Rese,m;h Methodology ~esearch Methodology: An Jntroductiort

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no ,·en ~u, tec hn ique, 1111d the, nl'c-d h 1 l..111 1" th e n 1t cr ia hy I. xi1cri 111 cnluf ion is don e In te,t hypoth
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undcr.tand the u,~urnr,t1,:,n, un dc rt ~' "
~,hniquc,' and prncedurt's "ill he. appl1.:ahlc- to ce,1 11 111 . prob lems . , However, sometim e~ th e,e,
. ~ndtod r,· cover new re I · h.
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· All th , mean , that 11 1, nec-c,~n for the researcher to des ign a methouu lugy fur ' . adin, fo r ei ther faulty assum lions . on t e basis of experrmenta ala may e w
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tn problem . 1·01 exa mple. an an::h1t. cct. whu uc~iu0 n~ A
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a buildmg. ha., to con,c,ou\l~ c,11 1uatc the l:la~" of his dc.:1s1ons. 1.c .. h~ has to c, olu11le
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imenta es 1gn an d raw .rng inference. c er mu, t pay all poss ible attention while deve lopmg the
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._ b · h I ' l ru1n,· -ut , ,· ..,,, num '-~r end IOCJJttOn 0f doors. ,~ mdows ond vcntilnt ors uses
wn&I as1s c ~e ec ~ ,~·-' 81 ~ ·de sc1ent1 rca y ga ere m,,.ormat1on .
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s. e purpose of survey in vestigations may also be to
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L~- '"' • • • • provr . . wor as a as1s for the researchers for their conclus10ns.
paiticul&1 matemib and 001 other... OJld the like ~,milarl) . in research the sc1ent1st has to expose the ·r1 e sc ientific method 1s thus based O rt · b · .
re~rch dern:;011 , tn cnuuat,0 n t-x-l0re the~ a.re nnplcmentcd . He ha.s to specify ve,y clearl y and 1 ' ' n ce am as 1c postulates which can be stated as under:
prect'iCI) what decislOll' he ~ lee!!- and wh~ he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also. I. It relies on empirical evidence;
From what has been stated 111'o ve. we can sa) that research methodology has many dimensions 2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
and research methods do c-0nstjrute a pan of the research methodology. The scope of research J . It is committed to only objective considerations:
methodolog_1 is wider than that of research methods. Thu.s. when we talk of research methodology 4. It aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct statements about population objects;
we not uni_, talk of rite f'f'seardi merhod.1 hul also consider the logic behind the methods we use
5. It results into probabilistic predictions:
,,, t-he co111ex1 of our research srudy and explain why we are using a particular method or
1echnique and wh, t1 e are nor using others so rhat research results are capable of being 6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and are for use in
testing the conclusions through replication;
evalua.ted either h, the researcher h1mse{f or hr others. Why a research study has been undertaken,
hov. the research problem has been defined.. in what way and why the hypothesis has been fonnulated , 7. It aims at fonnulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique Thus, the scientific method encourages a rigorous. method wherein the researcher is guided by
of analysing data has been used and a host of simi.lar other questions are usually answered when we the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and
talk about research methodolo~ concerning a research problem or study. a method that implies internal consistency.
1.7 RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1.8 RESEARCH PROCESS
For 8 clear perception ofthl term research., one should know the meaning of scientific method. The Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. In research, we stud~ the nature, present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or
reasons, and the consequences of a set of circumstances which are controlled expenrne~~lly or steps necessary to effectively cany out research. The chart show11 in Figure I. I illustrates a research
observed as they appear. Researcher is usually interested in particular results, the repet1t1ons of process.
those results, and geoeraliz.ations. On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods
The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities,
and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given
as shown through I to VII. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
the name of scientific method. 1n this context, Karl Pearson writes, "The scientific method is one and
prescribed sequence. At times, the first step detennines the nature of the last step to be undertaken .
same in the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained minds . .. the
If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious difficulties
unity of all sci.eoces consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any
may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that neither
kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the scientific
various steps involved in a research process are mutually exclusive: nor they are separate and
method and is a man of science." Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical
distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be
considerations. The ideal of science is lo achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method
constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the _r~uirements of the subsequent
attempts to achieve this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
steps. However, the following order concerning various steps prov1des_a useful ~roc~dural guideline
postulates and a combination of these thret: in varying proportions. In scientific method, logic aids in
r~-~arding the research process: (i) fomiulating the research pro~lem: (11) extens_iv_e literature su~ey;
fonnulating _propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear.
(11_1) developing the hypothesis; (iv) preparing the resear~h design_: (v~ de1e~1mmg samp~e des'.gn;
Further, logic develops _tbe consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with
(v1) collecting the data: (vii) execution of the proje,t: (_v,11) ~nalys,s ol data: (1x) hypothesis testing:
?bservable
th ~enomena, rt becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative
(x) generalisations and interpretation: and (xi) prepara11011 ot the report or presentation of the results,
~s e ~os~ m h~ony with the observed facts . All thi s is done through experimentation and survey
mveshgatJons which constitute the integr.t.J parts of scientific method . I.e., formal write-up of conclusions reached.
A brief description 0f the above stated steps will be helpful.
 •
Research Methodology Research Methodology: An Introduction
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(I) Formu lating th e rcsc;i rch prohlem: There are two types of research problems, viz. ,
th ose winch relate lo states of nature and those which relate to relationships between
v.iriables. /\t the _very out~et, the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study,
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i.e .. he must decide th_e_general area of intere~t or aspect of a subject-matter that he would ~
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like to 1nqu1re mto. ln1t1ally, the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the (.)
.----l--'-, 5 ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then , the feasibi lity of a particular
E solution has to be considered before a working fo rmulation of the problem can be set up.
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The formulation of a general topi c into a specific research problem. thus, constitutes the
~---' ~& .0 C first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in fo rmulating the research
l!<;: ~ 2_ problem, viz. , understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful
Cl! 1/J C ~~ g 5 terms from an analytical point of view.
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ti '.s up to t~e resear~her to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms . In
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made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will
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J: i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining
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a research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The
w a>!!l problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating
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a:: Eg_ and validity of the background facts concerning the problem. The statement of the objective
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is of basic importance because it detem1ines the data which is to be collected , the
characteristics of the data which is relevant. relations\\ hich are to be explored, the choice
II> of techniques to be used in these explorations and the fom1 of the final report. If there ~re
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g, I: certain pertinent temis, the same should be clearly defin:d along \\'llh the t_ask of formulating
the problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a_seq uent1al pattern where a
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data and resources.
. . , . v· Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
(ii) Exte sivc lttcratu, c sun c · · ·
· n . d , At tl ··, J·uncrure che researcher should undertake extensive literature
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blem For this purpose. the abstractmg and 111dex111g 1oumals
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and published or 1111 ~l:- le --
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natme of the problem. Int 1H S pr c ·
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 G
Research Methodology Research Methodology: An Introduction
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(iii) Dc::~rlopmt'nt o~·orking h)·po tht's es : Alier extensive literature su_rvey, resear~h~r
slwuld state in ,· kar tenns the working. hypothesis or hypotheses. Workmg hypothesis 1s
tentatinc· assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical CO!!~ quences.
As--;;;.:h the man~e~ ~ ~ hid1 research hypotheses are developed is particularly important
since they pnwide the focal point for research . They also affect the manner in which tests
must be conduct..-d in tJ1e analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required
fo r tJie analysis . H) pL,thes is should be v':...ry specifi'?_ and limited to_!!1e piece of research in
hand because it has to be tested . TI1e role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
deli miring the area of research ; nd to keep him on the rig!it track. Itsliarpe~s his thinking
and foe-uses attention on the more important facets of the problem . It also indicates the
type of data require.d and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
Ho\\ does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach :
(a ) Discussions witli colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives
in seeking a solution:
(b) hamination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible
trends. peculiarities and oilier clues;
le ) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems: and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
sca le witJi interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into
the practic.al aspects of the problem.
Thus. working hypotlieses arise as a result of a priori thinking about the subject, examination
of the ava ilable data an~ material including related studies and the counsel of experts and
mterested parties. Workrng hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly
defined terms. It may as we_ll be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem
where we do ~~t need workmg hypotheses, specially in the case of exploratory or fonnulative
rcse~rc~es "hich do not _aim at test mg the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification
of v.b orking hypo th eses is another basic step of the research process is many research
pro lems.
