SQURE WAVE GENERATOR
 
PROJECT REPORT
 
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
AWARD OF THE DIPLOMA OF 
 
 
Diploma of
(Electronics and Communication Engineering)
 
 SUBMITTED BY
 
HARMANPREET KAUR (200326104044)

HARMANJOT KAUR (200326104043)

AMANDEEP KAUR (200326104036)

MAY 2022
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

PUNJAB  TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING  

CHANDIGARH, INDIA 
 SQURE WAVE GENERATOR
 
  REPORT
 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DIPLOMA OF
 
 
 
Diploma of
(Electronics & Communication Engineering)
 
 
Submitted by
 
HARMANPREET KAUR (200326104044)

HARMANJOT KAUR (200326104043)

AMANDEEP KAUR (200326104036)

MAY 2022

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE FOR GIRLS, PATIALA

 May 2022

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

PUNJAB TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING  

CHANDIGARH, INDIA 
 Government Polytechnic College for Girls,
Patiala 
 

CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION
 
 
I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the report entitled A
“GOVERNMENT POLYTECNIC COLLEGE FOR GIRLS, PATIALA” by
“,HARMANPREET, HARMANJOT,AMANDEEP” in partial fulfilment of
requirements for the award of diploma of  (Electronics & Communication
Engineering) submitted in the Department of (Electronics & Communication
Engineering) at GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE FOR GIRLS,
PATIALA under PUNJAB TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND INDUSTRIAL
TRAINING CHANDIGARH is an authentic record of my own work carried out
during a period from 7MAY 2022 to _______under the supervision of Er.
YOGESH GARG. The matter presented in this report has not been submitted by
me in any other Board / Institute for the award of Diploma.
 

Signature of the Student

 
 This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the
best of my/our knowledge
 
 

Signature of the SUPERVISOR (S)

 

 The Diploma Viva –Voce Examination of

HARMANPREET , HARMANJOT , AMANDEEP ) has been held on ____________ and

accepted.
 
 
 
 Signature of Supervisor(s) Signature of External Examiner

Signature of H.O.D
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are highly grateful to the Principal, Government Polytechnic College
for Girls, Patiala, for providing this opportunity to carry out the present report/
work
 
The constant guidance and encouragement received from Er. Jagdev Singh
kaleka Prof. and Head, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Patiala has been of great help in carrying out the present work and is
acknowledged with reverential thanks.
 
The authors would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thanks profusely to
Er. Yogesh Garg, Lecturer, Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering, Patiala, who was the report Supervisor. Without the wise counsel and
able guidance, it would have been impossible to complete the report in this
manner.
  
The author express gratitude to other faculty members of Electronics and
Communication Engineering Department GPCG Patiala for their intellectual
support throughout the course of this work.
 
Finally, the authors are indebted to all whosoever have contributed in this report
work and friendly stay at GPCG Patiala.
 
 
“,HARMANPREET , HARMANJOT , AMANDEEP”
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

   
 
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION (Page no. 1)

1.1 Background
1.2 Objective
1.3 Basic Block Diagram

 Chapter 2: COMPONENTS (Page no. 2-12)

 2.1 resistor
2.2 capacitor
2.3 Gener diode
2.4 Op-amp

Chapter 3: WORKING OF THE PROJECT (Page no. 13-20)

3.1 Block diagram of Project
3.2 Circuit Diagram of Project
3.3 Code/ Program
3.4 Working of the Project

Chapter 4: (Page no. 21-23)

4.1 Application of Robotic Hand
4.2 Advantages of Robotic Hand
4.3 Disadvantages of Robotic Hand
4.4 Conclusion
 CHAPTER: 1 (1)

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

A square wave generator is an electronics circuit witch generates square wave . this section
discusses about op-amp based square wave generators .observe that in the circuit diagram
shown below , the resistor R1 is connected between the inverting input terminal of the op-
amp and its output of op-amp .

