Measurement and

tools

Dr Mohamed Seghier
About the brain

https://www.labmanager.com/news/low-frequency-brain-stimulation-improves-cognition-in-
parkinson-s-disease-5838
Acquisition techniques: resolution
The human brain

Neurons: 80-100 billion.

Synapses: 100-500 trillion.
Glial cells: 40-130 billion.
Energy: 20% of the body’s energy.
Weight: 2% of body weight.
 Two cerebral hemispheres

LH RH

Corpus callosum
The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes:
frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital.
Gray matter: consisting of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites and axon
terminals of neurons (synapses), and glial cells.
White matter: made mainly of axons connecting different nerve cells.
Information at different scales

How neurons are organized into signaling pathways?

How neurons communicate by means of synaptic transmission?
 There are two classes of cells in the nervous system:
• Nerve cells or neurons
• Glial cells or glia.

Nerve cells: are the signaling units of the nervous system

Glial cells: there main role is to support nerve cells

A typical neuron has:
Nerve cells
1- a cell body (soma)
2- dendrites
3- axon
4- presynaptic terminals
The information is a kind of electrical signal (100 mV) called
an action potential; transmitted at a speed of 1-120 m/s.

A neuron = a signaling unit of the nervous system.

Principle 1: dynamic polarization

Electrical signals within a cell flow in one direction
(from dendrites and cell body to axon and terminals)

Principle 2: connectional specificity

Connections are not random; each cell makes
specific connections with certain target cells.
 Another organizational feature of the brain:
Inhibitory vs. excitatory signals
Excitatory neurons promote/enable firing.
Inhibitory neurons suppress/prevent firing.
 Another organizational feature of the brain: Signaling is
organized in the same way in all nerve cells.

Each nerve cell must generate four different signals in

sequence:

An input signal: a receptive component

A trigger signal: a summing/integrative component
A conducting signal: a long-range signaling component
An output signal: a secretory component

These components are determined by the electrical

properties of the cell membrane
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2hHt_PXe5o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4Z_Bl337BQ
The frequency of firing can code the intensity of the stimulus.
Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG)
(Intracranial EEG)

Skull X-ray demonstrating positioning of the SEEG electrodes.

https://consultqd.clevelandclinic.org/turning-to-seeg-for-pediatric-patients-with-refractory-epilepsy/
EEG: Electroencephalography
Electroencephalography (EEG)
is an electrophysiological
monitoring method to record
electrical activity of the brain. It
is typically noninvasive, with
the electrodes placed along the
scalp.
EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting
from ionic current within brain neurons .
EEG activity is measured in microvolts (µV)
EEG activity reflects the summation of
the synchronous activity of thousands/millions of
neurons that have similar spatial orientation.
EEG: the summation of the synchronous activity of
thousands/millions of neurons

https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/EEG
10–20 system (EEG)
The 10–20 system or International 10–20 system is an internationally recognized method to describe and apply the
location of scalp electrodes in the context of an EEG exam

The "10" and "20" refer to the fact that the actual distances between adjacent electrodes are either
10% or 20% of the total front–back or right–left distance of the skull.
Portable wireless EEG systems

https://choosemuse.com/muse-2/
Theta: creativity, (vivid) mental imagery, memory, intuition
Alpha: creativity, relaxation, daydream, visualization
Beta: concentration, alertness, focus, cognition, critical reasoning
Gamma: learning, high cognition, focused concentration, high cognitive processing

Too little beta/gamma: ADHD, poor cognition, impaired learning

Too much beta/gamma: anxiety, stress, depression
Too much alpha: inability to focus, daydreaming
Too much theta: hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattentiveness
ERP: Event-Related Potentials

[Rossion et al. 2003 Neuroimage]

Example:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2018.06.011
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2005.068486
EEG and patients in coma:

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61224-5
EEG-based Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)
A brain–computer interface (BCI) is a system that measures activity of the central nervous system (CNS) and converts it
into artificial output that replaces, restores, enhances, supplements, or improves natural CNS output, and thereby
changes the ongoing interactions between the CNS and its external or internal environment.

https://www.cmu.edu/bme/helab/Research/BCI/index.html

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283455164_Error-related_EEG_potentials_in_brain-computer_interfaces
https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00014
About the heart
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
It measures electrical activities of the heart’s rhythm

It records the activity of the heart in a

specific period of time via the use of
electrodes placed on the body of a
patient.

An ECG waveform can be drawn onto graph paper or displayed on a computer screen. The ECG is mostly
employed to examine several types of abnormal heart functions including conduction disturbances and
arrhythmias.
The ECG can help in defining abnormalities in the human
heart, such as cardiovascular disorders (CVDs).
➔ The accurate diagnostic includes feature extraction from ECG waveforms and their
assessments with known heart diseases to find any variation from normal ECG waveforms.

➔ Automatic recognition and classification of heartbeats using different biomedical

signal processing techniques are crucial for clinical ECG monitoring.

• Abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmias)

• If blocked or narrowed arteries in your heart (coronary artery disease) are
causing chest pain or a heart attack
• Whether you have had a previous heart attack
• How well certain heart disease treatments, such as a pacemaker, are working
Direction of blood flow
Ventricular Systole and Diastole
Sino-Atrial node
(pacemaker cell)

Atrio-Ventricular
node
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=924uGXR6ReE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FThXJUFWUrw
Cardiac Action Potentials
• A typical human electrocardiogram shows five waves or deflections which are conventionally called P, Q,
R, S and T waves.
• The P, R and T waves are above the base line of ECG, and are known as positive waves.
• The Q and S waves which are below the base line are called negative waves.
• The part of the base line between any two deflections is called interval.
P wave:
• The impulse (action potential) begins in SA node and
spreads through the muscles of atria or auricles to the S-T interval (wave; end of QRS complex to onset of T wave):
AV node. • It is the end of ventricular depolarization and the beginning
• It causes the depolarization of the atria prior to their of repolarization of ventricles.
contraction. • It ranges from 0.10 to 0.15 seconds.
• It ranges from 0.06 to 0.11 seconds.
T wave:
P-R segment (wave): • Repolarization of the ventricles
• Atrial depolarization and conduction through the AV • The time range varies.
node.
• It ranges from 0.06 to 0.10 seconds.
S-T interval (end of QRS complex to end of T wave):
P-R interval (onset of P wave to onset of QRS complex): • It is the interval between completion of depolarization and
• It is the time between onset of atrial depolarization and end of repolarization.
contraction, and onset of ventricular depolarization and • It ranges from 0.23 to 0.39 seconds.
contraction.
• It ranges from 0.12 to 0.21 seconds. Q-T interval (onset of QRS complex to end of T wave):
• Ventricular depolarization along with ventricular
QRS complex (wave and interval):
repolarization.
• Depolarization of the ventricles
• It ranges from 0.26 to 0.49 seconds.
• Repolarization of atria is masked on ECG by ventricular
depolarization
• It ranges to 0.10 seconds.
https://onlinesciencenotes.com/a-electrocardiogram-the-recording-of-electrical-activities-of-the-heart/
• Heart rate. An ECG can help your doctor identify an unusually fast heart rate
(tachycardia) or an unusually slow heart rate (bradycardia).

• Heart rhythm. An ECG can show heart rhythm irregularities (arrhythmias). These
conditions may occur when any part of the heart's electrical system malfunctions.

• Heart attack. An ECG can show evidence of a previous heart attack or one that's in
progress.

• Inadequate supply of blood and oxygen to the heart. An ECG done while you're
having symptoms can help your doctor determine whether chest pain is caused by
reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, such as with the chest pain of unstable
angina.

• Structural abnormalities. An ECG can provide clues about enlargement of the

chambers or walls of the heart, heart defects and other heart problems.
https://www.cardioshoals.com/2019/06/04/what-is-an-electrocardiogram/
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhythmia
Modelling and simulation

https://dominiquemakowski.github.io/post/simulate_ecg/
 For continuous ECG monitoring

• Holter monitor. A Holter monitor is a small,

wearable device that records a continuous
ECG, usually for 24 to 48 hours.

• Event monitor. This portable device records

only at certain times for a few minutes at a
time. You can wear it longer than a Holter
monitor, typically 30 days. You generally push
a button when you feel symptoms. Some
devices automatically record when an
abnormal rhythm is detected.
Electromyography (EMG)
An electromyograph detects the electric potential generated by muscle cells when
these cells are electrically activated.
➔ Provide information about the extent of nerve and/or muscle injury and can also determine the
exact location of injury and give some indication whether the damage is reversible.
 EMG results can reveal nerve dysfunction, muscle dysfunction
or problems with nerve-to-muscle signal transmission.

•Tingling
•Numbness
•Muscle weakness
•Muscle pain or cramping
•Certain types of limb pain

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-
and-therapies/electromyography-emg
 As EMG activity (measured in microvolts) is linearly related to the amount of
muscle contraction as well as the number of contracted muscles

The two elements of the EMG nerve test are:

•Nerve conduction study – The nerves are
stimulated at different points with small electric
shocks, artificially activating them so their
function can be measured.

•Needle exam for muscle testing – Very fine

needles are inserted into several muscles. Each
needle has a microscopic electrode that picks up
both the normal and abnormal electrical signals
given off by a muscle.
EMG results are often necessary to help diagnose or rule out many
conditions:

•Muscle disorders, such as muscular dystrophy or polymyositis

•Diseases affecting the connection between the nerve and the muscle, such
as myasthenia gravis

•Disorders of nerves outside the spinal cord (peripheral nerves), such as

carpal tunnel syndrome or peripheral neuropathies

•Disorders that affect the motor neurons in the brain or spinal cord, such as
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or polio

•Disorders that affect the nerve root, such as a herniated disk in the spine
 Nerve Conduction Studies (NCS) https://neupsykey.com/clinical-neurophysiology-clinical-electromyography/

Twelve sites of stimulation in 1-cm increments along the length of the median nerve. The 0 level is at the distal crease of the
wrist, corresponding to the origin of the transverse carpal ligament. Sensory nerve action potentials (SNAPs) are recorded from
the second digit. B, SNAPs in a normal subject recorded after stimulation of the median nerve at multiple points across the
wrist. The site of each stimulus is indicated on the left. The latency changes increased linearly (approximately 0.16 to
0.21 msec) as the stimulus site was moved proximally in 1-cm increments.

Sensory nerve action potentials in a patient with

bilateral carpal tunnel syndrome. A sharply
localized slowing was found from point −2 to point
−1 in both hands.
Practice Read about other tools

Near-infrared spectroscopy https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/near-infrared-spectroscopy

Pulse oximetry https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095461111300053X

Sphygmomanometer https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphygmomanometer

Photoplethysmography https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17322588/

Phonocardiography https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/phonocardiography

Electrogastrography https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3548127/

Electroneurogram https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroneurogram

Electroretinography https://www.intechopen.com/books/electroretinograms/electroretinography

Electrooculogram https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31277871/