( iv ) Prepa rin g th e rest-a rch des · . Tl
1 city 's 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample des ign. Samples can be either probabili ty
term s. the researcher w·11 b ,gn . . led researc l problem having been formulated in clear
' e require to prepare a research d es,gn, . . h ·11 h
state the conceptual structure with.
of such a design facilitates reset~
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~research "'.ould be con~ucted. The preparation
information . In other words tl1e 1·u re, · o fe as efficient as possible yielding maximal
should be carefully
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~11any ~ ifferent aspects of a problem is considered a~riate if the purpose~ f ~e _res_e11!:_ch «
study 1s that of exploration . But when the purpose happen s to be an accura~ d~scrrpt,on o f w
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a situation_or of an association between variables. the suitable design will be one tba~
minimi~~bias and maximi ses the reliability ofjhe data collect_ed_an~ analy~ed. ~
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There are several research design-2,_ such as, experimental and non-~ ~im~~I hyp_othesis
testing. Experimental desig_ns ~ ~ eit~ informal d~ igns (such as before-and-after
without control, after-only with control , before-and-after with control) or formal designs
(such as completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design ,
simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his
own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following :
(a) the means of obtaining the information ;
( b) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff ( if any);
( c) explanation of the way in which selected means ofobtaining infonnation will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection ;
( d) the time available for research; and
( t:) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose .
(v) Determ ining sample design : All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ' universe ' or ' population' . A complete enumeration of all the items in the
' population' is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when
all the items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained . But
in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get
larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
checking the element of bias or its extent except th.rough a resurvey or use of sample
checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time , money and energy. Not
only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance,
blood testing is done only on sample basis . Hence, quite often we select only a few item s
from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically
called a sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population . Thus, the plan to select 12 of a
samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability

ave to
of being included in the sample but the non-prc, bability samples do not allow the researcher to determine
this probability. Probability samples are tliose based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
• nc 1011 o research de · · - stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability sample s are those based o n
ofr~le~!:)t evidence with oplimum effon , I~ e ~gn_1s to provide for the co~ction
achieved depends mainly o,1 tl1e . I xpe~dllure. _But how al i these can be convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief mentio n o f the
- ,. rescarc , purpose R,
.!._nto .!..Q ur categories , v iz (1·) E . I . . . . esearc 1J purposes may be orouned important sample designs is as follows :
· )E . - ---'-' xp oration ! It} D · - ... ~ - "-- -
(,v -xpenmentation . A flexible re · I d . . . - escnpt,on , (11') Diagnosis . and
- - - scare 1 es ,gn ~Heh provides opportunity for co n~iderino
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Re search Me thodology

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Researct, Methodology: An Introduction C,
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10 .1 In stratified ~ampling the cost of taking random samples from indi vidual
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" ,,he, "' , cl' tr rc d:i t:i frn111 . ~ay. j udgement. This is called quo/a rnmpling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally ct
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proportionate to the size of that stratum in the populat ion. Quota sampli.ng is thus an important 0
uyers. !\ t fo rm of non-probabi lity sampling. Quota samples generally ha ppen to be judgement samples
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Th ,~"•'uu, 1 , L,- · anr , ample ,,f c,, 11 , cn1c111:c . sample ',11 gasolrneI . .
ra th er than random samples.
llmc" · uch a ptc'-.--edur, ma~ ~" n Cf'.' h,a<:<'d rc-sult~ par11.:. ul:Jrl~ "hi.:11 the popu . . dat1 on 1s not
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h,,m.'lf_enl"\'U' l111 ... lh C' N ·h~ ~, han u. • in 111,_J~cm,•
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11 I s,.11111,/111(!. _ s JU gement 1s
( f) ( ·tu fter sampling and area samplmg Cluster samp li ng involves grouping the population
u~ fur selectJng ltNn'" h ,,-h he ,,,.,n , 1ders as renre~entall\ •· - c of the populati
. on. For example. and then se lecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements fo r inclus ion in
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loaJTII' IC. ,,,, ". ,1J~ne . m1cht - he tal-en 10 secu . re reac
. . tions to a new method
the sample . Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It
0 •1teac ' h1ng .1--~ = Ce m~nt , c•mplmc
=., _ 1., u:.ed quite freq uen th· . 111 qual11at1 ve research .where the has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say -l50. For cluster
de-r~ happen,; dt'\el0p h~-polhes1s rather than to generalise to larger populati ons. sampling this li st of 15,000 card holders could be fanned into I 00 clusters of 150 card
holders each. Three clusters might then be selected fo r the sample randomly. The sample
c nm ~-re of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
size must often be larger than the si mple random sam ple to ensure the same level of
pcobabilrt: samplmf "'here ea.:-h and e\e1; item in the population has an ~qual.chance of
accuracy because cluster sampling procedura.l potenti.al fo r order bias and other sc urces of
mclusmn m tlle sample and each one of the possible samples. 111 case of fi111te u111 verse, has
error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can. however. make the samplin g
the same prnbabiln~ of bemg selecte.d. For example. if we have to select a sample of 300
procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work. spec ially in the case
1tem.5 from a uni\ erse of 15.000 items. the n \\ e can put the names or numbers of all the
of personal interviews.
· 5.000 11.C!m on slcp5 of paper and conduct a lottel)'. Using the random number tables is
another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
fr001 l tc : :.WO Then. 300 fi\e digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling ,·ve fi rst divide
thi, "-f select some random staning point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas. generally called geographical
through the ta.bk \\e might stan in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected_and all uni ts in these
column to th~ bonom of the t.able and then mo\·e to the top of the next column to the right. small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not
\\"ben a number eA.Ceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame , in our case over 15,000, it is have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
i.1J1Jpl~ plbSed O\·er and the neXJ number selected that does fall within the relevant range . since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
\mce tbe numbers w. ere placed in the t.able in a completely random fashion , the resulting (g) Multi-stage sampling : This is a further development of the idea of cluster samplin g. Th is
>2mple 1s random This procedure gi, es each item an equal probability of being selected. In technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like
Ui!>e of mftnrte population.. !Jle selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
U-,c ..an,e probllbiln:~ and that successi,e selections are independent of one another. sampling units such as states, then districts. then towns and finally certai n families within
1
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towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages. the sampling proc edure
t"\ c:~ · 5th fli1.'Tic or, a. lrst. c 1e,:- lOth house on one side of a street and so on . Sampling of
is described as multi-stage random sampling.
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i, ~ pc i, lNJv. n os•:• stt-Irusl.ic sampl ing. An element of randomness is usually introduced (h) Sequential sampling · This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size
mtc, tlm bnd c,f ~ r,J in" b·1 · d b · · · · of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined acco rd ing to mathematical dec isions
_ ,, e . u~mg ran om num ers to pi ck up the unit with which to start.
This procedurt ,s u!>t:ful "hen ¼mpling frame is avai lable in the fo rm of a list. In such a on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. Th is design is usually adopted
dc~1gnthtY:lcu1onp:rc.,c - b · ,_ .
11th cl -ts~ SLlirt~ Y p1c,.1ng some ra ndom points in the li st and then every under acceptance sampling plan in the context of stati stica l quality control.
crncnt is Y:lt,.1.ed umd !ht de, 1red number i~ sec ured
l dJ \iru11fi,,,J ,H11J,l1111 If the x, Utl r ~ . .. In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same
1
a hom0 •, cncous 0 ~ pu _ ~"- rom v. hi~h a ~am ple ts to be dra wn does not constitute study in which case it can be ca lled mi xed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normall y one
rtprc;,enet.11i11: ' "!Pl~p.ln then s1r_c:1ht1l_ied ,;,n,pl1 ng te~ hniq ue is applied so as to obtain a should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and samplin g error can be estimated.
· 1s Lee n1que the p<pu l· t · •fi .
<i\ erlappinue ~ubpo r uI-c:1l1<,n, . ,,r '> Lral.l ;,nd ' \ ; I - · a ion 1" , tra 11 Jed into a number of non- But purposive sampling is considered des irable when the uni verse happens to be small and a known
the items <,eleclcd from each _ . amp e Jtem, il re , t:lectcd from each stratum . If characteri stic of it is to be studied intensively. Also. there are conditions under which sample des igns
fi . '> Ln.ilurn ,., ba',(;(f cm &irnple . d . 1· .
r, t strat,fica.ti<Jn and then · 1 nm om ~amp ing the enttrc procedure other than random sampling may be considered better fo r reasons like convenience and low costs.
