applied
sciences
Article
Geometric Design of a Face Gear Drive with Low Sliding Ratio
Wei Sheng 1 , Jiang Zhao 1 , Zhengminqing Li 1,2, *, Hong Zhang 1 and Rupeng Zhu 1,2






Citation: Sheng, W.; Zhao, J.; Li, Z.;
Zhang, H.; Zhu, R. Geometric Design
of a Face Gear Drive with Low
Sliding Ratio. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app12062936
Academic Editor: José A.F.O. Correia
Received: 20 February 2022
Accepted: 10 March 2022
Published: 13 March 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12062936
1 College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Nanjing 210016, China; victor_sheng93@163.com (W.S.); zj_super01@163.com (J.Z.);
zhanghong@nuaa.edu.cn (H.Z.); rpzhu@nuaa.edu.cn (R.Z.)
2 National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Helicopter Transmission, Nanjing University of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
* Correspondence: lzmq_cmee@nuaa.edu.cn
Abstract: A design method of low sliding ratio face gear drive is presented. The rack and gear
meshing pair with a low sliding ratio is obtained by constructing the contact path. The face gear
is then formed by this gear, and its tooth width characteristics are analyzed. Combined with the
explicit solution of the meshing point of the tooth surface, a method to solve the sliding ratio of the
proposed face gear pair is given, and the effects of relevant design parameters on the sliding ratio are
analyzed. Moreover, the rationality of the tooth profile design is verified by 3D modeling and motion
simulation. The proposed face gear pair has a lower sliding ratio, as well as larger tooth width, than
those of traditional face gear drive (the pinion is involute spur gear) with the same basic parameters.
The results of this study can provide points of reference for reducing friction and improving the
mechanical efficiency of face gear drives.
Keywords: low sliding ratio; face gear; tooth width; meshing point; motion simulation
1. Introduction
Face gear drive is a meshing transmission mechanism composed of cylindrical gear
and bevel gear. Compared with the traditional spiral bevel gear transmission, it has the
advantages of smaller volume, lighter weight, higher load-bearing capacity, better compo-
nent force, which can meet the development requirements of future aviation equipment [1].
At present, the face gear drive has been successfully applied to the military [2,3] and civil
industries [4], and the application scope and occasions will be broader. However, during
the meshing process, there is relatively larger sliding friction between tooth surfaces, which
will affect the operational life [5,6]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a face gear drive
with a low sliding ratio.
In view of the advantages of face gear transmission, many new face gear drives have
been continuously reported. Litvin et al. [7] studied a design and analysis method for face
gear drive with an involute helical involute pinion. Combining the characteristics of the
worm drive, a larger gear ratio face gear drive was developed, which is composed of conical
or cylindrical worms [8]. They also investigated a new geometry different from the existing
one by application of asymmetric proles and double-crowned pinion of the drive [9]. This
face gear drive can reduce the stresses and transmission errors. Zschippang et al. [10]
presented a geometric design method for face gear with helix angle, shaft angle, and axle
offset. Lin et al. [11,12] implemented the meshing theory of curve-face gear pair, which can
achieve compound motion with much compact structure, better transmission efficiency,
and load-bearing capacity than gear-linkage mechanism. For improving the performance
and reducing the weight of noncircular gear transmission systems, Liu et al. [13] provided
a novel spatial noncircular gear set comprising a cylinder gear and an eccentric face gear.
Cui et al. [14] put forward a curved tooth surface gear, which has the characteristics
of relatively simple technology, compact structure, low cost, high coincidence, stable
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 2 of 19

characteristics of relatively simple technology, compact structure, low cost, high coinci-
dence, stable transmission, and high load-bearing capacity than those of the general face
gear drive. In addition, Tan [15] introduced a novel face gear drive with a conical involute
transmission,
pinion. Zhangand andhigh
Wuload-bearing
[16] disclosed capacity
the tooththangeometry
those of the general
of face gearface gear
drive drive.
with In
offset
addition,
axes. Tan [15] introduced a novel face gear drive with a conical involute pinion. Zhang
and WuThus [16]far,disclosed
the tooththe toothdesign
profile geometry of the offace
facegear
geardrive
drivewith
withaoffset axes. ratio is rare,
low sliding
Thus far, the tooth profile design of the face gear
whereas the design of the cylindrical gear drive has been previously considered. drive with a low sliding ratio
Chang is
rare, whereas the design of the cylindrical gear drive has
and Tsai [17] reported a parametric tooth profile of spur gear drive with a low slidingbeen previously considered.
Chang and Tsai [17]
ratio. Kapelevich [18]reported
advanceda an parametric
asymmetric tooth
gearprofile
drive,ofwhich
spur hasgeara drive with aratio.
low sliding low
sliding
Xu et al.ratio.
[19] Kapelevich
improved the [18]cycloid
advanced gearandrive,
asymmetric
and thegear drive,
sliding which
ratio has athan
is lower low sliding
that of
ratio. Xu et al. [19] improved the cycloid gear drive, and the
involute gear. By controlling the relative curvature of the conjugate tooth profiles, Liu sliding ratio is lower thanet
that of involute gear. By controlling the relative curvature of
al. [20] presented a design method for plane meshing tooth profiles, which can also be the conjugate tooth profiles,
Liu
usedetasal.the
[20] presented
design of geara design
drive withmethod a lowforsliding
plane meshing
ratio. Chen tooth profiles,
et al. which can
[21] presented also
a pure
be used as the design of gear drive with a low sliding ratio. Chen et
rolling cylindrical helical gear drive with variable helix angles. Yeh et al. [22] implementedal. [21] presented a pure
rolling cylindrical
the deviation helical
function gear
(DF) drive with
method for thevariable
designhelix angles.
of the Yeh et tooth
conjugated al. [22]profiles,
implemented
which
the deviation function (DF) method for the design of the conjugated tooth profiles, which
can be used for designing the low sliding ratio gear drive. It is a more effective method to
can be used for designing the low sliding ratio gear drive. It is a more effective method
realize the design of a low-sliding plane meshing tooth profile by editing the meshing
to realize the design of a low-sliding plane meshing tooth profile by editing the meshing
path, for example, the path combined with a straight line and a curve [23], and a specific
path, for example, the path combined with a straight line and a curve [23], and a specific
arc path [24]. Additionally, Wang et al. [25,26] completed the design of the low sliding
arc path [24]. Additionally, Wang et al. [25,26] completed the design of the low sliding ratio
ratio tooth profile, which is based on the approximate range of the given sliding ratio.
tooth profile, which is based on the approximate range of the given sliding ratio.
As the sliding ratio is related to the operational life of the system, a low sliding ratio
As the sliding ratio is related to the operational life of the system, a low sliding ratio
of the cylindrical gear drive has been developed. However, the sliding ratio has rarely
of the cylindrical gear drive has been developed. However, the sliding ratio has rarely been
been used as the design purpose to develop a novel face gear drive. In this paper, the
used as the design purpose to develop a novel face gear drive. In this paper, the sliding
sliding ratio is considered as the main design goal for the research of face gear drive. Ac-
ratio is considered as the main design goal for the research of face gear drive. According
cording
to to Buckingham
Buckingham [27], the[27],
face the
gearfacecangear can be regarded
be regarded as a rack as with
a rackvariable
with variable
pressurepressure
angle
angle and variable pitch, which is shown in Figure 1. The shaper
and variable pitch, which is shown in Figure 1. The shaper of face gear is obtained from of face gear is obtained
from
the the and
rack, rack,a specific
and a specific
meshing meshing
path is path
givenisbetween
given between
the rackthe andrack
the and
shapertheto
shaper
achieve to
achieve the characteristics of a low sliding ratio. For this, the mathematical
the characteristics of a low sliding ratio. For this, the mathematical models of the face gear models of the
face with
pair gear apairlowwith a low
sliding ratiosliding ratio are established.
are established. Then,width
Then, the tooth the tooth width conditions
restriction restriction
conditions
are studied,are thestudied,
effects of thetheeffects
givenof the given
contact pathcontact
function path function on
coefficients coefficients
the tooth on the
width
tooth width characteristics of the face gear are analyzed. The
characteristics of the face gear are analyzed. The calculation methods of tooth surface calculation methods of tooth
surface meshing
meshing point and point
the and
slidingthe ratio
sliding areratio are provided,
provided, and theand theof
effects effects
design of parameters
design param- on
eters on the sliding ratio are studied. Finally, the rationality of the
the sliding ratio are studied. Finally, the rationality of the tooth profile design is verified tooth profile designby is
verified by accurate modeling
accurate modeling and motion simulation. and motion simulation.

