GEOCHEMICAL DRAINAGE SURVEY

Geochemical drainage survey is the most widely used reconnaissance technique in

residual areas undergoing active weathering. The primary applicability of geochemical
drainage survey are:
1. Primary Reconnaissance
This helps to locate geochemical provinces, mineralized districts and individual
deposits of appreciable size. The key purpose of a reconnaissance survey is preliminary
assessment of a very large area using a small scale of mapping.
2. Determine quantity and quality factors of ore deposits
 Location
 Areal extend
 Geophysical anomalies
 mineral contained
 Favourable geological features.
Very large area can be scanned for their mineral potentialities by drainage surveys
because of the great distance over which the weathering products of orebodies are carried by
ground and surface waters. At least one representation of the group of mobile(S, Mo, U) and
semi mobile (Zn, Cu, Ni, Co) elements occurs characteristically either as a principle
component or a minor constituent of many types of ore. Every type of ore should give some
kind of recognizable drainage anomaly. Drainage survey being the most applicable
geochemical prospecting method may be carried out through various steps or procedures
which finally led to the exact ore body.
Phases in Drainage Survey
 Orientation survey
 Sampling
 Sampling layout
 Sampling Procedure
 Preparation of maps
 Interpretation of Data
 Follow-up Techniques.
I. ORIENTATION SURVEY
An orientation survey preparatory to undertaking a geochemical drainage survey is
directed toward choice of optimum sample medium (water, stream sediment, seepage
sediment) and procedures for collecting and analyzing samples. It is the Planning Phase
where the choice of the field survey technique and the analytical methods depend on the
commodity sought and its location. Evaluation of different sample medium and procedures
requires the collection of both anomalous and background samples from localities
representative of both deposits and background. Non-economic deposits are preferable for
this orientation survey due to its absence of contamination from mining operations.
Checklists of factors to be optimized and evaluated by an orientation survey include:

SEDIMENT
1.Best indicator elements including major
and minor constituents of ore
2.Optimum Materials:
Sediments from seepages, channels,
floodplains, center lake, near shore lake.
3.Optimum Fractions:
Size, heavy minerals, organic fractions.
4. Most effective method of anomaly
enhancement.
5. Magnitude of contrast of anomaly at
source.
6. Length of downstream decay pattern,
control of decay pattern, metal content of
bank material.
7. Background values and relation to rock
types.
8.Analytical methods (detection, limits,
precision, form of elements)
9. Cost and Time for procedure.
WATER
1. same as of sediments
2.Optimum materials:
Groundwater and surface water
3. Relation of ground water to recharge areas.
4. Difference between aquifers.
5. Controls of water flow and availability of
sampling points.
6. Same as of sediments – pH, Eh,
precipitants and absorbents present.
7. Same as of sediments-relation to total
dissolved solids.
8. same as of sediments
9. same as of sediments

A. WATER
Sample of water can be obtained from wells, streams, springs, lakes, boreholes etc. The water
sample collection include:
 Up-drainage from an undisturbed metal source.
 Channels at or near deposits.
  Every downstream points of tributary influx or a change of environment which
modify composition of waters draining a known deposit.
 At background location in non- mineralized zone which can represent variation in
bedrock type and surface environment.
 At intermediate points if the distance between critical points are very large.
Analysis of water sample must conduct in concern with assemblages of ore metals,
major constituents, total salinity, pH etc.
Tests for analysis include
1. Direct analysis at field
2. Analysis after concentration by
a. Solvent extraction
b. Co-precipitation
c. Ion exchange resin treatment
3. Laboratory test
All the determinations should be carried out with maximum precision and sensitivity.
For filtration, micropore filters and simple hand-operated vacuum pump or a small tank of
compressed gas are used.0
The possibility of precipitation may be investigated by sampling stream sediment,
swamp soil, or other solid material in contact with the waters. Particular attention should be
given to possible relationships between the metal content of the water and the presence of
organic matter, ferruginous scums, and other precipitates that may have scavenged ionic
metals from the water. The effect of seasonal variations commonly related to rainfall or
melting ice and snow should be investigated by periodic resampling of critical sites at
different seasons of the year.