' \I mp e rilndc,rn '>ilrn pling, i, k , . . ,
nown c:1 , .itrutijied random samp/in>f,. The sample design 10 be m ed 11111s 1 be decided by the researcher raking into cons ideration rhe
nature of the i111i11iry and ulher relared Jae/ors .
■
He~ca1 ch Me th odo logy t10n ~
C, Resomch' Method olog y. An lrrtroduc;
r l• 1111,l,k111 11 , .. ,1nc 11 1111111d;1pp1
1h , t1 d ;1 1;i di
ant step in the research
....
I d , hnr ",r h an, ' l ,:i I 11 /i rh ;ir '' np11 ;i1 l
(, ii) f ,n 1tfio n "' lhf rro; ,ri : I
xec 1111<,n nfth e prnjecl is a very im port a:=
,. ,,An " ' u ,llcd JA i to be collected
, ect pmceeJ ~ o n corr ect line~ . the data ....w
( ,, ,,.,
'- - ,,m, . nt,,
" ' ( 11ll, (linr (t,c 11 .. ,.811 d rt h ( II
n r
, dal:i "hid 1 di Ile r u
111 ~1dc 1ahf\· rrl)(.C~~ If the cxec ul1<,n <•f rhe r m1 ect is executed
hand 1• 1n:idcqu111c 11 , 1' ',11l"\.,inf 1 c 11rr 1•1 r11111 ,
h 111 fh e resea rche r ~hou ld see that the proj Q.
rhc Ji,ii. "-a l ,,1 1hr rc,c rtl'chcr would he nclequalc and dependable
There aref ~C. H1TBl '' ~ ' ' ' '
tt1nr and l'l hc, ,..., 0,1 rcc, I! 1
11 111 ~y~ teina li c manner and or lime . lfrhe , urvey 1s ro
he conducted by means o f struc tured z<
h . mcnr nr lh r\111 gh '"" t') . fl .
lh c 1c,c a rt:11l' tion. questions as
mac hine proce~,;e d. In such a situa 0
conlc ~t Cl l O-. IX' II ·tc-d enher tJm,u~ e,1x>n ,urc,ncnr,. ,,, the d:t la. 1111h lh c help f
1
qu c~tionnairc~. data ca n he re11dtly interviewers.
<", n r, ,nmc quanr r1a1" c mca d If the data is ro be co llected through
PnmM) data t:JIJI hl to(lf,,e
o f a ~un cy. <fal a cu n hl'
11
we ll a~ lhe pos5 ih le answer~ may be code rviewers. The
d n h,, h,·rNhc <, , Bui 111 1hr ca,c e r selec tion and training of the inte
h,chuct,
"cond he anc, amm theLtruth c0ntem<"
Cl.pt'f'e,rnten I •
arran gemcnl 5 should be made fo r prop clea rly rhe job o f
. . of instr uct ion manual s v.. h1ch explain
'Pllocted ~ an~ nne <'I mOf\' nf the ((1110
" mg '4 a~, trai ning may he give n with the he lp to ensu re that the
s iona l field checks should be made
of .111 ves11ga tor·s the interviewers al eac h step . Occa l \>\atch should
1 Tn,, meth( l d 1mr I'"~ ,he rollei·t1t,n of 111 /,1n11 atio11 b) . way . infom1ar1o n obta1.11ed relates to intervie\>\ ers are doin g their assigned
job sincerely and efticientl :y. A ca refu
much as poss ible.
- ri a l!Cln. " 1thoo 1 mien
le'\\ mp the re~M ,.. nden t~ The order to keep the survey rea li.stic as
own obse • r or futur e be kepi fo r unanticipated facto rs in ey is under
wh.at b current l' '"'f'p h ~" entng an d , nor com
1· pl,care-d b,· ei ther th e past beha viou should be take n 10 ensure that the surv
. e method. and This, in othe r word s. mea ns that steps the pre-defined
· dt'-, of resp ondem ' Th is method .
is no doubt an expensiv ed informat ion is in acco rdance with
mtentt0ns 0 1 amru rs not stati stica l control so that the co llect ble methods
pr0, ioe · d t•_ u, 1,
L ' , L , method s also
1en limi ted. As such lhrs method respondents do not cooperate . some
suita
~ m,or ,. m.au on
1
les are conc erned. standard of accuracy. If some of the non-response
sumibie m mquine, v. here large samp lem . One method of dealing with the
should be designed to tack le this prob ple of them. and
r follo ws a rigid procedure and seek
s answers responden ts and cake a small sub-sam
problem is to make a list ofrh e non-
-
IUI ~- - The mvest ,cato onse .
gh perso na/ interviews. This method
of_c?llecting effo rts ca □ be made fo r secu ring resp
Lo se1 of pre--:oncc: , ed questions throu
8 1
then with the help of experts vigorous
nds upon the ab1l1ty of the
13
da:.i usua l!~ camed out'tent ma strucrured "a~ 11 here output depe data has been colle cted. rhe research
er rums to the task of
mten Le~ er 10 a large ex. (viii ) Ana lysis of da ta : After the operations such
requ ires a number of closely related
involves contacting analysing them . The anal ys is of data raw data through
1
, ... ~ " ,., _ .,. ,, - _
This method of collecting infonnation applicati on of these cate gories to
is not a very widely used method but
it plays an as establishment of categories. the data should
the respondr.n.ts on telephone ilSelf. This statistical inferences. The unwieldy
n the survey has coding, tabulation and then drawing r further anal ys is.
de,·eloped regions, particularly, whe w man ageable groups and ta bles fo
1mponan1role m indusrna l surveys in . necessarily be condensed into a fe usab le categories.
to bt: accompl1shed me ,·el'} limited time raw data into some purpose fu l and
the respondents do come in contact Thus, researcher should class if)· the gories of data is
~ •·~.' n w•.. ., m•,~,r- The researcher and at this stage through " hich t.he cate
the Cod ing operation is usually done the procedure that
ted . Questionnaires are mailed to be tabulated and counted. Editing is
, ,.
"''th eacb othe; ,f this method of surve) is adop extensively transfonned into symbols that may y for tabulation.
completing the same . It is the most coding. Wilh coding lhe stage is read
rei.poodents "1th a req uest to rerurn after method, usually improves the quality of the data for darn is put in the
business surveys. Before applying this l proc edure \vherein the classified
used method in various economic and weaknesses, if Tabulation is a part of the technica A grea t deal of
aire is conducted which reveals the ces can be made use o f at th is j uncture.
a Pilot Stud) for testmg the questionn carefully so that fonn of tables. The mechanical devi not only save time
aire to be used must be prepared very tabulated b~ compu ters. Compute rs
any. of the questionnaire. Questionn
the relevant infonnation . data , specially in large inquiries. is simultaneously.
it ma) prove to be effect1\·e in collecting number of variables affecting a problem
1 and given training. but also make it possible to study large ,·arious percentages.
method the enumerators are appointed rally based on the computation o f
(\ J Tt,- -uL ' ,,. ~- , u nder th.is rs go to Analysis work after tabulation is gene In the process of anal ysis.
g relevant questions . These enumerato us well defined statistica l fon.uu lae.
The) are proi·iderl v.ilb schedu les containin enumerators coefficients, etc .. by applying vario thesi s should be subjected
collected by filling up the schedules by g or conflictin g\\ ith l'rigina_l or ne,\ hypo
responden~ \&ltb these schedules. Data is capa bilit y of relationships or differences supportin ate any conclusion(s).
ondents . Much depends upon the with wha1, alidir~ data rnn be s;_iid to
indic
on the bas,s of replies given by resp to tests of significance to determine
~ g drawn from factories in
the work
d. Some occasional field checks on s of\\ eekl y \\ag es. ea,·h s..1111ple bein
el"B.lOrs far as this method is concerne For in stance, if there are two sa mple
enum
of the enum erato rs ITU!) en3ure sincere work g two ditfrrenr mean \alu es. !hen our
problem may be whether
.r h diffe rent part s of the same city. givin er of chance. Through
The rej earcher jhou/d se/ 1 dilfrrent or t.ht· difference is just a matt
0 1
1 b . eJe . meth udJ of collecti11g the data taki ng into the rwo mean values are signifa-a ntl) real one or is the result of
co1is1uera//o . n Ihe r1a1ure of mvesec 1iga1onei lish "het her such a difference is a
. .,, 0
vi: 011d Jcop e uf the inquiry. f inun ciu/ reso urce
s, the use of stati stical tests we ,·an estab will be that the two samples
available time and 1L ,., . . d d
on. 1)1:ct, Tl .. 1.. h h j 't' happt•11s ll1 be real, the inference
'~ ueJ/f e egr ee of accu r
ucy lvu15 ,, e f.5 hou d pay attention to all thes
e random tlucruations. lfrhe ditlert'lll conc lusion would be that the
factors but much depends th a6J.1lly . and . the dilk renc e is due tl1 chance. the
upoo e e
l . xperien ce O t e rese archer.