Figure 1. Approximate tooth profile

profile of
of face
face gear.
gear.

2. Mathematical Models of the Face Gear Pair with Low Sliding Ratio
2. Mathematical Models of the Face Gear Pair with Low Sliding Ratio
2.1. Construction of Shaper
2.1. Construction of Shaper
According to the gear meshing theory, the shaper or pinion tooth surface can be
achieved based on
According to the
the meshing of the theory,
gear meshing shaper and
the rack
shapercutter. Additionally,
or pinion the conjugate
tooth surface can be
tooth profiles can be obtained from a given path of contact. Consequently, to obtain a low
achieved based on the meshing of the shaper and rack cutter. Additionally, the conjugate
sliding ratio, the contact path Σ is represented by a given function, as illustrated in Figure 2.
tooth profiles can be obtained from a given path of contact. Consequently, to obtain a low
The coordinate systems S1 (o1 ,x1 ,y1 ) and S2 (o2 ,x2 ,y2 ) are rigidly attached to the shaper and
rack cutter, respectively. S(o,x,y) is a fixed coordinate system whose origin o coincides with
the pitch point P.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936
sliding ratio, the contact path Σ is represented by a given function, as illustrated in Figure
2. The coordinate systems S1(o1,x1,y1) and S2(o2,x2,y2) are rigidly attached to the shaper and
rack cutter, respectively. S(o,x,y) is a fixed coordinate system whose origin o coincides3with
of 19
the pitch point P.

(a) Schematic diagram of the rack generating the shaper (b) Coordinate system of rack generating the shaper
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Generation
Generation of
of the
the shaper.
shaper.

The equation of contact path Σ

Σ in S(o,x,y) can be defined as

y y==f (fx()x ) (1)

(1)
It is assumed that the equation of rack profile Σr in S2(o2,x2,y2) is expressed as
It is assumed that the equation of rack profile Σr in S2 (o2 ,x2 ,y2 ) is expressed as
Y = g( X ) (2)
Y = g( X ) (2)
Based on the theory of gearing, the profile Σr can be defined as
Based on the theory of gearing, the profile Σr can be defined as
  X =r  −y
y  dy + C

X = − x dy
Y = y  x 
 +C
(3)
Y = y

where C is an integration constant; let the initial meshing position of conjugated tooth
where
profilesCbeisatanthe
integration
pitch pointconstant;
P, then Clet= the
0. initial meshing position of conjugated tooth
profiles
Forbe at the
this, pitch point
Equation P,be
(3) can then C = 0.expressed as
further
For this, Equation (3) can be(further expressed as
r  y dy 
X= − · dx
  x y dxdy  (4)
X =
Y = y 

− ⋅
 x dx 
 dx
(4)
From Figure 2b, the kinematicrelationship
Y = y
between gear and rack can be described:
when the rack Σr translates leftwards to the position II from the start position I by the
distance
From L, Figure
the shaper Σs rotates
2b, the counterclockwise
kinematic around gear
relationship between the point o1 bycan
and rack thebe
angle φ1 and
described:
meshes
when with
the rackΣrΣat the point B(x,y)
r translates of contact
leftwards to the path
positionΣ. Moreover,
Ⅱ from the the point
start position Ⅰ by the
B corresponds
to point BL,2 (X,Y)
distance of tooth
the shaper profile Σ
Σs rotates r at the position I.
counterclockwise It is easy
around theto know
point o1 that BBangle
by the 2=L= −x,
ϕ1Xand
and φ 1 can be expressed as
meshes with Σr at the point B(x,y) of contact path Σ. Moreover, the point B corresponds to
point B2(X,Y) of tooth profile Σr at the positionr Ⅰ.It is easy
dy to know that BB2 = L = X−x, and

L −x + − yx · dx dx
ϕ1 can be expressed as φ1 = = (5)
rs rs

where rs is the radius of the pitch circle of the shaper.