Micheal Faraday (22nd September 1971-25th August 1867) is the father of the generator. The square
wave generator is one type of generator used to generates the waveform in a square, the Schmitt
trigger inverters like TTL are used to construct this generator. This generator is used in signal
processing and in electronics. There are different types of generators in different sizes, in that
square wave generator is one type. This article discusses an overview of the square wave generator
which includes its definition, circuit diagram, and derivation of the time period and frequency.

OBJECTIVE

This generator is used in digital signal processing and electronics application. The square wave
generator is also known as astable multivibrator or free running and the frequency of the
square wave generator is independent of the output voltage.

1.2 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

CHAPTER: 2
COMPONENTS

LIST OF COMPONENTS:--

 2.1 Resistor
2.2 Capacitor
2.3 Zener diode
2.4 Op-amp

2.1 Resistor :- Resistors are passive electrical elements. This means they
cannot deliver any energy to the circuit, and instead, they receive energy
and dissipates it in the form of heat as long as a current flowing through it.

Different resistors are used in an electrical and electronic circuit to limit the
current flow or produce voltage drops. Resistors are available in many
different resistance values from fractions of Ohm (Ω) to millions of Ohms.
According to ohm’s law, the voltage (V) across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current (I) flowing through it. Where the resistance R is
the constant of proportionality.

VV

Fig : Resistor
Types of Resistors
 Fixed Value Resistors. These are the predominant type of resistor configuration, and
as the name suggests, they have a fixed resistance value. ...
 Variable Resistors. ...
 Resistor Networks. ...
 Carbon Film Resistors. ...
 Metal Film Resistors. ...
 Wirewound Resistors. ...
 Metal Oxide Resistors. ...
 Metal Strip Resistors.

Pin Configuration

Resistors have two leads, there is no polarity for a resistor and hence can
be connected in both directions. Note: This document refers only to the
carbon film resistors, since they are the most widely used ones for all
electronic projects.

.
 Where to Use?

Resistors are usually added to circuits where they complement active components like op-
amps, microcontrollers, and other integrated circuits. Commonly resistors are used to limit
current, divide voltages, and pull-up I/O lines.

The resistor absorbs the electrical energy in the process where it acts as a hindrance
to the flow of electricity by reducing the voltage, and it is dissipated as heat. In
today's world of electronic circuits, the heat dissipation is typically a fraction of a watt.

Specifications & Features

The specifications of this component include the following.

 Resistance specification. ...

 Resistance tolerance specification. ...
 Resistor accuracy specification. ...
 Long term stability. ...
 Resistor type. ...SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
 Power dissipation specification. ...
 Power de-rating specification. ...
 Temperature coefficient specification.

Features :

Here's a brief glossary of the most important terms used when describing resistors'
characteristics.

 Tolerance.
 Stability.
 Reliability.
 Voltage Coefficient.
 Noise.
 Temperature Rating.
 Thermal Resistance.
 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance.
 Applications

The applications of the Resistor include the following.

 To generate heat
 To remove electrical energy
 To divide a voltage
 To set a time delay
 To measure temperature
 To set the gain of an amplifire
 To obsorb unwanted signal

2.2 Capacitor

capacitor, device for storing electrical energy, consisting of two

conductors in close proximity and insulated from each other. A simple example of
such a storage device is the parallel-plate capacitor.

Where to Use?

The most common use for capacitors is energy storage. Additional uses include power
conditioning, signal coupling or decoupling, electronic noise filtering, and remote sensing.
Because of its varied applications, capacitors are used in a wide range of industries and
have become a vital part of everyday life.

Specifications & Features

The specifications of capacitors are:

 Capacitance value.
 Voltage rating.
 Temperature coefficient.
 Frequency range.
 Dielectric constant.
 Dielectric strength.
 Power factor.

Features Are:

 Nominal Capacitance, ( C ) ...