In this context come from dilforent uni\' erse and if is of variance can help us
Bo\\ Jey verv aptly rema rks th at 1n .
co lcct, on of stat"15t",ca J data com mon sense is the chie f erse . Similarl y. the technique ofan alys
Dr. A.l. two sa mp:es bdo ng ro rhe snme univ fields yield significantly
varieties of seed s grown on certain
·J
h
requisite and experience of th e ch.re f teac er.
. .
in anal ys ing II hethc·r three or nH,re data with the help of
rest·arclt,;-r can :inalyse the collected
diffon::nt rt·su/ts or ,wr . In brid '. the
v11 ri1 III S st al isl ic11I 111t'!I Sllrt' S .
( -~ _..
 • (b.)
Resea rch Methodology
Hypothesis-test ing : Aft er :rnal~ si ng the data as ~tall'd ab~w. the rc~carcher is in a
position to test the hwl1thesis. if any. he had l1wm11latcd earlier. Do_the lac_ts support the
hypothesis or the~ happen to he contr:uy·1 This is the usual questton wl11ch should be
answered "hik testing hypothesis. Various tests. such as Chi square test, I-test, F-test,
haw been devel0pl'd b~ statisticians for the purpose. These tests are discussed in detail
later in the b0ok. The h~vothesis may be tested through the use of one or more of such
tests. depend ing upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the h~ µothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis
to start " i th. generalisati0ns established on the basis of data may be stated as hypothesis to
be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
(~) Generalisations and interpretation : If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times
it ma~ be possible fo r the rese.archer to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As~
maner offacL the re.al value ofresearch lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations.
If the rese.archer had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on
the_baSIS of some theory. It is kn~wn as ~nte'.l'retation. The process of interpretation may
quite often trigger off new questions wl11ch 111 tum may lead to further researches.
(>.i) Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has t~ prepare the
repon of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care
keeping in ,·iew the followings:
(al Toe la:vout of the repon should be as follows : the preliminary pages; the main text, and
the end ma.ner.
In irs pre/iminan · pages the repon should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of
illustrations. if an~. gi\'en in the repon .
The main 1ex1of rhe repor1 should have the following parts:
• buruducriun- It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
srudy along v. ith \'arious limitations should as well be stated in this part.
• Summun o(fi_nd,n,:~ After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
reconunendauons in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
• Mai~ repor'. The mai n body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-dov. n into read ily 1dent1fiable sections.
• Conclusion Towards the d f h • from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes resea rch more meanin gful in the
I fh : en o t e mam text, researcher should again put down the
resu ts o is research clearl y and prec ise ly. In fact, it is the final summing up
. A1 !he end of ihe repon , appen di ces should be r . . (c) Good research is emp irical: It implies that research is related basica lly to one or mort:
B1bhography, i.e .. list ofbooks J·ou I en ISied 10 respect of all technical data .
. · rna s, reports.
should also be given specia lly in a bl' h d . etc.' consulted, shouId aIso be given •
at the end. Index
pu 1s e research report.
(b) Report should be written in a concise and ob·ecti ve . . .
expressions such as ' it seems ' ·1h ~b ' style tn simple language avoiding vague
, ere may e , and the like.
u
Research Methodology: An Introduction G>
(c) Charts and illustrations in the ma in report shou ld be used only if they present the information
more clea rl y and fo rcibly. -
tr:
(d) Ca lculated 'confidence limi ts ' must be ment ioned and the , ari ous constraints experienced ....w
Q.
in conducting resea rch operations may as wel l be stated . <
:c
0
1.9 CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
One expects scientific research to satisfy th e fo ll owin g criteria:
(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
(b) The research procedure used should be descri bed in sufficient detail to pennit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, kee ping the conti nuity of what
has already been attained .
(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefull y planned to yie ld results that are
as objective as possible.
(d) The researcher should report with complete frankn ess. na" s in procedu ra l des ign and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to revea l its sign ificance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
(f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limit ed to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced. has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
r (a) Good research is sysle111a1ic: It means that research is structured with spec ifi ed steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does rejec t
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
(b) Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logica l
reasoning ~ d the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carryi ng
out research. lnduction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premi se to a conclusion which fo llows
context of decision making.
aspects of a real situation and dea ls with concrete data that provides a bas is fo r external
validity to research results.
(d) Guud research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verifieJ by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound bas is fo r dec isions.
 e
i8 11•4;M=l•#i':f-Ja:IB-)mi•#da•i:ti;!¾i#J5J3:j9;fjj~•i:1•14 - -
Research Methodology
Research Methodology: An Introduction ..
11' I Uhrmy 111r111uK11111e11r anti (1111c fi 1JninK is not satisfac frJ1y at many places and much of -
lh c t imc and energy of rc~carc hers is ~pent in trac in g out th e books. j ournal s. reports, etc ., ffi
Rc..c:i rchc r. in India. pan 1cu l01 h 1h,i-c rng.1gcd 1n ,-111pin,a l 1Y,card1 . arc !'acin g s~·vcrnl prohlcn,s. rnthcr lhan in Iracing oul releva nt materi al from them. t
:-.l•mr n l the- 1111ponan1 pr,1hkm, arc a, l,,lll'" , · (hJ 71,en: is al.1·u the prohlem that many of our lihrarief are not able to get copies of old ~
., . ,, , , ., .,
',t I 77IL Itll ,... ( ,, ', \t 1l 1 1 ( 11 1111111.... 111 1
/n lll<'f hn,/0/,11'1
,"'\.
· o( n ·.,,•orch is ;i great i111pcdi111c111 and new Ac:ts/ Ru/es, rep orts and other government puhlications in time . This problem G
for rl'srarchcr, in 0111 n1,m1~ There i, a p:iu cit y nl' compch:nl researchers. Many is felt more in libraries which are away in places from De lhi and/or the state capitals. Thus,
rc,carchcr, t:il-c a leap in 1hc darl- ,~ 1ll1<1u1 l..n,m ing. n:~,·a rch 11K·lhods. Mosl of the work . effort s should be made for the regular and speedy supply of al I governmental publications
"h,,h co ...·< ,n 1hc name ,,f rc.<car.: h i, not mcthodok1g.ically sound. Research to many to reach our libraries.
rl',can::lirr- and c, en 10 1hei r guides. i, most I~ a sci ssor and paste job without any insight (i) Th ere is also the difficulty of timely availability of publis hed dara from various
,;;h,--d on thr colla1rd ma1cn:il, TI1e consequence is ob, ious. viz.. the research results, quite government and other agencies doing this j ob in our country. Researcher also faces the
often . do no1 rdloct the rcalit\ or realities. Thus. a systematic study ofresearch methodolob'Y problem on account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of
1, an urccnt ncccssit\ . Befo.re undertal.. ing research projects, researchers should be well differences in coverage by the concerning agencies.
equirrcd "ith all th~ methodologica l aspects. As such. efforts should be made to provide U) There may, at times, take place the problem of conceprualization and al so problems
, hor1-dura1wn 111/<'n.,n•c courses _for mee1i11g rhis requirement. relating to the process of data collection and related things.
1 Thert> i, msuffic1en1 mrcrac1im1 bet\veen the uni versity research departments on one side
and business establishments. go, ernment departments and research institutions on the other
~,de. A. great deal of prim31: data of non-confidential nature remains untouched/untreated
PROBLEMS
b, the researchers fo r \\ ant of pro per contacts. Efforts sho uld be made to de velop
.wus(acwn lumnn amonf! all concerned.for belier and realistic researches . There is I. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.
need for de, eloping some mechan isms of a university-industry interaction programme so 2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
that academics can get ideas fro m practitioners on what needs to be researched and 3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.
practitioners can appl~ the research done by the academics . Describe the different types ofresearch, clearly pointing out the difference between an experiment and
4.
{( J Most of the business uni ts in our country do not have the confidence that the material a survey.
supplied b~ them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in 5. Write short notes on:
suppl~ ing the nt·eded infonnatio n to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be (a) Design of the research project;
sacro!.ancl to business organisations in the country so much that it proves an impermeable (b) Ex post facto research;
barrier to rt:searcher, . Th us. rhere is the need f or generating the confidence that the (c) Objectives of research;
111fo rma11an dara ohruined from a business unit will not be misused.
