Chapter one

Traditional Machining

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 Traditional Machining
• Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of
raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size by a
controlled material-removal process.
• A material removal process in which a sharp cutting tool is
used to mechanically cut away material so that the desired
part geometry remains.
• The processes that have this common theme, controlled
material removal, are today collectively known
as Subtractive Manufacturing, in distinction from
processes of controlled material addition, which are known
as additive manufacturing.
• Machining is a part of the manufacture of
many metal products, but it can also be used on materials
such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites.
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 Machining operations
The three principal machining processes are classified
as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into
miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing,
boring, broaching and sawing.
• Turning operations are operations that rotate the workpiece as the
primary method of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are
the principal machine tool used in turning.
• Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to
bring cutting edges to bear against the workpiece. Milling machines are
the principal machine tool used in milling.
• Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or
refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower
extremity into contact with the workpiece. Drilling operations are done
primarily in drill presses but sometimes on lathes or mills.
• Miscellaneous operations are operations that strictly speaking may not
be machining operations in that they may not be swarf producing
operations but these operations are performed at a typical machine tool 4
 Cutting Conditions
Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a
machining operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a
certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must be moved laterally
across the work. This is a much slower motion, called the feed. The
remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool
below the original work surface, called the depth of cut.
Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting
conditions. They form the three dimensions of the machining process,
and for certain operations, their product can be used to obtain the
material removal rate for the process: MR= vfd
Where: the material removal rate (MR) in mm3/s, (in3/s),
• the cutting speed (v) in mm/s, (in/min),
• the feed (f) in mm, (in),
• the depth of cut (d) in mm, (in).
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 Classification of Machined Parts
1. Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape
2. Non-rotational (also called prismatic) - block-like or
plate-like

Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) non-

rotational, shown here by block and flat parts
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Machining Operations and Part Geometry
Each machining operation produces a
characteristic part geometry due to two factors:
1. Relative motions between the tool and the work
part
• Generating – part geometry is determined by the
feed trajectory of the cutting tool.
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming –part geometry is created by the shape
of the cutting tool.
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 Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning,
(c) contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling

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Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling,
and (c) broaching

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 Stages in metal cutting
Machining operations usually divide into two categories,
distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions: Roughing
cuts & Finishing cuts
Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of
material from the starting work part as rapidly as possible,
i.e. with a large Material Removal Rate (MRR), in order to
produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some
material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation.
Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the
final dimension, tolerances, and surface finish.
In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are
usually performed on the work, followed by one or two
finishing cuts. 10
 Cont..
• Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and Roughing
operations are done at high feeds and depths feeds of 0.4–
1.25 mm/rev (0.015–0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5–20 mm
(0.100–0.750 in) are typical, but actual values depend on the
work piece materials.
• Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and a cutting
fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and
lubricate the cutting tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid
should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid, is
usually included within the scope of cutting condition.
• Roughing operations are done at high feeds and depths – feeds of
0.4–1.25 mm/rev (0.015–0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5–20 mm
(0.100–0.750 in) are typical, but actual values depend on the work
piece materials.
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 LATHE MACHINE
The lathe is a machine tool
used principally for shaping
articles of metal, wood, or
other material.

Lathe Cutting
Operations
Figure Miscellaneous cutting
operations that can be
performed on a lathe. Note that
all parts are circular – a
property known as
axisymmetry. The tools used,
their shape, and the processing
parameters are described
throughout this chapter. 12
 Operations performed on the Centre Lathe Machine
1. Turning – a. Straight Turning
b. Taper Turning
2. Facing
3. Parting off
4. Chamfering
5. Knurling
6. Grooving
7. Thread Cutting
8. Drilling
9. Reaming
10. Boring

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 Turning
• A single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating
workpiece to generate a rotationally symmetric shape.
• Machine length of workpiece to reduce diameter of Job
• Cutting Tool: Turning Tool
• Feed: in direction parallel to work piece axis
• Depth of Cut: in direction perpendicular to work- piece axis

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Turning Parameters Illustrated
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 Contour Turning

Instead of feeding the tool

parallel to the axis of
rotation, tool follows a
contour that is not
necessarily straight (thus
creating a contoured form).

Contour turning

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Taper Turning

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 Right & Left Hand Tools

 Right Hand Tool:

• Cuts from right to left

 Left Hand Tool:

• Cuts from left to right

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Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts
an angle on the
corner of the
cylinder, forming
a "chamfer"

chamfering 20
Parting (Cutoff)

Tool is fed radially

into rotating work at
some location to cut off
end of part, or provide
a groove

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Threading

Pointed form tool is

fed linearly across
surface of rotating
workpart parallel to
axis of rotation at a
large feed rate, thus
creating threads

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 Facing ..
• Machine end of job  Flat surface or to Reduce Length of Job
• Cutting Tool: Turning Tool
• Feed: in direction perpendicular to workpiece axis
– Length of Tool Travel = radius of workpiece
• Depth of Cut: in direction parallel to workpiece axis

Chuck Workpiece
d
Machined
Face
Cutting
speed Depth of
cut
Tool Feed 23
 Knurling
In this operation, diamond shape pattern is embossed over
the surface of the work piece. Knurling is useful to grip the
work piece or the part of the work piece firmly. The tool
used for this operation is known as Knurling Tool, which
consists of set of hardened steel rollers. The tool moves
specific lengthwise which is parallel to the centre line of the
lathe machine with the help of Carriage. The feed rate is
provided with the help of Cross Slide. During this operation
the work piece is rotated at lower speed.
Knurled surface
Cutting
speed
Feed Movement
for depth
Knurling tool
Tool post 24
 Grooving Operation
• In this operation, the diameter of the work piece is reduced
over a small narrow surface for particular length of the work
piece. The tool used for this operation is known as Grooving
Tool. The tool moves specific lengthwise which is parallel to
the centre line of the lathe machine with the help of Carriage.
The feed rate is provided with the help of Cross Slide. During
this operation the work piece is rotated at lower speed.

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Summary on Lathe Cutting Operations and Lathe
Tools

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Designations for a Right-Hand Single point Cutting
Tool

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 Lathe Components

General view of a typical lathe, showing various components. Source:

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Courtesy of Heidenreich & Harbeck.
 LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS
Lathe Components

1. Bed: The bed supports all major components of the lathe.

Beds have a large mass and are built rigidly, usually from
gray or nodular cast iron. The top portion of the bed has two
ways
2. Carriage: Consists of an assembly of cross-slide, tool post,
and apron.
 The tool post, usually with a compound rest that swivels for
tool positioning and adjustment.
 The cross-slide moves radially in and out
 The apron is equipped with mechanisms for both manual and
mechanized movement of carriage and cross-slide by means
of the lead screw
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 LATHES AND LATHE OPERATIONS
Lathe Components

3. Headstock: have a hollow spindle to which Work holding

devices, such as chucks and collets, are attached, and long bars
or tubing can be fed through for various turning operations.
4. Tailstock: It is equipped with a center that may be fixed (dead
center) or may be free to rotate with the workpiece (live center).
• Drills and reamers can be mounted on tailstock quill to drill
axial holes in the workpiece
• A quill is a hollow cylindrical part with a tapered hole
5. The feed rod and Lead Screw: is powered by a set of gears
from the headstock. It rotates during the operation of the lathe
and provides movement to the carriage and the cross-slide by
means of gears.
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Drilling Operation: a cylindrical hole
is produced in a work piece, by cutting
edge of a cutter known as the drill.
• To produce a hole which may be
followed by boring to improve its
dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
Boring Operation: the hole is
enlarged, which has been produced
previously by drilling, casting or
forging.
Reaming Operation:
It provides sizing and finishing to the already drilled
hole. Operation of tool and movement of tool is same like
drilling operation. The tool used for reaming operation is
known as reamer, which has multiple cutting edges.
Reamer cannot originate a hole. It simply follows the
path which has been previously drilled and removes a
very small amount of material. 31
 PERATIONS RELATED TO DRILLING

Machining operations related to drilling:(a) reaming, (b)

tapping,(c) counterboring,(d) countersinking,(e) center 32
drilling, and(f) spot facing
 Milling
• Milling is a machining operation in which a workpart is fed
past a rotating cylindrical tool with multiple cutting edges.
• The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is
perpendicular to the direction of feed. This
orientation between the tool axis and the feed
direction is one of the features that distinguishes
milling from drilling.
• In drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a direction parallel
to its axis of rotation.
• The cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter
and the cutting edges are called teeth.
• The conventional machine tool that performs this
operation is a milling machine. 33
TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS

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 TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS

Two basic types of milling operations: (a) peripheral

or plain milling and(b)face milling
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 TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS
1) Peripheral Milling (plain milling): the axis of the tool is
parallel to the surface being machined, and the operation is
performed by cutting edges on the outside periphery of the
cutter. Several types of peripheral milling are;
(a)slab milling, the basic form of peripheral milling in which the
cutter width extends beyond the workpiece on both sides;
(b)slotting (slot milling), in which the width of the cutter is less
than the workpiece width, creating a slot in the work—when the
cutter is very thin, this operation can be used to mill narrow slots
or cut a workpart in two, called saw milling;
(c)side milling, in which the cutter machines the side of the
workpiece;
(d)straddle milling, the same as side milling, only cutting takes
place on both sides of the work; and form milling, in which the
milling teeth have a
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 Peripheral Milling (plain milling):

(a)slab milling,(b)slotting,(c)side milling,

(d) straddle milling, and (e) form milling. 37
 TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS
In peripheral milling, the direction of cutter rotation
distinguishes two forms of milling: up milling and down milling,
In up milling, also called conventional milling, the direction of
motion of the cutter teeth is opposite the feed direction when the
teeth cut into the work. It is milling ‘‘against the feed.’’ In down
milling, also called climb milling, the direction of cutter motion is
the same as the feed direction when the teeth cut the work. It is
milling ‘‘with the feed.’’

(a) up milling, and (b) down milling. 38

 TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS
2) Face Milling the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the
surface being milled, and machining is performed by cutting
edges on both the end and outside periphery of he cutter.
(a)conventional face milling, in which the diameter of the cutter
is greater than the workpart width, so the cutter overhangs the
work on both sides;
(b)Partial face milling, where the cutter overhangs the work on
only one side;
(c)End milling, in which the cutter diameter is less than the work
width, so a slot is cut in to the part;
(d)Profile milling, a form of end milling in which the outside
periphery of a flat part is cut;
(e)Pocket milling, another form of end milling used to mill
shallow pockets into flat parts; and 39
 TYPES OF MILLING OPERATIONS
(f) surface contouring, in which a ball-nose cutter (rather than
square-end cutter) is fed back and forth across the work along
a curvilinear path at close intervals to create a three-
dimensional surface form.

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 OTHER MACHINING OPERATIONS
1) Shaping and planing are similar operations, both involving
the use of a single-point cutting tool moved linearly relative to
the workpart. In conventional shaping and planing, a straight,
flat surface is created by this action.
In shaping, the speed motion is accomplished by moving the
cutting tool; while in planing, the speed motion is accomplished
by moving the workpart..

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(a) Shaping, and (b) planing.
 OTHER MACHINING OPERATIONS
2) BROACHING is performed using a multiple-teeth cutting tool
by moving the tool linearly relative to the work in the direction of
the tool axis, The machine tool is called a broaching machine,
and the cutting tool is called a broach. Advantages include
good surface finish, close tolerances, and a variety of work
shapes. Owing to the complicated and often custom-shaped
geometry of the broach, tooling is expensive.

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The broaching operation.
 OTHER MACHINING OPERATIONS
3) Sawing is a process in which a narrow slit is cut into the
work by a tool consisting of a series of narrowly spaced teeth.
 Sawing is normally used to separate a workpart into two
pieces, or to cut off an unwanted portion of a part.
 These operations are often referred to as cutoff operations.
Since many factories require cutoff operations at some point
in the production, it is an important manufacturing process.

Three types of sawing operations: (a) power hacksaw, (b) bandsaw

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(vertical), and (c) circular saw
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