Dr Jo Barnes

Air Quality
Atmosphere and Climate
Management
Resource Centre,
- Urban Air Pollution
UWE Bristol

10 February 2022
Overview

• Section 1: Fundamental concepts

• Section 2: Effects of air pollution
• Section 3: Air quality policy and management
• Section 4: Air quality policy and management - challenges
Section 1: Fundamental concepts

What is air pollution and where does it come from?

 Atmospheric
Earth’s atmosphere layers

Atmospheric
composition

80-85 km

50 km

+ water vapour Ozone layer

Troposphere 11 (9-17) km
Key air pollutants (there are many others!)
• Gaseous pollutants
o Nitrogen oxides (NOx) – comprised nitrogen dioxide (NO2) + nitric oxide (NO)
o Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
o Ozone (O3)
o Ammonia (NH3)
o Carbon monoxide (CO)
o Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs) – includes benzene & 1,3-butadiene
o Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) – includes benzo(a)pyrene
• Particulate matter
o PM10, PM2.5, PM1.0
• Inorganic aerosols
o Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), Ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4)
• Bioaerosols – microorganisms
• Heavy metals
o Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) and Nickel (Ni)
Particulate matter size fractions
 https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/view-
https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2370752
image.php?image=211111&picture=forest-fire
Forest-fires (CO, PM10, NOx)

Trees (VOCs)
https://www.flickr.com/photos/57768042@N00/3402464379
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mayon_Volcano_Eruption_4.jpg
Dust storms/ Soil Erosion (PM10)

Volcanoes (SO2, CO, PM10)

Natural sources
Anthropogenic sources

Traffic Industry/ power generation Fugitive releases e.g. quarries

farming-3449647/
https://pixabay.com/photos/farming-climate-change-
Domestic (Heating/Cooking) Shipping Agriculture
Some anthropogenic pollutants and sources
• Benzene: road transport, domestic combustion of coal and wood for heating and
industrial processes
• 1,3-butadiene: combustion of petroleum products & use in the chemical industry
• CO: mainly from road transport (incomplete fuel combustion)
• Lead: anti-knock lead additives in petrol (phased out at the end of 1999), industry
• NO2: combustion processes mainly road transport and electricity supply industry,
aviation
• PM10/2.5: road transport (exhaust and road, tyre and brake wear), domestic heating
(coal & wood fuels), quarrying and other industrial activities, aviation, shipping
• SO2: electricity generation fuelled by coal, shipping, railway locomotives
• Ozone (O3): not emitted directly from man-made activities
• PAHs: mainly from road transport, domestic heating (coal & wood burning), fires
• NH3: agriculture
Primary and Secondary Air Pollution
Primary – direct from combustion Secondary – formed in atmosphere by
process/ fugitive sources chemical reactions
– Materials pass from fuel to air – Pollutants not emitted directly
(e.g. sulphur, lead) but formed by chemical
– Incomplete combustion (e.g. reactions in the atmosphere
CO and hydrocarbons) (e.g. NO2, O3, NH4NO3,
– Inevitable products of (NH4)2SO4)
combustion (e.g. NOX, CO2,
water vapour)
– Natural sources - dusts,
volcanoes, fires etc.

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at
tachment_data/file/633270/air-quality-plan-detail.pdf
 < Boundary layer:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/
topics/earth-and-planetary-
sciences/boundary-layer

Sources, transport, transformation, and fate of atmospheric pollutants Reproduced from the US Climate Change Science Program.
CFC=chlorofluorocarbon. CH4=methane. CO=carbon monoxide. CO2=carbon dioxide. N2O=nitrous oxide. NOx=nitrogen oxides.
 Local and background concentrations

The concept of regional background, urban increment and local traffic increment (adapted from Lenschow et al., 2001).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307820841_Particulate_matter_air_quality_and_climate_lessons_learned_and_future_needs/figures?lo=1
Stability and Inversions
Street Canyons
 Smog

Photochemical smog Sulphurous smog

“Los Angeles smog” •“London smog” / “classical smog”
NOx + VOCs -> Ozone •Smoke (SO2 and PM) and fog
Vehicle exhaust •Domestic and industry (coal)
Summer – driven by sunlight •Winter – low temperatures
Pollution Pathway
Section 2: Effects of air pollution

What does air pollution do and why do we need to

regulate it?
 Impacts of air pollution
• Air pollution has multiple impacts on:
o Health
o Climate
o Ecosystems
o Built environment

• These impacts have traditionally been

treated separately in science and policy
but more integrated approaches are now
being advocated.
Impacts of selected greenhouse gases and air pollutants. Source: IASS/the authors;
adapted from Melamed et al. 2016 http://publications.iass-
potsdam.de/pubman/item/escidoc:4598888:6/component/escidoc:4696893/I
ASS_Policy_Brief_2019_5_en.pdf
Air Pollution and Climate Change
o Air pollution and climate change are inextricably linked.
o Fossil-fuel combustion results in local air pollution as well as increasing
CO2 emissions.
o Short-lived climate-forcing pollutants (SLCPs) e.g. methane, black carbon,
ozone, and sulphate aerosols, absorb or reflect sunlight adding to
atmospheric warming and cooling mechanisms.
o Changing climates may affect air pollution, e.g. hotter summers ->
increased O3 production

https://climpol.iass-potsdam.de/info/air-quality-climate-change-slps/history-slcps
https://ccacoalition.org/en/content/short-lived-climate-pollutants-slcps
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es803650w
 Air Pollution and Ecosystems
• Air pollution can affect ecosystems in complex ways.
o Direct toxicity
̶ Leaf tip damage and speckly lesions, decreased vitality and loss of sensitive species, e.g. lichens
̶ “Critical levels” set for concentrations of SO2, NOx, O3, NH3 and cloud water droplets.
o Accumulated deposition (indirect effects)
̶ Eutrophication and acidification
̶ Long term change in plant species competition and changes in soil nutrient status
̶ “Critical loads” set for deposition of nutrient nitrogen and sulphur for different habitat classes –
used in impact assessments
o Heavy metals e.g. cadmium, mercury and lead, particularly on aquatic fish and invertebrates
o Ecosystem services e.g. biodiversity, CO2 sequestration, crops, livestock, timber, recreational
fishing
• Wetlands are also a major natural source of climate forcing methane globally
http://www.apis.ac.uk/ecosystem-services-and-air-pollution-impacts
http://www.apis.ac.uk/critical-loads-and-critical-levels-guide-data-provided-apis
https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/exposure-of-ecosystems-to-acidification-14
Air Pollution and the Built Environment
• Black carbon and acid deposition can severely soil and
corrode ancient buildings and monuments, particularly
those made from limestone or bronze.
• Loss of cultural heritage and costs of maintenance may
be significant.
• Contemporary air pollutants have the potential to
degrade organic coatings and polymers on modern https://www.flickr.com/photos/wonker/2377311315

structures.
• Outdoor air pollution ingresses to indoor affecting choice
of ventilation systems.

