SOMALI JAAMACADDA

NATIONAL UMMADDA
UNIVERSITY SOOMAALIYEED

Mechanical Measurement (MM 3609)

(B2/B3) Mechanical Engineering, Lecture_11

Dr. Sulaiman Muhammed Dawood

Text Books,
1. Thomas G. Beckwith, Roy D. Marangoni, John H. Lienhard V - Mechanical
Measurements-Pearson (2006).
2. Mechanical Measurements, 4th Edition Jones' Instrument Technology.
Course Outline
Week No. Topic Remarks
1. Introduction to Measurement
2. Standards and Dimensional Units of Measurement
3. Assessing and Presenting Experimental Data -1
4. Assessing and Presenting Experimental Data -2
5. Response of Measurement Systems
6. Strain and Stress: Measurement and Analysis.
7. Measurement of Pressure.
8 Flow Measurement.
9. Measurement of Fluid Flow.
10. Temperature Measurements.
11. Motion Measurement.
12. Revision.
 Lecture Outline
This lecture is for Motion Measurements; under the following
subtitles:
7. THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER
8. CALIBRATION
9. CALIBRATION OF VIBROMETERS
10. CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETERS
11. RESPONSE O F THE SEISMIC INSTRUMENT TO TRANSIENTS
12. MEASUREMENT OF VELOOTY BY THE LASER VELOCITY
TRANSDUCER
13. VIBRATION AND SHOCK TESTING
14. VIBRATIONAL EXCITER SYSTEMS
15. VIBRATION TEST METHODS
16. SHOCK TESTING
17. SHOCK RIGS
18. PRACTICAL SHOCK TESTING
THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER:
The accelerometer:
Basically, the construction of the accelerometer is the same as
that of the vibrometer seen in the figure before, except that its
design parameters are adjusted so that its output is proportional
to the applied acceleration.
Let us rewrite previous equation as follows:

Or,

in which as0 is the acceleration amplitude of the supporting

member.
THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER:
The term ω2n in the denominator is fixed for a given instrument
and does not change with application. Hence, if the radical is a
constant, the relative displacement will be directly proportional
to the acceleration. Let

By plotting K versus Ω/ωn. for various damping ratios, we obtain

this coming figure. Inspection of the plot indicates that the only
possibility of maintaining a reasonably constant amplitude ratio
as the forcing frequency changes is over a range of frequency
ratio between 0.0 and about 0.40 and for a damping ratio of
around 0.7. The extent of the usable range depends on the
magnitude of error that may be tolerated.
THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER:
The term ω2n in the denominator is fixed for a given instrument
and does not change with application.

Response of a seismic instrument to sinusoidal acceleration.

THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER:
Phase Lag In the Accelerometer
Referring again to figure below and to the limited accelerometer
operating range just indicated that is, Ω/ωn = 0 to about 0.4 and ξ
= 0.70-we see that the phase changes very nearly linearly with
frequency. This relationship is fortunate, for as we have seen, it
results in good phase response.
THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER:
Practical Design of Seismic Instruments
We may now say that in order for a seismic instrument to provide
satisfactory acceleration data, it must be used at forcing
frequencies below approximately 40% of its own undamped
natural frequency and the instrument damping should be on the
order of 70% of critical damping.
It may be observed that both vibration pickups and
accelerometers may use about the same damping; however, the
range of usefulness of the two instruments lies on opposite sides
of their undamped natural frequencies.
The vibration pickup is made to a low undamped natural
frequency, which means that it uses a "soft" sprung mass. On the
other hand, the accelerometer must be used well below its own
undamped natural frequency; therefore, it uses a "stiff'' sprung
mass. This makes the accelerometer an inherently less sensitive
but more rugged instrument than the vibration pickup.
THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER:
Practical Design of Seismic Instruments
Undoubtedly the most popular type of accelerometer makes use
of a piezoelectric element in some form as shown in coming fig.
Polycrystalline ceramics including barium titanate, lead zirconate,
lead titanate, and lead metaniobace are among the piezoelectric
materials that have been used. Various design arrangements, as
shown in the figure, are also used; the type depends on the
characteristics desired, such as frequency range and sensitivity.
Important advantages enjoyed by the piezoelectric type are high
sensitivity, extreme compactness, and ruggedness. Although the
damping ratio is relatively low (0.002 to 0.25), the useful linear
frequency ranges that may be attained are still large because of
the high undamped natural frequencies inherent in the design
(up to 100,000 Hz).
THE SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER:
Practical Design of Seismic Instruments

Typical piezoelectric-type accelerometer designs.

