge includes the following:

‘’Sea level is raised and driven towards the coast. Where the depth is shallow and the
slope of the sea bed is gradual, the natural flow of the water is delayed by the effects of the
friction of the sea bed. As more water moves from the sea to the coast, excess water piles
up on the shore line. This piling up of water makes a large volume of water which might
eventually flow into the hinterland some distance from the coast. Depending upon the
shape of the coastline and the slope of the sea bed, storm surge can be sweep across large
portions of coastal areas (DepEd, 2008).’’ Storm surges may be massively destructive. It
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may drown people and animal and affect entire communities.

EL NINO AND LA NINA

“La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the equatorial

Pacific, as compared to El Niño, which is characterized by unusually warm temperatures in
the equatorial pacific. El Niño and La Niña result from interaction between surface of the
ocean and the atmosphere in tropical Pacific. Changes in the ocean impact the atmosphere
and climate patterns around the globe. In turn, changes in the atmosphere impact the
ocean temperatures and currents. The system oscillates between warm (El Niño) to neutral,
or Cold (La Niña) conditions with an averages of every 3-4 years (DepEd, 2008).”Both
hazards affect human lives and communities. El Niño yields heat can kill, most especially,
the elderly and the young children. It can cause heat strokes and hypertensions. It is also
the cause of massive drought around the country. On the other hand, La Niña produces too
much rain, due to frequent atmospheric disturbance, which result to flooding.

El Niño and La Niña events are a natural part of the global climate system. They
occur when the Pacific Ocean and the atmosphere above it change from their neutral
(‘normal’) state for several seasons. El Niño events are associated with a warming of the
central and eastern tropical Pacific, while La Niña events are the reverse, with a sustained
cooling of these same areas.

RAINFALL IN THE PHILIPPINES

Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines. Rainfall

distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending upon the
direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain systems. The
mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually.
Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the greatest amount of rainfall
while the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least amount of rain. At General Santos
City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is only 978 millimeters for the whole year.
What is the usual rainfall in your area?

ELEMENTS OF THE FIRE TRIANGLE

Ancient Greeks considered fire as one of their major elements like water, earth and
air. Unlike water, earth and air, fire is known to be just an event that happened when
matter changes from one form to another.

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the exothermal chemical process of

combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. Slower oxidative
processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition.

Ingredients of the Fire Triangle

Fuel is any material that can be burned such as solid, liquid, or gas. Combustion
takes place when fuel is converted into gaseous state. This happens when vapour is
escaping from any combustible material.

Heat is an energy that flows through object. Enough amount of heat would free the
vapour from solid and liquid forms of fuel. This is essential to continue combustion
process. But the ignition of fire to solid and liquid fuels varies. Most solid combustible
materials ignite immediately. Other solid combustible materials take time to ignite due to
its density.

Oxygen is an element, estimated 21% of it can be found in the air. During

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combustion process chemical reaction takes place. Oxygen is released and serves as an
oxidizing agent for combustible materials. Without an oxidizing agent like oxygen there will
be no fire even if heat and fuel are present.

Stages of Fire

Ignition (Incipient) stage is where combustion starts. In this stage all the required
elements combined with the right proportion. At this stage fire can still be controlled. Fire
may be stopped in any easy way that we can.

Growth stage of a fire the shortest among the stages. Burning additional fuel will
increase heat. There are different factors that may affect the rate growth of a fire. These
factors may be: 1. the volume of oxygen, 2. the amount of fuel, 3. the type of fuel, 4. the
location/environment where the fire started, 5. exposure to heat could help, etc. Flashover
will be experience at this stage due to the increase of heat. Carbon monoxide level starts to
increase.

Fully-developed fire stage is when all the combustible materials have been
consumed by fire. Oxygen level drops very fast at this stage. Too much carbon monoxide
spread all around the place. The heat reaches its maximum temperature.

Decay stage has the longest duration. Oxygen and fuel starts to diminish.
Temperature decreases and fire becomes weaker. Assumption that fire at this stage is
already controllable is wrong. The possibility of a backdraft may occur.

NATURAL AND MAN-MADE CAUSES OF FIRE

Fire may start due to natural phenomena or man-made incidents. Natural

phenomena such as lightning that strikes any combustible material and even volcanic
activities could cause fire. While man-made causes of fire are those products of human
errors or machine failures.

Examples of Man-made Causes of Fire

1. Faulty electrical wirings

2. Unattended ignition sources (e.g. lighted candle or improvised gas lamp, cooking stove,
and unplugged electric iron)

3. Cigarettes

4. Low condition motor vehicles

5. Gas leaks

6. Gun firing

7. Arson

8. Chemicals at home (e.g. pesticides, thinner, dry cleaning agents, spray paints, aerosol,
alcohol, and nail polish)

9. And other irresponsible usage of fire (e.g. children playing with fire or flammable
materials, drug-dependent’s careless usage of lighting materials, burning of trashes, and
fire crackers)

A Fire Emergency Evacuation Plan (FEEP) is a written document prepared by any

institution that includes actions to be taken by all the members of the institution in the

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event of fire. This also provides the process of calling fire brigade. Any relevant information
that can be included in relation to the FEEP may be added.

The following are the significant components of a FEEP:

- Fire evacuation strategy

- Action on discovering fire

- Action of hearing the fire alarm

- Power/process isolation

- Identification of key escape routes

- Fire marshals

- Places of assembly and roll call

- Fire-fighting equipment providers

- Training required

- Personal emergency evacuation map

- Liaison with emergency service