Generator Normal Operations

1
1.1 THE SAMPLE SYSTEM
Before we begin to analyze the various malfunctions that can befall a generator and the connected
auxiliary system, we must have an understanding of the parameters that define normal operation.
Our review of generator and generator auxiliary protection will be based on the sample system
shown in Figure 1.1. During normal operations, the generator supplies power to the grid through
the Generator Step Up (GSU) transformer and to auxiliary loads at 4.16 kV buses A and B
through auxiliary transformers. When the unit is off line, the auxiliary load is supplied from the
auxiliary transformer at Bus B.
The GSU transformer connects to a moderate strength power system. With all lines in service,
the power system and GSU transformer appear as a 14.8% impedance at the generator terminals.
Line A is the strongest line connected to the 69 kV bus; its outage increases the impedance seen
by the generator to 29%.
The system voltage also varies. During light load periods the voltage drop through system
components such as lines and transformers is minimal. As load increases, the increased voltage
drop caused by the flow of Watts and Vars through these components causes system voltage to
fall. Because these power system components are highly inductive, the voltage drop caused by an
amp of reactive current is greater than that caused by an amp of real current.
The system voltage regulation between light and peak load is amplified by the reactive
characteristic of the long high-voltage (HV) transmission lines. These lines behave as capacitors
when lightly loaded. The Vars they produce flow into the system, boosting voltage just as
distribution capacitors do. As the HV line loading increases, the line characteristic changes from
capacitive to inductive. At peak system load, the Vars consumed by HV lines significantly increases
system voltage drop.
During light load periods, generators may be required to operate with reduced field current,
consuming excess Vars from the system, to reduce system voltage. At peak system load, generators
operate near full field current, supplying Vars to support system voltage.
It is not desirable to operate generators at rated Var output in peak load situations if the system
is in a normal configuration. A portion of the generators’ reactive capability should be held in
reserve to boost voltage in the event of a forced outage of a major tie line or generator.
Maximum system voltages would be anticipated at night in the spring and fall. Minimum
system voltages typically occur during the day in the summer and winter when the system
load is at peak. These variations in system configuration and voltage have a significant effect on
the operation of the generator and associated auxiliary equipment, as will be seen later in this
chapter.

1.2 GENERATOR CAPABILITY

The proper application of protective relaying requires knowledge of the operating range of each
component and an understanding of the interactions of the generating unit and the power
system. First we will look at component ratings.
The nameplate rating of our sample system generator is 104.4 MVA at 0.85 power factor,
13.8 kV. This defines only one limiting point of operation for the machine. It is logical to
assume that a reduction in MVAR output would allow some increase in MW output and that a
reduction in MW would allow higher MVAR output.

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2 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

Line A Z1bu = 2%
97 MVA
67/13.8 kV X = 10%
104 MVA Z = 6.5%
0.85 PF Line B
68.7 kV Tap
13.8 kV X = 35% Z1bu = 5%

∆ Y Line C
X = 35%
2–15 MVA
13.8/4.16 kV
13.8 kV Tap
∆ Z = 9.0% ∆ Z1bu= 10%

Y Y System Equivalent = Transformer + Grid

N
A B Zsys (normal) = 14.8%
Zsys (line A) = 29.1%
M M
% on generator base

FIGURE 1.1 System online.

These allowable variations are defined by the generator capability curve, which is provided by
the manufacturer. Figure 1.2 is such a curve plotted for a hydrogen-cooled generator. It defines the
Watt/Var operating limit as a function of coolant pressure. Note that the maximum design coolant
pressure for the generator defines the outermost boundaries, 75# H2. The actual coolant pressure
for an operating unit is often less than the design maximum pressure.
The capability curve shown is for a steam-driven generator with a cylindrical rotor. It is a com-
posite of three distinct limits. The right-hand section, between the B and C, represents the limit

0.8 75 PSIG H
2
A
60 PSIG
Lagging (Overexcited)

0.6 45 PSIG 0.85 PF

30 PSIG B

0.4

0.2
KVAR (PU)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

KW (PU)
Leading (Underexcited)

0.2

0.4

C
D
0.6 0.85 PF

Terminal Voltage = 1.0 PU

0.8

FIGURE 1.2 Generator capability curve.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Generator Normal Operations 3

imposed by the ampere rating of the stator winding. The ampere rating of the field winding imposes
the limit between A and B, which limits the output of Vars into the power system. These are termed
“lagging Vars.” The bottom limit, C to D, defines the maximum Vars the generator can consume
from the power system. These are termed “leading Vars.” This limit is the result of heating in
the end laminations of the stator core. It is caused by flux that flares from the end of the stator
when the generator is operating at low field current. The capability curve is normally plotted at
the rated terminal voltages for the generator.
The capability curve for a hydro unit will differ from that of a steam unit. Hydro units are of
salient pole construction and do not have end core regions. Thus they will only have two distinct
limits. The field circuit imposed lagging Var limit from A to B and the stator winding current limit
which for a hydro unit extends as a continuous arc from B to D. The leading Var limit is determined
by the current rating of the stator winding.