B. Drainage Sediment
 Samples should be collected from both the flood plain and the active channel at
intervals no more than 50 m for the first 300 m or so downstream from sources of
anomalous metal.
 The interval can be progressively expanded with increasing distance from the metal
source.
 Sediment from all tributary streams and seepage areas must be sampled.
 At each location, the various types of sediment should be sampled separately. e.g.
sand, silt, clay, and ooze
  Sediment samples from the active stream channel should be collected away from the
banks to avoid dilution from collapsed bank colluvium of local origin.
 At each sediment sampling point, bank samples should be taken on either side of the
stream and a record kept of the alluvial or colluvial origin of the bank material at that
point.
 The metal content of flood-plain soils should be investigated transversely.
 Vertical profiles of flood plains as well as active channels can be considered for
sample collection from various depths.
C. Contamination
 Water sample can get contaminated due to following reasons.
 Contamination may come from trash, metal-rich drainage from factories and
mechanized farms, metalliferous insecticides, roads and railway beds graded with
mine waste, and condensates from smog and industrial fumes.
 Contaminated stream water often contaminates the sediments with which it is in
contact.
 The most common industrial and domestic contaminants are Zn and Cu.
 Mining and smelting activity constitutes one of the most serious sources of
contamination of surface water.
 Spring water is almost always free of contamination.

II. CHOICE OF MATERIAL TO BE SAMPLED

The choice of material to be sampled from a medium must naturally be made on the
basis of which medium gives the strongest and most reliable pattern that can be readily
detected by the techniques at hand.
The principal factors to be considered include
1) the mobility of the constituents of the ore body
2) Influence of local conditions on the dispersion pattern
3) Opportunities for sampling
4) Availability of a suitable analytical method.
It is possible to carry out a reliable drainage survey on the basis of a single sample
medium; for complete and reliable coverage it may be found under some conditions to collect
samples of more than one kind of material.
 The favorable and unfavorable conditions for each choice of materials to be sampled
with type of elements is tabulated in the table.
Material Element Favourable condition Unfavourable condition
Water Mobile-  Humid conditions  Alkaline, calcareous,
1. Surface water Mo, U, SO4  Undulating terrain ferruginous organic rich
in humid areas  Low pH environment
2. Groundwater  Physical  Difficulty in transport and
in arid areas homogeneity storage of sample.
 Direct dispersion path
Seepage- soils Semi mobile  Swampy area Acid mine drainage areas
metals- Cn, Zn  springs
Stream sediments Semi-mobile,  non perinnial Downstream channels from a
immobile metals. drainage channels reservoir built by dams.
Sometimes mobile  easy sampling
also surveyed methods
Heavy minerals Immobile elements  Anomalies preserved  Grains too small to be
- Au, Sn, W, Hg, in heavy minerals readily separated from
Ta-Nb from deeper layers of bulk sample.
sediments.  Chance of error is more
 Longer dispersion during analysis
Organic mobile and semi-  In poorly drained  Well drained area
sediments mobile- Cu, Zn, area  High oxygen content area
Ni, Co, U, Mo  Low inorganic
sediments content
and high organic
content.
Lake sediment Any type may  Anomalies stronger  Once sample not taken
and water possible and more detectable. accurately, second turn
 Wide-spaced become expensive.
reconnaissance
III. SAMPLE LAYOUT
This will maximize the probability of detecting any economic orebodies that occur in
the surveyed area and to minimize the cost and time for the survey. Usually reconnaissance
surveys should be laid out so that an important orebody will be indicated by two distinctly
anomalous samples. By orientation survey or statistically determined variability to estimate
the best sample spacing.
A. Ground-water Patterns
The layout of sampling points in ground-water surveys depend on
 the dimensions of the patterns that are being sought
 the distribution of available wells, springs, and seepage areas.
If wells are available in plenty systematic cross-country traversing can be done by
taking well samples nearest to the traverse lines. Better to take traverse along a direction that
represent a line of effluence of ground water, such as cliff or an impermeable layer, or along
the edges of swamps, lakes, and the flood plains of streams. Springs along geological
features such as faults and the contacts between permeable and impermeable rocks can be
considered for the purpose.
