1EM105B

Static and Kinetic Friction

2022
INITIALS: SN
SURNAME: MAHLANGU
STUDENT NUMBER: 216720792
EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 2

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 i. Declaration

I hereby declare that the Mechanics of Machines II Practical I was done as partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the subject of Mechanics of Machines II in Mechanical Engineering at
Tshwane University of Technology. I further declare that the report is my own work and that
the content of this report depict the experiment that I have undergone.

SN MAHLANGU
INITIAL(S) SURNAME
_______________________________
SIGNATURE

MP MATLOU
INITIAL(S) SURNAME
_______________________________
SIGNATURE

20 MAY 2022
DATE

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 ii. Summary
In this experiment, the equations of motion under constant acceleration were investigated by
observing the motion of a cart rolling down a (relatively) frictionless track and plotting the
Position- as well as the Velocity-vs Time graphs which describe this motion. The graphs
observed were not perfectly smooth/straight as one would expect from the equations but the
values that were compared between the Position- and Velocity-graphs (at decent instances
of time) did coincide enough for a conclusion that the cart motion observed behave as
expected.

ii.1. What was done on the experiment

In the lab, we made some basic measurements of velocity, and position. First we measured
the coefficients of static friction between several combinations of surfaces using a heavy
block and a set of hanging masses. Next, we measured the coefficient of kinetic friction
between two of the combinations of surfaces we used in the static friction part of this
experiment.

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Table of Contents
i. Declaration...................................................................................................................... 2
ii. Summary......................................................................................................................... 3
ii.1. What was done on the experiment..............................................................................3
1. Background information..................................................................................................5
1.1. Background theory of the experiment..........................................................................5
2. Practical 2....................................................................................................................... 5
2.1. Objective of the experiment.........................................................................................5
2.2. Description of tools and equipment used.....................................................................5
2.3. Procedures..................................................................................................................5
2.4. Results........................................................................................................................ 6
3. Discussion....................................................................................................................... 9
4. Conclusion.................................................................................................................... 11
APPENDIX A........................................................................................................................ 12

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 1. Background information

1.1. Background theory of the experiment

Velocity arises due to mass and acceleration acting upon the cart. In this experiment we
assess the effects of friction on the velocity of the cart and position, which is the total
distance covered by the cart. Friction is a resisting force that acts along the tangent to two
surfaces in contact when the cart slides.
Normal force also acts upon the cart, and it acts perpendicular to the surface. The frictional
force is directly proportional to the normal force. Static friction arises to oppose any force
trying to cause motion tangent to the surfaces. The maximum static frictional force is found
just before the truck moves immediately after being released, thus affecting the velocity of
the truck.
If the applied force is less than the maximum, then the frictional force that arises is equal to
the applied force, and there is no motion. If the applied force is greater than the maximum,
the object will begin to move, and static friction conditions are no longer valid.
The other kind of friction occurs when two surface are moving with respect to each other. Itis
called kinetic friction. According to velocity, friction may be classified into static friction (when
v = 0) and kinetic friction. According to type of motion, friction can also be classified into
sliding friction (in the case of sliding motion) and rolling friction (in the case of rolling motion).

2. Practical 2

2.1. Objective of the experiment.

In this experiment the kinematic equations of motion under constant acceleration are
investigated by obtaining and analysing the position vs time, and velocity vs time graphs for
a cart rolling down an incline with the force of gravity being the only force being exerted on
the cart.

2.2. Description of tools and equipment used.

 1 PASPORT Xplorer GLX
 1 PASPORT Force Sensor
 1 1.2 m PASCO Track
 1 Discover Friction Accessory
 1 Hooked Mass Set
 1 Balance
 0.5 m Braided Physics String

2.3. Procedures
Figure.2.3a. Shows the first thing to do before the results can be recorded. Place the track
on a flat, horizontal surface and put 200 g (0.2 kg) into the tray. A piece of string between
the tray and the hook on the Force Sensor should be about 5 cm and place the sensor on
the track.