https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/p243
http://www.corr-institute.se/icp-materials/web/page.aspx?sid=3293
Schematic overview of health impacts

(Source: EEA https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/healthy-environment-healthy-lives)

How does air pollution affect health?
• Pollutants with the strongest evidence for public health concern,
include particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2).
• The health risks associated with PM10 and PM2.5 are especially well
documented.
• PM is capable of penetrating deep into lung passageways and
entering the bloodstream causing cardiovascular, cerebrovascular
and respiratory impacts.
• In 2013, PM was classified as a cause of lung cancer by WHO’s
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). It is also the
most widely used indicator to assess the health effects from
exposure to ambient air pollution.
 How does air pollution affect health?
• In children and adults, both short- and long-term exposure to ambient air
pollution can lead to reduced lung function, respiratory infections and
aggravated asthma.
• Maternal exposure to ambient air pollution is associated with adverse birth
outcomes, such as low birth weight and pre-term birth.
• Emerging evidence also suggests ambient air pollution may affect diabetes,
neurological development in children, psychiatric disorders, dementia,
Parkinson’s, multiple sclerosis, glaucoma and even baldness!
• Growing evidence suggests the burden of disease from ambient air pollution
is expected to greatly increase.

https://www.who.int/airpollution/ambient/health-impacts/en/
https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(18)32723-5/fulltext
 Short term-and Long-term health effects
• Short-term exposure to high air
pollution levels can cause
immediate, severe (acute)
health problems including:
o Aggravated cardiovascular and
respiratory illness
o Added stress to heart and lungs,
which must work harder to supply
the body with oxygen
o Damaged cells in the respiratory
system
• Long-term exposure to
(relatively) lower air pollution
levels can have permanent
(chronic) health effects such as:
o Accelerated aging of the lungs
o Loss of lung capacity and
decreased lung function
o Development of diseases such as
asthma, bronchitis, emphysema,
and cancer
o Shortened life span
Health Effects of Ambient Pollution

Severity of health effects

Death

Hospital
Admissions

Doctor visits

Asthma attacks, medication use,

symptoms

lung function changes, immune cell responses,

heart rate or heart rate variability responses

Proportion of population affected

Source: KCL. Originally based on a diagram in United States Congress Document N° 92-241, 1972 and subsequently WHO
(1972)
Global air pollution mortality and morbidity
• Air pollution is the world’s single largest environmental health risk.
• Ambient (outdoor air pollution) in both cities and rural areas was
estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2016,
although more recent studies have suggested it may be more than
twice as high (Lelieveld et al., 2020; Vohra et al.,2021).
• 91% of those premature deaths occurred in low- and middle-income
countries, mainly in the WHO SE Asia and Western Pacific regions.
• Worldwide ambient air pollution accounts for:
o 16% of all deaths from lung cancer
o 17% of all deaths from ischaemic heart disease and stroke
o 25% of all deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
o 26% of all deaths from respiratory infection

https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/indicator-groups/indicator-group-details/GHO/ambient-air-pollution/
UK Annual Toll of Death and Ill Health
• Air quality is the largest environmental health risk in the UK.
• Between 28,000 and 36,000 people die prematurely each year, principally
associated with exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
o https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment
_data/file/734799/COMEAP_NO2_Report.pdf

• Public Health England estimate the 2017 costs of air pollution to the NHS and
social care in England as about £157 million.
o https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment
_data/file/708855/Estimation_of_costs_to_the_NHS_and_social_care_due_to_the_health
_impacts_of_air_pollution_-_summary_report.pdf
 Health Impact Assessment of Air Pollution on Asthma in
London
• This KCL report, published 4th April 2019,
uses previous studies to provide a modelled
estimate of the impact of air pollution in
London on asthma admissions.
• The report finds over 4,000 Londoners were
hospitalised from 2014 - 2016 in three years
due to harmful air pollution, an average of
around 1,000 London hospital admissions for
asthma and serious lung conditions every year.
• Between 2014-16, a quarter of those admitted
with airway diseases were children under 14
with asthma.
https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/environment-publications/health-impact-assessment-air-pollution-asthma-london
Inquest of Ella Kissi-Debrah
• Ella, who lived in London and suffered from asthma, died in February 2013 at the age
of 9 of acute respiratory failure.
• In December 2020, Philip Barlow, Assistant Coroner for London Inner South found
that air pollution was a significant factor to both the induction and exacerbations of
her asthma. First to record air pollution as a medical cause of death.
• During the course of her illness between 2010 and 2013, Ella was exposed to levels
of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and Particulate Matter in excess of WHO Guidelines. The
principal source of her exposure was traffic emissions.
• During this period there was a recognised failure to reduce the level of NO2 to within
the limits set by EU and domestic law which possibly contributed to her death.
• The Assistant Coroner has called for action from national and local government and
the medical profession to prevent future deaths: https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-
content/uploads/2021/04/Ella-Kissi-Debrah-2021-0113-1.pdf
Health impacts of air pollution in Bristol

• Around 300 premature deaths each year in the City of Bristol can
be attributed to exposure to NO2 and fine particulate matter
(PM2.5), with roughly an equal number attributable to both
pollutants.
• This represents about 8.5% of deaths in the administrative area of
Bristol being attributable to air pollution.

• https://www.bristol.gov.uk/documents/20182/32675/Health+Impacts+of+Air+Pollution+in+
Bristol+February+2017/4df2fce5-e2fc-4c22-b5c7-5e7a5ae56701
• https://www.bristol.gov.uk/documents/20182/32675/Bristol+City+Council+Air+Quality+Ann
ual+Status+Report+2020.pdf/1cc35b4e-ca4f-412b-0b11-13afc31d9708
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-air-pollution/health-matters-air-pollution
 Air pollution, deprivation and health
• Considered simultaneously,
air pollution and deprivation
modified and strengthened
associations with all-cause
and respiratory disease
mortality, especially in
‘most’ deprived areas
where most-vulnerable
people lived and where
health needs were
greatest.
Brunt, H., Barnes, J., Jones, S., Longhurst, J., Scally, G. and Hayes, E. T. (2017) Air pollution, deprivation and
health: Understanding relationships to add value to local air quality management policy and practice in Wales,
UK. Journal of Public Health, 39 (3). pp. 485-497. ISSN 1741-3842 Available from:
http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/30133
NO2 concentrations against poverty

Barnes, J. , Chatterton, T. and Longhurst, J. (2019) Emissions vs exposure: Increasing injustice from road traffic-related
air pollution in the United Kingdom. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 73. pp. 56-66. ISSN
1361-9209 Available from: https://uwe-repository.worktribe.com/output/1491851
NO2 concentrations vs NOx emissions
against poverty

Barnes, J. , Chatterton, T. and Longhurst, J. (2019) Emissions vs exposure: Increasing injustice from road traffic-related
air pollution in the United Kingdom. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 73. pp. 56-66. ISSN
1361-9209 Available from: https://uwe-repository.worktribe.com/output/1491851
Air pollution, noise, heat & socioeconomic status
• Unequal exposure and unequal impacts: social vulnerability
to air pollution, noise and extreme temperatures in Europe
https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/protect-vulnerable-
citizens
• In-depth Report from Science for Environment Policy ‘Links
between noise and air pollution and socioeconomic status.
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/research/ne
wsalert/pdf/air_noise_pollution_socioeconomic_status_lin
ks_IR13_en.pdf
• See also: Barnes, J. , De Vito, L. , Blanes Guàrdia,
Núria, Fons Esteve, J. , van Kamp, I. , Marín Puig, A. , Hayes,
E. T.and Michalec, A. (2019) Qualitative assessment of links
between exposure to noise and air pollution and
socioeconomic status. Technical Report. University of the
West of England. Available from: https://uwe-
repository.worktribe.com/output/869590
Section 3: Air quality policy and management

What is being done to reduce/control air pollution?

 CONCENTRATIONS EMISSIONS

WHO Air Quality Guidelines United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
2005 (UNECE) Convention on Long-range Transboundary
Air Pollution – Gothenburg Protocol
Ambient Air Quality Directive
(AAQD) 2008/50/EC National Emission reduction Commitments
Limit Values/Target Values Directive (NECD) 2016/2284/EU

Air Quality Standards Environment Act (Part IV) Clean Air Act UK National Emission Ceilings Regulations
Regulations 2010 (England) 1995 1956/68/93 2018
Limit Values/Target Values
Air Quality (England) The Air Quality National Air Pollution Control
Regulations 2000 / Air (Domestic Solid Programme (NAPCP)
Annual compliance Quality (England) Fuels Standards)
assessment reports (Amendment) Regulations (England)
(Air Pollution in the UK) 2002 Regulations 2020 KEY
Air Quality Objectives
NO2 Air International
Clean Air Strategy
Quality Plans Local Air Quality Smoke Control Areas
for England European Union
Management (LAQM)
Clean Air Zone AQMAs UK
(CAZ) Framework AQAPs
Devolved Authority
[Environment Bill 2019-21]
Local
EU emissions control and ambient concentrations limit values
National Emission reduction
Commitments Directive
• For pollutant emissions, Directive
2016/2284/EU which entered into force on
31 December 2016 sets national reduction
commitments for the five pollutants
(sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile
organic compounds, ammonia and fine
particulate matter). Replaces Directive
2001/81/EC, the National Emission Ceilings
Directive (NEC Directive) and sets more
ambitious reduction commitments for 2030.
Ambient Air Quality Directive
• For pollutant concentrations, two Air
Quality Directives (2008/50/EC and
2004/107/EC) set legally binding limits and
target values for ground-level
concentrations of outdoor air pollutants.
These replace the earlier Air Quality
Framework Directive (96/62/EC) and
• 4 Daughter Directives specifying Limit
Values for 12 air pollutants (1999-2004).
 EU Industrial emissions legislation
• Directive 2010/75/EU on industrial emissions (IED): This establishes the main principles for permitting
and control of large industrial installations based on an integrated approach and the application of best
available techniques (BAT). BAT is the most effective techniques to achieve a high level of environmental
protection, taking into account the costs and benefits.
• Directive (EU) 2015/2193 on medium combustion plants (MCPD): The MCPD regulates emissions of
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and dust from the combustion of fuels in plants with a rated thermal
input between 1 and 50 MW thermal.
• Directive 1994/63/EC and Directive 2009/126/EC on petrol storage & distribution: These related
directives reduce volatile organic compound emissions to the atmosphere by imposing measures on
storage and distribution of petrol.
• Regulation 166/2006 on the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register: This register gives public
access to detailed information on the emissions and the off-site transfers of pollutants and waste from
around 30 000 industrial facilities.

https://ec.europa.eu/environment/industry/stationary/index.htm
 EU Vehicle emissions controls
• Emissions from light-duty vehicles
o Emission limits - regulations on emission limit standards Euro 5 and 6 for light passenger and commercial vehicles
have introduced new stricter emission limits
o Reducing CO2 – EU laws set binding emission targets for new car and van fleets to help reduce the CO2 emissions
of light-duty vehicles. More on reducing CO2 emissions
o Improving testing procedures - as of 1 September 2017, new car models will have to pass new and more reliable
emissions tests in real driving conditions ('Real Driving Emissions' – RDE) as well as an improved laboratory test
('World Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure' – WLTP) before they can be driven on European roads. More on
the improved testing procedures
• In September 2017, the Commission introduced an improved mandatory car emissions test to reduce vehicle
emissions. In November 2018 the Commission adopted a new proposal to improve the tests.
• Emissions from heavy-duty vehicles
o Emission limits - Regulations on EURO VI for heavy duty vehicles have introduced new stricter emission limits.
Euro VI standards became mandatory on 1 January 2013
o Reducing CO2 - As of 1 January 2019, newly produced lorries have to determine and declare their CO2 emissions
and fuel consumption using the latest available version of the VECTO simulation tool. Those CO2 emissions form
the basis for the proposal setting CO2 emission standards for heavy-duty vehicles adopted by the Commission in
May 2018 with the 3rd mobility package. A new verification testing procedure (VTP) to verify CO2 emissions and
fuel consumption of new lorries on the road will be implemented as from 1 July 2020.
https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/automotive/environment-protection/emissions_en
 Shipping emissions controls
• As of 1 January 2015, EU Member States have to ensure that ships in the Baltic, the North Sea and the
English Channel use fuels with a sulphur content of no more than 0.10%. This is the so called SOx-
Emission Control Area (SOx-ECA) requirement which applies also under international law under
the MARPOL Convention (the international Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships).
Higher sulphur contents are still possible, but only if sustainable exhaust cleaning systems are installed
on board.
• As of 1 January 2020, EU Member States will also have to ensure that ships in all EU waters except SOx-
ECAs use fuels with a sulphur content of no more than 0.5%. The same requirement, also called the
global sulphur cap, will also enter into force globally as decided in October 2016 by the International
Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations specialised agency and governing body for the MARPOL
Convention. This landmark decision will significantly reduce the impact of ship emissions on human
health and ensure a global level playing field for ship operators.
• Directive (EU) 2016/802 regulates the sulphur content of certain liquid fuels, including for shipping.

https://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/sources/maritime.htm
Other sources’ emissions control
• Paints
o Directive 2004/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on the limitation of
emissions of volatile organic compounds due to the use of organic solvents in decorative paints and varnishes and
vehicle refinishing products and amending Directive 1999/13/EC ("the Paints Directive") aims to prevent the
negative environmental effects of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from decorative paints and
vehicle refinishing products. https://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/pollutants/stationary/paints/paints_legis.htm
• Non- Road Mobile Machinery (NRMM)
o Regulation (EU) 2016/1628 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 September 2016 on
requirements relating to gaseous and particulate pollutant emission limits and type-approval for internal
combustion engines for non-road mobile machinery, amending Regulations (EU) No 1024/2012 and (EU) No
167/2013, and amending and repealing Directive 97/68/EC.
https://ec.europa.eu/growth/sectors/automotive/environment-protection/non-road-mobile-machinery_en
• Agriculture
o The new NEC Directive 2016/2284/EU includes a set of measures to reduce emissions from agriculture in its
Annex III part 2. In addition there is substantial work under the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air
Pollution (CLRTAP) including the Ammonia Guidance Document and the UNECE Framework Code for Good
Agricultural Practice.. A workshop was organised in Brussels in 2019 to discuss a possible complementing UNECE
Guidance Document on sustainable integrated nitrogen management.
 EU Air Quality Standards (derived from WHO AQGs)
Permitted exceedences each
Pollutant Concentration Averaging period Legal nature
year
Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010
25 µg/m3***
Fine particles (PM2.5) 1 year Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2015 n/a
20µg/m3 Indicative limit value to be met as of 1.1.2020
350 µg/m3 1 hour Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 24
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
125 µg/m3 24 hours Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 3
200 µg/m3 1 hour Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010 18
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
40 µg/m3 1 year Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010 * n/a
50 µg/m3 24 hours Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 ** 35
PM10
40 µg/m3 1 year Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 ** n/a
Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 (or 1.1.2010 in
the immediate vicinity of specific, notified industrial
Lead (Pb) 0.5 µg/m3 1 year n/a
sources; and a 1.0 µg/m3 limit value applied from
1.1.2005 to 31.12.2009)
Carbon monoxide (CO) 10 mg/m3 Maximum daily 8 hour mean Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2005 n/a
Benzene 5 µg/m3 1 year Limit value to be met as of 1.1.2010** n/a
Ozone 120 µg/m3 Maximum daily 8 hour mean Target value to be met as of 1.1.2010 25 days averaged over 3 years
Arsenic (As) 6 ng/m3 1 year Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012 n/a
Cadmium (Cd) 5 ng/m3 1 year Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012 n/a
Nickel (Ni) 20 ng/m3 1 year Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012 n/a
1 ng/m3
Polycyclic Aromatic (expressed as
1 year Target value to be met as of 31.12.2012 n/a
Hydrocarbons concentration of
Benzo(a)pyrene)
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/standards.htm
UK emissions control and ambient concentrations limit values

• Emissions: The National Emissions Ceiling Regulations 2018 sets national (UK wide) emission
limits or ‘ceilings’ for sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia non-methane volatile organic
compounds in 2010, 2020 and 2030 and for PM2.5 in 2020 and 2030.
• Concentrations: Key pollutants in outdoor air are regulated by the Air Quality Standards
Regulations 2010, the Air Quality Standards (Wales) Regulations 2010, the Air Quality Standards
(Northern Ireland) 2010 and the Air Quality Standards (Scotland) Regulations 2010. These
Regulations seek to control human exposure to pollutants in outdoor air to protect human health
and the environment by requiring concentrations to be within specified limit values. In the event
of exceedances, the Regulations require the publication of Air Quality Plans setting out
“appropriate measures” that will ensure that the exceedance period is kept “as short as possible”.
• The Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) report compliance against the
limit values across 43 zones and agglomerations defined by population density.
• https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/air-pollution/uk-eu-policy-context
 UK Zones and Agglomerations

https://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/pdf/quality_by_country/UK_AirQualityZones_Current_opt.pdf
Compliance assessment
• Defra use:
o Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) monitoring
sites (https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/networks/network-info?view=aurn)
o UK Urban NO2 Network (UUNN) diffusion tubes (https://uk-
air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat05/2109270841_UUNN_Annual_Report_
2020.pdf)
and the
o Pollution Climate Mapping model (https://uk-
air.defra.gov.uk/research/air-quality-modelling?view=modelling) to assess air
quality against the EU Limit Values.
• Reports are available online (https://uk-
air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/index)
AURN monitoring sites
• The AURN is the UK's largest automatic monitoring network.
• Currently 171 sites managed by the Environment Agency in
England.
• AURN includes automatic air quality monitoring stations
measuring oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
ozone (O3) and particles (PM10 and PM2.5).
• These sites provide high resolution hourly information at
Urban Traffic, Urban Industrial, Suburban Industrial, Urban
Background, Suburban Background, Rural Background sites.
• Historical data can be downloaded from the Data Archive
https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/data/
• AURN sites (and a range of other monitoring networks) can
be viewed via the Interactive monitoring networks map
https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/interactive-map
UK Urban NO2 Network (UUNN) diffusion tubes
• The UK Urban NO2 Network (UUNN) is a nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) monitoring network that has been developed to
provide additional monitoring data for the national
compliance assessment for NO2
• Led by the Defra and the Environment Agency
• Managed and delivered by Bureau Veritas with assistance
from Ricardo, NPL, Gradko and Local Site Operators
• Network established in December 2019 and expanded in
December 2020
• Monitoring undertaken at ~300 locations in 2021 including
38 at AURN validation sites
• The latest report on the UUNN is available here: https://uk-
air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat05/2109270841_U
UNN_Annual_Report_2020.pdf
Pollution Climate Mapping (PCM)
• The PCM model provides outputs on a 1x1 km grid of
background concentrations plus around 9,000
representative road side values.
• There is one model per pollutant (NOx, NO2, PM10, PM2.5,
SO2, CO, benzene, ozone, As, Cd, Ni, Pb and B[a]p) each
with two parts: a base year model and a projections
model.
• Background maps, 1x1 km grids of pollutant
concentrations, for the UK are available from
the modelling data page.
• In addition you can download modelled background maps
by Local Authority from the LAQM pages which provide
source-sector splits and projections to future years.

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/index
Air pollution forecast map
• Five-day forecasts for the Daily Air Quality Index are
provided daily by the Met Office based on:
o Emissions of pollutants
o Transport and dispersion of pollutants by winds
o Chemical reactions amongst reactive gases and aerosols
o Removal processes, such as rain and deposition on surfaces.
• Modelled data are checked and adjusted against AURN.
• Forecasts are available for 5000 specific rural and
background locations as well as for the whole of the UK
to allow the public to find their nearest forecast by
postcode. These forecasts don't capture concentrations
close to busy roads where pollution may be higher.
 UK Daily Air Quality Index
• The overall air pollution index
for a site or region is
determined by the highest
concentration of five
pollutants:
o Nitrogen Dioxide
o Sulphur Dioxide
o Ozone
o PM2.5
o PM10
• Relates to short-term standards
• Highlights air pollution
episodes to provide health
alerts

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/
 UK DAQI Health Advice
• Step 1: Determine
whether you (or your
children) are likely to
be at-risk from air
pollution.
• Step 2: If you may be
at-risk, and are
planning strenuous
activity
outdoors, check the air
pollution forecast.
• Step 3: Use the health
messages below
corresponding to the
highest forecast level
of pollution as a guide.

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/air-pollution/daqi
 CONCENTRATIONS EMISSIONS

WHO Air Quality Guidelines United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
2005 (UNECE) Convention on Long-range Transboundary
Air Pollution – Gothenburg Protocol
Ambient Air Quality Directive
(AAQD) 2008/50/EC National Emission reduction Commitments
Limit Values/Target Values Directive (NECD) 2016/2284/EU

Air Quality Standards Environment Act (Part IV) Clean Air Act UK National Emission Ceilings Regulations
Regulations 2010 (England) 1995 1956/68/93 2018
Limit Values/Target Values
Air Quality (England) The Air Quality National Air Pollution Control
Regulations 2000 / Air (Domestic Solid Programme (NAPCP)
Annual compliance Quality (England) Fuels Standards)
assessment reports (Amendment) Regulations (England)
(Air Pollution in the UK) 2002 Regulations 2020 KEY
Air Quality Objectives
NO2 Air International
Clean Air Strategy
Quality Plans Local Air Quality Smoke Control Areas
for England European Union
Management (LAQM)
Clean Air Zone AQMAs UK
(CAZ) Framework AQAPs
Devolved Authority
[Environment Bill 2019-21]
Local
UK Clean Air Acts
• Clean Air Acts were passed (1956, 1968, 1993)
• The first legislation to control domestic and
industrial pollution sources.
• Moved power stations out of cities
• Legislated for higher chimneys
• Allowed councils to create “Smokeless Zones”
• 40% grants to households to change from coal to,
now available, gas or electric
 Smoke Control Areas
• Smoke Control Areas still exist across many UK towns and cities.
• In a smoke control area households can only burn fuel on the list of authorised
fuels, or any of the following ‘smokeless’ fuels, unless using an exempt appliance:
o anthracite
o semi-anthracite
o gas
o low volatile steam coal
• Unauthorised fuels, such as wood, can only be burned in exempt appliances such
as some boilers, cookers and stoves.
• Failure to comply can result in £1000 fine imposed by local authority.
• In reality it is difficult to regulate, but changes proposed in the new Environment
Bill to make enforcement easier.
https://www.gov.uk/smoke-control-area-rules
The Air Quality (Domestic Solid Fuels Standards)
(England) Regulations 2020
• The Air Quality (Domestic Solid Fuels Standards) (England) Regulations 2020 entered into force on
1st May 2021.
• Sale of traditional house coal is banned (although members of the Approved Coal Merchants
scheme may continue to sell coal until 1st May 2023). Smokeless fuels (e.g. anthracite) are not
banned.
• Wood sold in volumes <2 m3 must be certified and labelled as ‘Ready to Burn’, with <20% moisture
content.
• Wood sold in volumes >2 m3 must be accompanied with a notice that explains how to dry, store and
check the moisture of the wood before it is used.
• All manufactured solid fuels must be certified for use and labelled to be legally sold. Some
manufactured solid fuels (e.g. coffee logs) are exempt.
• Woodsure administer the Ready to Burn Scheme for woodfuel. HETAS operates the scheme for
manufactured solid fuels.
• Responsibility for enforcing the Air Quality (Domestic Solid Fuels Standards) (England) Regulations
2020 falls to the relevant local authority. Guidance for local authorities is available.
• Fixed penalty notices of £300 may be issued for breaches of the regulations.
Environmental Protection Act 1990
• The Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA) provides for a statutory nuisance regime in
England, Wales and Scotland. The Act specifies 11 different categories of statutory nuisance,
which include:
o smoke emitted from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
o fumes or gases emitted from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
o any dust, steam, smell or other effluvia arising on industrial, trade or business premises
and being prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
• Under section 79 of the EPA, a local authority must take "such steps as are reasonably
practicable" to investigate a statutory nuisance complaint. Local authorities also have a duty
to inspect their areas to detect whether a nuisance exists or is likely to occur or recur.
• A similar regime applies in Northern Ireland under the Clean Neighbourhoods and
Environment Act (Northern Ireland) 2011. (The EPA as it applies in Scotland is slightly
amended by the Public Health etc. (Scotland) Act 2008).
 Environmental permitting
• The Environment Agency and Natural Resources Wales are responsible for:
o Part A(1) activities (Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting Regulations (England and
Wales) 2010* / Annex 1 to the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) (Directive 2010/75/EU))
o E.g. industrial processes like refineries, food and drink factories and intensive farming activities (for
example large-scale chicken farms), certain waste activities like disposing of waste to landfill, hazardous
waste treatment and waste incineration
• Local authorities (or sometimes Port Authorities) are responsible for:
o Part A(2) installations (Local Authority Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (LAIPPC))
o Part B installations (Local Authority Pollution Prevention and Control (LAPPC)) for emissions
to air only (except for some combustion activities and generation of waste wood, where
Medium Combustion Plant Directive (MCPD) or specified generator regulations apply)
o E.g. quarry processes, cement works, crematoria, dry cleaners, maggot breeding…etc.
*N.B. The Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2016 (S.I. 2016/1154) (now The Environmental
Permitting (England and Wales) (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019) (consolidate and replace the EPR 2010 (S.I.
2010/675)).
https://www.gov.uk/guidance/a1-installations-environmental-permits
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/local-authority-pollution-control-general-guidance-manual
 Environment Act, 1995 (Part IV)
The Environment Act, 1995 introduced a radical shift from source to effects based control and introduced human
health protection based air quality objectives and introduced the concept of Local Air Quality Management.
Section 80: • Obliges the Secretary of State (SoS) to publish a National Air Quality Strategy.
• Requires local authorities, unitary or district, to review air quality and to assess whether the air
Section 82: quality standards or objectives are being achieved. Areas where standards are not met must be
identified.
• Requires a local authority, for any area where air quality standards are not being met, to issue an
Section 83:
order designating it an air quality management area (AQMA).
• Imposes duties on a local authority with respect to AQMAs. The local authority must carry out
Section 84: additional assessments and draw up an action plan specifying the measures to be carried out and
the timescale to bring air quality in the area back within limits.
• Gives reserve powers to cause assessments to be made in any area and to give instructions to a
Section 85: local authority to take specified actions. Authorities have a duty to comply with these
instructions.
• Provides the SoS with wide ranging powers to make regulations concerning air quality. These
include standards and objectives, the conferring of powers and duties, the prohibition and
Section 87: restriction of certain activities or vehicles, the obtaining of information, the levying of fines and
penalties, the hearing of appeals and other criteria. The regulations must be approved by
affirmative resolution of both Houses of Parliament.
Section 88: • Provides powers to make guidance to which local authorities must have regard.
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1995/25/part/IV
Environment Act 2021
• In November 2021, the 1995 Environment Act was amended with the 2021 Environment Act.
• The 2021 Environment Act (Schedule 11) sets out the following amendments to the LAQM framework:
• An update of the 2007 Air Quality Strategy within 12 months (by May 2023), with 5-yearly updates
subsequently and a duty for the Secretary of State to report annually against air quality objectives and
standards in England
• Clarification and expansion of 'relevant public authorities' who should have regard for the Strategy
(who may be designated by the Secretary of State)
• Identification of sources causing breaches of the air quality objectives or standards by local
authorities in England and a duty for air quality partners (neighbouring authorities, Environment
Agency) responsible to co-operate
• Requirement for English local authorities’ Air Quality Action Plans to include scheduled measures to
secure and maintain achievement of air quality objectives and standards
• Specific roles for county councils and combined authorities to support local authorities in England
• The 2021 Environment Act (Schedule 12) also replaces fines for non-compliance with Smoke Control
Areas under the Clean Air Act 1993 with civil penalty notices. Buying and selling unapproved solid fuels
for use in Smoke Control Areas will also be fined.
• Under Part 1 of the 2021 Environment Act, two new PM2.5 concentration targets are to be brought in by
October 2022: a reduced annual mean PM2.5 threshold and a long-term (>15 years) target. These will be
national targets, which local authorities are likely to have some responsibility for helping to achieve.
 UK Local Air Quality Management Legislation
Environment Act 1995, part IV Environment Act 2021

National Air Quality The Air Quality The Air New Air
Strategy (1997) Strategy - Working Quality Quality
Review Together for Clean Air Review Strategy Strategy?
(2000) (2007) (2023)

• The Air Quality • The Air Quality (England) • The Air Quality (Amendment)
Regulations Regulations 2000 (England) Regulations 2002
1997 • The Air Quality (Wales) • The Air Quality (Amendment)
Regulations 2000 (Wales) Regulations 2002
Revised
• The Air Quality (Scotland) • The Air Quality (Amendment)
Regulations 2000 (Scotland) Regulations 2002
Amended • The Air Quality Regulations
(Northern Ireland) 2003
N.B. Not to be confused with the Air Quality Standards Regulations 2010
 74

Local Air Quality Management

• LAQM is a statutory local authority duty.
• Local Authorities (LAs) have a duty to work towards securing the air quality objectives set in
the regulations.
• LAs must conduct review and assessments, declare Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs)
and develop Action Plans.
• The purpose of LAQM is to identify and manage the highest concentrations of specified air
pollutants in areas of public exposure.
• LAQM is designed to identify those local areas (hotspots) through a process of review &
assessment where national actions on their own will not secure the air quality objectives.
• The responsibility for the achievement of objectives rests with Defra and the Devolved
Administrations.
• Supervision of the LAQM system in Greater London has been devolved to the Mayor of
London.
UK Air Quality Organisational Relationships
UNECE European Union WHO

Ambient Air Quality Directive

NGOs, academics and independent advisory groups HM Ministry of Department for Department Department of
Treasury Housing, Environment Food for Transport Health and
Communities and Rural Affairs, or Social Care
and Local Devolved
Government Administrations Local Transport Act
2000
Environment
Localism Act 2011 Act 1995
Environment Highways
Agency England

Local
Government
Association Local Authority County Council

Neighbouring Local
Authority
Planning
departments Transport
Environmental
departments
National Planning Policy Health departments
Framework Local Transport Plans (LTP),
Local Air Quality Management,

Feb 2021
Local Highways Authority,
Local Authority Pollution
Local roads
Prevention & Control
LAQM roles and responsibilities
• For two-tier and unitary authorities, it is expected that all departments across
the authority/ies should work together to identify suitable measures to
address air quality.
• This includes measures in relation to local transport, highways, land use
planning, environmental health and public health.
• The role of a steering group will be important in securing support across both
tiers of local government, and other bodies with an interest.
• It is expected that county councils will actively participate in such a group,
including attendance of individuals from the key departments, such as
transport.
Policy Guidance
• LAQM Policy Guidance is statutory and all relevant Local
Authorities (both district and county level) should have regard
to it. The guidance applies to local authority action on air
quality using available levers, including planning and transport
responsibilities.
• With the exception of London, LAQM Policy Guidance is
published by each country separately and links are available
below:
• Defra LAQM.PG16 for England (not London)
• Scottish Government LAQM.PG(S)16
• Local air quality management in Wales Policy guidance
PG(W)(17)
• Department of Environment Northern Ireland LAQM.PGNI(09)
• London-specific Policy Guidance LLAQM.PG(19) is available here.
Technical Guidance – updated April 2021
• LAQM Technical Guidance is aimed at technical
officers within local authorities undertaking
LAQM duties.
• LAQM Technical Guidance LAQM.TG16 is
available here.
o Log of changes: here
• With the exception of London, Technical
Guidance is published at the UK level.
• London-specific Technical
Guidance LLAQM.TG(19) is available here.
• LAQM Support website and helpdesk available.
COVID-19 Supplementary Guidance for LAQM Reporting in 2021

• Guidance for local authorities in England (including London).

1. Where effects of COVID-19 have had an impact on the collection of
monitoring data, what is the significance of this and how should
data be treated?
2. Where lack of resource due to COVID-19 commitments has affected
LAQM duties through 2020 and 2021, how will this be addressed?
• Covers:
o Delays to LAQM reporting;
o Reporting on COVID-19 in the 2021 Annual Status Report (ASR)
(Appendix F) or for London boroughs, the Air Quality Annual Status
Report for 2020 (Section 2);
o Status of Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs) and Air Quality
Action Plans (AQAPs);
o Impacts on 2020 monitoring data and how data may be used;
o Diffusion tube bias adjustment; and
o LAQM tools. Download the COVID-19 Supplementary
Guidance for LAQM Reporting in 2021
Air Quality Objectives
• Derived from recommendations from the
Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards, based
on the WHO Air Quality Guidelines.
• Objectives are policy targets generally
expressed as a maximum ambient
concentration to be achieved either without
exception or with a permitted number of
exceedences, within a specified timescale.
• Objectives are set within a consideration of
economic efficiency, practicability, technical
feasibility and timescales.
• An exceedance of Air Quality Objective may
ONLY apply at locations:
a) which are situated outside of buildings or
other natural or artificial structures above
or below ground; and
b) at which members of the public are
regularly present.
 81

Application of the objectives

• The objectives defined in the 2007 Strategy and specified in Regulations
apply at:
o “locations which are situated outside buildings or other natural or man
made structures above or below ground and where members of the
public are regularly present and might reasonably be expected to be
exposed over the relevant averaging period.”
• The Strategy states that:
o “to pursue polices to achieve objectives at places where the highest
measurable concentrations occur without regard to whether or not the
public might be exposed would be inappropriate and highly inefficient.”
 82

Averaging time for the objectives

• The time taken for exposure to cause adverse health effects varies from
pollutant to pollutant. Some, such as sulphur dioxide, have an effect after as
little as 15 minutes. Others, such as lead, have a longer term, cumulative
effect. The times over which concentrations should be averaged reflect this.
• Some pollutants, such as nitrogen dioxide, have effects after short term
exposure but can also have adverse health impacts after longer term
exposure. In such cases there are two objectives averaged over different time
periods.
Examples of Where the Air Quality Objectives Should Apply
Box 1.1 TG(16)
http://laqm.defra.gov.uk/
technical-guidance/
Examples not intended to
be comprehensive; local
knowledge will often be
required. Further
guidance may be
obtained from the LAQM
Support Helpdesk.
LAQM cycle (England incl. London)
• Statutory reporting of NO2, PM10 and SO2
• Flexible PM2.5 role (mandatory in London)
• Authorities in England are not required to
report on Benzene, 1,3-Butadiene, Carbon
Monoxide or Lead, unless there is a local 30th May in London
issue that needs to be addressed.
• Fast track AQMA declaration option
• Scotland similar, but ASR is Annual Progress
Report and no option to fast-track AQMA
declaration. Local authorities in Scotland
required to report on all objectives,
including their stricter PM10 and Benzene
annual means, and a new PM2.5 annual
mean (10 µg/m3).

http://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/LAQM-PG16-April-16-v1.pdf
 88

Air Quality Management Areas

• Spatially designated zones where a Local Authority Review & Assessment of air quality has
shown that one or more Air Quality Objectives set by Defra and the Devolved Administrations
in Air Quality Regulations have not, or will not, be met by the date specified in the Regulations.
• Local authorities have a duty under Section 83(1) of the 1995 Act to designate those areas
where the air quality objectives are not being met, or are likely to be shown to be at risk of not
meeting them, and where people are likely to be regularly present, as AQMAs.
• The AQMA size must cover the area of exceedance as a minimum. It is permitted for the AQMA
to be bigger than the area of exceedance and often it is bigger than this.
• The Greater London Authority has also identified Air Quality Focus Areas (AQFAs), based on
detailed dispersion modelling of NO2 and PM10 and analysis of population exposure, to target
action.
• N.B. exceedences may result from new sources, but also from the introduction of new relevant
exposure into areas of poor air quality.
 What is an Air Quality Management Area?

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/aqma/
 Local Authorities with AQMAs across UK (2020)
LAs with AQMAs AQMAs

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/aqma/maps
UK Local Authorities with AQMAs (Sept 2020)

68% LAs have

AQMAs,
mainly for
exceedances
of the annual
mean NO2
objective

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/index
AQMAs by source (Defra, 2020)

https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/index
 A typical AQMA

Public
exposure
 97

Air Quality Action Plans

• Local Authorities should develop an Action Plan within 12[-18] months of AQMA declaration
specifying:
o Quantification of the source contributions
o Quantification of the impacts of the proposed measures
o Clear timescales, including milestones and expected outcomes
o Defined roles and responsibilities
• Action Plan template is available in LAQM.TG16.
• If the source of the exceedance is traffic then the Air Quality Action Plan measures can be
integrated into the Local Transport Plan.
• As soon as an air quality issue has been identified it is recommended that a steering group is
formed to include all the main parties involved in developing Action Plans.
Bristol Air Quality
• Bristol Open Data Air Quality
Dashboard provides access
to mapped monitoring sites
and real-time and historic
data:
https://opendata.bristol.gov.
uk/pages/air-quality-
dashboard-new/air-quality-
now#map
• Annual air quality reports are
available here:
https://www.bristol.gov.uk/p
ests-pollution-noise-food/air-
quality
Bristol City Centre NO2 concentration trends 2010-2019

Source: Bristol City Council 2020 Air Quality Annual Status Report (ASR)
Section 4: Air quality policy and management

Challenges in achieving compliance

 Long-term UK emission trends
Figure 1: Trends in annual emissions of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), nitrogen oxides, ammonia, non-methane
volatile organic compounds, and sulphur dioxide, 1970-2019 (1980-2019 for ammonia)

PM: Reduction in use of coal for

domestic heating and power generation,
but increase in other solid fuels for
domestic heating and industry recently.
SO2 & NOx: Move from coal to gas for
power generation & use of flue gas
desulphurisation equipment in existing
coal-fired power stations
NOx & NMVOCs: Stricter emissions
regulation for road transport. Stricter
emissions limits placed on industry has
significantly reduced emissions from
solvents, which particularly affected
emissions of NMVOCs.
NH3: Herd sizes and farming practices.
https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/emissions-of-air-pollutants (Updated 26 February 2021)
 Recent UK emission trends
Figure 2: Trends in annual emissions of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), nitrogen oxides, ammonia,
non-methane volatile organic compounds, and sulphur dioxide, 2009-2019

Why are some pollutants no longer

decreasing?

PM: Increases in emissions from

residential burning (e.g. wood-burning
stoves).

NMVOCs: Sources of these emissions

are changing. Emissions from the food
and beverages industry have risen, and
there has been an increase from
domestic combustion.

NH3: Increase largely due to increased

fertiliser spreading.

https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/emissions-of-air-pollutants (Updated 26 February 2021)

 UK Annual mean PM concentration trends
Figure 5: Annual mean concentrations of PM10 in the UK, 1992 to 2020 Figure 6: Annual concentrations of PM2.5 in the UK, 2009 to 2020

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/air-quality-statistics/concentrations-of-particulate-matter-pm10-and-pm25 (Updated 29 April 2021)

 UK Annual mean NO2 and O3 concentration trends
Figure 1: Annual mean concentrations of NO2 in the UK, 1990 to 2020 Figure 13: Annual mean concentrations of O3 in the UK, 1987 to 2020

https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/air-quality-statistics
 UK Annual mean NO2 and O3 concentration trends
Figure 1: Annual mean concentrations of NO2 in the UK, 1990 to 2020 Figure 13: Annual mean concentrations of O3 in the UK, 1987 to 2020

https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/air-quality-statistics
Diesel cars: Nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions (g/km)

http://theicct.org/sites/default/files/ICCT_PEMS-study_diesel-cars_2014_factsheet_EN.pdf
Portable Emissions Monitoring (PEMs) (ICCT, 2014)
Reliance on improvements from Euro Standards for vehicles
• Progressively stricter emission standards for new vehicles have been enforced through a series of EU
Directives since the early 1990s.

NOx emission factors of diesel passenger cars (TNO, 2016)

Flexibilities in the test approval procedure
VW…
• Fitted defeat devices to vehicles produced between
2009 and 2015 which altered a vehicle’s engine
management system during type approval tests –
essentially breaking the law
• First identified by the USEPA in September 2015
• Then identified in the UK shortly after
• Over 1.2 million vehicles are known to be fitted with
these devices in the UK but no means to recall
• Litigation in US and Norway
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-36298591)
• VW-owned Porsche fined €535m (£438m) (May 2019)
• Audi and Nissan

http://home.bt.com/news/news-extra/volkswagen-will-contact-
owners-of-cars-affected-by-emissions-scandal-11364008122107
Real world driving emission testing
• Type approval testing not representative of real-world emissions
• European Commission introduced ‘real-world’ testing systems (RDE) using portable emissions
measuring system (PEMS) from 2017, but allowed new cars to emit 2.1x type-approval
emissions until 2021 and 1.5x higher thereafter http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-15-
5945_en.htm
• In December 2018 the European Court of Justice ruled the ‘conformity factor’ was unjust and
ordered the European Commission to remove it! - 12 months to comply or appeal.
o https://airqualitynews.com/2018/12/13/paris-madrid-and-brussels-overturn-eu-ruling-on-
emissions/
• In December 2019 the Council of the EU (Member State representatives) agreed to retain the
conformity factors.
o https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2019/12/11/measuring-real-
driving-car-emissions-council-agrees-on-its-position/
 Dieselisation
• <<< Newly registered cars by fuel type:
Great Britain 2017.
• 63,000 ULEVs registered for the first
time in Great Britain during 2018, an
increase of 20% on 2017.

• The number of diesel cars registered for the

first time in Great Britain during 2018
declined by 30% compared to 2017.
• There was a 9% increase in the number of
petrol cars over the same time period.

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
data/file/787488/tsgb-2018-report-summaries.pdf
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/794
736/vehicle-licensing-statistics-2018.pdf
UK Road to Zero (July 2018)
• Outlines how the government will support the
transition to zero emission road transport and reduce
emissions from conventional vehicles during the
transition.
• Plan updated Nov 2020:
o Step 1 will see the phase-out date for the sale of
new petrol and diesel cars and vans brought forward
to 2030.
o Step 2 will see all new cars and vans be fully zero
emission at the tailpipe from 2035.
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-takes-historic-step-towards-net-
zero-with-end-of-sale-of-new-petrol-and-diesel-cars-by-2030

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/reducing-
emissions-from-road-transport-road-to-zero-strategy
 UK 25 Year Environment Plan (Jan 2018)
• We will achieve clean air by:
o Meeting legally binding targets to reduce emissions of five
damaging air pollutants. This should halve the effects of air
pollution on health by 2030.
o Ending the sale of new conventional petrol and diesel cars and
vans by 2040.
o Maintaining the continuous improvement in industrial emissions
by building on existing good practice and the successful
regulatory framework.

• Headline indicators:
o A1 Emissions for five key air pollutants
o A3 Concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the air
o A6 Exceedance of damaging levels of nutrient nitrogen
deposition on ecosystems

https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/25-year-environment-plan
 Clean Air Strategy (Jan 2019)
• Sits alongside Industrial Strategy, Clean Growth Strategy and
25 Year Environment Plan.
• “In summary, the current legislative framework has not
driven sufficient action at a local level.”
• New legislation will create a stronger and more coherent
framework for action to tackle air pollution
• Commitment to 10 µg/m3 PM2.5 objective
• New England-wide powers to control major sources of air
pollution, in line with the risk they pose to public health and
the environment.
• New local powers to take action in areas with an air
pollution problem, including Clean Air Zones to lower
emissions from all sources of air pollution, backed up with
clear enforcement mechanisms.

https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/770715/clean-air-strategy-2019.pdf
 CAZ Frameworks
• Defra CAZ Framework
published May 2017
• Some England LAs
mandated to implement
CAZs e.g.
o Birmingham
o Leeds
• CAZ Framework for
Wales published April
2018
o Optional for LAs

https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/consultations/2018-04/180424-clean-air-zone-framework-en.pdf
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/612592/clean-air-zone-framework.pdf
 CAZ classes

The Joint Air Quality Unit (JAQU) is working with the Driver Vehicle and Licensing Agency and others on identifying compliant vehicles with the
Clean Air Zone standards set out in this framework.
 Bristol CAZ
• Small CAZ D
A Clean Air Zone covering a small area
of central Bristol where older, more
polluting commercial vehicles and
private cars would pay to drive in the
zone.
• Bristol’s Clean Air Zone will start in
summer 2022. The zone will help:
• improve air quality by reducing
harmful levels of air pollution caused
by traffic
• make sure everyone benefits from a
healthy and natural environment
https://www.bristol.gov.uk/streets-travel/bristol-caz