B. Drainage Channel Patterns
The sample layout for drainage surveys depends on the maximum area of drainage
basin which can be expected to show an anomaly. This can be defined by orientation surveys
and downstream analysis of dilution pattern. The areal consideration of drainage channel
must be modified, especially for water samples, by the effects of adsorption and precipitation
of dissolved elements and washing out of lines from sediment samples.
For deposits of moderate size, the decay distance, determined in orientation surveys
found to lie between 300 m and 3000 m, and the limiting catchment area between 10 km 2 and
50 km2. In regional stream-sediment surveys covers provinces with tens to hundreds of
kilometres, can satisfactorily take samples per 2.5 km 2. For lake and sediment sampling
locations larger than about 0.5 km2 and deeper than 3 m are preferable. Stagnant lakes are
avoided. Complete coverage is not always possible and it is justifiable for confining
traverses to roads, trails, navigable streams, or coastlines etc. in regional survey.
IV. COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF SAMPLES
Various methods are used for making the points of exact sampling. This includes
Spray painting on trees or rocks, plastic ribbon tied to bushes and marked with sample
number are useful for this purpose.
A. Water
Polyethylene or plastic bottles are usually employed for water sampling because of
their durability, light weight and the decreased contamination by the bottle, as compared to
glass bottles. The container should have been thoroughly cleaned by washing and rinsing in
acid and distilled water before coming to the field. Samples must be filtered using sieves if
more particulate matter contained in sample. Care must be taken to avoid contamination from
the filter or holder during the filtration process.
Precipitation of Fe-oxides, organic material, or other substances as a result of
oxidation, loss of C02, growth of algae or bacteria, or other changes can remove metal from
solution. The C02 produced by organic activity can also be responsible for complicating
reactions. Acidification of the sample with metal free acid to about pH 2 at the sample site
will prevent the precipitation of Fe-oxide and at the same time inhibit the growth of
microorganisms. The addition of a few millilitres of chloroform to water sample at the time
collection also prevent organic activities.
Collection of surface water from a lake can be accomplished by methods Similar to
those used for stream-water samples, but collection of deep samples from a lake (or open
well) may require special equipment. An empty polyethylene bottle fitted with a friction
stopper can be opened and closed at the desired depth in case of sample from deeper part of
the water body. Collection of water from a pumped well may get contaminated by
precipitation, adsorption, or other changes induced by the pipes, pump, and tanks. Hence after
a repeated filling of tank by continuous pumping we can collect sample.
Electrical conductivity, which can be quickly measured at the sample site with a
simple meter, gives considerable useful information on the character of the water.
Measurements of pH, alkalinity (bicarbonate), and dissolved oxygen or Eh should be done at
the sample site as these parameters are changed by loss of dissolved gases or acidification.
Most surface samples are saturated with dissolved oxygen, but in ground waters the dissolved
oxygen content can be very helpful in interpretation.
Analysis of waters directly at the collection site is possible for a number of elements
like Mo, Zn, SO4 and heavy metals can be directly analysed on the site. This can reduce the
chance to change composition, either by contamination while transportation and storage.
B. Stream and Seepage Sediment
Sediment from streams and seepage areas may vary in composition from place to
place because of size-sorting and differences in content of organic matter or precipitated
oxides. In order to obtain a representative sample of sediment, small amounts of fine
sediment should be collected at three to six localities along 5-10 m of stream bed and
composited into a single container. Sampling from sites collapsed bank must be avoided,
particularly when the banks are composed of colluvium derived from the adjoining slopes.
If sediments are fine material 10-50 g samples are enough for chemical analysis to be
conducted. But if coarse-grained samples from fast-flowing streams, it may be necessary to
collect 100 200 g or more to obtain sufficient fine material for analysis. In Lake Sample
collection sample devices like auger, corers and dredgers are required. In shallow water,
conventional soil or peat auger can be used. For deeper water, corer can be used. By using a
corer we get samples from deeper (>10cm) layers of sediments which are less subjected to
contamination.
C. HEAVY MINERALS
Heavy detrital minerals characteristically occur in great abundance near the base of
alluvial sediments above the bed rocks. This can be sampled by digging pits or sinking holes
with augers or post-hole diggers. The heavy mineral fraction can be separated by panning in
field.