1.3 VOLTAGE LIMITATIONS

The allowable voltage variations at the generator terminals may be bounded by the operating limits
of the generator or connected transformers. ANSI/IEEE C50.12 and C50.13 define the permissible
operating range of cylindrical rotor or salient pole machines to be +5% rated voltage.
Standards set two voltage requirements for transformers. The primary winding must be capable of
operating continuously at the voltage required to carry rated transformer load at 80% power factor (pf)
with 105% rated voltage at the secondary terminals. The transformer shall also be capable of operat-
ing at 110% rated voltage with no load. These requirements must be met for any primary or secondary
tap position.
To determine the actual voltage limitation at the generator terminals, an evaluation of both
these voltage limits is required. Remember that the secondary winding (output winding) of the
GSU transformer is the high-voltage winding.

1.3.1 SAMPLE SYSTEM GSU TRANSFORMER LIMITS

The GSU transformer is rated 67 kV to 13.8 kV, but it is operating on the 68.7 kV tap. Therefore,
the generator side winding (the primary winding) must be capable of operating at the voltage
necessary to produce 105% of 68.7 kV (72.1 kV) on the high-side winding with rated load at
80% lagging pf.
Calculating the primary voltage for this condition using the transformer impedance of 6.5%:

kVA 1:0
I¼ ¼ ¼ 0:952/
36:98 ¼ 0:76
j0:57
Esec 1:05
EP ¼ 1:05 þ j0:065 (0:76
j0:57) ¼ 1:087 þ j0:050
¼ 1:088/2:68

Standards therefore require this transformer to be capable of operation with a primary voltage of
108.8% or 15.01 kV. This transformer has low impedance; consequently, the primary voltage at
rate load is less than the 110% rating required for no load operation. Therefore, maximum allowable
continuous voltage on the primary (low-voltage) winding is 110% as defined by the no load
requirement. Transformers with higher impedance will have allowable voltage limits greater
than 110%, as determined by the rated load condition.
The above example is academic for the sample system because the generator and transformer
windings are both rated at 13.8 kV. Since the generator is limited to +5% rated voltage, the
operating range for the 13.8 kV system is obviously +5%.
It is common practice to rate the transformer low-voltage winding 95% of the generator rating.
In these systems the transformer may limit the upper end of the operating range.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

1.4 SYSTEM LIMITATIONS

In practice, most units cannot operate at the boundaries of the generator capability curve. The MW
output of the generator is limited by the driving torque available for the turbine, not the ampere
rating of the stator winding. The turbine is normally sized just large enough to produce rated
MW at rated power factor. A vertical line through points B and C of Figure 1.2 would define
the practical MW limit for most generators.
The Var output of the generator is a function of the generator terminal voltage, system impe-
dance and system voltage. It is common to encounter transformer or generator voltage limitations
before a generator Var limit is reached.
The relationship between real and reactive power, system voltage and impedance is often rep-
resented as a circle diagram.1 A generator connected to a system and operating with a fixed term-
inal voltage will have a unique Var output for every value of real power output. The circle diagram
is the locus of these points and will have the following characteristics:

Center ¼ Et2 =Zsys

Radius ¼ Et  Esys=Zsys

where
Et ¼ generator terminal voltage
Esys ¼ system voltage
Zsys ¼ impedance between Et and Esys
If resistance is neglected, the center is located on the overexcited (Var out) axis, as shown in
Figure 1.3.
A circle diagram for the sample system is plotted over the capability curve for the sample
system generator in Figure 1.4. This plot shows the possible operating points at the generator

Zsys
Q Esys

Et

Center = Et 2/Zsys

Radius = Et × Esys/Zsys

(P, Q)

−Q

FIGURE 1.3 Power circle diagram.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Generator Normal Operations 5

0.8
Turbine Limit
Field Limit

Overexcited
0.6

0.4

Et = 1.05

0.2
Reactive (PU)

Stator Limit

−0.2
Et = 0.95

−0.4
Underexcited

−0.6

Esys = 1.0
End Core Limit Zsys = 14.8% (Gen Base)