By coordinate transforming and integrating Equation (5), the coordinate of B can be
derived in dashed coordinate system S1 (o1 ,x1 ,y1 ) as

x1 = x cos φ1 + y sin φ1 + rs sin φ1
(6)
y1 = − x sin φ1 + y cos φ1 + rs cos φ1
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 4 of 19

Thus, the work profiles of shaper can be presented as follows:

 (w)

 x1 = x cos φ1 + (y + rs ) sin φ1
 y(w) = − x sin φ + (y + rs ) cos φ


1 1 1
r  y dy  (7)
− x + − ·
x dx dx
φ =

 1


 rs
x ∈ [ x a , xb ]

where xa and xb are the addendum and dedendum parameters of the shaper, which can be
solved by the following Equations (8) and (9), respectively.

x12 + y21 = (rs + h a )2 (8)

a1 x + a2 x 3 = − h f (9)
where ha and hf are the addendum height and the dedendum height of shaper, respectively.
The fillet profiles of the gear can be obtained by the envelope movement of the
generating rack’s tip. Therefore, the fillet profile of the shaper is expressed as
 (f)  

 x1 = x cos φ1 + rs − h f sin φ1
  
 y( f ) = − x sin φ + rs − h cos φ


1 1 f 1
r  y dy  (10)
 − x + − x · dx dx
 φ1 =


 rs
x ∈ [0, xb ]


In order to obtain the rack and gear pair with a low sliding ratio, the relationship
between the sliding ratio and meshing curve can be established from the solution method
of sliding ratio.
(1) (2)
vt − vt 1 1 H
δ1 = (1)
= 1− (1)
= 1− H +r s
= (11)
vt vt H + rs
rs
(2)
vt

(2) (1) (1)

vt − vt vt H + rs H
δ2 = (2)
= 1− (2)
= 1− =− (12)
vt vt rs rs

where vt (1) and vt (2) are the tangential velocities of each tooth profile at the meshing point;
H is the ordinate value of the intersection of the common tangent at the meshing point and
the axis y.
From Equations (11) and (12), it can be seen that when the absolute values of H at
the entry and exit points of engagement are as small as possible, the absolute value of the
sliding ratio will also be as small as possible. Thus, the equation for the engagement path
can be described by a cubic function as in Equation (13).

y = a1 x + a2 x3 , ( a1 < 0, a2 < 0) (13)

where the coefficients a1 and a2 should meet the following conditions: (1) the shaper tooth
tip thickness should be greater than 0.3 times the modulus and (2) the contact ratio must be
greater than 1.
To illustrate the low sliding ratio that can result from the provided meshing trajectory
profile, a gear with module m = 4 mm, gear tooth number Ns = 32, coefficients a1 = −tan 20◦
and a2 = −0.001 is used as an example. The tooth profile and sliding ratio of the gear pair
are shown in Figure 3.
 where the coefficients a1 and a2 should meet the following conditions: (1) the shaper tooth
tip thickness should be greater than 0.3 times the modulus and (2) the contact ratio must
be greater than 1.
To illustrate the low sliding ratio that can result from the provided meshing trajectory
profile, a gear with module m = 4 mm, gear tooth number Ns = 32, coefficients a1 = −tan 20°
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936
and a2 = −0.001 is used as an example. The tooth profile and sliding ratio of the gear5pairof 19

are shown in Figure 3.

(a) Tooth profile of gear (b) Sliding ratio of gear pair

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Tooth
Tooth profile
profile and
and sliding
sliding ratio
ratio of gear pair.
of gear pair.

It
It can
can be
be seen
seen that
that the
theproposed
proposed rack-and-gear
rack-and-gear transmission
transmission has
has aalower
lowersliding
slidingratio,
ratio,
and
and the maximum sliding ratio is about 47% lower than that of the involute gear with
the maximum sliding ratio is about 47% lower than that of the involute gear with the
the
same
same basic
basic parameters.

2.2. Construction
2.2. Construction of of Face
Face Gear
Gear Tooth
Tooth Surface
The
The tooth surface
surface of the facegear
of the face gearcan
canbebegenerated
generatedbyby thetheshaper.
shaper. For this,
For this,first,
first,four four co-
ordinate systems
coordinate systems areare
set set
up,up,
as depicted in Figure
as depicted 4. Ss0
in Figure 4.(oSs0s0,x
(os0 ,ys0s0,y,zs0s0
s0,x ,z)s0and
) andSf0S(o
f0(o ,x,xf0f0,y
f0f0 ,yf0f0,,zzf0f0))
are fixed
are fixed coordinate
coordinate systems systems ofof shaper
shaper and
and face
face gear,
gear,respectively.
respectively.Likewise, Likewise,SSs (o ,x ,y ,z )
s s ss,yss,zss)
(o s ,x
and S f (of ,x f ,y f ,zf ) are rigidly attached to the shaper and the face gear.
and Sf(of,xf,yf,zf) are rigidly attached to the shaper and the face gear. Then, the origins of Then, the origins of
the four coordinate systems are at the same position, and the shaper and face gear perform
the four coordinate systems are at the same position, and the shaper and face gear perform
rotation about the axis z and z , respectively.
rotation about the axis zss and zff, respectively.
The kinematic relationship between shaper and face gear can be described as follows:
when the shaper rotates from coordinate system Ss0 to Ss by angle φs , the face gear rotates
from Sf0 to Sf by angle φf . Then, the basic transformation matrixes between the coordinate
systems are as follows:

− sin φs
 
cos φs 0 0
 sin φs cos φs 0 0 
Ms0,s =  (14)
 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1

0 −1 0 0
 
 0 0 1 0 
M f 0,s0 = 
 −1 0 0 0 
 (15)
0 0 0 1
 
cos φ f sin φ f 0 0
 − sin φ f cos φ f 0 0 
Mf,f0 =   (16)
 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1
M f ,s = M f , f 0 · M f 0,s0 · Ms0,s
− sin φs cos φ f − cos φs cos φ f
 
sin φ f 0
 sin φs sin φ f cos φs sin φ f cos φ f 0  (17)
= 
 − cos φs sin φs 0 0 
0 0 0 1
where Ms0,s represents the transformation from coordinate system Ss to coordinate system
Ss0 ; the others can then be compared.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 6 of 19

(a) Schematic diagram of the shaper that generates the face gear

(b) The generation coordinate system of face gear

Figure 4. 4.
Figure Generation ofof
Generation the face
the gear.
face gear.