V. PREPERATION OF MAPS
Map of drainage survey representing a single element with all sampling location is
necessary for simplifying the data interpretation. At later stage of interpretation and report
preparation several types of data may be combined on one map. A wide variety of symbols
including direction of flow, intensity of anomalies, different kinds of samples etc. must be
represented clearly in such maps. Separate symbols may also be used to distinguish
anomalous from background values.
VI. INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The general approach to interpretation is common to all kinds of geochemical
anomalies. Along with anomaly the determination of the range of background fluctuations
related not only to bedrock geology and sample type but also to changes in environmental
factors, such as pH, bulk composition of water, and varying amounts of organic matter and
Fe-Mn-oxides in sediment. Distinguishing between significant and non-significant anomalies
is always one of the more difficult tasks in interpretation.
Every anomaly should be carefully examined to see whether it may be considered as a
possible indicator of ore. All critical samples should be reanalysed to check the field
description against the sample material as a guard against simple mistakes. It may be possible
to recognize assemblages of associated elements that may help to indicate the nature of the
parent source. Available maps and air photos should be examined with a view to the
possibility both of contamination and of correlation of the anomaly with recorded
topographic and geologic features. A strong anomaly means
 a very large area of low-grade mineralization,
 swarms of very small deposits of high grade metalliferous material,
 small deposits of weakly mineralized but highly fractured rock prone to leaching by
circulating ground water,
 one or more large deposits of ore grade.
But the absence of a strong anomaly does not necessarily mean the absence of an
orebody. It may be due to the very high resistance of ore body and host rock to mechanical or
chemical attack. Also anomaly may disappear due to dilution or precipitation of the metal
somewhere along the drainage system between the source and the sample site.
VII. FOLLOW-UP TECHNIQUES
The technique of following up anomalies disclosed during geochemical drainage
reconnaissance will of course depend very much on local conditions. The study of the
ground-water pattern in relation to the local topography and other factors that may be
influencing the subsurface drainage may help to define the area of maximum interest wherein
to concentrate the detailed follow-up work.
The cut-off can be determined either by field analysis with a portable test kit or by
sampling at close intervals and submitting the samples for laboratory analysis. The choice
between these two methods will depend on local conditions of accessibility, personnel,
analytical methods used, etc.
At the cut-off, check carefully for possible contamination, natural enrichment, and
any visible evidence of mineralization. Determine the principal points at which anomalous
metal is entering the drainage system. According to the nature of the problem, this may best
be done by collecting samples at close intervals along both banks of the active channel, along
the zones of seepage and spring areas on opposite edges of the flood plain, or along the base
of slope colluvium.
 GEO-BOTANY

Chemical analysis of systematically sampled trees and shrubs for traces of ore metals
was one of the first geochemical method to be investigated. V.M Goldschmidt, made the first
suggestion that analysis of plants material might be an effective method of prospecting.
Visual operations of plants when used as a guide to buried ore, is known as Geobotanical
prospecting. Whereas geochemical methods require chemical analysis of plant organs, the
Geobotanical methods depend on direct observations of plant morphology and distribution of
plant species. Therefore Geobotanical methods have very great advantages over geochemical
methods of prospecting.
Biogeochemical anomalies are areas where the vegetation contains an abnormally high
concentration of metals. If the metal content of a sample plant material is to be useful in
prospecting, it should bear a fairly simple relationship to the metal content of the bedrock.
Variation between plant species: Different species of plants take up different amount of
inorganic material from the soil. The closest correlation between the compositions of plants
with that of the supporting medium is not necessarily found in the plant that is the most
highly enriched in a given element. Each plant has its own peculiar habits that must be
determined empirically. In a given environment a group of species may have a similar
response to certain elements.
Variation between Plant parts: The part of the plant selected for analysis in an especially
critical factor. Two considerations are, the difference in trace element level from one organ to
another, and the stability of element concentration within one organ as a function of time and
location on a single plant. The concentration of trace or trace elements in frequently found to
decrease in the order: leaves, twinges, cones, wood, roots and bark.
Depth of root penetration: Deep rooted plants that habitually obtain their water from the
zone of saturation below the water table are defined as phreatophytes in contrast to the
shallow rooted xerophytes that can survive exclusively on vadose water derived from rainfall.
Observations in areas of transported overburden under a variety of climatic conditions have
clearly demonstrated that many species of plants not uncommonly take up anomalous metal
from ore bodies buried at depths of 10-15m.
Variation with other factors: Variation in soil pH will cause variations in the relative
solubility of elements ‘in the soil and hence the availability of those elements for uptake by
the plants. The movement of mineral nutrients into plants varies with the amount of sunlight
received. Thus the composition of plants on a sunny slope will be somewhat different from
that of the same plants growing in the same soil on a shady slope.
Contrast: The contrast of anomalous biogeochemical values against the normal background
content appears to be related to the mobility of the elements in soil solutions. Molybdenum
shows fairly consistently high contrast. Similarly cobalt, lead, uranium and iron shows high
contrast. Whereas copper, zinc and silver shows low contrast. The lack of anomalies may be
partly related to the fact that these elements are essential for plant growth and are limited by
metabolic processes.
Homogeneity: The mineral content of plants is the combined effect of a great many
unpredictable variables, of which only a very few are related even indirectly to the
composition of the underlying rock. Biogeochemical anomalies for the mobile elements are
generally more irregular than the corresponding residual soil anomalies.
Form of Anomalies: Variation in the chemical composition of the upper parts of the plant
corresponds with variations in the composition of the solution tapped by the root system.
Thus the form of biogeochemical anomalies is merely a composite of the form of the
combined syngenetic, hydromorphic, and biogenic anomalies in the underlying soil together
with whatever groundwater anomalies maybe present. Where the plant is either rooted
directly in ore or in a superjacent soil anomaly, the biogeochemical anomaly will also be
superjacent. Where the parent anomaly is a lateral groundwater or hydromorphic soil
anomaly, the resulting biogeochemical anomaly will show a corresponding displacement with
respect to the ore.
GEOBOTANICLA INDICATORS
All living plants respond in one way or another to the chemical, physical a biological
environment in which they find themselves. This response normally takes the form of a
characteristic habit of growth. Geobotany is the study of plants related specifically to their
geologic environment. Other than geologic factors there are other factors that also have great
influence, which include sunlight, length of growing seasons, elevation, forest fires, and
insect pests.
Four aspects of plant appearance and distribution are useful in mineral exploration.
1. The distribution of individual indicator species
2. the distribution of groups or communities of plants
3. Morphological features of plants, such as unusual size, deformities or colour
4. The gross effects of one or more of the above aspects detectable by aerial
photography or other remote sensing techniques.
 Individual indicator species were recognized long ago. These indicator species replace
normal vegetation of the region either because their growth is promoted by the unusual
chemical conditions over ore, or because they are tolerant of conditions in which normal
Species cannot survive. The distribution of the indicator species may be determined by a
major metal of the orebody being sought, a pathfinder element associated with the ore, or
some condition associated with ore, such as pH or availability of water. The use of the Se-
accumulating species Astragalus for detecting Se-bearing U ores on the Colorado Plateau of
western USA is an example of the use of a species sensitive to a pathfinder element. In a
majority of cases, the reason for the association of an indicator species with ore is not known.
There are two type of indicator plants
1) Universal indicators
2) Local indicators
The universal are found only on mineralized soils and do not grow elsewhere,
example is Calamine Violet, which grows only on soils with anomalous Zn content.
Universal indicators usually have limited range, but are extremely valuable with in limited
areas for similar climate, geology and topography. Local indicators are species that grow
preferentially on mineralized ground within limited areas but grow over non-mineralized
ground in other regions.
Morphological changes induced by anomalous concentration of trace elements
include dwarfism, gigantism, and other changes, abnormal fruits, changes of flower colour
and disturbances of the rhythms of growth and flowering. The abnormal colours and
morphological features of a plant caused by a poisonous element in the nutrient solution are
collectively referred to as toxicity symptoms. Geobotanical indicators have been used in
locating and mapping ground water, saline deposits, hydrocarbons, rock types and ores.