CALIBRATION OF VIBROMETERS:
Vibration pickups are often calibrated by subjecting them to
steady-state harmonic motion of known amplitude and
frequency.
The output of the pickup is then a sinusoidal voltage that is
measured either by a reliable voltmeter or a cathode-ray
oscilloscope. The primary problem, of course, is in obtaining a
harmonic motion of known amplitude and frequency.
Electromechanical exciters are commonly used. Exciters of this
type are capable of producing usable amplitudes at frequencies
to several thousand cycles per second.
CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETERS:
Accelerometer calibration methods may be classified as follows:
1. Static
(a) Plus or minus 1 g turnover method
(b) Centrifuge method
2. Steady-state periodic
(a) Using a sinusoidal shaker or exciter for back-to-back
accelerometer calibration
Static Calibration
Plus or Minus 1 g Turnover Method Low-range accelerometers
may be given a 2 g step calibration by simply rotating the
sensitive axis from one vertical position 180o through to the
other vertical position (i.e., by simply turning the accelerometer
upside down).
This method is positive but is, of course, limited in the magnitude
of acceleration that may be applied. Of course, for precise
calibration, the value of local gravity acceleration must be used.
CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETERS:
Centrifuge Method
Practically unlimited values of static acceleration may be
determined by a centrifuge or rotating table. The normal
component of acceleration toward the center of rotation is
expressed by the relation,