The
In kinematic
view of therelationship
productionbetween
method,shaperthe twoand face gear
surfaces of can
the be described
shaper as follows:
are often set sym-
metrically
when withrotates
the shaper respectfromto the plane xs osystem
coordinate s zs . Then,
Ss0 the
to Sequation
s by angleof
ϕsshaper Ss (osrotates
ingear
, the face ,xs ,ys ) is
expressed as
from Sf0 to Sf by angle ϕf. Then,the basic transformation matrixes between  the coordinate
systems are as follows: − x sin ϕ0 + ( a1 x + a2 x3 + rs ) cos ϕ0
 ±[ x cos ϕ0 + ( a1 x + a2 x3 + rs ) sin ϕ0 ] 
rs ( x, h) =  (18)
 cos φs − sinh φs 0 0 

 
 
 sin φs cos1φs 0 0 
M s 0, s =the right side of the alveolar surface, respectively.(14)
where ‘±’ represents the left and  0 0 1 0 0 ϕ is
defined as   
− ( a21 + 1) x0+ 34 a1 a2 x03 + 35 a0
2 x5 1 

2 π
ϕ0 = + (19)
 0 −1 0 0 
r s 2N s
According to the differential geometry   normal vector ns of shaper
0 theory,
0 1the0unit
tooth profile can be defined as M f 0, s 0 =   (15)
 −1∂rs ×0 ∂rs 0 0 
ns =  ∂r ∂r 
∂x ∂h
 (20)
 0 ∂xs ×0 ∂hs 0 1 
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 7 of 19

Then, the meshing equation between the shaper and the face gear is expressed as follows:

(s f )
f ( x, h, φs ) = ns · vs =0 (21)

where v(sf ) is the relative velocity vector of the shaper and the face gear in Ss (os ,xs ,ys ).

(s f ) (s) (f)
vs = vs − vs (22)

where v(s) and v(f ) are the velocity vector of the shaper and the face gear.

(s)
vs = ωs × rs = ω s ks × rs (23)
(f)
vs = ω f × rs = ω f k f × rs (24)
Considering the machining coordinate transforming relation, kf can be expressed at
coordinate system Ss (os ,xs ,ys ) as

k f = − cos φs is + sin φs js (25)

Thus, v(sf ) is further expressed as

−i f s zs sin φs − ys
 
(s f )
vs = ωs  −i f s zs cos φs + xs  (26)
i f s ( xs sin φs + ys cos φs )

where ifs is the gear ratio and satisfies the following equation:

φf ωf Ns
ifs = = = (27)
φs ωs Nf

Through the coordinate transformation and meshing principle, the work surface
equation the face gear coordinate system is defined as

(w)
r f ( x, h, φs , φ f ) = M f s (φs , φ f ) · rs ( x, h)
− xs sin φs cos φ f − ys cos φs cos φ f + zs sin φ f
 
 xs sin φs sin φ f + ys cos φs sin φ f + zs cos φ f  (28)
= 
 − xs cos φs + ys sin φs 
1

The fillet surface of face gear can be formed by the edge of the addendum of shaper
tooth profile. Therefore, the fillet surface equation is expressed as follows:

(f)
r f ( x ( f ) , h, φs , φ f ) = M f s (φs , φ f ) · rs ( x ( f ) , h)
− xs sin φs cos φ f − ys cos φs cos φ f + zs sin φ f
 
 xs sin φs sin φ f + ys cos φs sin φ f + zs cos φ f  (29)
= 
 − xs cos φs + ys sin φs 
1

where x(f ) is the parameter of the shaper addendum circle, which is solved by the follow-
ing equation:
xs2 + y2s = (rs + h a )2 (30)
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 8 of 19

3. Tooth Width Characteristics

3.1. Undercutting
Undercutting is usually used as a criterion to restrict the face gear tooth inwards. The
minimum inner radius can be determined by calculating the position of singular points on
the generated face gear flank surfaces, which is no undercutting. According to a previous
publication, the tooth surface will undercut, when the velocity of the two tooth surfaces
meets the following relationship:

(s f ) f
vss + vs = vs = 0 (31)

The differentiated equation of meshing is given by

∂ f ∂x ∂ f ∂h ∂ f dφs
+ + =0 (32)
∂x ∂t ∂h ∂t ∂φs dt

Both Equations (31) and (32) yield a system of four linear equations of two unknowns
(dx/dt, dh/dt), where df /dt is defined as chosen. This system of linear equations has a
solution for the two unknowns if the following matrix K has the rank r = 2:

(s f )
!
∂rs ∂rs
−vs
K= ∂x
∂f
∂h
∂f ∂ f dφs (33)
∂x ∂h − ∂φ s dt

 
∂xs ∂xs (s f )
∂x ∂h −v xs
(s f ) 
∆1 = 
 ∂ys ∂ys
−vys =0 (34)
 ∂x ∂h 
∂f ∂f ∂ f dφs
∂x ∂h − ∂φ s dt
 
∂xs ∂xs (s f )
∂x ∂h −v xs
(s f ) 
∆2 = 
 ∂zs ∂zs
−vzs =0 (35)
 ∂x ∂h 
∂f ∂f ∂ f dφs
∂x ∂h − ∂φs dt
 
∂ys ∂ys (s f )
∂x ∂h −vys
(s f ) 
∆3 = 

∂zs ∂zs
−vzs =0 (36)
 ∂x ∂h 
∂f ∂f ∂ f dφs
∂x ∂h − ∂φs dt
 ∂xs ∂xs (s f ) 
∂x ∂h −v xs
(s f ) 
∆4 =  ∂ys ∂ys
−vys  = 0 (37)

∂x ∂h
∂zs ∂zs (s f )
∂x ∂h −vzs
The equality of the fourth sub-determinant ∆4 = 0 (based on the first three rows of ma-
trix K) yields Equation (32) of meshing and is, therefore, not considered. Once Equation (38)
is satisfied, undercutting will occur. If only one of the three Equations (34)–(37) is satisfied,
singularities will appear.
g( x, h, φs ) = ∆21 + ∆22 + ∆23 = 0 (38)
Both Equations (21) and (38) are used to solve the position of undercutting on the
tooth surface. It should be mentioned that the search method is applied to solve the
parameter x from the tip to the root of the shaper. The first value obtained is the tooth
profile parameter of the minimum radius that does not undercut. Substitute the parameter
x into the working tooth surface Equation (28) to obtain the position coordinates of the key
points. The minimum inner radius RI to avoid undercutting can be obtained as
q
RI = x2f + y2f (39)
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 9 of 19

3.2. Pointing
Compared with cylindrical gears, the top width of face gears is not constant. In the
enveloping process, the shaper tooth tip will cause the tooth surfaces on both sides of
the tooth to intersect at a point, so the outer diameter tooth of the face gear is restricted.
To accurately determine the position of the cusp, it is generally necessary to consider the
equations of the tooth surfaces on both sides. However, due to the symmetrical distribution
of the tooth surfaces on both sides, Equation (40) is adopted to analyze the tooth surface on
one side. 
(f)
 x f ( x , h, φs ) = 0

z f ( x ( f ) , h, φs ) = h a − rs (40)
 f ( x ( f ) , h, φ ) = 0

s

After solving the cusp position parameters, they are substituted into the face gear
working tooth surface equation to obtain the position coordinates of the cusp. The outer
radius RO of the tip of the face gear can be expressed as

RO = xs sin φs sin φ f + ys cos φs sin φ f + zs cos φ f (41)

Considering the undercutting and the pointing, the tooth width WT is defined as

WT = RO − R I (42)

3.3. Analysis of Tooth Width

The characteristics of the tooth width are widely concerned while designing the tooth
profile of the face gear, which is related to the carrying capacity of the gear. The basic
design parameters of the proposed face gear drive are listed in Table 1, and the coefficients
of the contact path function as shown in Table 2.

Table 1. The basic design parameters of the face gear drive.

Design Parameters Value

Module m (mm) 4
Tooth number of pinion Np 30
Tooth number of shaper Ns 32
Tooth number of face gear Nf 90
Addendum coefficient ha * 1.0
Head clearance coefficient c* 0.25

Table 2. Coefficients of the contact path function.

Design Parameters Coefficient a1 Coefficient a2

D-1 −tan 18◦ −0.001
D-2 −tan 19◦ −0.001
D-3 −tan 20◦ −0.001
D-4 −tan 21◦ −0.001
D-5 −tan 22◦ −0.001
D-6 −tan 20◦ 0
D-7 −tan 20◦ −0.0005
D-8 −tan 20◦ −0.0015
D-9 −tan 20◦ −0.002

From the above tables, the parameter groups D-1 to D-5 were used to analyze the
effects of coefficient a1 on the tooth width. Similarly, through the parameter groups D-6 to
D-9 and D-3, the effects of the coefficient a2 on these geometric features were studied, which
are shown in Figure 5. It can be found that the inner radius and the outer radius increased,
but the tooth width of the face gear decreased, as the coefficients a1 and a2 increased.
 From the above tables, the parameter groups D-1 to D-5 were used to analyze the
effects of coefficient a1 on the tooth width. Similarly, through the parameter groups D-6 to
D-9 and D-3, the effects of the coefficient a2 on these geometric features were studied,
which are shown in Figure 5. It can be found that the inner radius and the outer radius
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 increased, but the tooth width of the face gear decreased, as the coefficients a1 and a102 of
in-19
creased.

(a) Effects of a1 on tooth width

(b) Effects of a2 on tooth width

Figure
Figure5.5.Effects
Effectsofofa1a1and
anda2aon tooth width characteristics.
2 on tooth width characteristics.

Moreover,from
Moreover, fromFigure
Figure5b,
5b,ititcan
canbebeseen
seenthat
thatthe
thetooth
toothwidth
widthofofthe
theproposed
proposedgear
gear
drive D-3 is 8.2%, greater than that of the general gear drive D-6, due to the smaller
drive D-3 is 8.2%, greater than that of the general gear drive D-6, due to the smaller inner inner
radiusofofthe
radius theproposed
proposedgear
geardrive,
drive,as asillustrated
illustratedininTable
Table3.3.

Table 3. Comparison of two face gears tooth width.

Tooth Width Parameters The Proposed Face Gear (D-3) The General face Gear (D-6)
Inner radius (mm) 170.490 173.059
Outer radius (mm) 203.135 203.231
Tooth width (mm) 32.645 30.172

4. Sliding Ratio Characteristics

4.1. Explicit Solution for Meshing Point
Generally, the face gear drive engages in the form of point contact, which can avoid
eccentric load. In this paper, a pinion was chosen with 1–3 teeth less than the shaper
as the driving wheel of the face gear pair, which is the same as that of the general face
gear drive [28]. At present, the common idea for solving the contact points of the tooth
surface is to establish the assembly relationship between the shaper, the pinion, and the
face gear. The movement relationship between the pinion and the shaper is regarded as an
imaginary internal meshing. Then, in the process of producing, the tooth surfaces of the
shaper and face gear are in line contact at any time; the contact lines of shaper and face gear
 eccentric load. In this paper, a pinion was chosen with 1–3 teeth less than the shaper as
the driving wheel of the face gear pair, which is the same as that of the general face gear
drive [28]. At present, the common idea for solving the contact points of the tooth surface
is to establish the assembly relationship between the shaper, the pinion, and the face gear.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 The movement relationship between the pinion and the shaper is regarded as an imagi- 11 of 19
nary internal meshing. Then, in the process of producing, the tooth surfaces of the shaper
and face gear are in line contact at any time; the contact lines of shaper and face gear are
denoted
are denotedas Las
SF and LFS, as displayed in Figure 6. Similarly, the instantaneous contact lines
LSF and LFS , as displayed in Figure 6. Similarly, the instantaneous contact
for the meshing
lines for the meshing of the shaper
of the andand
shaper thethe
pinion
pinionarearedenoted
denotedasasLLSPSPand
andLLPSPS
, ,respectively.
respectively.
Therefore, when the pinion meshes with the face gear, the contact
Therefore, when the pinion meshes with the face gear, the contact that forms that forms between the
between
tooth surfaces is point contact. Additionally, the meshing points of face
the tooth surfaces is point contact. Additionally, the meshing points of face gear can be gear can be ob-
tained
obtained byby
calculating
calculating the
theintersection
intersectionpoint
pointofofthe
thecontact
contact lines
lines LLSF
SF and LSP, supplemented
and LSP , supplemented
by
by coordinate
coordinate transformation.
transformation.This Thisinvolves
involves the solution
the of of
solution a system
a system of equations, but but
of equations, the
solution requires harsh initial values, which brings inconvenience to the
the solution requires harsh initial values, which brings inconvenience to the solution [29]. solution [29].
Therefore, an
Therefore, an explicit
explicit solution
solution method
method isis described
described below.
below.

Figure 6. Instantaneous meshing lines on the shaper.