 Working Voltage, ( WV ) ...
 Tolerance, ( ±% ) ...
 Leakage Current. ...
 Working Temperature, ( T ) ...
 Temperature Coefficient, ( TC ) ...
 Polarization. ...
 Equivalent Series Resistance, ( ESR )

Types of Capacitors
 Ceramic Capacitors.
 Film Capacitors.
 Power Film Capacitors.
 Electrolytic Capacitors.
 Ceramic capacitors.
 Film capacitors.
 Paper capacitors.
 Electrolytic capacitors.

Pin Configuration

1.2 Capacitor

Applications of Capacitor
 Energy storage. ...
 Pulsed power and weapons. ...
 Power conditioning. ...
 Power factor correction Capacitors. ...
 Capacitor Safety. ...
 Hold-up capacitor applications. ...
 RF coupling and decoupling applications. ...
 Smoothing capacitor applications.

Working :
A capacitor is a device that is used to store charges in an electrical
circuit. A capacitor works on the principle that the capacitance of a conductor
increases appreciably when an earthed conductor is brought near it. Hence, a
capacitor has two plates separated by a distance having equal and opposite
charges. The space between the conductors may be filled by vacuum or with an
insulating material known as a dielectric. The ability of the capacitor to store charges
is known as capacitance.

Working principle of a capacitor

Let us consider the parallel plate capacitor. It consists of two parallel plates
separated by a dielectric. When we connect a DC voltage source across the
capacitor, one plate is connected to the positive end and the other plate to the
negative end. When the potential of the battery is applied across the capacitor, plate
I become positive with respect to plate II.

Across the capacitor, an electric field appears. The positive plate will collect positive
charges from the battery, while the negative plate will collect negative charges. After
a certain stage, the capacitor’s capacitance with respect to this voltage allows it to
hold the maximum amount of charge. This time span is called the charging time of
the capacitor.
When the battery is removed from the capacitor, the two plates hold a negative and
positive charge for a certain time. Thus, the capacitor acts as a source of electrical
energy. If these plates are connected to a load, the current flows to the load from
Plate I to Plate II until all the charges are dissipated from both plates. This time span
is known as the discharging time of the capacitor.
 

2.3 Zener Diode :

A Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either
a forward or reverse direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily doped p-n
junction, designed to conduct in the reverse direction when a certain specified
voltage is reached.

The Zener diode has a well-defined reverse-breakdown voltage, at which it starts

conducting current, and continues operating continuously in the reverse-bias mode
without getting damaged. Additionally, the voltage drop across the diode remains
constant over a wide range of voltages, a feature that makes Zener diodes suitable
for use in voltage regulation.

Zener diode operation

The Zener diode operates just like the normal diode when in the forward-bias mode,
and has a turn-on voltage of between 0.3 and 0.7 V. However, when connected in
the reverse mode, which is usual in most of its applications, a small leakage current
may flow. As the reverse voltage increases to the predetermined breakdown voltage
(Vz), a current starts flowing through the diode. The current increases to a maximum,
which is determined by the series resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains
constant over a wide range of applied volta ge.
 Figure 1: Zener diode IV characteristics

Zener breakdown

The breakdown is either due to the Zener breakdown effect that occurs below 5.5 V,
or impact ionization that occurs above 5.5 V. Both mechanisms result in the same
behavior and do not require different circuitry; however, each mechanism has a
different temperature coefficient.

The Zener effect has a negative temperature coefficient while the impact effect
experiences a positive coefficient. The two temperature effects are almost equal at
5.5 V and cancel out each other to make the Zener diodes rated at around 5.5 V the
most stable over a wide range of temperature conditions.

Zener diode specifications

Zener diodes vary in specifications such as nominal working voltage, power

dissipation, maximum reverse current, and packaging. Some commonly used
specifications include.