−0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Power (pu)

FIGURE 1.4 Practical operating limits: System normal.

voltage limits of 1.05 and 0.95 per unit (pu). The system impedance is normal (no lines out) and
system voltage is 1.0 pu. Var output with 1.05 pu terminal voltages is about half the overexcited
Var capability of the generator. To utilize the full overexcited Var capability of the generator,
the terminal voltage would have to be increased significantly. Likewise, with the terminal
voltage at 0.95 pu, the generator is only absorbing about half its leading Var capability. To
utilize the full leading Vars capability of the generator, the terminal voltage must be reduced.
Since the terminal voltages plotted, +5% rated, are the maximum and minimum operating
voltages permitted by generator standards, the sample system generator’s Var output will be
limited by terminal voltage, not generator capability curve.
A voltage limitation would be expected on a relatively weak system like the sample system.
The weaker the system, the more severe the limitations. Figure 1.5 shows the effects of switching
out the strongest tie line in the sample system, Line A. The equivalent impedance of the system, as
seen by the generator terminals, increases from 14 to 29%; as a result, the permissible operating
area is sharply reduced.
Variations in system voltage also have a significant effect on the actual operating limits.
Figure 1.4 and Figure 1.5 assumed a constant system voltage, but, as previously stated, system

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

0.8
Turbine Limit
Field Limit

0.6

0.4
System Normal
Et = 1.05

0.2 Line A Out

Reactive (pu)

Stator Limit

Line A Out
−0.2
Et = 0.95
System Normal

−0.4

−0.6

Esys = 1.0
End Core Limit Zsys = 29% (Gen Base)

−0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Power (pu)

FIGURE 1.5 Practical operating limits: Line A Outaged.

voltage varies significantly between hot summer afternoons with peak system MW and MVAR loads
and spring nights with very light loads. The effects of system and terminal voltage variations are
shown in Figure 1.6. The three curves in the upper portion of the capability curve are plotted
for a generator terminal voltage of 1.05 with the system voltage at 0.96, 1.0, and 1.055 pu. The
three curves in the lower portion of the curve represent Et ¼ 0.95 pu with the same variations in
system voltage.
It is evident that an increased system voltage shifts down the allowable operating area, closer to
the underexcited generator limit. This characteristic is desirable. During periods of excess system
voltage, the generator would be required to operate in the leading region, taking in Vars from the
grid, to reduce system voltage. Conversely, low system voltage shifts the operating area toward the
overexcited limit. Again, this shift is beneficial, allowing the unit to maximize Var output to bolster
sagging system voltages.
The key point here is that although the sample system generator may appeal severely voltage
limited by Figure 1.4 (Esys ¼ 1.0) when system conditions require full Var capability this
capability is available (Figure 1.6).

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Generator Normal Operations 7

0.8
Turbine Limit
Field Limit

Esys = 0.96

Overexcited
0.6

0.4
Esys = 1.0

0.2
Reactive (PU)

Stator Limit

0 Esys = 1.055
Esys = 0.96

−0.2

Esys = 1.0

−0.4
Underexcited

Et = 1.05
Et = 0.95

−0.6
Esys = 1.055 Esys = 0.96, 1.0, 1.055
End Core Limit Zsys = 14.8% (Gen Base)
−0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Power (pu)

FIGURE 1.6 Practical operating limits: All lines in, vary grid voltage.

1.5 GENERATOR CAPABILITY VARIATIONS WITH VOLTAGE

Load and system conditions require most generators to operate over a wide range of terminal
voltages. The operating terminal voltage range allowed by standards is 95 –105% of rated
voltage, but generator capability curves are only plotted for rated terminal voltage. It is possible
to estimate portions of the capability curve for other operating voltages, but knowledge of the
construction of the curve is required.
The stator winding limit is an arc centered at the origin of the capability curve (P ¼ 0, Q ¼ 0).
This is shown as radius “Ra” in Figure 1.7. The length of Ra in MVA is equal to the (rated pffiffiffi KA
amperes of the stator winding at a given coolant pressure)  (generator rated kV)  3. To
adjust this section of the curve for other than rated voltage, multiply the Ra by the new operating
voltage/rate voltage. Figure 1.7 shows the construction of the stator limit at 0.95 and 1.05 pu term-
inal voltage.
Adjustment of the upper region of the capability curve, which is limited by the ampere rating of
the field winding at a given hydrogen pressure, is more difficult. The field amps do not relate
directly to the Var loading on the generator. The overexcited Var limit is a function of the generator