Where.
an = the acceleration of the seismic mass,
r = the radius of rotation measured from the center of the
table to the center of gravity of the seismic mass,
f = table rotation speed, rev/s
It is assumed here that the axis of rotation is vertical. One of the
disadvantages of this method, though not serious, is that of
making electrical connections to the instrument
CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETERS:
Steady-State Periodic Calibration
Back-to-Back Accelerometer Calibration
To calibrate a vibration accelerometer is to determine its
sensitivity (in m V /g or pC/g) at various frequencies of interest.
The Instrument Society of America-approved back-toback
comparison method is probably the most convenient and least
expensive technique.
The back-to-back calibration involves coupling the test
accelerometer directly to a National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) traceable double-ended calibration standard
accelerometer and driving the pair with a vibration exciter al
various g levels.
If a NIST traceable double ended calibration standard
accelerometer is not readily (or financially) available, a secondary
accelerometer may be substituted.
CALIBRATION OF ACCELEROMETERS:
Steady-State Periodic Calibration
Back-to-Back Accelerometer Calibration
The accelerometers are connected back to back as shown in
Figure, must be considered.
The vibration either frequency or amplitude can be adjusted and
the output of the "calibration standard“ and lest accelerometer
can be compared.
When accelerometers (or
vibration pickups) are
calibrated by this method, the
mass of the test unit relative
to the test standard must be
considered. If test unit mass is
more than 30% of the test
standard mass, then mass
loading compensation
RESPONSE OF THE SEISMIC INSTRUMENT TO TRANSIENTS:
Our discussion of seismic instruments to this point has been
largely in terms of simple harmonic motion. How will these
instruments respond to complex waveforms and transients?
Complete waveforms can be analyzed as a series of simple
sinusoidal components in appropriate amplitude and phase
relationships.
It would seem then that a seismic instrument capable of
responding faithfully to a range of individual harmonic inputs
should also respond faithfully to complex inputs made up of
frequency components within that range.
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY BY THE LASER VELOCITY TRANSDUCER:
In a simplified form of laser displacement, if the movable reflector is
attached to a vibrating surface [δ = δ(t)], the back-reflected beam is
combined with the initially split beam, causing a number of
successive dark fringes to be seen by the photodetector.
The number of fringes per unit of time represents the surface
velocity. The velocity sensed by this transducer is the velocity
component of the movable reflector along the direction of the laser
beam.
In practice the movable reflector can be a retroreflective tape, which
can easily be attached to most surfaces. The operating, or standoff,
distance of this device is usually 1.0 m or less. Since this is a
noncontacting-type velocity sensor, it can be used for the velocity
measurement of structures where the application of seismic-type
transducers would greatly alter the structure mass.
MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY BY THE LASER VELOCITY TRANSDUCER:
The operating, or standoff, distance of this device is usually 1.0 m
or less. Since this is a noncontacting-type velocity sensor, it can be
used for the velocity measurement of structures where the
application of seismic-type transducers would greatly alter the
structure mass.
Typical ones of this transducer are as follows:
1. Velocity survey of a hot surface such as a combustion engine
manifold
2. Velocity survey of a vibrating membrane
3. Orbit analysis of rotating shafts in rotating machinery
4. Measurement of velocities of machine elements where
attachment of seismic transducers is impossible
VIBRATION AND SHOCK TESTING:
Vibration and shock-test systems are particularly important in
relation to numerous R & D contracts (Research and Development).
Many specifications require that equipment perform satisfactorily at
definite levels of steady-state or transient dynamic conditions. Such
testing requires the use of special test facilities, often unique for the
test at hand but involving principles common to all.
Numerous items for civilian consumption require dynamic testing as
part of their development. All types of vibration-isolating methods
require testing to determine their effectiveness. Certain material
fatigue testing uses vibration test methods.
Specific examples of items subjected to dynamic tests include many
automobile parts, such as car radios, clocks. headlamps, radiators,
ignition components, and larger parts like fenders and body panels.
Also, many aircraft components and other items for use by the
armed services must meet definite vibration and shock
specifications.
VIBRATIONAL EXCITER SYSTEMS:
In order to submit a test item to a specified vibration, a source of
motion is required. Devices used for supplying vibrational
excitation are usually referred to simply as shakers or exciters.
In most cases, simple harmonic motion is provided, but systems
supplying complex waveforms are also available.
There are various forms of shakers, the variation depending on
the source of driving force. In general, the primary source of
motion may be electromagnetic, mechanical, piezoelectric, or
hydraulic-pneumatic or, in certain cases, acoustical. Each is
subject to inherent limitations, which usually dictate the choice.
VIBRATIONAL EXCITER SYSTEMS:
Electromagnetic Systems
A section through a small electromagnetic exciter is shown in Fig.
This consists of a field coil, which supplies a fixed magnetic flux
across the air graph, and a driver coil supplied from a variable-
frequency source. Permanent magnets are also sometimes used
for the fixed field, radio loudspeaker.
Support of the driving coil is by
means of flexure springs, which
permit the coil to reciprocate when
driven by the force interaction
between the two magnetic fields.
We see that the electromagnetic
driving head is very similar lo the
field and voice coil arrangement in
the ordinary radio loudspeaker.
VIBRATIONAL EXCITER SYSTEMS:
Mechanical-Type Exciters
There are two basic types of mechanical shakers: the directly
driven system and the inertia system. The directly driven shaker
consists simply of a test table that is caused lo reciprocate by
some form or mechanical linkage. Crank and connecting rod
mechanisms, Scotch Yokes. or cams may be used for this purpose.
TABLE 2: Specifications for Typical Electromagnetic Exciter Systems
VIBRATIONAL EXCITER SYSTEMS:
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
Important disadvantages of the electromagnetic and mechanical
shaker systems are limited load capacity and limited frequency,
respectively. As a result, the search for other sources of
controllable excitation has led to investigation in the areas of
hydraulics and pneumatics.
Figure below illustrates, in block form, a hydraulic system used
for vibration testing.