(d) Criteria of good research ;
!dJ ReJearch~iud, es ui erlapping one anorher are undertaken quite often for want of (e) Research and scientific method.
udl!lfULJfe 111forma1i o11. ll11s results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem
can be !,O)ved b,, proper comp ,·1auon · d · · · 6. "Empirical research in India in particular creates so many problems for the n::search.:rs". State the
. an rev1s1on, at regular mtervals of a list of subiects on problems that are usually faced by such researchers.
which and the plaCt'.s I I I· • ' J
.d . fi . w iere tie researc 1 is gomg on . Due attention should be given towards 7. "A research scholar has to work as a judge and derive the trulh and 1101 as a pleader who is only eager
1 em, 1ca11on of research bl · • . . .
. d' pro ems 111 various di sc1plmes of applied science which are of to prove his case in favour of his plaintiff." Discuss the s1a1emen1 pointing out the objectives of
imme iati: concern lo the indu stries.
research.
( e ) There does nor exi~ I u code u,f c.0 11d uct fiur , , • . , . · . .
depanmemal ri1a lrie, are also .t , e.iearcher.i and toter-university and inter- 8. "Creative management, whether in public administration or private industry. depends on methods of
qui e rnmmon Hence the · ·d r . inquiry that maintain objectivity. clarity. accuracy and consistt·ncy''. Discuss this statement and examine
of conduct fo r researcher, wh,.c:li .f di d ·. ' re is nee ior develop mg a code
· 1 a 1ere sincerely c · . the significance of research".
( I) Many researcher, in our count ·· I r · . _ ' an win over this problem.
. . ry a so ,ace the dif/,culty u,j d, , . 9. "Research is much concerned with proper fact lind.ing. analysis and evalua1ion." Do you agree with th is
a.,·s1srance. including• comp t · 1 • a equate and timely secretarial statement? Give rc:asons in support of your answer.
· u eri a a~s1stance. Thi s . . .
complet,on of research 5ludies All . .. b .. . cau ses unnecessary delays in the I 0. It is otlen said that thc:rc: is not a proper link bc:tween some of the: activities under way in the world of
is
efficient secretarial assistance ma: o~s1 .1; :fforts to be made in this direction so thal academics and in most busint·ses in our rnuntry. A, count for this state of affairs and gi ve suggestions
Un1vers1ty Grants Commission must p~aava~ a ~e to researchers and that too well in time . for improveml!nt.
y a ynam1c role tn solving Ihi s diflicull y.
f/C;.(
- Oefirw,g the Research .Probtem
a,
1echnicall~ described a, a re-..ean:h pr,,blem. 1f the~ I ind,, 11.hwl ,,r the !?n•up I. ha, mg ,,o,.: ,,, more
2
de-sired outcome,. are c0nfronte<l "1th I" <' or ml~n: L'\.'tlr-e-.. ,,t adH>fl I.IMI haH· .,.,me hue n,,1 -=•1u,JI
effic~n0 for the desired obJectl\e(sl and arr in <l<'u t,1 at,...~, \\hKh ci>ur-c P l adu ,n , ; hr-r
\\"e can. thus. state the components l'I a re<-ean:h pwtilem a, umkr
Tlk:re must bc an mJ1\IJu.al o r a group "h,,h has -.c.,mc J1tlicuh~ l>r th\.'. pn >hlt!rn
Defining the Research Tlk:re mu,1 Ix ....,me l'hJ,'\.IIH·( ,I Ill be allJm,'li at ll l>ne \\J.Oh nNh•n!l une c,.IJllkll n.t\~
N
Chapter armblcm "
=
Problem lhen:: mu,t bc altcma ll\e mean, (l,r the ,,w,...,....,
,if .rLllltnl fo r u htamm11 the vbJn.ll1r~ ~I I~
l!
one '"-.he, h• JIIJlll Ill" n1e.1n, thJt then: mu,t Ix ,11 lr,1, 1 ,,.,, n1 no11 d\JIIJbl... II.• .J
r~.u-,her f,ir ti he ha, no cho1u: ,,1 mcJn,. he , ,1110,,1 hJ,, J pn•hlcm
I here mu,t rem.Jin "-'flu.• dnuht 111 the mind 111 J rc-.e,1r, her" 1th rq1Jrd to the -.<led run 01
ahctn.:111\\:, lh " mean, 1h.111,-.c,1r'-h nn"I un,"u 1h, 411, , t u,n .,,n..lrrllltV. 11-k: n.:l..tlt\C'
ctli,·l(:n.., ,,f thc ,.,.,_,,hie ah,·r11.1 tl\, ,
l: r~~ prc-:os. tl-,e fu~ ar,d f ~ step happ,eru Lo be that of 'Cl«-trng and propcrf) defining 1 llffc nm,t he .. ,me l·n\lrt>fllllCllll , I In \\htdt th.- d1ll1u1h, p.:rlJtn ,
a ~.:1,h ~ .-\ r<""><.'2Ichn mu>I find the probk-m and formulalt' 11 "° ~I rt ~ClmC"\ 'U~c:-ptJt>I<
s0 1ne.ad1.. LrM amecbcal doctor. a researcher mu.st e-urn,~ all the ~mptoni\(J1f~nlt'd 11, him llf lh u, J ~.in.h r-••Mcm 1, ,oc "h1,h rcq utrl• J 1e~.ird1cr 111 11 0.J mil the lx , t .,.,Ju1111>0 tur 1j-~
-~ c-d ~ lwn1 :oc... emmg a pfObkm before he can dlagnc:>5,e COfT«"tl~ To <kline a J'lfohkm \.,,en rr· •Mcm . 1 c h• tioJ ""' h~ "'h1d1 ,,,u,~ ,, t .id1u111h, oh 1.:l lt \l ,,111 b.: .itld11xd 1>ptun,1l l) m th.:
.:1::vrcctJ:- . a rc~i.htt ,r.1;>1 l N"" ,,haJ a problem h '' ,,'('tlc\t Pl " f!H"fl rn, m'ftmcnl I hnc .u, -.:,er.i i 1.i,11>1 , " l11d1 111,n rc,u ll 111 rnai111ii th.: prvhk:m
L<Jfflpl..,.,1cJ I u, ,n,Lan..c the ,·m 1r.,n nu:111 m.i\ d1.i11 11 ,· .if lnt111111h, dltll t'. ll\.JC, 1,f lhe ,;.our..:, 1,t
a..t•Jfl ,-. it.. , 1h.oc, 11 111..c, ~,1,110.c, 1hc nu111t>.:r u l ,111 .: rnJII\.: ~our..: , o l ad11111 ma) h.: H'.~ l,1r~i:
2.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM? pc,,..,..., nut inH,IHJ 1n nwl,11)!! th,· lk,1,1,,0 111.1\ I..: ilkLl.:d h, 11 ,111d r~,1,1 h• II ld\ \,Uf.thh ,,r
11n l.i,,1U1,1hh ,>nJ ,1n11Lu ,,t lKf li.k. lur- \ll ,ud1 d~mcnl , ( ,,r ,ii k,1 , 1 ti, ~ 1111p,.,rl.in1 11nc:, 1 11u:, ~..:
-'t rc-=:iJ p,obkm.. m g<neral rt:f«'> to >oOfDC' d1ffk:uh~ '-'hi...h a rncMthn nrcr~, an 1hr th.ru;:t..i u l IO ,uo1e, 1 I I J I C-C-· •ld1 rw ,,hl,m
._,:r..:_~ ,,i cflLlt1 a throret1r1..1I Of practical ~ituallon dnd ""Mlh to obum • .... ,ltJlklfl fo, !he '-lmC
L =11: "" c ~ iiw a rc-,QJ, h probkm ~ n1~ 1fthe follo"'anll coodnJulh 11-c- mt1 .. ,th
22 SELECTING THE PROBLEM
lbae a,.,_..