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

8 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

Et = 0.95

Lagging (Overexcited)
Et = 1.0

Et = 1.05

0.95 Ra
KVAR (PU)

KW (PU)
Ra
Leading (Underexcited)

1.05 Ra

0.85 PF

FIGURE 1.7 Stator capability variations with voltage.

terminal voltage produced by rated field current, system voltage, and the generator steady-state
impedance. The upper portion of the capability curve is a power circle plot with a center on
the 2Q axis. The center and radius are:

Center ¼
Et2 =Xd

Radius ¼ Et  EI=Xd

where EI is the internal generator voltage and Xd is the synchronous impedance (steady-state
impedance) of the generator. The location of the center of this circle changes with the square of
the terminal voltage, while the radius varies directly with the terminal voltage.
The construction of the field current limit at 0.95 pu terminal voltage is shown on Figure 1.8.
First the center of the field current limit at Et ¼ 1.0 pu is located by trial and error at point C. This
also defines the radius of the limit at rated terminal voltage that is shown as Rf. To establish the
limit at Et ¼ 0.95, the center of the 0.95 pu limit is found by shifting point C toward the KW
axis by a factor 0.952. The radius of the 0.95 limit is 0.95 Rf.
The construction described for the field current limit at varied terminal voltage is an estimate.
Field current requirements in the overexcited region are influenced by saturation in the magnetic
circuits of the stator and rotor. Since saturation is nonlinear, the method described will tend to
produce conservative results at reduced voltage and optimistic results at voltages above rated.
No attempt has been made here to estimate variations of the leading Var limit with voltage.
This limit is strongly influenced by the thermal characteristics of the end core region of the stator.
Any determination of leading Var variation with voltage for use during operations must be deter-
mined by the manufacturer. A theoretical derivation of this variation is presented in Chapter 11.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Generator Normal Operations 9

Lagging (Overexcited)
Et = 0.95
Et = 1.0

Et = 1.05

0.95Rf
KVAR (PU)

KW (PU)
Leading (Underexcited)

Rf

0.85 PF

0.952 C

FIGURE 1.8 Field limit variations with voltage.

1.6 EXCITATION SYSTEM

The sample system generator uses a static excitation system as shown in Figure 1.9. This type
of system does not include rotating equipment such as an exciter to provide power to the gene-
rator field. In the Sample System field, power is derived from an AC auxiliary system bus in

GSU
Transf.
System
∆ Y

FDR Relays ∆

Aux Bus

Voltage Regulator
Isolated Auto
Source Regulator

Manual
Regulator

FIGURE 1.9 Generator online.

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10 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

SCR Bridge Pilot Generator

Exciter

AC

PT

Voltage Regulator

Manual
Regulator

Auto
Regulator

FIGURE 1.10 Pilot exciter.

the plant. The AC voltage is applied to a three-phase bridge rectifier that employs silicon-controlled
rectifiers (SCRs). The voltage regulator dictates the firing of the SCRs to control the field current.
Static systems have several advantages over rotating systems. They are less expensive to install and
maintain. They also have a very fast response. Excitation system speed is a key factor in power
system stability. The speed of a rotating system such as that shown in Figure 1.10 is limited by
the inherent delays in the exciter’s magnetic circuits. The SCRs in a static system can respond
almost instantaneously. The only delay in a static system comes from the voltage regulator circuitry.
A disadvantage of this static system is the dependence on the auxiliary bus voltage for generator
field power. During system disturbances, the auxiliary bus voltage may decay and reduce the power
available to the generator field when that power is most needed. Static excitation system design
must provide sufficient margin to assure that generator field current requirements during system
disturbances are met with reduced AC system voltage.
There are many other types of excitation systems. Figure 1.11 is a self-excitation system.
Power for the generator field is taken from a power potential transformer (PPT) at the generator
terminals. A supplementary DC power source may be required to initiate a voltage buildup
during startup (field flashing). This system is common with small generators. The main disadvan-
tage is that, because the generator depends on its own voltage for field excitation, this form of

SCR Bridge Generator

PPT

PT
Voltage Regulator
Manual
Regulator

Auto
Regulator

FIGURE 1.11 Self-excited generator.