B lock diagram of a hydraulically operated shaker

VIBRATIONAL EXCITER SYSTEMS:
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems
Figure illustrates, in block form, a hydraulic system used for
vibration testing. In this arrangement an electrically actuated
servo valve operates a main control valve, in turn regulating flow
to each end of a main driving cylinder.
Large capacities (10,500,000 lbf or 2.2 MN) and relatively high
frequencies (to 400 Hz), with amplitudes as great as 18 in. (460
mm), have been attained.
Of course, the maximum values can not be attained
simultaneously. As would be expected, a primary problem in
designing a satisfactory system of this sort has been in
developing valving with sufficient capacity and response to
operate at the required speeds.
VIBRATION TEST METHODS:
Two basic methods are used in applying a sinusoidal force to the
test item: the brute-force method and the resonance method .
In the first case the item is attached or mounted on the shaker
table, and the shaker supplies sufficient force to literally drive the
item back and forth through its motion.
The second method makes use of a mechanical spring-mass
fixture having the desired natural frequency. The test item is
motioned as a part of the system that is excited by the shaker. The
shaker simply supplies the energy dissipated by damping.
VIBRATION TEST METHODS:
The Brute-Force Method
Brute-force testing requires that the exciter supply all the
accelerating force to drive the item through the prescribed
motion. Such motion is generally sinusoidal, although complex
waveforms may be used. The problems inherent in an
arrangement of this sort are shown by the following example.
Suppose a vibration test specification calls for sinusoidally
shaking a 10-kg test item al 100 Hz with a displacement
amplitude of 2 mm (double amplitude = 4 mm). What force
amplitude will be required?
VIBRATION TEST METHODS:
The Brute-Force Method
Maximum force will correspond to maximum acceleration, and
maximum acceleration may be calculated as follows:
SHOCK TESTING:
Actually, shock testing is only one of two phases of a broader
classification that might better be called acceleration testing.
Acceleration testing includes any test wherein acceleration
loading is of primary significance.
Included would be tests involving static or relatively slowly
changing accelerations of any magnitude. Shock testing, on the
other hand. is usually thought of as involving acceleration
transients of moderate to high magnitude. In both cases the basic
problem is to determine the ability of the test item to continue
functioning properly either during or after application of such
loading.
In general terms, shock testing may be divided into two broad
categories: low energy and high energy. Low-energy testing
corresponds to the application of high accelerations over short
time intervals. The terms sharp, intense, violent, and abrupt
might be applied.
SHOCK TESTING:
Air Gun Shock-Producing Devkes
Basically, the air gun system uses a piston, which moves within a
tube or barrel under the action of high· pressure air applied to
one face of the piston. Energy is stored by pressurizing the air in
an accumulator.
Spring-Loaded Test Rigs
As the name indicates, these machines use some form of
mechanical spring for storing the energy required for acceleration.
One machine designed lo provide vertical accelerations uses
helical tension springs attached al one end to a test carriage and
at the other end to anchors that may be moved to put various
initial tensions in the springs.
SHOCK TESTING:
A Hydraulic-Pneumatic Rig
The essentials for one hydraulic-
pneumatic machine are illustrated
in figure shown.
In operation, an initial pneumatic
pressure is introduced to chamber
B. This pressure acts over the
larger piston area.
Hydraulic pressure is then
increased in chamber A until the
hydraulic pressure over the small
area overcomes the pneumatic
pressure acting over the larger
area.

A form of hydro-pneumatic shock-producing device

SHOCK TESTING:
Gravity Rigs
There are two commonly used gravity-type shock rigs: the drop
type and the hammer type. The hammer type is often referred
to as a high-g machine and normally provides higher values of
acceleration than the drop machine does.
Basically the drop machine consists of a platform to which the
test item is attached, an elevating system for raising the
platform, a releasing device that allows the platform to drop,
and an impact pad or arrester against which the platform strikes.
Guides are provided for controlling the fall (Figure coming).
SHOCK TESTING:
Gravity Rigs
Basically the drop machine consists of a platform to which the
test item is attached, an elevating system for raising the
platform, a releasing device that allows the platform to drop,
and an impact pad or arrester against which the platform strikes.
Guides are provided for controlling the fall (Figure below).

A drop-type mechanical shock-producing machine