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 Figure.2.3a. Equipment set up.
2.3.1. Set up the position time graph
Step 1. Open PASCO Capstone and create Position vs Time graph.
Step 2. Position cart at starting point of track, 10cm away from motion sensor.
Step 3. Click record and then immediately release cart to allow the tray to roll down the
track.
Step 4. When the cart reaches end of track and bounces back, stop recording.
Step 5. Select User Curve _t from curve _t list.
Step 6. Edit the default user _t equation and replace with: x0+v0 _t+(1=2)_a_t2
Step 7. Record x0, v0, and a.
2.3.2. Set up the velocity time graph
Step 1. Open PASCO Capstone again and create Velocity vs Time graph.
Step 2. Position cart at starting point of track, 10cm away from motion sensor.
Step 3. Click record and then immediately release cart to allow the tray to roll down the
track.
Step 4. To create the Velocity vs Time graph.
Step 3. Select User Curve _t from curve _t list.
Step 5. Edit the default user _t equation and replace with: y = V0 + a _ t
Step 6. Record initial velocity v0, and acceleration a.

2.4. Results
Figure.2.4.1. Shows the velocity results from PASCO Capstone software. The results were
obtained were obtain by one person handling the sensor truck, and a second person
handling the PASCO Capstone. The truck was released, and the velocity results below were
recorded.

Figure. 2.4.1. Velocity results from PASCO Capstone software 0 g mass cart.

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Figure. 2.4.1.1. Shows the position results from PASCO Capstone software for 0g mass of a
cart. The results were obtained from the same procedure that was done on figure. 2.4.1. By
tying a piece of string between the friction tray and the hook on the force sensor. The string
was about 5 cm. Then one person handled the sensor truck, and a second person handled
the PASCO Capstone. Then the truck was released and the results in figure. 2.3a, were
recorded.
Figure.2.4.1.1. It shows the Velocity vs Time plot from PASCO. The graph shows that the
velocity increases as the cart accelerates and the velocity decreases after the cart hits the
bumper.

Figure.2.4.1.1. Velocity vs Time graph for 0g mass on the cart.

Figure.2.4.2. Shows the velocity results from PASCO Capstone software foe 200g cart
mass. The results were obtained by tying a piece of string between the friction tray and the
hook on the Force Sensor. The string was about 5 cm. Then one person handled the sensor
truck, and a second person handled the PASCO Capstone. The truck was released, and the
velocity results below were recorded

Figure. 2.4.2. Velocity results from PASCO Capstone software for 200g mass.
Figure.2.4.2.1. It shows the Velocity vs Time plot from PASCO for 200g mass on the chart.
The graph shows that the velocity increases as the cart accelerates and the velocity
decreases after the cart hits the bumper.

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 Figure.2.4.2.1. Velocity vs Time graph for 200g mass on the cart.
Figure. 2.4.3. Shows the position results from PASCO Capstone software for 200g mass on
the cart. The results were obtained from the same procedure that was done on figure. 2.4.3.
By tying a piece of string between the friction tray and the hook on the force sensor. The
string was about 5 cm. Then one person handled the sensor truck, and a second person
handled the PASCO Capstone. Then the truck was released and the results in figure. 2.4.3,
were recorded.

Figure. 2.4.3. Position results from PASCO Capstone software.

Figure.2.4.3.1. It shows the Position vs Time plot from PASCO. The graph shows the
position increasing as the cart accelerates and accumulates distance the velocity decreases
after the cart hits the bumper.

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 Figure.2.4.3.1. Position vs Time graph.