 Voltage Vz: The Zener voltage refers to the reverse breakdown voltage—2.4
V to about 200 V; can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the surface-
mounted device (SMD) is about 47 V).
 Current Iz (max.): Maximum current at the rated Zener voltage Vz—200 uA to
200 A).
 Current Iz (min.): Minimum current required for the diode to break down—5
mA and 10 mA.
 Power rating: The maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate; given by
the product of voltage across the diode and the current flowing through.
Typical values are 400 mW, 500 mW, 1 W, and 5 W; for surface mounted,
200 mW, 350 mW, 500 mW, and 1 W are typical.
 Voltage tolerance: Typically ±5%.
 Temperature stability: Diodes around 5 V have the best stability.
  Package: Leaded devices and the surface mount either as discrete devices or
within integrated circuits.
 Zener resistance (Rz): The diode exhibits some resistance as evident from
the IV characteristics.

Figure 2:  Zener diode resistance

Zener diode applications

Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, as reference elements, surge
suppressors, and in switching applications and clipper circuits.

Voltage regulator

The load voltage equals breakdown voltage VZ of the diode. The series resistor
limits the current through the diode and drops the excess voltage when the diode is
conducting.
 Figure 3:  Zener diode shunt regulator

Zener diode in overvoltage protection

If the input voltage increases to a value higher than the Zener breakdown voltage,
current flows through the diode and create a voltage drop across the resistor; this
triggers the SCR and creates a short circuit to the ground. The short circuit opens up
the fuse and disconnects the load from the supply.

Figure 4: SCR overvoltage crowbar circuit

Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

Zener diodes are used to modify or shape AC waveform clipping circuits. The
clipping circuit limits or clips off parts of one or both of the half cycles of an AC
waveform to shape the waveform or provide protection.
 Figure 5: Zener diode clipping circuits

Zener diodes are used for voltage regulation, as reference elements, surge

suppressors, and in switching applications and clipper circuits. The load voltage
equals breakdown voltage VZ of the diode. The series resistor limits the current
through the diode and drops the excess voltage when the diode is conducting. Zener
diodes are used for voltage regulation, as reference elements, surge suppressors,
and in switching applications and clipper circuits. The load voltage equals breakdown
voltage VZ of the diode. The series resistor limits the current through the diode and

drops the excess voltage when the diode is conducting.

2.4 OP-am :

What is an Operational Amplifier?

1. What is an Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)?

2. What an Operational Amplifier Can Do

3. Operational Amplifier Applications

4. Selecting an Operational Amplifier and Explanation of Terms

What is a Zero Drift Amplifier? . What is an
Operational Amplifier (Op-amp)?

An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric signals.
An operational amplifier has two input pins and one output pin. Its basic role is to
amplify and output the voltage difference between the two input pins.

 
 
2. What an Operational Amplifier Can Do
An operational amplifier is not used alone but is designed to be connected to other
circuits to perform a great variety of operations. This article provides some typical
examples of usage of circuits with operational amplifiers.

●Enables substantial amplification of an input signal

When an operational amplifier is combined with an amplification circuit, it can amplify

weak signals to strong signals.It behaves like a megaphone where the input signal is
a person’s voice and the megaphone is the operational amplifier circuit.For example,
such a circuit can be used to amplify minute sensor signals.

Processing of sensor signals can be further improved by inputting the amplified

signal to a microcontroller* unit (MCU).
* Microcontroller… A compact computer for controlling electronic devices. As the brain of electronic
devices, MCUs operate according to input signals.

●Enables elimination of noise from an input signal

By operating as a filter of input signals, the operational amplifier circuit is able to
extract the signal with the target frequency.For example, when an operational
amplifier circuit is used for voice recognition or in a voice recorder, it can extract
frequencies close to the targeted sound while shutting out all other frequencies as
noise.

An operational amplifier circuit can be tweaked to perform a broad range of functions

such as arithmetical operations or signal synthesis.

 
3. Operational Amplifier Applications
As noted above, an operational amplifier is almost never used alone. By connecting
resistors or capacitors, you can configure a circuit capable of the signal amplification,
filtering or arithmetic circuit operations described in “2. What an Operational Amplifier
Can Do”.