Indicators for ground water: Desert plants respond in a very spectacular manner to the
availability of water. Phreatophytes, the plants that habitually obtain their water supply from
the zone of saturation, indicate a water table within reach of their root system. In prospecting,
botanical indicators are important in that they point to areas where hydromorphic anomalies
may have developed as a result of precipitation of ore metals from shallow ground water.
Indicators of saline deposits: Many plants tolerate or even prefer a nutrient solution with
high content of dissolved salts. Specific indicators of high salinity, or halophytes, are useful
to search for saline deposits.
Indicators of Hydrocarbons: Plants rooted in bituminous soils tend to have peculiar forms,
distinguished by gigantism and deformity. Some of these plants show a tendency for
abnormal repeated blooming. The population of microscopic plant indicators in surface
materials may under favorable circumstances be useful as a guide in petroleum exploration.
Indicators of rock type: Limestone soils commonly support a diagnostic assemblage of
indicator species. Areas of rock alteration and pyritization may support a characteristic plant
assemblage. Ultramafic rocks in virtually all climates have very profound influence of the
ecological assemblage of plants growing on them. Generally the plants will have stunted
growth and thin development. Indicator assemblages have been noted over many other rock
types, such as granite, shale, or basalt. In many of the associations, the cause seems to be a
matter of relative drainage and availability of water. Plant communities are sensitive to
overburden, as well as to the types of bed rock.
Indicators of Ore: The first indicator plant used in prospecting was the Calamine Violet,
which thrives only on zinc rich soils. Selenium is indicated by Astragalus. Copper is
indicated by Becium Hombeli and Haumaniastrum roberti and gypsophilia partrini. Chlorosis
or yellowing of the leaves is a non-specific guide for nickel, copper, cobalt, manganese,
chromium and zinc.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING
Geochemical prospecting through plants are of two types
1. Biogeochemical, where the plant is chemically analyzed for trace metal concentration
2. Geobotanical, which depends on identification if indicator plants or association and/or
morphological colour changes in some plants during their early growth.
The requirements for the biogeochemical prospecting are
1) The species should be of wide distribution
2) The species should accumulate the elements concerned in a reproducible manner and
the degree of accumulation should be in direct proportion to the concentration of the
element in the soil
3) Plants of the same species and age should be sampled form point to point for proper
comparison.
4) Samples from the same part, root, bark, leaf should be compared for definition of
anomaly
5) Samples should be large enough in volume to generate sufficient ash for trace element
analysis
6) Samples should be carefully washed and cleaned before drying and further treatment.
Geobotanical prospecting
Since old times, various species of plants have been recognized as indicators of
mineral occurrences such as uranium, copper, lead, iron, zinc, nickel etc. This branch of
prospecting is known as Geobotanical prospecting. Geobotanical anomalies can be detected
by methods like observing the variations in plant types. It can so happen that particular genus
or even the entire class of plants, growing in the same area, show considerable variations in
concentration of minerals. For example a grass in an area shows abundance in one element
where as a shrub from the same area may show another element. The root system of plants
varies with the type of plant and its habitat. Plants growing in an arid country require deep
roots; where as a plant in swamps will have breathing roots. Root penetration is greater in
well drained soils. The mineral up take of a plant is due to photo chemical activity which is
dependent on the amount of sunlight lit receives. The accumulation of Geobotanical
anomalies appears to be dependent on the mobility of the elements in the soil solutions. The
Geobotanical anomaly may combine with the syngenetic, hydromorphic and biogenic
anomalies of the soil in addition to ground water anomalies. Techniques used in
Geobotanical survey:
Preliminary reconnaissance surveys should be carried out with a view to ascertain the
depth, extent and dip of the ore body as well as the orientation and behavior of ore shoots,
grade of ore, nature and extent of secondary dispersion (in rock) and also the influence of the
water table and plants. Observations need to be made on the type of plants and rate of growth.
It may be determined which type of plant or tree grows well and what type is affected
adversely by the soil. Sample material will be collected from deep rooted plants, and as far as
possible a plant which is wide spread and occurs over a large area should be chosen.
Generally one of two-year-old twinges will be used and taller shrubs are likely to be free
form contaminants caused by settling of dust as well as splashing of mud (soil) due to rain.