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Generator Normal Operations 11

SCR Bridge Generator

PPT

CT

PT
Voltage Regulator

Manual
Regulator

Auto
Regulator

FIGURE 1.12 Self-excited generator with current transformer boost.

excitation can collapse when generator terminal voltage is depressed as would occur during a fault
or motor starting. To prevent such a collapse, current transformers (CTs) can be installed to provide
additional field current during periods of depressed voltage such as faults and motor starting as
shown in Figure 1.12.
A rotating excitation system is shown in Figure 1.10. This type of excitation system is found
on large units. It is expensive to apply an SCR-type bridge rectifier directly in the field circuit of
large machines because the rate field current often exceeds 5000 A DC. In this system, a moderately
rated SCR bridge rectifier in the exciter field circuit can control the large current in the generator
field circuit. Of course, the introduction of the rotating exciter does reduce the speed of the
excitation system as compared to an all-static system.
The exciter bus system shown in Figure 1.13 has no regulators. It is a fixed field current system
where the operators must constantly adjust the rheostats to maintain the required terminal voltage in
response to system conditions. This arrangement is common on older hydro stations where a DC
bus would provide excitation for a dozen on more small hydro units.
A voltage regulator is a key component of all modern excitation system. The concept that
the voltage regulator’s function is to maintain output voltage constant as loading varies is an over-
simplification. The voltage regulator actually contains two regulating devices: the automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) and the manual voltage regulator (MVR), or DC regulator, as it is some-
times called.

Generator
DC Bus DC Exciter

Generator
DC Exciter

FIGURE 1.13 Exciter bus.

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12 Protective Relaying for Power Generation Systems

Brushes
DC Control
Device

PT

+
−
Lim Set Point
If
MVR

Tracking

DC Power
Source

Control
Functions
−
Lim
+
AVR
Set Point
Vt

FIGURE 1.14 Automatic and manual regulators.

The automatic regulator has inputs from potential transformers at the generator terminals, as
shown in Figure 1.14. It monitors this voltage and compares it to a voltage set point that is
under the control of the plant operators. As generator load varies, the AVR adjusts the field
current to maintain the generator terminal voltage at the set point value. The manual regulator’s
control function is to maintain a preset value of generator field current or field voltage depending
on the design with no regard to the output voltage or any other power system quantity. A generator
should always be under the control of the automatic regulator when it is synchronized to the power
grid. The manual regulator would be placed in service in the event of an automatic regulator failure.
In older voltage regulators it may also be necessary to place the generator on manual regulator
during startup, to prevent damage from overexcitation. This will be discussed in later chapters.
Operation on the automatic regulator is important, and not just from the standpoint of relieving
the operator of the responsibility of maintaining system voltage. The automatic regulator’s quick
response to system conditions is a major factor in maintaining power system stability during
and after system disturbances. When a disturbance such as a fault causes a reduction in system
voltage, the glue that holds generators throughout the grid in synchronism is weakened. A
severe disturbance would result in the loss of synchronism and widespread outages. When genera-
tors are operating under AVR control, the voltage regulator will sense the reduced voltage and
rapidly increase the field current to bolster system voltage and maintain synchronism.
Another reason generators should always operate under automatic regulator control is that the
automatic regulator also performs protective functions. Most automatic regulators include the
following protective features:

. Maximum field current limits

. Minimum field current limit

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Generator Normal Operations 13

. Volts/Hz limit (flux)

. Leading Var limit

These functions are not in service when the manual regulator is in control of the generator field.
Each of these protective limits will be discussed at length in later chapters.
The manual regulator is a backup for the automatic voltage regulator and is not in control of the
generator field during normal operations. While the automatic regulator is controlling field current,
the manual regulator is on hot standby, tracking the automatic regulator. As the auto regulator
varies the field current to maintain voltage, the manual regulator automatically adjusts its set
point to match the field current or voltage prescribed by the automatic regulator. Should the auto-
matic regulator fail, the manual regulator would take immediate control of the generator without an
abrupt change in field current. This “bumpless” transfer is necessary to avoid generator and power
system transients. Without the tracking feature, the manual regulator would take control of the
generator and drive the field current to whatever value was last set on the manual regulator.
If the manual regulator were last used during startup, the set point would be for a low value of
field current. A failure of the automatic regulator at full generator load would result in a drastic
reduction in terminal voltage and major system disturbance, which could include a loss of syn-
chronism. Conversely, a high current setting on the manual regulator could result in damaging over-
voltage if the automatic regulator failed during a period of moderate generator loading.

REFERENCE
1. Westinghouse Electric Corp., Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, 4th Ed.
Westinghouse, East Pittsburgh, PA, 1964.

© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC