A SEMINAR WORK

ON

THE RELEVANCE OF VITAMINS AND MINERALS IN HUMAN BODY

PRESENTED BY

OKODUWA FAVOUR OSEBHAZONMHEN

AST/2372051358
HND II
(CHEMISTRY OPTION)

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE LABORATORY

TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY,
AUCHI POLYTECHNIC AUCHI.

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND) IN PHYSICAL SCIENCE LABORATORY
TECHNOLOGY.

JUNE, 2022.

i
 OUTLINE

Title Page

Abstract

Introduction

Vitamins

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Water Soluble Vitamins

Minerals

Vitamins and Minerals: Health Benefits, Deficiencies and Risks

Role of Vitamins and Minerals in Cellular Energy Production

Importance of Vitamins and Minerals for Regulating Oxygen in the Body

Vitamins and Minerals are Critical for the Structure and Function of Brain Cells

Conclusion

Recommendation

References

ii
 ABSTRACT
Vitamins and minerals are essential to humans as they play essential roles in a variety of basic
metabolic pathways that support fundamental cellular functions. In particular, their involvement
in energy-yielding metabolism, DNA synthesis, oxygen transport, and neuronal functions makes
them critical for brain and muscular function. Minerals are inorganic nutrients, usually required
in small amounts from less than 1 to 2500 mg per day, depending on the mineral. As with
vitamins and other essential food nutrients, mineral requirements vary with animal species. For
example, humans and other vertebrates need large amounts of calcium for construction and
maintenance of bone and normal function of nerves and muscles. Phosphorus is an important
constituent of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nucleic acid and is also essential for acid-base
balance, bone and tooth formation. Red blood cells cannot function properly without iron in
haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment of red blood cells. Iron is also an important
component of the cytochromes that function in cellular respiration. Magnesium, copper,
selenium, zinc, iron, manganese and molybdenum are important co-factors found in the structure
of certain enzymes and are indispensable in numerous biochemical pathways. Vertebrates need
iodine to make thyroid hormones. Sodium, potassium and chlorine are important in the
maintenance of osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid. This paper could also
serve as a ready source of literature review for researchers involved in nutritional sciences.

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INTRODUCTION

The essential nature of vitamins and minerals for human health was demonstrated more than a

hundred years ago. Recommendations for appropriate dietary intakes aim to ensure that most of

the population receives amounts fulfilling their physiological needs. The link between

biochemical and physiological functions is established for some vitamins and minerals, as is their

role in clinical outcomes. As an example, vitamin A is a component of the pigment rhodopsin

located in the retina that enables visual processes and prevents blindness. In many other

instances, however, the nature of the involvement of micronutrients in molecular and cellular

reactions that translate into physiological and functional effects is poorly understood (EPSA,

2010).

Claims regarding the effects of vitamins and minerals on fatigue, cognition or psychological

functions are authorized in many countries . However, the available scientific rationale for these

is often based on theoretical biochemical grounds and clinical features seen during frank clinical

deficiencies, rather than on robust, empirical, physiological data. Such clinical deficiencies are

relatively uncommon, particularly in developed countries. Conversely, subclinical or inadequate

intakes (sometimes referred to as ‘insufficiencies’) are frequent worldwide, albeit with variations

according to age groups and country. A varied and balanced diet, rich in nutrient-dense foods

such as fruits, vegetables and dairy products, is able to provide the amounts of vitamins and

minerals needed (European Commission, 2012).

There is ample evidence, however, that food choice or availability often preclude such a diet.

This can lead to a significant proportion of the population not meeting their optimum dietary

needs, in emerging and developed countries. For example, 68% of Mexican women have folate

(vitamin B9) intakes below the estimated average requirement (EAR), and thiamine (vitamin B1)

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dietary intakes are below EAR in 55% of Turkish adults of both genders. Although the majority

of Americans consume sufficient amounts of most nutrients to offset clinical symptoms, in many

individuals intake falls below the EAR or Adequate Intake levels. In such cases, vitamin and

mineral supplementation may become a means to meet adequate intake. Indeed, this is one of the

most frequent reasons for consumption given by supplement users. An enhanced feeling of well-

being, a reduction in mental and physical fatigue and improvements in psychological and

cognitive functions are also among the commonly reported motivations for taking supplements

(Bailey et al., 2013).

This narrative review aims to examine the scientific evidence that supports the role of key

selected vitamins and minerals in health outcomes related to fatigue, as well as psychological

and cognitive functions. Nine vitamins (vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B9, B8, B12 and C) and

three minerals (iron, magnesium and zinc) have been selected based on the health claims dealing

with those health outcomes that have been authorized in Europe for these nutrients. Firstly,

attention will be given to how the concept of energy is understood and how it can relate to

physical and mental fatigue and performance (Sekhri & Kaur, 2014).

This section will briefly address both the biochemical/physiological perspective and the

perceptual and psychological manifestations of energy. This is followed by a detailed, up-to-date

review of the evidence for these micronutrients playing a role in human implication as well as in

cognitive functions, focusing on biochemical pathways, with clinical information where

available. Priority will be given to human data, especially those obtained in the healthy general

population and in subjects with inadequate nutrient intake or status. Cognitive functions, as well

as physical and mental fatigue, will be reviewed based on observed symptoms of deficiencies or

sub-deficiencies in human populations. Results from recent supplementation trials will also be

2
considered. Most of the reported clinical data concern adult (or adolescent) populations. Some

selected data on younger and older population will be included where relevant (Ryan &

Frederick, 2012).

VITAMINS AND MINERALS: HEALTH BENEFITS, DEFICIENCIES AND RISKS

The human body needs micronutrients only in small quantities (in milligrams or micrograms)

although they are as important as the macronutrients. They are essential for the body’s healthy

development. Some vitamins for example work as cofactors or coenzymes in many metabolic

processes. Trace elements like Zinc can help to improve immune function and minerals like Iron

can prevent anemia among others As the body cannot synthesize micronutrients, therefore, they

need to be supplied in the diet in adequate amounts. If their supply is not enough deficiency is

possible and this can results to a myriad of diseases. Vitamin A deficiency for example can lead

to blindness. A folic acid deficient pregnant woman can give birth to infants with neural tube

defects. Iodine deficiency can lead poor brain fetal development. Micronutrient deficiency can

increase the risk of infections and can lead to more micronutrient deficiencies. These are just the

tip of the iceberg. Micronutrient deficiency may lie hidden and usually, the signs and symptoms

develop late in the disease and are most often irreversible. The details of the impact of these

micronutrients on health and diseases are discussed in the succeeding parts of the chapter (Welch

and Graham 2014).

VITAMINS

Vitamins are essential substances for the normal functioning and development of the body. There

are two classes of vitamins namely: Fat-soluble and Water-soluble vitamins. The known

vitamins include A, C, D, E, and K, and the B vitamins: thiamin (B 1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3),

pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), cyanocobalamin (B12), biotin, and folate/folic acid.

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Fat-Soluble Vitamins

As earlier mentioned, vitamins can be classified as either a water-soluble or fat-soluble vitamins.

The fat-soluble vitamins are very vital for the smooth functioning of the body. Their deficiencies

have been implicated in several health disorders. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of

the fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K is 8000–1000 μg/day, 8000–5000 μg/day, 8–10 μg/day,

and 70–140 μg/day respectively. The RDA for water soluble vitamins including thiamin,

riboflavin, pyridoxine, niacin, biotin, ascorbic acid, and pantothenic acid are 1 mg/day, 1.2

mg/day, 2–2.2 mg/day, 13 mili-equivalents, 100–200μg/day, 60 μg/day, and 4–7 mg/day

respectively (Kamangar and Emadi 2012).

1. Vitamin A: Vitamin A was the first fat-soluble vitamin identified in 1913. Beta-carotene

is converted to vitamin A in the liver. It protects the eyes in case of infections and

contributes to the vision in dim light. Vitamin A combines with the protein opsin to form

rhodopsin in the retinal rod cells. When vitamin A levels are inadequate, the lack of

rhodopsin makes it difficult to see in dim light (Abrha et al., 2016).

2. Vitamin D: The best-known utility of vitamin D is to control the concentration of

phosphorus and calcium in the blood. This anti-rachitic vitamin occurs in a number of

forms. Four crystalline D vitamins are isolated and at least 10 pro-vitamins D are known.

For humans, most of the vitamin D supply comes from animal sources or synthesized

following sun exposure (Christakos et al., 2015).

3. Vitamin E: Vitamin E is an anti-sterility factor and a natural antioxidant. Structurally

related names of vitamin E include tocopherols or tocotrienols). It is involved in the

healing of wounds and in immunity. Sources of vitamin E include wheat germ oil, nuts,

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 cereals, meat, eggs, milk, green leafy vegetables, and other vegetables (Gheorghe et al.

2019).

4. Vitamin K: The major function of vitamin K is the formation of prothrombin in the liver

along with other vitamin K dependent clotting factors namely: VII, IX,, X, protein C and

S which are essential for normal blood coagulation or blood clotting. It is found in fresh

green leafy vegetables, lettuce, cabbage, egg yolk, soybean oil, and liver. Our body can

also produce its own vitamin K courtesy of the normal bacterial flora of our intestines.

Premature babies receive 0.5–1 mg vitamin K intramuscularly or 1–2 mg orally at birth to

prevent Vitamin K deficiency (Reddy and Jialal 2018).

Water Soluble Vitamins

1. Thiamine (Vitamin B1): Thiamine or vitamin B1 is water-soluble and acts as coenzyme

known thiamine pyrophosphate. Thiamine pyrophosphate is involved in carbohydrate

metabolism. Thiamine pyrophosphate is also involved in the hexose monophosphate

shunt. It is a neuro-protective agent. Thiamine is found in nuts, potatoes, meat, beans, and

cereals. Its deficiency leads to a disease known as beriberi (Ikeda et al., 2016).

2. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2): Riboflavin (or lactoflavin) is a yellow crystalline substance.

Riboflavin is found in grain, milk, eggs, liver, oats, and green verdant vegetables. It is

involved in tissue respiration. Its derivatives are FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide in its

oxidized state) and FADH2 (FAD in its reduced form). FADH2 gives two ATP in the

electron transport chain. FAD and FADH 2 are involved in oxidation-reduction reactions.

One FADH2 is obtained in the TCA cycle (Barile et al., 2016).

3. Niacin (Vitamin B3): It is a water-soluble vitamin essential to the human diet, but can be

synthesized in the body from tryptophan. Its deficiency leads to a condition known as

5
 pellagra. It is found in some cereals, yeast extracts, and meat. In the body, niacin is

converted to the NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) coenzyme. These co-enzymes

are involved in oxidation-reduction reactions (Ronsein et al. 2016).

4. Pantothenic Acid (B5): It is a member of the vitamin B complex group. As part of the

fatty acid synthase and of coenzyme A, it is involved in hormonogenesis and energy

production. Patients with pantothenic acid deficit may develop adrenal insufficiency,

enteritis or dermatological conditions (alopecia, dermatitis etc) (Lykstad and Sharma

2019).

5. Biotin (Vitamin B7): Biotin is also considered as a member of the B-complex group. It

helps in the synthesis of fatty acids, utilization of glucose, metabolism of proteins, and

utilization of vitamin B12 and folic acid. The effects of biotin deficiency or excess have

remained unknown. It is obtained from green beans, egg yolk, dark green vegetables,

kidneys and liver (Hsu et al., 2016).

6. Folic Acid (Vitamin B9): Folic acid is the synthesized form of folate, a water-soluble

vitamin, found in green leafy vegetables, fruits and liver. Following conversion, vitamin

B9 or folate becomes tetrahydrofolate, its active form. It is an essential molecule in the

synthesis of nucleic acids (Ankar and Kumar 2019).

7. Cobalamin (Vitamin B12): Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) is a water-soluble vitamin

found in meat, dairy products, fish and eggs. It is essential for the normal production of

red blood cells by the bone marrow and for the growth of nervous cells. Vitamin B 12

deficiency causes megaloblastic anemia and, via myelin damage, neurological deficits

(ataxia, neuropathy) or even neuropsychiatric symptoms such as dementia (Hariz and

Bhattacharya, 2019).

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MINERALS

Minerals are inorganic elements that cannot be synthesized in the body but obtained from the

diet. They are naturally present in soil and water. Some are essential to living organisms while

some are very toxic. Plants absorb significant amount of minerals from the environment and

usually passed them along the food chain to animals. The deficiency of such nutritionally

important minerals usually proves fatal. Minerals are key elements of the body. They are needed

in the buildup and function of important biomolecules in the human body. Although, minerals

are not a source of energy in the body but they are necessary for the maintenance of normal

biochemical processes in the body Based on the body needs, these essential minerals can be

classified as either a macro or micro (trace) minerals (Zhao et al., 2016).

1. Calcium: It is obtained from hard water, shellfish, fish, dark green leafy vegetables and

milk. Calcium is a mineral which is essential for an adequate growth and bone

development. It is a common mineral found in blood. Cells require an adequate amount

of calcium to perform various functions. Teeth and bones are rich in calcium. It is also

involved in blood clotting. Most of the calcium is found in bones

2. Sodium: Sodium (natrium) is present in most foods and its dietary deficiency is rare.

Sodium is involved in the control of blood. Sodium chloride is the most common form of

sodium which is marketed as table salt. Kidneys are the main regulators of body sodium

and normally 98% of the body loss of sodium occurs in urine

3. Magnesium: Magnesium is obtained from hard water, spices, apricots, bananas,

soybeans, nuts, green leafy vegetables, and whole grains. It aids in the maintenance of

bone growth and integrity and is involved in the regulation of the cardiac cycle and the

functioning of muscles and nerves. Deficiency diseases are hypomagnesaemia and

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 neuromuscular irritability. Toxicity symptoms are hypotension, respiratory failure, and

cardiac disturbances

4. Potassium: It is obtained from whole and skimmed milk, meat, bananas, raisins and

prunes. A proper plasma potassium level is essential for the normal heart functioning.

Potassium ions also take part in the normal functioning of skeletal muscle fibers.

Potassium is needed for many enzyme reactions

5. Phosphorus: It is obtained from legumes, nuts, cereals, fish, meat, cheese and poultry.

The bioavailability of minerals such as iron and zinc may be low in a total vegetarian diet

because of the presence of substances such as phytic acid. Besides, large amounts of

dietary fiber may interfere with its proper absorption. Because humans are omnivorous,

trace element deficiencies are unlikely to develop

ROLE OF VITAMINS AND MINERALS IN CELLULAR ENERGY PRODUCTION

- Overview of Cellular Energy Production

In humans, dietary macronutrients provide the fuel required to maintain the biochemical and

structural integrity of the body, to perform physical activity and to enable new tissue deposition.

Ingested food is digested by enzymes that break down carbohydrates into monomeric sugars

(monosaccharides), lipids into fatty acids and proteins into amino acids. Sugars, fatty acids and

amino acids enter the cell, where a gradual oxidation occurs, first in the cytosol, then in the

mitochondria. The energy-generation process can be broken down into the three steps described

below, that ultimately produce chemical energy as ATP that can be easily used elsewhere in the

cell (Butte & Caballero, 2014).

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 - The Interplay of B Vitamins in Cellular Energy Production

All the B vitamins except folate are involved in at least one and often in several steps of the

energy-production system within the cell. Adequate supply of each B vitamin is required for

appropriate functioning of the energy-production system and a shortfall in any one of them will

be rate limiting for energy production, with potentially severe metabolic and health

consequences. Vitamin B1 occurs in the body as free thiamine and as various phosphorylated

forms, including thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). TPP is involved in dehydrogenase reactions,

which result in the decarboxylation of pyruvate and of branched-chain amino acids to form

acetyl-CoA (Figure 1, part A). Within the citric acid cycle, TPP supports the decarboxylation of

alpha-ketoglutarate into succinyl-CoA (Dhir et al., 2019).

Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is an integral part of the coenzymes flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

and flavin mononucleotide (FMN), which are mandatory in the function of the ‘flavoprotein

enzymes’. FAD and FMN act as proton carriers in redox reactions critical for the metabolism of

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. FAD is involved in the production of acetyl-CoA from fatty

acids via beta-oxidation, from glucose via the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and from

catabolism of branched amino acids (Figure 1, part A). FAD is required in the citric acid cycle

steps that produce succinyl-CoA from alpha-ketoglutarate and fumarate from succinate, and

FADH2 acts as an electron donor in the electron transport chain (Said & Ross, 2014).

9
IMPORTANCE OF VITAMINS AND MINERALS FOR REGULATING OXYGEN IN

THE BODY

Approximately two-thirds of the iron in the body is found in hemoglobin, a heme – containing

protein concentrated in red blood cells. Heme iron is present in its ferrous state (Fe 2+), enabling a

reversible binding of oxygen. One hemoglobin molecule can thus transport four oxygen

molecules, and as a result blood carries 50–70 times more oxygen than would plasma alone. The

vital role of hemoglobin is derived from the unique ability provided by iron to acquire oxygen

rapidly during the transient period in contact with the lungs, and to release oxygen as needed

during its circulation through the tissues. Myoglobin, another heme protein, allows the transport

and short-term storage of oxygen in muscle cells, helping to match the supply of oxygen to the

high demand of working muscles. Iron deficiency anemia reduces blood transport and supply of

oxygen to muscle, impairing endurance capacity and energetic efficiency (Aggett, 2012).

Anemia may have other nutrition-related origins, than iron deficiencies and there is evidence that

inadequate supplies of certain B vitamins, primarily vitamins B6, B9 and B12, can lead to

anemias. Metabolic and functional pathways of vitamins B9 and B12 and, to a lesser extent,

vitamin B6 are indeed closely interrelated. The folate cycle, which is critical to the generation of

the active forms of vitamin B9, is dependent upon vitamin B12. In its methylcobalamin form,

B12 is itself mandatory for the activity of the enzyme methionine synthase, which helps in

coupling the demethylation of tetra-hydrofolate and the synthesis of methionine from

homocysteine by the transfer of a methyl group. Vitamin B6 is also involved in homocysteine

catabolism, through the transsulphuration pathway, which converts homocysteine into cysteine

via two vitamin B6 (PLP)-dependent enzymes. A deficiency in vitamin B9, B12 or B6 can thus

lead to the accumulation of homocysteine (Brown & Beier, 2019).