As for
As for the
the above-mentioned
above-mentionedmeshing
meshingprocess,
process,which
whichis expressed in Equation
is expressed (21),(21),
in Equation the
parameter h can be obtained as follows:
the parameter h can be obtained as follows:
CC
==
hh (43)
(43)
AAsin
sin( 0 ±±φφ
( ϕϕ s ) )++BBcos
cos( 0 ±±φφ
( ϕϕ s) )
0 s 0 s

with
with
A = 1 − ( a1 x + a2 x3 + rs )( a21 + 1 + 4a1 a3 x2 + 3a23 x4 )/rs (44)
3 2 2 2 4
A = 1 − ( a x + a x + r )( a x+ +
1 3a x22 ) − ( as 2 x
B = −( a1 +
1 +4a4aa1ax33x+ + 3a x ) / rs
1
+ 3a2 x35 )/r
(44)
(45)
2 1 1 3 3 s

B=
C− 1+
=( a[− 3a(2ax12x)+
x− − a(a2 x123x++ rxs )(
+ a41a+ 3 2
3 x2 x+)]
1a3a a32fxs 5 ) / rs
3/i (46)
(45)
 
4 3 2 5
(a11 x) x++a23xa31 a+2 xrs )(+a15 a+2 3x a2 x 2 )]π/ i fs
2 3
C =−[ − (xa−1 + (46)
ϕ0 = +
rs 2Ns
 2 4 φ .3 3 2 5 
−  quantities
here, it contains two unknown (a1 + 1) x +x and
a1a2sx + a2 x 
3
According to the meshingrelationship between the5shaper and πthe pinion, the relation-
(47)
ϕ0 = x and rotation angle φ can +
ship between the parameter rs s be 2Ns
determined with Equation (47).
Therefore, Equation (43) is further defined as Equation (48), and therefore, the rotation
here,
angleitφscontains two unknown
of the pinion quantitieswhich
can be expressed, x andisϕthe
s. key point.
According to the meshing relationship between the shaper and the pinion, the rela-
4 3 2 5
tionship between theφparameter ( a21 + 1x)and
x + rotation 3
3 a1 a3 x + 5 a3 xϕs can
angle Ns
s = − be=determined
− ϕ0 with Equation
(47)
(48). Therefore, Equation (43) is further rdefined s as Equation 2π (49), and therefore, the rota-
tion angle ϕs of the pinion can be expressed, which is the key point.
x + ( a1 x + a2 x3 + rs )( a1 + 3a2 x2 )
h= (48)
i f s [( a1 + 3a2 x2 ) + ( a21 x + x + 4a1 a2 x3 + 3a22 x5 )/rs ]
Due to φs /φp = rp /rs , the rotation angle φp of pinion can be determined. Therefore, it
is necessary to solve the value range of x. Combining Equations (7)–(9), it can be known
that the parameters x of meshing point at the tooth tip (x = xc ) and root (x = xd ) of the pinion
can be obtained as follows:
x12 + y21 = (r p + h a )2 (49)

a1 x + a2 x 3 = − h a (50)
where x1 and y1 are defined by replacing rs with rp in Equation (7).
 the parameters x of meshing point at the tooth tip (x = xc) and root (x = xd) of the pinion
can be obtained as follows:

x12 + y12 = (rp + ha ) 2 (50)

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 a1 x + a2 x 3 = − ha 12 of 19

(51)

where x1 and y1 are defined by replacing rs with rp in Equation (7).

Consequently,
Consequently, according
accordingto tox∈[x
x∈[xcc,, xxdd],], the
therange
rangeofofangle
angle φpϕcan
p can be solved by Equa-
be solved by Equation (47)
tionand gear ratio, and h also can be obtained by Equation (48). (49).
(48) and gear ratio, and h also can be obtained by Equation On other
On the the other hand,
hand, based
based on the range of angle
on the range of angle φp , for ϕp , for each given angle ϕ , the corresponding
each given angle φp , pthe corresponding x can be solved by x can be solved
by Equation
Equation (47)
(48) and
and gear
gear ratio,
ratio, and
and then
thenhhalso alsocancanbebeobtained
obtainedby byEquation
Equation(48).
(49).Thus
Thusfar,
far,the
theexplicit
explicitsolution
solutionofofthe
themeshing
meshingpointspointsfor forthe
thetooth
toothsurface
surfaceisiscompleted.
completed.
Using
Usingthethe
calculation method
calculation method of the tooth
of the toothsurface
surfacemeshing
meshing point, thethe
point, meshing
meshingpoints
points
of the two face gears were carried out, as shown in Figure 7. Moreover,
of the two face gears were carried out, as shown in Figure 7. Moreover, the effectiveness the effectiveness
of the proposed
of the proposed method
methodwas was
verified by the
verified byintersection
the intersectionof theoflines
theLlines
SF and LSPand
LSF (by coor-
LSP (by
dinate transformation).
coordinate The coordinate
transformation). positions
The coordinate of the of
positions tooth surface
the tooth meshing
surface pointspoints
meshing of
theofproposed face gear
the proposed facewere
gear similar
were similarto those of theof
to those general face gear
the general face(the
gearpinion was in-
(the pinion was
involute
volute spur spur
gear).gear).

(a) Meshing points of the proposed face gear

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

(b) Meshing points of the general face gear
Figure 7. Meshing
Figure points
7. Meshing of two
points faceface
of two gears.
gears.
4.2. Solution
4.2. Solution of
of Sliding
Sliding Ratio
Ratio
The sliding ratiobetween
The sliding ratio betweenthe thepinion
pinionΣpΣand face gear Σf can be interpreted, in a par-
p and face gear Σf can be interpreted, in a
particularly short time, as the ratio of the relativelength
ticularly short time, as the ratio of the relative arc of the
arc length oftwo
the surfaces sliding
two surfaces over
sliding
the arc
over thelength of theof
arc length tooth
the surface, as shown
tooth surface, in Figure
as shown in 8. At a certain
Figure 8. At ainstant,
certain the two sur-
instant, the
facessurfaces
two mesh atmesh
pointatM. After
point M.a After
short aperiod
short of
period p and Σ
time,ofΣtime, and Σto
Σpf move Σ
movep’ and
to Σ
Σ f’,
’ Σf ’,
respec-
and
f p
tively. Moreover,
respectively. the two
Moreover, thesurfaces mesh mesh
two surfaces at point M’, and
at point M’,MM’ is theismeshing
and MM’ the meshingtrack.track.
The
corresponding
The corresponding points of M’
points ofon
M’the
on Σ
the Σp and
p and ΣfM
Σf are p and
are Mp M f. Mf .
and

Figure 8. Relative sliding of tooth surfaces.