3. Discussion
3.1. Calculations and Analysis
Table.3.1.1. It’s the results that were obtained from the velocity time graph for time 0.4,
0.8,1.2 seconds and 0 g mass of the cart. The acceleration of the cart can be obtained by
using the velocity time table.
Table.3.1.1. Velocity time graph for 0g mass on the cart

Velocity (m/s) Time (s)

0.18 0.4
0.31 0.8
0.43 1.2

a1 = V1/ t1
= 0.18/0.4 = 0.45 m/s2
a2 = V2/ t2
= 0.31/0.8 = 0.388 m/s2
a3 = V3/ t3
= 0.43/1.2 = 0.358 m/s2
This concludes that the acceleration increases when the cart has a 0g mass. The high
acceleration is due to the mass that results in approximately less Normal force than
expected which affects frictional force and static force.
Table.3.1.1. It’s the results that were obtained from the velocity time graph for time 0.4,
0.8,1.2 seconds and 200 g mass of the cart. The acceleration of the cart can be obtained by
using the velocity time table.
Table.3.1.1. Velocity time graph for 200g mass on the cart

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 Velocity (m/s) Time (s)
0.05 0.4
0.17 0.8
0.28 1.2
a1 = V1/ t1
= 0.04/0.4 = 0.125 m/s2
a2 = V2/ t2
= 0.17/0.8 = 0.2125 m/s2
a3 = V3/ t3
= 0.28/1.2 = 0.233 m/s2
This concludes that the acceleration decreases when the cart has 200g mass. The change
in acceleration is due to the mass that results in Normal force which affects frictional force
and static force.
Table.3.1.2. Its results that were obtained from the position time graph for time 0.4, 0.8, and
1.2 seconds.
Table.3.1.2. Position time graph for time 0.4, 0.8, and 1.2 seconds.

Position (m) Time (s)

0.19 0.4
0.29 0.8
0.43 1.2

4. Questions

4.1. What is the physical quantity represented by the ratio of friction force to normal
force?
Friction between two flat surfaces sliding past each other is caused by microscopic
imperfections interfering as they try move past each other. Basically there are tiny peaks and
valleys on even the smoothest of surfaces that will tend to interlock when impressed against
another surface, causing the two surfaces to bind and resist any sliding movement. In order
to overcome this, enough force must be applied to to either cause the imperfections to
deflect and move out of the way, or simply grind them off.
Increasing the amount of force pushing the surfaces together, normally to interface between
them, makes it harder for these imperfections to move past each other, and making grinding
more prevalent. Each peak and valley can be thought of almost like a spring. The more you
deflect them, the more force is required to deflect them further. Thus by increasing the
normal force, you are increasing the baseline static deflection peaks and valleys of the
interface and so increasing the amount of force required to push them out of the way.

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 4.2. What pattern do you notice about the values for the coefficients of friction?
Increasing the amount of force pushing the surfaces together, normally to interface between
them, makes it harder for these imperfections to move past each other, and making grinding
more prevalent. Each peak and valley can be thought of almost like a spring. The more you
deflect them, the more force is required to deflect them further. Thus by increasing the
normal force, you are increasing the baseline static deflection peaks and valleys of the
interface and so increasing the amount of force required to push them out of the way.

4.3. What happens to the static friction force as the mass is increased? Why does this
happen?
Static friction, in contrast, acts between surfaces at rest with respect to each other. The
value of static friction varies between zero and the smallest force needed to start motion.
This smallest force required to start motion, or to overcome static friction, is always greater
than the force required to continue the motion, or to overcome kinetic friction.
4.4. What happens to the kinetic friction force as the mass is increased? Why does
this happen?
Two simple experimental facts characterize the friction of sliding solids. First, the amount of
friction is nearly independent of the area of contact. If a brick is pulled along a table, the
frictional force is the same whether the block of mass is lying flat or standing on end.
Second, friction is proportional to the load or weight that presses the surfaces together. If a
pile of three bricks is pulled along a table, the friction is three times greater than if one block
of mass is pulled. Thus, the ratio of friction F to load L is constant.
This constant ratio is called the coefficient of friction. Because both friction and load are
measured in units of force, the coefficient of friction is dimensionless. The frictional force
itself is directed oppositely to the motion of the object. Because the friction thus far described
arises between surfaces in relative motion, it is called kinetic friction.
4.5. What are the units for the coefficient of friction? Explain.
With respect to the force applied, the friction force first increases up to a certain value
linearly ad after that when it reaches the maximum friction force, the value becomes
construct. So here, at this maximum point the friction force is because of the static friction.
And since it is known as self-adjusting friction, the friction keeps on increasing as the force
supply increases. And now if we observe the mass of an object and the friction force, let's
say this is an object and the friction force we know it is mutinies. The normal force. A normal
force depends of course on the mass of an object. So, if the mass is increased, the friction
force also increases in this case.
Therefore, the coefficient of friction, µ, is a measure of the amount of friction existing
between two surfaces. A low value of coefficient of friction indicates that the force required
for sliding to occur is less than the force required when the coefficient of friction is high. The
value of the coefficient of friction is given by μ=frictional force, (F)normal force, (N)
Transposing gives frictional force = µ × normal force, F=μN
4.6. Think about your experience with the friction trays. When a car skids to a stop
(with wheels “locked”), which friction force is at work? How do you know?