be a.n indJ\iduaJ "·" a grwp llf' .in Of~lw.lk.lfl). lct u• ...all II I tu ,.hum the
prot'tt:" ,...;. be illnbuk-J Tht. 1nJI\ id~I 1-, the '-"twJIWklfl. I\ she \.be 111.l~ ~ u.., upto I he: rocah.h r,,.hkm undc1l.1l.cn f1.r , lull ~ 111u , 1 Ix l,.11 e lull )' .c:h:1.tt<l I lie u .i. , , a d,lficuh uic
~ c>c,u ..-"IT>('ffl_ ,...,~ ,, -. ,.h,.. h h Jdioc-J ~ ,alLK"'I u f the WK•"10oUcd ,ul..l.bk-.. ) altJkJoU;)I ,1 nu, n-111 .tf'1'C, 1J t, he "' I le-Ip rrw ; I..: t.ili.c11 lu ,111 d rc ~,in.. h 11u1d.: m Ulh u,11o«t11,n
Tbcrc- I."'"'"'" h.: k.,-..t 1141.• LI.JU/ - of ar..hon '-I_\ ( ;ind ( tc, be: punucJ \ HWt<" ,, ; '- "'mhc:kn , c,cr, rnc.ar,hcr llll.1\1 l11iJ 1101111111-~ 11 ..._,l va t,1111 I,,, re~,m.h pmblcm, , ..n, ll.t ~
...:LHI
•l
~ dcfir,ui ~ oo,e ur 11),rfc • aloe,, d th.: ,ontNllnJ, ..rubl~ I "' tumr'c tlK ,_nbn b«ro•,~ A p,..-bkm mu\A '9'•ng (u ,m th<: 1t".ca1c..hcr • m,oo lilu: a plant ~p,wg,nj frvm tu ''""""
vi iun-u pur .. h..,.\.CJ .u ~ "iJnlfn:,J !Ill)(' I.\ \,UJ tu ht- llOC ll >ul'-C o f ... ( 1(,0 .cc:J fl u.1 1 ~n nttJ ,:l.a,5,e• 11 ,, not the 1,plKl.dll .ill.me wh, , tkl1de, ab,'.Jll t th.:: numhc.r ,,f \hi, Jon,,
s.c 'l'\l"'rc: Y. c h..H t,, l,CC uu r...: h n and trMblc him t,, prh1.rtb.: t,,, ti. 1hr: fliP•l au.ntk:• &)
f'l:.'C"'c !J,_,2 t...- aJ k~i,1 '"' p. ~• b:.: uut,._~ >oil\ () u,J () L•I • , ,1u1-.c ,,( .:lklft u l
ll>upr"U UllJ ,..,,h him I h u, • rc1CaJ1. h )tulJc l 411l al Lhc mo-.1 fllll/ hA:.lp a re,..;..u'"~' .bucll:MI ..s
,. r,dH'-"' ,:-. _l,d Cle P,dct"z.bl,: llJ tht 1-lhcr In , ~ "'"J, Ur" rne.llh lhA1 the-re mu..: ht-
!t-~ <-<IC <.•~1 . v-it- 11"..,1 U.• c l.:x:~,f,a hJ!lh It· In ,,bjC\.tl\e wbJn. l IIO',l,C\l'f, Ll"lC lollo,..,nt p,mt, ,r..,., h"· ,,h,.c;rvc.J ~ a rc•.eiln.hu in ...:k~lth1' .t ri:,,.;.,rdt
cl
1 prublcm ur. wb,cc l ru, rnun.h
llc cv-~ ~, ., j ,.;,t-1,na,L,bk m J I pn1> .Jc '><JfJlc , h.m,;.c u l obl.tuuni the ~ 1 1 \ e . bl,a
:Lc_, ....r.:.,,< r" VH.Jc Uk '>alTlc --~1.!fo.c .
I' .. ' , ..... CX-l",h •• . L . '
<fkn.,.>C'
.,
~ ch..,,,.e '"v.ilJ n-,c , r ~d fh ~~ ,f \\.b]A1 ·• hiLh "mt:rdc.,,-~ J-..-,uld 1111( t,c ,,.,nnall1 .. t.,-..:H t,,, 11 .,. di r..: " 1l1ifi..ull. t.1::.11.
,, l(J
-r u-c P,vu.cs_t\t,.~ u.....r .>II ,.,.;t.,,wr· <" () '-tll '-•\J 1f/ x-la.1 (. Ill.\ , thlv.- ..n:, f><'" 11§.lt m ,-.id, is '·'""
Q,a, f, fJ I C ', •" /' fl I < \ , ln l . J.
•c , ....-i lh..J the , h- .... o mu..a
((JO(JV',CHl41 ..,,r,,~t J,vultJ lltlA OCU,fl.C: ,i-.~ ;..t,,,1-..; ,,I dll d •t:f J ~ rr:-,,.:,Jd~r
. >unp c "' .,r ' .,..,
f,z,r ~_,J c!f;.• ,a.._K'> , _., ll1c dounJ '"-i.wmo · - I vu r1unl'"' '" tu:, , " ~ p,1J"Jlcm ~ ,t,u, Id t;.: <1 ,. , .1<Ji;;d
'T-a u,d .:h.~., u , lhc ~c,.:t ,c:,c.1.c:d frA , ~c..h ,r,,.iuld t..c f41r11IJd( ,u.J k•u,t,ic .. , ln.ul tlkl uclaf.gJ
- JCY. .. h-,li.,n,., U"IC aa.11\ ,,Ji.;A.) ,r 11 •
r,,: .«:k~~ ~ ,, ,t J .i~-- 1 .,c ' .r.,,· . t. . " .r L,=-"1' -.:>ik.>ll •::n 0.:- "4Ai tu ha, e w,c- rnalcJ1<1l u, ,1.,...1....c, ,A rt:-,c:i:1f,.r, arc: v,iU,;ll ,,,.c: , fr:61.h I· •r:li lh!:11 1t ,. "lti•W .J
, . . , • ~• >< J.dl i.'.OUJ:.C ,, J 4'.tt ·, "bc'1 I<' ·[
Ill .lu.:.:.bc ~boct
Tt:, c;;, lt.d. • ,1,,.d "' "' !Jvc-. l•f 1lc1'
.. ,. _:, <r· . - ...__ . m;.:>1 Ot.- lbc ,..__~_. dc:llf,,1,,tc ilk'&.> .JJO,A::n11r1~ hv.;, ,1 F1:-.c:dl'1..h1:r ,i.,.uW ~,t, 1,u,1 i,.a.,;. ;
• ' f ><•r., • -• '""' ,a..J L llo ,c ~ P,vt>k,n '"' !11~::. ,;an be f ur ll",I:> P'~.IX '1 (t: y.:..r. ticr ;f~~ld _,,fiJ.a...l ,fll C:Jlj:·-=rt ., I vs ,, l&:> .. ,1 dl tti.: I
G
- Research Methodology
Defining the Research Problem
C,
f.D
. s publish
·n researc h. He may. as well read article . ed in. curren t
wI10 1·s a1ready eng,aged 1 di scu ssed 2.4 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
and ma)· think how the techniques . and ideas
.
.
I1teratur e ava1·1able on the sub,iect
,
may di scu ss w1~h others what h,· ,, ;1111s ll) deli nl' a researc h problem ?
therein might be applied to the solution of other problem s. He Let us start with the questio n: \\'hat d,16 one 111t·a11 ,, h,:n hds
make all poss ible efforts in ,, ith th,· bl, unds wi thi n whid1 it is to be
he has in mind concerning a problem . In this way he should The answer may be that one wants 1,, statt· the pro blem all•ng
oflay ing dlmll b011nda ries withi n" h1ch
selecting a problem . studied . In other ,, ords. definin g a problem im llh es tht· task N
trainin g of a researc her. the costs d l1bjecti w in vi,·,\ .
(\) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the a researc her shall stud~ the prohle111 ,, ith a prc-dett·rminc
so be considered in se lecting a an task. 1-hnwv er. it is 11 ta~ I.. that Ill:
involved. the time factor are few other criteria s that must al How to define o rest·arch pwhlem is undoubtedly II hen:ule
lt·rl·d in a r,·sl:'urd1 llp,·ra tion. Tht· u,ual ~
problem. In other word s, before the final selectio n of a problem
is done. a researc her must must be tac kled intelli gently to avoid the 1,-lt'rplt-x ity en,·oun
approac h is that the r,·seard11.: r should himsdf pl,SL' a qucsti0
11 (,1r in cast: someu nl' d st· who wanlQ i
ask him self the foll owing questio ns: ual. ,1rgu nisuti(111 11r 1111 author ity shl>til u u
the researc her to cari: on r,·sean: h. tlw co111:cnwd individ
to carry out the re searc h? nnd pwc,·dur,·s fo r throw ing light on tlk
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of hi s background pose the questio n Ill the researd1,·r) nnd set -up 1t·d111iques
p1"<1ble111. 0 111 s111.: h un approach genera lly
questio n rnm:cmcd for fo n11ul11ting or ddin ing tlw rl'Sl't1rd1
(bl Whether the stud y fall s within the budget he can afford? in such n foshion is usually in hroad
docs not produce ddi 1111 i, e r,·sults lw,n 11s,· the question phrnsed
tho1>e \\ho must participate
(,) Whethe r the necessa ry cooperation can be obtained from gcncm l tcm1s nnd as ,, .. h ma~ 11,,1 h,· in II f,,r111 , uitnhle li11'
lesling .
in researc h as subjects? purl ,,r II rese1m:h study a11d 111 u.-;I
f>efinin g a re,card1 pr11h lc111 p1<•p,·rl y nnd ,·k ar ly is a n11,·ial
th is i~ frequently 1•wrlookcd which
ma~ bl·c,,me 1>- Url" ~1 for 0 , 111 no c,1sc be a,·rnmph ~hcd hurril·dl~. I lll\H'Ver. in prncti,c
If the answer s to all these questio ns arc in the affirn wtin.·. one 1 slw11ld b,· ddi ncd i11 u sr t.:rnatic
,nu~c~ a 1111 of prnbkm \ Inter c,11 I lc n..:,·. th, r,·,,·11rc h proble11
the practicability of the study is concern ed. 1ed111 iq11c li ,r the p11 rµu sc inv1il vc, lhe
m:inncr . g" 111g Jue -.c1gl11 ,1g,· t.• .di rd111111t1 p,,inh l'h,·
i111 ino1: 1>tud~ n11 1> mo~ 1101 he ulhcr: (i} slnlc111,·11 l ,>l' ll 1t: pn •hle1n 111 "
(\ i) The se lection of a problem must be preceded by 11 prel und,·r111l.111g 11f thc h1lllm111g , tcp, g,·1wr.dl) u11e nlk r the
(iii) , 11rvc yi11g Ihc uv.i ilab le li terulu rs:
necessary when the probl em requires the conduct of n researc
h clo,c l~ s11nilar 10 one tJ1ot i:.:11crJI \ht ~. ( 11) u11d,·l"'\tond111g the 11,11,irc .,f the pnt hh.: 111;
the " '~,·ar..: h pn,hlcm inlu a wt1rf.. 111g
cl~ nc,, ond don nut ""' ' <' dC' , clvpmg the ,J,·,h 1hr,,11gh d1 ,, u" 1,,1i- . 11 11.I (v) n.: ph rn, i11g
has already been done. But when tht' field of inquiry is rel111i, ( I\)
ht) )tud~ mu1>t ol \\ 11~ ~ be
ava ilable a set of well developed techniques. 11 brief fea sibi
Pfi'P''- lllOfl
unde11a ken. ,\ brid J c, .:riplhHI \)ril ll lht·,c po inh \\ ill he l1clpf11I.
(iJ ,1 .. ,, "" 111 uf th (• pmhl1111 111 :1 l!l' IH'ntl way: 1-'i r~I
11 1' all the pruh lern ~h1111 ld ht: , IJll·d 111
the 11 b0\c 1nt'11tio nt'<l i>..1 uih. tit('
If the subjec t fo r research is sclrcted properl y by ohscn ing ,.1 broJd i;cncra l \\iJ ) . Lccp111 g 111 v1<;w
.:11hcr ~on1c prndic al c1111u ;rn ur , rnnc , cient ili, nr
lnbour. In fac t, lC)I for \\ on. h 11 rnu , 1 i1111ncr~e h11 n.,e ll' thorou ghly 111
research will not be a boring drudge ry, rut her it will be love ·s 1ntclk.:tu.1I 1111,·rc, 1 I ur th 1, purr"~''· 111.: r.:.,.:an.:l,er 111 usl
her ond mus1Im, c on uppc-r m,» 1pla, (' 11. In cast: ur"oc ial rc,o::an. h,
Thc_subjcct or the problem selected 11111st invo lve tht· researc the , ubJed 111a11cr 1. onccm111g wh1d1 he wi~l,c~ lo pose u prohlc1
a~ "uch the rcso::a r..:hcr nr,I)
111 l11 s 111111d so thal he may undntal..e all pnins
nn·ded ILir th,· s1ud, 11 " '"""J<·tcc.l ad\ ,,ahlc 111 d1> ,0111c lickl 11h<,crva lio11 a11d
c11 called 111 l111 1·11r v t· v I hcn tho::
unJertnl.c ,ome .,.,rt o f prcl1111111,1ry ij urvey or what i~ o f'l
g11id11 11l-.: o l' the !!\1111k ,,r 1he
rC"ICard1cr 1.. ,.111 h111h1: lf , tatt: the prohlt:111 ur h..: ca n s..:ck Iii..:
pul ~ l11rth Ilic pmh lc:111 ,n 11,cn1. r 11
, ubJcCI cAp.:rt 111 au.ompl1 , l1111g 1111~ la; k ( >fl cn. the guide
a11d ph rn,t: lhl! prnhlcm 111
tcnn, . one.I 11 " thcn up lo the rt:-.ci:lrc hcr lo ni:1 1row 11 down
m half so h t-d Thi ) Stlltctncnt s1gnific~ a11 org,in 1, al111nal .iuth .. rn. 1h-,
Qui1c oil.en we all hear that a probk·m r lt:arl~•statt•d is a pr\.lblt' opcra t1011.i l tc:nn, In c:a'>C th t:rt: i, ~•HIit: dircl.'l ivc from
I Li ht• im estiga te,d mus1 be de fined
the need fo r ddinin g a rcscard1 pru hlcm. nw pr,,hkm problem then can bt: ~Lated a1.cwd1n ~ y I he prohlc,11 , lalt:d
111 a hn,ad gt:11erdl ..., ,.,, 11 1.,
from tht" im,,fc-, an t Cl~. A propct 111~ ,.,,.,. , 1h,
unambiguously fo r 1ha1 will help In disai111inalt" rt'lt', a11t data cont.am ,a~ ambiguiut:, "hich niu, t Ix: rc"4 ilvr:;d by 1.,001th111 k1ng ,111d rc1h1nl.
J efi nition ofres,·ard1 problem \\ill enable tht· 1,·sea1\·hcr to
be C'•n the- tmck " hl'n"as an 111-<fefin('(f ,lul1<1n ha , to he u,,._1,k 1 d 11 ,d
problem . At Uk '><!me !lmt: the fca\ 1bd1ty 1,f ll pllrt1cu lar "
problem may creah.: hu rd lc-s. Out'stions Iii..,·: \\'hat dat11 is to
bc col ll'l.' tt"J? \\'ha t chanh' tm stics of ,
tht: ;amc ~IWtJld bt- l cpt in\ 1t:w \I.hilt: ~lilting the pn,blt:n
l">t' t'.\ pl,,n-J . \\ nat tt"C bni~u n are to
da ta an: relevant and ne,·d to h,· s111Ji,·d? What rt' lati,,ns art' to : I ht: ncAI '> lcp 1n dcl 11111 1i1, th., 111•.1bl.: 111 ,., 1,,
in the- mind of the- rt'St'archcr ,, bo can {ijJ l odfr.t. ..ndiog lbt n.oturt r,f the prr,l,lt ,n
he u~eJ for the purpust'? and sim ilar other lfllt'Slio ns cmp up u11u..:r...ld11d 1n~ th .. p1,, bl.. 1t1 ,-. 1,,
wel l plan his stra tegy and find ans\\ ers 10 all such que~ti,,ns
on l~ ,, hc-11 the- re-search problem ha; understand its ong.in and natun: <.: lt:arly ·1he bc~I wa ) o l
hu w ih.: prnbkm >< rl 11 111.di, •. w, ..
h'"" w<I I J,fi,oJ 11'"' · d,r,,;, ,,, ceseacc h pmhl, m p.-op,,,h is,
r ~"'lo isi1< fo, an, S,00, ,nd is discus , it with thos.: ""ho fi r, t rai'>c:J it 1n order u, find out
hJ3 , 1,H.:d th.. ~11 hl.:11 1 111111 •.:.n
a ~tq i of the highc;,1 imponancc. In fac1. fomrnlation of a pmhlem
is ofte-n more e"S-Sential than its about and 11,ith v.hat obJ~tJ\c'> ,n v1t:w lftht: rt:xM1. ~11.:r
'" 11t o.1l..a , ,t._n.;1, : i , t., 1:.: 11 .., "'
""''"'h pmblem th,. '" cao • O<t ow ,he ,<s<arrb he shoold con~i.dcr OOCt: again all tho-,c po1n h lh,u 1111.Ju1. cJ h1111
"''"' '"" · I' """'' "" " " " " '" I ' "' ' liog of the cooccm ing the problt:m . f or a better unJ.cr'>tand ,ng 111 th..:
na1u, .. u l 11...., pH;hk m ,ti,
<O " hile doiog """'"°b
d,-,~, aoJ "" ""''""' ' '"'Y oo ' II 'he '""~'" '"' ial «ep, im ol,
-
e Researcl1 Methodology
h.: ,.111,·111,·1inll' ,11,,11"1,,11 " i1h 1th,, ,. " 1111h:I\ ,' :1!/-l'''d k1"'" kdg,· ufthl' lll\1hk111 l'Olll'l'rl1l'd
N ~i111 ila1 ,,1IK1 f'1''bkm, . Th,· n:,c:1rl'11cr , hnuld ab,1 k,•q1 i11 ,·1,·w the l'l1 V11'011lllcnt w1th111
" hid, th,· pr,,bkm i, 11, be ,tudi,·d and 11ndcrs10,1,I.