In a fixed coordinate system, v(p) and v(f) are the speeds of the two gears at the meshing
point M. Similarly, vt(p) and vt(f) parameters represent the moving speed of point M along
the meshing lines of MMp and MMf, which is also the velocity along the common tangent
plane. vn(p) and vn(f) parameters represent the velocity along the common normal, both of
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 13 of 19

In a fixed coordinate system, v(p) and v(f ) are the speeds of the two gears at the
meshing point M. Similarly, vt (p) and vt (f ) parameters represent the moving speed of
point M along the meshing lines of MMp and MMf , which is also the velocity along the
common tangent plane. vn (p) and vn (f ) parameters represent the velocity along the common
normal, both of which have the same mode length and direction. These vectors have the
following relationship:
v( p) · n0
θ p = arccos  ( p)  (51)
v  · |n0 |

v( f ) · n0
θ f = arccos  ( f )  (52)
v  · |n0 |
( p)
vt = v( p) sin θ p (53)
(f)
vt = v( f ) sin θ f (54)

where n0 is the common normal vector at meshing point; θ p (θ f ) is the angle between v(p)
(v(f ) ) and n0 .
Thus, combined with the definition of sliding ratio, the sliding ratios δp and δf of Σp
and Σf are expressed as follows:

( p) (f) (f)
MM p − MM f v −v v
δp = lim = t ( p) t = 1 − (t p) (55)
MM p →0 MM p vt vt

(f) ( p) ( p)
MM f − MM p v −v v
δf = lim = t ( f ) t = 1 − t( f ) (56)
MM f →0 MM f vt vt
here, vt (p) and vt (f ) need to be solved. The solution of them is described below.
As evident from Figure 4, in the fixed coordinate system Sf0 (of0 ,xf0 ,yf0 ,zf0 ), the vector
equation of the engagement point M is (x, 0.5 mNf , a1 x + a2 x3 − rp ), and the angular velocity
vectors of the pinion and face gears are (0, wp , 0) and (0, 0, wf ).

v p = ω p × r M = ω p [( a1 x + a2 x3 − r p )i − xk] (57)

v f = ω f × r M = −ω f [r f i − xj] (58)

The common normal vector n0 at that point is (x, 0, a1 x + a2 x3 ), and inserting n0 ,

Equations (57) and (58) into Equations (51)–(54) yields
v
u [ x2 + ( a1 x + a2 x3 )2 ] · [( a1 x + a2 x3 − r p )2 + x2 ] − r2p x2
u
( p)
vt = ωpt (59)
[ x 2 + ( a1 x + a2 x 3 )2 ]
v
u [ x + ( a1 x + a2 x 3 )2 ] · [r 2 + x 2 ] − r 2 x 2
u 2
(f) f f
vt = ωf t 2
(60)
2
[ x + ( a1 x + a2 x ) ] 3

At this point, substituting vt (p) and vt (f ) into Equations (55) and (56), the sliding ratios
of pinion and face gear can be further expressed as
q
rf ( x2 + y2 )(y2 − 2r p y + x2 ) + r2p y2
δp = 1 − q (61)
r p ( x2 + y2 ) x2 + r2f y2
 At this point, substituting vt and vt into Equations (56) and (57), the sliding ratios
of pinion and face gear can be further expressed as

rf ( x 2 + y 2 )( y 2 − 2rp y + x 2 ) + rp2 y 2
δ p = 1− (62)
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 rp ( x 2 + y 2 ) x 2 + rf2 y 2 14 of 19

rpq ( x 2 + y 2 ) x 2 + rf2 y 2
δ f = 1− r ( x 2 + y2 ) x 2 + r 2 y2 (63)
2p 2 2 f 2 2 2
δ f = 1 − rf q( x + y )( y − 2rp y + x ) + rp y (62)
rf ( x2 + y2 )(y2 − 2r p y + x2 ) + r2p y2

4.3.
4.3. Analysis
Analysis of
of Sliding
Sliding Ratio
Ratio
According
According to Tables 11and
to Tables and2,2,the
theparameter
parametergroups
groups D-1
D-1 to to
D-5D-5 were
were used
used to analyze
to analyze the
the effects of coefficient a1 on the sliding ratio. Similarly, the parameter groups D-6 to D-9
effects of coefficient a1 on the sliding ratio. Similarly, the parameter groups D-6 to D-9 and
and D-3 were
D-3 were applied
applied to study
to study the effects
the effects of theofcoefficient
the coefficient a2 on
a2 on the the sliding
sliding ratio,
ratio, the the re-
results of
sults of which are shown in Figure 9. It can be seen that, as the coefficient a or
which are shown in Figure 9. It can be seen that, as the coefficient a1 or a12 decreased, a2 decreased,
the
the sliding
sliding ratio
ratio of face
of face geargear drive
drive decreased.
decreased.

(a) Effect of a1 on sliding ratio (b) Effect of a2 sliding ratio

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Effect
Effect of
of aa11and
andaa22on
onsliding
slidingratio.
ratio.

Moreover,
Moreover, the maximum sliding ratios (absolute value) of this this gear
gear drive
drive were
were lower
lower
than
than those of the general gear drive, as
as displayed
displayed in
in Table
Table4,4,through
throughgroups
groupsD-3
D-3and
andD-6.
D-
6.
Table 4. Comparison of sliding ratio for the two gear drives.

Sliding The Proposed Face Gear Drive (D-3) The General Face Gear Drive (D-6)
Ratio Pinion Face Gear Pinion Face Gear
Root of tooth −0.6041 −0.3931 −0.9285 −0.5455
Top of tooth 0.2822 0.3766 0.3530 0.4815

Given a face gear drive with a1 = −tan 20◦ , a2 = −0.001, m = [2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4] mm,
and with other parameters being the same as Table 1, the sliding ratio of face gear pair
were calculated, as shown in Figure 10. With the pinion parameters kept unchanged, and
given the gear ratio as ipf = [2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4], the sliding ratio of the gear pair under different
transmission ratio conditions are displayed in Figure 11. From Figures 10 and 11, it can be
deduced that, as the gear ratio or modulus increased, the sliding ratio of the proposed gear
drive decreased.
 Given
Given aa face
face geargear drive
drive with
with aa11 == −tan
−tan 20°,
20°, aa22 == −0.001,
−0.001, mm == [2,
[2, 2.5,
2.5, 3,
3, 3.5,
3.5, 4]
4] mm,
mm, andand
with
with other
other parameters
parameters being being the
the same
same as as Table
Table 1,1, the
the sliding
sliding ratio
ratio of
of face
face gear
gear pair
pair were
were
calculated,
calculated, as
as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10.10. With
With the the pinion
pinion parameters
parameters kept
kept unchanged,
unchanged, and and given
given
the
the gear
gear ratio
ratio as
as iipfpf==[2,
[2, 2.5,
2.5, 3,
3, 3.5,
3.5, 4],
4], the
the sliding
sliding ratio
ratio of of the
the gear
gear pair
pair under
under different
different trans-
trans-
mission
mission ratio
ratio conditions
conditions are are displayed
displayed in in Figure
Figure 11.
11. From
From Figures
Figures 1010 and
and 11,
11, it
it can
can be
be de-
de-
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 15 of 19
duced
duced that, as the gear ratio or modulus increased, the sliding ratio of the proposed gear
that, as the gear ratio or modulus increased, the sliding ratio of the proposed gear
drive
drive decreased.
decreased.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Effect
Effect of
Effect of module
module m
m on
on sliding
sliding ratio.
ratio.