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Kinetic frictional force is at work, the force of kinetic friction is μk times the normal force on a
body. It is expressed in Newtons (N). The kinetic friction equation can be written as: Force of
kinetic friction = (coefficient of kinetic friction) (normal force)
If you increase the normal force between two sliding surfaces, then you increase the kinetic
friction. In the situation you are considering, the normal force is the weight, but if you think of
it as the frictional force being proportional to the weight you might fall into the trap of using
that when it does not apply.
If you increase the weight, do you not increase the frictional force as well more for static
friction than kinetic friction. If you increase the normal force between two sliding surfaces,
then you increase the kinetic friction.

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 5. Conclusion
Starting by looking at the velocity vs time curve from time zero to where the graph reaches a
maximum, which is the section of the graph of interest to us, the shape of the curve is
satisfactory based on what was expected for an object moving under constant acceleration.
A relatively straight line with a positive slope indicates that the cart was moving under
constant acceleration until it reached the end of the track. The friction on the motion of the
cart was not considered in this experiment but can be idented as the reason for the velocity
not increasing in a smooth and uniform manner until max velocity was reached.
Looking at the position vs time graph, the shape of the curve from time zero to when it
reaches a maximum was expected to be parabolic in nature which would have been easier
to see had the cart had a longer track to roll down on.
The gradient of this curve represents the velocity of the cart and increases with time as was
observed in our results. From the analysis it was expected to record approximately equal
values for v0 and from the Position vs time and Velocity vs Time graphs. The divergences
can be at-tributed to tolerance of the equipment used as well as the accuracy precision of
the students conducting the experiment and handling the equipment.
We also observed that mass doesn’t affect static friction. If you had a small mass and a large
mass sitting on a surface in a weightless situation, neither would have any static friction.
Weight affects friction (more correctly the force perpendicular to the surface). If you have a
mass sitting on a horizontal plane, then its weight will be proportional to its mass so the
static friction will be proportional to its mass.
On the other hand, if you have a small mass sitting next to a large mass on a horizontal
plane, and you press hard on the small mass, you will have increased it downward force
(weight?) possibly to the point where its static friction is greater than that of the greater mass
without increasing its mass.

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APPENDIX A

Table of figures
Figure.2.3a. Equipment set up………………………………………………………………………6
Figure. 2.4.1. Velocity results from PASCO Capstone software 0 g mass cart……….............6
Figure.2.4.1.1. Velocity vs Time graph for 0g mass on the cart…………………………………7
Figure. 2.4.2. Velocity results from PASCO Capstone software for 200g mass……………….7
Figure.2.4.2.1. Velocity vs Time graph for 200g mass on the cart………………………………8
Figure. 2.4.3. Position results from PASCO Capstone software………………………………...8
Figure.2.4.3.1. Position vs Time graph……………………………………………………………..8

Table of tables
Table.3.1.1. Velocity time graph for 0g mass on the cart………………………………………...9
Table.3.1.2. Velocity time graph for 200g mass on the cart……………………………………..9
Table.3.1.3. Position time graph for time 0.4, 0.8, and 1.2 seconds…………………………..10

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