{iii) Sunning the in nil:1hk• litcrntm-c: All :I\ ai lahk lih:ratmc ,·onccrning the problem at
hand 11; 11 ,.t n,Yl'S~'lrih be ,un ,., t'll and ,·,amin,·d hl'l\.m: a definition oft he research problem
i, i: in~·n. This mean; th:it tlw ~-searl'l1,·r must he wl'll -.:0nwrs11nt with relevant theories in
th~ fi,,td. R-p,,11, :md 1,._.,,rJ, as alsl, all l,tlll'r relevant literature. He must ~e~ote sufficient
iime in re, ie" in1:. ,,f res,·ar.:h al read, unde11aken on related problems. This ts done to find
,,ut " ha1 data and ,,thc'r maleria ls. i anY. is a,·ailable for operational purposes. This would
3 t,,, hrl p n researcher "' k11ow if theie are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the
e, i>l ing the,,ries applicable to the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or
" hether the tindin!!s 0f the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the
the(•rerical e,pecta;ions and so on. All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in
the fi eld for fu nherance of knowledge i.e .. he can move up starting from the existing
prem ise. Studie, on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that
may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At
1imes such studies ma~ also suggest usefu l and even new lines of approach to the present
problem.
th ) De, eloping the ideas thro ugh discuss ions: Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise.
Hence. a researcher musi di scuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have
enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often
known as an experience surrey. People with rich experience are in a position to enlighten
!he researcher on differem aspects of his proposed study and their advice and comments
are usual!) im aluable lo the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on
specific aspects within the field . Discussions with such persons should not only be confined
10 !he fonnu la1ion of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the
general approach 10 the gi, en problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions
e~ .
(, )
Repbra~ing the research probl em: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been
clear!) underSlood, !he environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has
been defined. di scussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature
has been sun e)ed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational
1erms is not a difficul1 task . Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem
in as specific term s as poss ible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in
the de, elopment of\\ orking hypothesis.·
• Working h~ pothe,cs au a sc.t uf , uggc5tcd 1cnta1 i,c >0 lu1ion~ uf cxplana1i,in, of a research prob km which may or may
not be the real so luuons. Th e ta, k uf research i, 10 1c, 1 and c, tahli, h such h) r oth csi,. Hypothesis should be clearly and
precisely state.din simple 1erms, the) , hould be 1c, tahlc, lim11ed in scope ,md shou ld , talc rela1ionship between vari abks.
ll1ey should be amenable to testing ithinin athe
rca,unablc
(Testing of hypothesis has been dea h IIla1er bouk). time and , houl<l be cun sislrnt wi1h rnost of the known fa, ts
..<,§/
/ ~
1'
,i·
Defining the Resea rch Problem ~
111 adcli1io11 tu what has bl:cn ~lated 1tbovl:, lht: fulluw ing poinb must also be observed while
dcli11i11g a research problem :
(a) Technica l terms and words or phra ses. with 5pccial meanings used in the statement of the
problem, should be clearly defined .
(h) Basic assumptions or postul ates (if any) relatin g to th e rc5ea rch problem should be clea rl y N
sta ted. ct
w
(c) A straight forward statement of the va lue of the investigat ion (i.e .. the crileria for the
Q.
....
se lection of the problem ) should be provided . c(
(d) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data avai lable must also be considered 0 :c
by the researcher in defining the problem.
( e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within whi ch the problem is lo be studied mu st
be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
2.5 AN ILLUSTRATION
The technique of defining a problem outlined above can be illustrated for bener understanding by
taking an example as under:
Let us suppose that a research problem in a broad general way is as fo llows:
"Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India''?
In thi s form the question has a number of ambiguities such as: What son of producti vity
is being referred to? With what industries the same is related? With what period of time
the productivity is being talked about? ln view of all such ambiguities the given statement
or the question is much too general to be amenable to analysis. Rethinking and discussions
about the problem may result in narrowing down the question to:
"What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan ·s manufacturing
'
industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India ·s manufacturing induslries?"
This latter version of the problem is definitely an improvement over its ea rlier version fo r
the various ambiguities have been removed to the extent poss ible. Further rethinking and
rephrasing might place the problem on a still better operationa l basi s as shown below:
"To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in
respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible fo r the
productivity differentials between the two countries by industries?''
With this sort of formulation, the various terms involved such as· Jabour productivity'. ·µrod uctivity
differentials ', etc. must be explained clearly. The researcher must also see that the necessa1y data is
available. In case the data for one or more industries se lected is not ava ilabl e for the concernin g
time-period, then the sa id indust.ry or industries will have to be substituted by other industry ur industri.:s.
The suitability of the time-period must also be exam ined. Thus. all relevant fac tors must be con~iJ.:rnJ
by a researcher before fin ally defining a researc h problem.
•- ·--
'ii.~ ~ ,--..v.la.ie ~ ~11\~ thal th. 11..J... ,,t J,finm~ a !X''-can: h r ~,blem . \Cf: of1cn
. fl, lk," s a
~ r,uurn- -tht f'f',t,k'"' ,, <UIN ma ~-.'f11l " a~. the arnl--1~u1 t1,·, an: n:s..,h cJ . thi11l..1n g and
rcdn.,i ~ pnx~ ~~ m-' rn-.--.re ~ ,fi-: fr,cmulat"-'" l,f the r ~,t,km s,., that it ma~ be a rea Iist ic
~ c u,:ra< ~ the l ' - a l ~ dau
1 ,.,.e{I drfioed re----~ f'f\--,,Nc,rn
~ ~ ._,( r,a,-m.f ~ "'~
s.:,t,.~ 1k problem ~ i

and
OW
l'\:'5'..~~ and is also analytic:111~ meaningful. All thi s results in
,s ~" oo~ meaningful fn.-m, an operational point of Yim . but is
f.......- the Jew k.-,,ment of \\ OO..ing. hypotheses and fo r means of
Research Design
3
Chap ter
PROBLEMS
\l~- ~ ,..-- J · I nf'~11 researcb _ probtcm.
: . ,._ • ~ pr.,blem.. Def:llit die main issues which should receive the attention of the researcher
a i I _m n:scardl probm. Gn~ suitable e.umples to elucidate your points.
~ ,._.. ., _ . _ u:cse:.-dlprobkm? Gfre three enmples to illustrate your answer. 3.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
• . , _• • ~ -of ~ arc:sear-cb problem? Explain_
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation of
5. llrilr . ...sm: a design of the research project, popularly known as --research design ... A research design is the
r•. ~
arrangement of conditions for collection and analys is of data in a manner that aims to combine
Pia~ relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In facL the research design is the
• C -,•olateSCE'dl pobkm.: conceptual structure with.in which research is conducted: it constinnes the blueprint for the collection.
I ti . gfwm-dl pn,bkm measurement and analysis of data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will
, ..,__._,of4 daiagitkm ardi probkm often follows a sequential pattern... Explain. do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data. More
explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
.~......
•. "c...ilg ,_. dala aR uamblie oftc:n serves to narrow down the problem itself as well as the
- - - . - 61laipl be med.,.. Explain the UDderlying idea in this statement in the context of defining
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
i.. Wrilr.a . • 1 · J£ woe •ihe "'Task of defining aresearcbproblem".
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(Y) Where can the required data be found?
(\ i) What periods of time will the study include?
(, ii) What will be the sample design?
(, iii) What techniques of data collection will be used'>
(i:-..) How will the data be analysed?
(:-. ) In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into
the following parts:
(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study.
•