UNIT-2.

2&4

DC MOTOR

▪ WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR

• When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.

In the case of a DC motor, the magnetic field is produced by the field winding. And the armature
winding is connected to external supply voltage hence it plays the role of current-carrying
conductor placed in the magnetic field.

Therefore a force is exerted on the armature placed in the magnetic field, it starts rotating. The
direction of rotation of DC motor can be determined by Flemings left hand rule.

Working Principle of DC Motor

•
When a DC Motor is switched on, direct current flows through the armature conductors and field
windings. This flow of current produces armature field and pole field. Now, there are two magnetic
fields in the air-gap between field shoes and armature.
• These two fields react with each other to rotate the armature.
The commutator reverses the direction of flow of armature current at regular intervals so that
the armature field is always repelled by pole field. Since the armature is continuously repelled by the
field poles, it keeps rotating the armature in the same direction.

Back Emf in DC Motor

•
When the armature winding of a DC motor rotates in the magnetic field produced by the field winding,
it cuts the magnetic flux. Hence an EMF is induced in the armature winding according to the Faradays
laws of electromagnetic induction.

But as per Lenz’s Law, this induced EMF acts in opposite direction to the armature supply voltage.

Therefore, this EMF is known as the back EMF and it is denoted by E b. This back EMF induced in a
DC motor can be expressed mathematically as,

Eb = (PφNZ)/60A volts

Where P = number of poles

Φ = flux per pole in Wb
N = speed of motor in RPM
Z = number of armature conductors
A = number of parallel paths
DC motor construction

A DC motor or machine consists of two windings namely field winding and armature winding. The field winding
is stationary and the armature winding can rotate.

The field winding produces a magnetic flux in the air gap between the armature and field windings and the
armature is placed in this magnetic field. The construction of DC motor or machine is shown in the following
Figure.

Construction of dc machine
Parts Used in Construction of DC Motor

The main parts used in the construction of DC motor are the yoke, poles, field winding, commutator, carbon
brushes bearings, etc. A brief description of the various parts is as follows:
Yoke

The yoke acts as the outer cover of a DC motor and it is also known as the frame. The yoke is an iron body, made
up of low reluctance magnetic material such as cast iron, silicon steel, rolled steel, etc.
Yoke serves two purposes, firstly it provides mechanical protection to the outer parts of the machine secondly it
provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

Poles and Pole Shoe

The pole and pole shoe are fixed on the yoke by bolts. These are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations
that are riveted together. Poles produce the magnetic flux when the field winding is excited.

A Pole shoe is an extended part of a pole. Due to its shape, the pole area is enlarged and more flux can pass
through the air gap to the armature.

Field Winding

The coils around the poles are known as field (or exciting) coils and are connected in series to form the field
winding. Copper wire is used for the construction of field coils. When the DC is passed through the field windings,
it magnetizes poles that produce magnetic flux.

The connection of the field winding and the armature winding is done according to the type of the motor r and
decides the characteristic of motor.
Armature Core

It is a cylindrical drum and keyed to the rotating shaft. A large number of slots are made all over its periphery,
which accommodates the armature winding. Low reluctance, high permeability material such as silicon steel is
used for armature core.

The laminated construction is used to produce the armature core to minimize the eddy current loss . The air holes
are also provided on the armature core for the air circulation which helps in cooling the motor.
Armature Winding

The armature winding plays a very important role in the construction of a DC motor because the conversion of
power takes place in the armature winding. Based on connections, there are two types of armature windings
named:

• Wave Winding
• Lap Winding
Wave Winding: In wave winding, all the armature coils are connected in series through commutator segments in
such a way that the whole armature winding is divided into two parallel paths.

If there are Z conductors in the armature then there will be 2 parallel paths each containing Z/2 conductors in
series. The wave winding is useful for high voltage low current motors.
Lap Winding: In lap winding the armature conductors are divided into the groups equal to the number of poles
of the motor. All the conductors in each group are connected in series and all such groups are connected in parallel.
Therefore, in lap winding the number of parallel paths (A) is equal to the number of poles (P).

If there are Z conductors in the armature and 4 poles then there will be 4 parallel paths each containing Z/4
conductors in series.
Due to the existence of a large number of parallel paths, the lap wound armature is capable of supplying larger
load currents. Therefore, lap winding is used for low voltage high current DC motors.
Commutator

It is mounted on the shaft. It is made up of a large number of wedge-shaped segments of hard drawn copper,
insulated from each other by a thin layer of mica.

The commutator connects the rotating armature conductor to the stationary external circuit through carbon
brushes. It converts alternating torque into unidirectional torque produced in the armature.
Carbon Brushes

The current is conducted from the voltage source to the armature by the carbon brushes which are held against the
surface of the commutator by springs. They are made of high-grade carbon steel and are rectangular.

Bearings

The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The friction between stationary and rotating parts of the
motor is reduced by bearing. Mostly high carbon steel is used for making the bearings as it is a very hard material.

ypes of DC Motor

• DC shunt motor
• DC series motor
• Compound motors
• Separately excited DC motors
• Permanent magnet DC motors
DC Shunt Motor

In the DC shunt motor, the armature and field winding are connected in parallel as shown in the figure.
The field winding consists of a large number of turns of fine wire. The cross-sectional area of the wire used for
field winding of shunt motor is always smaller than that of the wire used for the armature winding. Therefore, the
resistance of field winding is more than that of the armature winding.
Voltage and Current Relations for DC Shunt Motor
Total current drawn from the voltage source I = Ia + Ish
Where Ia =armature current
Ish (field current) = V/Rsh
Since the applied voltage (V) and the field resistance (Rsh) are almost constant, therefore field current (Ish) remains
constant. As the field current is responsible for flux generation so the flux produced in the shunt motor also
remains constant. This is why shunt motor is also known as constant flux motors.
Therefore flux, φ α Ish (constant)
Supply voltage V = Eb + IaRa
Where Eb = back EMF
Ra = armature resistance.
DC Series Motor

In the DC series motor, the armature and field windings are connected in series with each other. The field winding
of DC series motor consists of few turns of thick wire. Therefore, the resistance of the series field (Rs) is much
smaller as compared to that of the armature resistance.
Voltage and Current Relations
As armature and the field winding are in series, therefore,

I = Ia = Is
Where I = total current drawn by the motor
Ia = armature current
Is = series field current
Total supply voltage V is given by,

V = Eb + Ia(Ra + Rs)
Eb = back EMF
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance
Rs = series field resistance.
In the DC motors flux produced is proportional to the field current. But in the series motor, the field current is
same as the armature current. Thus the armature current (Ia) and hence field current is load dependent. So with
the increase in load flux also increases. Therefore, DC series motor is a variable flux motor.
DC Compound Motors

Shunt and series, both the field windings are present in compound motors. In these motors, a part of the field
winding is connected across the armature and remaining field winding is connected in series with the armature.
These compound motors are further subdivided into two types, namely, cumulative compound and differential
compound.

Cumulative Compound Motor

In the cumulative compound motor, shunt and series field winding is connected in such a way that the direction
of flow of current is same in both the field windings i.e. series field flux strengthens the field due to shunt field
winding.

Differential Compound Motor

In the differential compound motor, shunt and series field winding is connected in such a way that the direction
of flow of current is opposite in both the field windings i.e. series field flux weakens the field due to shunt field
winding.
Separately Excited DC Motor

In these motors, the armature and field coils are fed from different supply sources. Very accurate speed control
can be obtained by these motors. Moreover, these motors are best suited for the applications where speed variation
is required from very low value to high value.

Permanent Magnet DC Motor

In these motors, the magnetic field is produced by small magnets. These motors are made in very small sizes and
ratings. These motors are used where very small driving torque is required like toys.

Thanks for reading about types of dc motor.

INDUCTION MOTOR

What is an Induction Motor?

An induction motor (also known as an asynchronous motor) is a commonly used AC electric motor. In an
induction motor, the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained via electromagnetic
induction from the rotating magnetic field of the stator winding. The rotor of an induction motor can be a squirrel
cage rotor or wound type rotor.

3 Phase Induction Motor Construction

Like any other type of electrical motor induction motor, a 3 phase induction motor is constructed from two main
parts, namely the rotor and stator:

1. Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor. A stator winding is placed in
the stator of induction motor and the three-phase supply is given to it.
2. Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is connected to the mechanical load
through the shaft.
The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as

1. Squirrel cage rotor

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
Depending upon the type of rotor construction used the three phase induction motor are
classified as:
1. Squirrel cage induction motor
2. Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound induction motor.
The construction of a stator for both of the kinds of three phase induction motors is identical,
and is discussed briefly below. Please ensure you are using the appropriate electrical tools if
you’re going to be deconstructing a motor yourself.

Stator of Three Phase Induction Motor

The stator of the three-phase induction motor consists of three main parts :

1. Stator frame,
2. Stator core,
3. Stator winding or field winding.
Stator Frame

It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function is to support the stator core and the field
winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides protection and mechanical strength to all the inner parts of the
induction motor. The frame is either made up of die-cast or fabricated steel. The frame of three phase induction
motor should be strong and rigid as the air gap length of three phase induction motor is very small. Otherwise, the
rotor will not remain concentric with the stator, which will give rise to an unbalanced magnetic pull.
Stator Core

The main function of the stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy current loss, the
stator core is laminated. These laminated types of structure are made up of stamping which is about 0.4 to 0.5 mm
thick. All the stamping are stamped together to form stator core, which is then housed in stator frame. The
stamping is made up of silicon steel, which helps to reduce the hysteresis occurring in the motor.
Stator Winding or Field Winding
The slots on the periphery of the stator core of the three-phase induction motor carry three phase windings. We
apply three phase ac supply to this three-phase winding. The three phases of the winding are connected either in
star or delta depending upon which type of starting method we use. We start the squirrel cage motor mostly with
star-delta stater and hence the stator of squirrel cage motor is delta connected. We start the slip ring three-phase
induction motor by inserting resistances so, the stator winding of slip ring induction motor can be connected either
in star or delta.
The winding wound on the stator of three phase induction motor is also called field winding, and when this
winding is excited by three phase ac supply, it produces a rotating magnetic field.

Types of Three Phase Induction Motor

Squirrel Cage Three Phase Induction Motor

• The rotor of the squirrel cage three phase induction motor is cylindrical and have slots
on its periphery.
 • The slots are not made parallel to each other but are bit skewed (skewing is not shown
in the figure of squirrel cage rotor besides) as the skewing prevents magnetic locking
of stator and rotor teeth and makes the working of the motor more smooth and quieter.

• The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum, brass or copper bars (copper bras rotor is
shown in the figure beside).

• These aluminum, brass or copper bars are called rotor conductors and are placed in the
slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the
copper, or aluminum rings called the end rings. To provide mechanical strength, these
rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete closed circuit
resembling like a cage and hence got its name as squirrel cage induction motor.

• The squirrel cage rotor winding is made symmetrical. As end rings permanently short
the bars, the rotor resistance is quite small, and it is not possible to add external
resistance as the bars get permanently shorted.

• The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction of Squirrel cage three-phase
induction motor very simple and robust and hence widely used three phase induction
motor. These motors have the advantage of adopting any number of pole pairs. The
below diagram shows a squirrel cage induction rotor having aluminum bars short circuit
by aluminum end rings.

Advantages of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor

1. Its construction is very simple and rugged.
2. As there are no brushes and slip ring, these motors requires less
maintenance.
Applications of Squirrel Cage Induction Rotor
We use the squirrel cage induction motors in lathes, drilling machine, fan, blower printing
machines, etc

Slip Ring or Wound Rotor Three Phase Induction motor

In this type of three phase induction motor the rotor is wound for the same number of poles as
that of the stator, but it has less number of slots and has fewer turns per phase of a heavier
conductor. The rotor also carries star or delta winding similar to that of the stator winding.

The rotor consists of numbers of slots and rotor winding are placed inside these slots. The three
end terminals are connected together to form a star connection. As its name indicates, three
phase slip ring induction motor consists of slip rings connected on the same shaft as that of the
rotor.

The three ends of three-phase windings are permanently connected to these slip rings. The
external resistance can be easily connected through the brushes and slip rings and hence used
for speed controlling and improving the starting torque of three phase induction motor The
brushes are used to carry current to and from the rotor winding. These brushes are further
connected to three phase star connected resistances. An electrical diagram of a slip ring three
phase induction motor is shown below:
At starting, the resistance is connected to the rotor circuit and is gradually cut out as the rotor
pick up its speed. When the motor is running the slip ring are shorted by connecting a metal
collar, which connects all slip ring together, and the brushes are also removed. This reduces
the wear and tear of the brushes. Due to the presence of slip rings and brushes the rotor
construction becomes somewhat complicated therefore it is less used as compare to squirrel
cage induction motor.

Advantages of Slip Ring Induction Motor

1. It has high starting torque and low starting current.
2. Possibility of adding additional resistance to control speed.
Application of Slip Ring Induction Motor
Slip ring induction motor are used where high starting torque is required i.e in hoists, cranes,
elevator etc.

Working principle
Induction motors are referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’ because they operate at a speed less
than their synchronous speed. So first thing to understand – what is synchronous speed?

A Typical Induction Motor

Synchronous Speed

Synchronous speed is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field in a rotary machine, and it
depends upon the frequency and number poles of the machine. The induction motor always
runs at speed less than its synchronous speed. The rotating magnetic field produced in the stator
will create flux in the rotor, hence causing the rotor to rotate. Due to the lag between the flux
current in the rotor and the flux current in the stator, the rotor will never reach its rotating
magnetic field speed (i.e. the synchronous speed).
There are basically two types of induction motor. The types of induction motor depend upon
the input supply.
There are single phase induction motors and three phase induction motor.
Single phase induction motors are not a self-starting motor, and three phase induction motor
are a self-starting motor.

Why is Three Phase Induction Motor Self Starting?

In a three phase system, there are three single phase lines with a 120° phase difference. So the
rotating magnetic field has the same phase difference which will make the rotor to move. If we
consider three phases a, b, and c when phase a gets magnetized, the rotor will move towards
the phase a winding a, in the next moment phase b will get magnetized and it will attract the
rotor and then phase c. So the rotor will continue to rotate.

Working Principle of Induction Motor

We need to give double excitation to make a dc motor to rotate. In the DC motor, we give one
supply to the stator and another to the rotor through brush arrangement. But in induction motor,
we give only one supply, so it is interesting to know how an induction motor works. It is simple,
from the name itself we can understand that here, the induction process is involved. When we
give the supply to the stator winding, a magnetic flux gets produced in the stator due to the
flow of current in the coil. The rotor winding is so arranged that each coil becomes short-
circuited.
The flux from the stator cuts the short-circuited coil in the rotor. As the rotor coils are short-
circuited, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction the current will start flowing
through the coil of the rotor. When the current through the rotor coils flows, another flux gets
generated in the rotor. Now there are two fluxes, one is stator flux, and another is rotor flux.
The rotor flux will be lagging in respect of the stator flux. Because of that, the rotor will feel a
torque which will make the rotor to rotate in the direction of the rotating magnetic field. This
is the working principle of both single and three phase induction motors.

Production of rotating magnetic field

In this article, we will try to understand the theory behind the production of rotating
magnetic field. For that, we will first imagine one stator of an electric motor where three-
phase winding is physically distributed in the stator core in such a manner that winding of
each phase is separated from other by 120o in space.
Although the vector sum of three currents in a balanced three-phase system is zero at
any instant, but the resultant of the magnetic fields produced by the currents is not zero
rather it will have a constant non-zero value rotating in space in respect to time.

The magnetic flux produced by the current in each phase can be represented by the equations
given below. This is a similar representation of current is a three-phase system as the flux is

cophasial with the current.

Where, φR, φY and φB are the instantaneous flux of corresponding Red, Yellow and
Bluephase winding, φm amplitude of the flux wave. The flux wave in the space can be
represented as shown below.

Now, on the above graphical representation of flux waves, we will first consider the point 0.

Here, the value of φR is

The value of φY is

The value of φB is
The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below.

Now, on the above graphical representation of flux waves, we will consider the point 1,
where ωt = π / 6 or 30o.

Here, the value of φR is

The value of φY is

The value of φB is
The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below.
here it is clear that the resultant flux vector is rotated 30o further clockwise without changing
its value.

Now, on the graphical representation of flux waves, we will consider the point 2, where ωt = π / 3 or 60 o.

Here, the value of φR is

The value of φY is

The value of φB is
The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below. here it is clear thet
the resultant flux vector is rotated 30° further clockwise without changing its value.

Now, on the graphical representation of flux waves, we will consider the point 3, where ωt = π / 2 or 90 o.

Here, the value of φR is

The value of φY is

The value of φB is
The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below. here it is clear thet
the resultant flux vector is rotated 30o further clockwise without changing its value.

In this way we can prove that the due to balanced supply applied to the three phase stator
winding a rotating or revolving magnetic fields is established in the new space.

• Torque Equation of Three Phase Induction Motor

• The torque produced by three phase induction motor depends upon the following
three factors:
Firstly the magnitude of rotor current, secondly the flux which interact with the rotor
of three phase induction motor and is responsible for producing emf in the rotor part
of induction motor, lastly the power factor of rotor of the three phase induction motor.
Combining all these factors, we get the equation of torque as-

•
Where, T is the torque produced by the induction motor,
φ is flux responsible for producing induced emf,
I2 is rotor current,
cosθ2 is the power factor of rotor circuit.

• The flux φ produced by the stator is proportional to stator emf E1.

i.e φ ∝ E1
We know that transformation ratio K is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage
(rotor voltage) to that of primary voltage (stator voltage).
 Rotor current I2 is defined as the ratio of rotor induced emf under running condition ,
sE2 to total impedance, Z2 of rotor side,

• nd total impedance Z2 on rotor side is given by ,

Putting this value in above equation we get,

s = slip of induction motor

• We know that power factor is defined as ratio of resistance to that of impedance. The power factor of
the rotor circuit is

Putting the value of flux φ, rotor current I2, power factor cosθ2 in the equation of torque we get,

Combining similar term we get,

Removing proportionality constant we get,

Where, ns is synchronous speed in r. p. s, ns = Ns / 60. So, finally the equation of torque

becomes,

SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

INTRODUCTION:

• There are two basic reasons for the use of single-phase motors rather than 3-phase motors.
➢ For reason of economy, most houses, offices and also rural areas are supplied with single phase a.c, as
power requirements of individual load items are rather small.
➢ The economics of the motor and its branch circuit.
➢ Fixed loads requiring not more than 0.5KW can generally be served most economically with single
phase power and a single phase motor.
➢ Single phase motors are simple in construction, reliable, easy to repair and comparatively cheaper in
cost and therefore, find wide use in fans, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, other
 kitchen equipment, tools, blowers, centrifugal pumps, small farming appliances etc. Because of above
reasons motors of comparatively small ratings (mostly in fractional KW ratings) are manufactured in
large number to operate on single phase ac at standard frequencies.
➢ An indication of the number of such motors can be had from the fact that the sum of total of all fractional
kilowatt motors in use today far exceeds the total of integral kilowatt motors of all types.

TYPES OF SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR:

The Single phase motors may be of the following types:
1. Single-phase Induction Motors:
A. Split-phase motors
(i) Capacitor start motor
(ii) Capacitor start induction motor
B. Shaded-pole induction motor.
C. Reluctance-start induction motor.
D. Repulsion-start induction motor. 2.

SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS Applications and Disadvantages:

Applications:
• Single phase induction motors are in very wide use in industry especially in fractional horse-power field.
They are extensively used for electrical drive for low power constant speed apparatus such as machine
tools, domestic apparatus and agricultural machinery in circumstances where a three-phase supply is not
readily available.
• Single phase induction motors sizes vary from 1/400 kw to 1/25 kw are used in toys, hair dryers, vending
machines etc.
• Universal motor is widely used in portable tools, vacuum cleaners& kitchen equipment.

Disadvantages:

Though these machines are useful for small outputs, they are not used for large powers as they suffer
from many disadvantages and are never used in cases where three-phase machines can be adopted.
The main disadvantages of single-phase induction motors are:
1. Their output is only 50% of the three-phase motor, for a given frame size and temperature rise.
2. They have lower power factor.
3. Lower efficiency.
4. These motors do not have inherent starting torque.
5. More expensive than three-phase motors of the same output.
6. Low overload capacity