10
Blood-borne oxygen transport in the blood depends on vitamin B6, as PLP is the cofactor of

alpha-amino levulinate synthase, an enzyme needed for the synthesis of the porphyrin ring of

hemoglobin. Chronic deficiency in vitamin B6 may trigger microcytic anemia, characterised by a

low concentration of hemoglobin in erythrocytes. Folate (vitamin B9) functions as a cofactor or

co-substrate in many one-carbon transfer reactions that are important for amino acid metabolism

and for the synthesis of nucleic acids. When DNA synthesis is impaired, the production of red

blood cells, a process requiring intense cell replication, is disrupted and deficiency in folate can

lead to megaloblastic anemia, characterised by a low red blood cell count and an accumulation of

red blood cell precursors in the bone marrow, in the form of large, immature, nucleated

megaloblasts, all of which lowers the oxygen transport capacities of blood. Because of the

interdependence of folate and cobalamin (vitamin B12) metabolism, megaloblastic anemia is

also a frequent clinical expression of cobalamin deficiency (present in 70–80% of cases of

deficiency). Indeed, DNA synthesis is impaired by low vitamin B12, which hampers the

activation of folate and, as a result, decreases normal red blood cell production, impairing

oxygen delivery (Hariz & Bhattacharya, 2019).

VITAMINS AND MINERALS ARE CRITICAL FOR THE STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTION OF BRAIN CELLS

Besides the fundamental roles vitamins and minerals in contributing meeting play by

contributing to the high demand of energy from the brain, these micronutrients are also important

to establish and maintain brain structures and to enable intercellular connections (i.e., his is true

for healthy subjects, of all ages, but is especially critical during infancy and young childhood,

when brain development occurs, and during ageing, when significant structural and functional

changes in the brain occur (Moore et al., 2018).

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Thiamine (vitamin B1) is involved in the formation of synapses, the growth of axons and myelin

genesis, leading to the establishment of a functional neuroglia. It is also able to stabilize the

membrane of newly generated neuronal cells during embryogenesis and may control apoptosis

(programmed cell death); this may proceed through suspected thiamine-binding sites, present on

biological membranes (Ba, 2008).

Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) is an essential precursor in the synthesis of acetyl-CoA. Many

soluble proteins are acetylated (i.e., an acetyl group is substituted for an active hydrogen atom)

by acetyl-CoA at their N-termination. N-Acetylation is one of the most common covalent

modifications of proteins, crucial for their regulation and function, and approximately 85% of all

human proteins are acetylated. These post-translation modifications are in particular present in

nervous system structures: protein acetylation also appears important for neuronal development

(Guilland, 2009).

Folate (vitamin B9) is involved in cerebral methylation processes and is important in maintaining

neuronal and glial membrane lipids, which could have effects on more general brain functions as

reflected in changes in mood, irritability and sleep. Several components of the nervous system

are modulated by the concentrations in ascorbate (vitamin C), including neurotransmitter

receptors and brain cellular structures (such as glutamatergic and dopaminergic neurons) and the

synthesis of glial cells and myelin. Iron is known to be critical for neuronal differentiation and

proliferation. Iron deficiency affects neural processes such as myelination, dendritic arborization

and neural plasticity (Sensi et al., 2009).

Finally, zinc is considered essential for the formation and migration of neurons and for the

formation of neuronal synapses.

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Conclusion

In view of the relevance of vitamins and minerals to human body their inter-relationships which

influences other vital factors needed for the survival of living organisms like enzymes, anti-

oxidants, vitamins etc, it is important to regularly obtain up-to-date information on the minerals

content of water and the variously commonly consumed plant foods used for human and animal

foods and feeds respectively.

Recommendation

With the advancements in the field of analytical sciences, involving the use of more

sophisticated equipment for the quantitative and qualitative analysis of foods/feeds. There is

need to re-visit the studies, so as to re-validate the data on the mineral elements composition of

human and animal diets, especially in the developing countries. The earlier information on these

vitamins and minerals were based on analysis employing less sensitive methods which may not

be reliable. Further research is required to find out the interactions between the minerals, for

example, the interaction between silicon, aluminium and copper. There is also the need to

evaluate the effects of different processing methods on the minerals content of water and plant

foods. This will go a long way in reducing the problem of malnutrition caused by inadequate

food supply, consumption of unbalanced diets and inadequate nutrition education.

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