(1)Internal operational amplifier operations

The following describes the operations performed by the operational amplifier in the
circuit. Let’s see how an operational amplifier behaves in an amplifier circuit, taking
the example of a non-inverting amplifier circuit.

In addition to this simple calculation, the operational amplifier’s performance must

also be considered when configuring a circuit. This point is described later in this
section under “4. Selecting an Operational Amplifier and Explanation of Terms.”

(2)Circuit examples

We describe here some typical operational amplifier applications.

[Non-inverting amplifier circuit]

 As explained in (1), this also is a circuit for amplifying and outputting input signals.

 VOUT=(1+R2/R1)×VIN

[Inverting amplifier circuit]

An inverting amplifier circuit is indicated by a minus sign. If the V IN voltage increases,

the VOUT voltage decreases.

 VOUT=-R2/R1×VIN

[Voltage follower circuit]

 This is a non-inverting amplifier circuit where R2 is short-circuited (R2=0Ω) and R1 is
open (R1=infinity). Since VOUT=(1+R2/R1)×VIN= (1+0Ω/∞)×VIN=VIN, the output is the
same voltage as the input signal. A voltage follower is used as a buffer circuit to
convert the impedance or to separate circuits.

 VOUT=VIN

[Differential amplifier circuit]

This is a circuit for amplifying and outputting the difference between two input
signals.

 VOUT=R2/R1×(VIN2-VIN1)
 
 
4. Selecting an Operational Amplifier and
Explanation of Terms
Here, we will use the ABLIC operational amplifier S-89630A as an example of what
items to check in selecting an operational amplifier and explaining operational
amplifier attributes.

(1) Check the operating voltage.

[Operating power supply voltage range]

This is the range of the operable power supply voltage at the VDD pin.Check that the
power supply voltage is within the range of the operational amplifier operating
voltage range.

[Common-mode input voltage range]

The range of voltage of a signal that may be applied to the input pins. The
operational amplifier will work as long as the input signal is within this range.An
operational amplifier whose common-mode input voltage range covers V SS – VDD is
called a “Rail-to-Rail input operational amplifier”; that is, an operational amplifier with
an excellent input signal voltage range.

(2) Check the input signal frequency.

[Gain bandwidth product]

This specifies the maximum frequency that an operational amplifier can amplify a
signal to. The maximum frequency varies with the factor (gain) you use to amplify a
signal. At a gain of one (=0dB), the signal can be amplified to maximum frequency,
the so called gain bandwidth product.

The graph on the right indicates that at a gain of one (=0dB), the maximum
frequency that amplification allows using the S-89630A is 1.2MHz and that at a gain
of 10 (=20dB), the maximum frequency is 120kHz.Make sure that the maximum
frequency you want to amplify to is within the range of the factor by which you want
to amplify.

(3) Check the current consumption.

[Current consumption]
This indicates the current value drawn from the VDD pin. The lower this value is, the
more you can reduce the power of the system. Normally, an operational amplifier
with low current consumption tends to also have low frequency of gain bandwidth.

(4) Check the signal amplification accuracy.

[Input offset voltage]
The input offset voltage is a conversion of the error voltage generated at the output
to an input value when the input voltage is 0V. It is an essential attribute affecting the
amplification accuracy of operational amplifiers. Generally, when the voltage
amplitude of the input signal is on the order of mV, an input offset voltage on the
order of μV is required. This makes it necessary to select a “zero drift operational
amplifier” to handle such tiny offset voltages.

 
 3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PROJECT (14)

The circuit for square wave generators using op-amp is shown in the below one capacitor is
connected to the inverting terminal of an op-amp with one pin connected to ground and
discharging of the capacitor is also connected to the inverting terminal to output .
One voltage divider is designed using two resistor and is connected to output and ground at the
non-inverting pin .

What is a Square Wave Generator?

The square wave generator is defined as an oscillator that gives the output
without any input, without any input in the sense we should give input within
zero seconds that means it must be an impulse input. This generator is
used in digital signal processing and electronic applications. The square
wave generator is also known as Astable Multivibrator or free-running and
the frequency of the square wave generator is independent of the output
voltage. The basic circuit diagram and working of the square wave
generator are explained below.