Sample points may be selected on a grid pattern, wherever possible. This is easy where there
is a sufficient density in the type of vegetation. Usual type of pruning implements are
satisfactory for sample collection and about 209 of material will yield 1g of ash, which is
sufficient for analytical work. If volatile elements are present ashing should be done in
controlled conditions. Plastic bags and paper bags are used for collection of samples (ash).
The analytical methods will depend on the equipment available and the metal content may be
expressed in terms of dry plant material or in terms of ash. Finally when plotting the
anomalies the various sources of error needs to be considered like local variations in pH of
soil, drainage, duration and intensity of sunlight etc. and correction needs to be applied.
 Various plants have been recognized as indicators of various mineral occurrences
such as uranium, copper, lead, iron, zinc, nickel etc. Some plants like the Milkvetch
(Astragalus) and the Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) absorb Selenium, while
Juniper and Pinyon trees absorb unusual amounts of Uranium. Since selenium is usually
associated with the ore or uranium the presence of these plants, if abundant, give a clue to the
possible occurrence of uranium. It is based on the presence of indicator plants, which are
restricted to the mineralized ground and where competition from other species is slight or
absent. Amorpha cacenscens is a good indicator of the possible occurrence of Lead ores in
the rock beneath the roots of this plant. Viola calaminaria thrives best on the waste dumps of
Zinc mines to those rooted in a barren ground. Terminalia tomentosa and Combretum
decandrum have been useful indicators of Nickel. The discovery of so called copper plant
Ocimum homblai a cousin of Tulsi is of special interest in copper finding. Occurrence of
Acrocephalus robertie in Katanga copper belt also a Labiatae of the family Ocimoidae should
afford a clue as to what to look for.
Remote Sensing of Geobotanical Anomalies
Airborne or satellite-borne methods are an obvious means of speedily conducting a
Geobotanical survey if reliable methods of interpretation can be developed. In principle,
remote methods could detect changes in the distribution of species and in the size, spacing, or
color of plants affected by anomalous metal concentrations. Possible remote-sensing
methods, using different sensing methods and different portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum, include visual observation from an aircraft or satellite, aerial photography (using
black-and-white, color, or color-infrared film), instrumental sensing of reflectance in the
visible and near infrared or of emission in the far infrared, and measurement of microwave
and radar reflectance.
Visual observations from a helicopter can been used to examine the distribution of
tree species in jungle terrain. This method is applicable to detection of readily identifiable
indicator species and plant communities, and to some types of toxic effects. In addition, many
geological features, such as rock types, structures, and areas of shallow ground-water or
seepage, can be identified in this manner. Similar results may be obtainable by low-altitude
color air photography, or in favorable cases, by black-and White photography.
The Fraunhofer line discriminator is a specialized method for measuring
luminescence of natural materials. The discriminator operates mainly in the Visual region of
sunlight and measures the light emitted in the narrow wavelength regions of the dark bands
created by absorption in the sun’s outer atmospheres Tests indicate that vegetation stressed
by metal toxicity or other processes interfering with chlorophyll metabolism has anomalous
luminescence.
Photography of reflected light in the near infrared adds information not visible to the
unaided eye. Infrared can be recorded on special color film that is sensitive to visible and
infrared light, by camera and film combinations that detect only infrared, or by electronic
sensors of the type used in the Landsat satellite which record radiation in the 0.7-0.8 µm and
08-11 µm bands of the near infrared, as well as the 0.5-0.6 µm and 0.6-0.7 µm bands of the
visible spectrum. Several investigators have shown that chlorotic vegetation resulting from
metal toxicity has a different reflectance spectrum than normal vegetation.
Research on detection and interpretation of Geobotanical anomalies by remote
methods offers the potential of rapid scanning of large areas at low cost. However, the
numerous problems related to species, plant spacing, plant age, rock types, depth and type of
overburden, moisture, sunlight, and other variables will require a good deal of research to
develop methods that can be used with confidence. The recognition of chlorotic or incipiently
chlorotic vegetation seems to offer the best possibilities.

REFERENCE
Arthur, W., Hawkes, HE. and Webb, IS. (1979), Geochemistry in Mineral Exploration,
Academic Press, USA, 657p