Square Wave Generator Circuit

To design the square wave generator, we need a capacitor, resistor,
operational amplifier, and power supply. The capacitor and resistor are
connected to the inverting terminal of the operational amplifier and the
resistors R1 and R2 are connected to the non-inverting terminal of the
operational amplifier. The circuit diagram of the square wave generator
using an operational amplifier is shown below

If we force output to switch between the positive saturation voltage and the
negative saturation voltage at the output of an operational amplifier we can
achieve square wave as an output wave. Ideally without any input applied
the output should be zero, it is expressed as

Vout (output voltage) = 0 V when Vin (input voltage) = 0 V

But practically we get some non-zero output that is expressed as

V0ut ≠ 0
The Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider network. If the initial output
voltage is non-zero we get voltage across Vb. Thus we get a positive input at
the non-inverting terminal and the inverting terminal, then the output gets
amplified by its gain and reaches the maximum output voltage thus we get
the half of the square wave as shown in figure (a).
 Wave forms of square wave

The capacitor starts charging when we have a non-zero input at the

inverting terminal. It will charge continuously until its voltage become
greater than Vb. As soon as Vc is greater than the Vb (Vc> Vb). The inverting
input becomes greater than the non-inverting input and hence op-amp
output switches to negative voltage and gets amplified till (–Vout)max. Thus will
get the negative half of the square wave as shown in figure (b). This is the
application of an op-amp as a square wave generator.
3.3 WORKING OF THE PROJECT (16)
Time Period and Frequency Derivation of Square Wave Generator

In the figure, Square Wave Generator Circuit V2 is the voltage across the
capacitor, and V1 is the node voltage at the positive terminal. The current
through op-amp is zero because of the ideal characteristics of an op-amp.
Let us consider node equations from the circuit diagram.
V1– V0 / R2 + V1 / R1 = 0
V1 [1/R2 + 1/ R1] = V0 / R2
V1 [R1+ R2 / R1 R2] = V0 / R2
V1(α) = V0 ………… eq (1)
Let’s take

α= R1+ R2 / R1 = 1+ R2 / R1>1

therefore, α>1 and V0>1
When V0 = + Vsat
V1 = V0 / α= + Vsat / α= + V1
When V0 = -Vsat
V1 = – Vsat / α= -V1
The voltage V1 have only two possibilities + V1 and – V1, so whenever V-
0 changes V1 also changes. Now let’s see how V 2 is going to change. The

voltage V2 will be the charging and discharging if we form a node equation

here current through a capacitor is equal to the current.
C d/dt (0- V2) = V2 – V0 / R
-C d V2/dt = V2 – V0 / R
d V2/ V0 – V2 = dt / RC
If we solve the above equation will get that

∫0V2  d (V2/V0  -V2  ) = ∫0t  dt/RC

Initially, we have to assume the voltage across the capacitor is zero

-log (V0 – V2) = t / RC + K

log (V0 – V2) = -t / RC + K
V0 – V2 = K e-t/RC  …………    eq (2)
Substituting t=0, V2 = 0 in the above equation will get
K = V0  …………………………… eq (3)
Where e0 = 1
Substitute eq (3) in eq (2) will get
 V0 – V2 = K e-t/RC
 V2 = V0 – V0 e-t/RC
V2 = V0 [1-e-t/RC]
Applying initial conditions to the above equation

Stage 1: Let V2 = 0, V0 = +Vsat

                   In stage-1 the voltage V2 is charging up to + V1

Stage 2: Let V2 = 0, V0 = -Vsat

              In stage-2 the voltage V2 is discharging up to -V1
[ log (V0 + V1 / V0 – V1)] = 1/RC [T/2]
[ log (αV1 +V2 / αV1 – V1 )] = 1/RC [T/2]………………eq(4)
Substitute eq (1) in eq (4) will get

log [V1 (α + 1 ) / V1 (α – 1)] = [T/2 RC]

log[((R1+R2/ R1)  +1)/( (R1+R2/ R1)  -1)] = T/2 RC
log[R1+R2 + R1/ R1+ R2– R1] = T/2 RC
log[2R1+R2 / R2] = T/2 RC
T = 2 RC log[2R1+R2 / R2]……… eq (5)
f  = 1 / T
  = 1/ 2 RC log[2R1+R2 / R2] ……… eq (6)
An equation (5) and (6) are the time period and frequency of square wave
generator

Function Generator Circuit

The function generator is a type of instrument which is used to generate the
different type of waveforms like sinusoidal waveforms, triangular
waveforms, rectangular waveforms, sawtooth waveforms, square
waveforms and these different type of waveforms have different
frequencies and they can have generated with the help of the instrument
called function generator. The frequencies of these waveforms may be
adjusted from a fraction of Hertz to several hundred kiloHertz and this
generator have the capability to generate the different waveforms at the
same time in different applications. The circuit diagram of the function
generator using LM1458 is shown below
An operational amplifier LM1458 is a dual purpose operational amplifier
and the bias network and power supply lines of these dual operational
amplifiers are common. The four integrated circuits in the function
generator circuit are IC 1a, IC 1b, IC 2a, and IC 2b. The integrated circuit
IC 1a is wired as an astable multivibrator, integrated circuit IC 1b wired as
integrator, and IC 2a is also wired as an integrator.

The top 10 best function generators in 2020 are GM Instek SFG-1013

DOS, Function Generator DIY KIT by JYE Tech FG085, ATTEN ATF20B
DDS, Rigol DGI02220 MHz Function Generator with the second channel,
Eisco Labs Function Generator- 1KHz to 100 kHz, B & K Precision 4011A
Function Generator, JYETech 08503 – Portable Digital Function Generator,
Tektronix AFG1062 Arbitrary Function Generator, Keithley 3390 Arbitrary
Function Generator, and Rigol DG1062Z Function/ Arbitrary Waveform

CHAPTER: 4
4.1 Advantages
The advantages of the square wave generator are

 Simple
 Easy to maintenance
 Cheap

1). What are square waves?

The square waves are square-shaped grids that form on the ocean surface
and these waves are also known as cross waves or cross-sea waves.

2). What are the types of signal generators?

The types of signal generators are Frequency Generator, Arbitrary
Waveform Generator, Microwave, and RF Function Generators, Pitch
Generator, and Digital Pattern Generators.

3). What are the different types of multivibrator circuits?

There are three types of multivibrator circuits they are Monostable
Multivibrator Circuit, Astable Multivibrator Circuit, and Bistable Multivibrator
Circuit.

4). What is the function generator?

The function generator is equipment or device used to generate the
electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. The waveforms
generated by the function generator are a triangular wave, square wave,
sinewave, and sawtooth wave.

5). Why square waves are dangerous?

The square waves can be mind-blowing and fascinating to look but
actually, they are dangerous for swimmers and boats. When two sets of
wave systems collide with each other it results in form or wave patterns that
look like squares across the ocean.

In this article the square wave generator advantages, circuit diagrams of

square wave generator, and function generator are discussed. Here is a
question for you, which is the best square wave generator?
4.3 DISADVANTAGES (22)

4.4 CONCLUSION (23)

SUCCESS:

The overall system performs reasonably well. The user is able to carry out comfortable and
precise functions of the robotic hand through the use of a sensor based control glove. Arduino
accepts inputs from sensor and generates the proper control signals based on those inputs.

UNCERTAINTIES:

The lift capacity of servo motors on the robotic hand is limited. Replacement of current
servos with a higher torque model would allow a complete range of motion when
manipulating heavier objects.

The usable lifeline of the flex sensor seems to be limited. The sensors themselves are very
fragile and easy wear out from overuse. Careful maintenance and protection of the flex sensor
is crucial to successful operation of the system.