Figure
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Effect
11. Effect of
Effect of gear
of gear ratio
gear ratio iiipfpfpfon
ratio onsliding
on slidingratio.
sliding ratio.
ratio.

5.
5. Model
ModelValidation
Model Validation
Validation
5.1.
5.1. Modeling
5.1. Modeling ofFace
Modeling of
of Face Gear
Face Gear Pair
Gear Pair
Pair
Generally, it
Generally,
Generally, it is
it is difficult
is difficult to
difficult to obtain
to obtain the tooth
obtain the
the tooth surface model
tooth surface
surface model of
model of aaa face
of face gear
face gear pair
gear pair directly
pair directly
directly
from
from
from 3D 3D software
3D software due
software due
due toto the
to the complexity
the complexity
complexity ofof the
of the tooth
the tooth surface.
tooth surface. Commercial
surface. Commercial software
Commercial software CATIA
software CATIA
CATIA
V5
V5 (produced
V5 (produced
(produced byby Dassault
by Dassault System)
Dassault System) and
System) and MATLAB
and MATLAB R2019a
MATLAB R2019a (produced
R2019a (produced
(produced byby MathWorks)
by MathWorks)
MathWorks) cancan
be
can
used for the parameterized modeling of complex surfaces, which mainly depends on the
numerical calculation of MATLAB software and the accurate modeling of CATIA software
for complex surfaces [30].
To realize the parametric modeling of the proposed pinion, the key steps are as follows:
(1) Parameter calculation: the ranges of parameters x corresponding to the working
and the fillet tooth profile were calculated according to Equations (8) and (9);
(2) Solving tooth profile coordinates: the tooth surface coordinates xs , ys of the working
tooth profile and the transition tooth profile were calculated according to Equations (7) and (10);
(3) Data output: the point data stored in the matrix were outputted to a specific Excel
file. Then, they were imported into a 3D modeling software to continue the subsequent
tooth surface modeling process. Additionally, the specific steps are shown in Figure 12a.
 (4) Data output: the point data stored in the matrix were cyclically outputted to a
specific Excel file. Then, they were imported into a 3D modeling software to continue the
subsequent tooth surface modeling process. Additionally, the specific steps are shown in
Figure 12b.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 Finally, the pinion and face gear models were used to build the gear pair assembly
16 of 19
model, as shown in Figure 12c.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 22

(a) Modeling steps of the proposed pinion

(b) Modeling steps of the proposed face gear

(c) Assembly of the proposed face gear pair

Figure
Figure12.
12.Modeling
Modelingofofthe
theproposed
proposedface
facegear
gearpair.
pair.

5.2. Motion Simulation

Similarly, the key steps for accurate modeling of face gear are as follows:
(1) Parameter calculation:
Motion simulation can be the parameters
used corresponding
to judge the rationality to
of the
the minimum innermove-
meshing pair radius
(to avoid undercutting) and the maximum outer radius (to avoid pointing) were
ment, and also to determine whether there is interference between components [31]. In calculated
according
this to Equations
study, based on the (36) and (39),
movement and then the
relationship between zf was
range ofthe twodetermined corresponding
parts, motion simulation
to the tooth height;
was carried out, as displayed in Figure 13. It can be observed that there was no interfer-
ence between the two gears, as the rotation angle φp of the pinion changed. When a pair
of gear teeth entered into meshing, the other pair of teeth had not yet exited meshing.
Thus, the necessary continuity of action was ensured.
 (b) Modeling steps of the proposed face gear
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 17 of 19

(2) Discrete tooth surface coordinates: coordinate yf was discretized along the tooth
width direction to obtain a series of yfi ; coordinate zf was discretized along the tooth height
direction to obtain a series of zfj ;
(3) Solving the tooth surface coordinate xf : According to yfi and zfj coordinates obtained
by discretization, the surface equation was substituted to obtain the coordinate xfij ;
(4) Data output: the point data stored in the matrix were cyclically outputted to a
specific Excel file. Then, they were imported into a 3D modeling software to continue the
subsequent tooth surface modeling
(c) Assembly process. face
of the proposed Additionally,
gear pair the specific steps are shown in
Figure 12b.
FigureFinally,
12. Modeling of the proposed
the pinion and faceface
geargear pair. were used to build the gear pair assembly
models
model, as shown in Figure 12c.
5.2. Motion Simulation
5.2. Motion
Motion Simulation
simulation can be used to judge the rationality of the meshing pair move-
ment, Motion
and also to determine
simulation can bewhether
used tothere
judgeisthe
interference
rationality between components
of the meshing [31]. In
pair movement,
this
andstudy,
also tobased on thewhether
determine movement thererelationship between
is interference the two
between parts, motion
components simulation
[31]. In this study,
was
basedcarried
on theout, as displayed
movement in Figure
relationship 13. It can
between be observed
the two that there
parts, motion was no
simulation wasinterfer-
carried
out, between
ence as displayed in Figure
the two 13.asItthe
gears, canrotation
be observed φp of
anglethat there
thewas no interference
pinion changed. Whenbetween the
a pair
oftwo gears,
gear teethasentered
the rotation
into angle φp ofthe
meshing, the other
pinionpair
changed. When
of teeth hadanot
pairyet
of gear teeth
exited entered
meshing.
into meshing,
Thus, the other
the necessary pair of action
continuity teeth had
wasnot yet exited meshing. Thus, the necessary
ensured.
continuity of action was ensured.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 22

φp = 0° φp = 6°

φp = 12° φp = 18°
Figure
Figure13.
13.Motion
Motionsimulation
simulationofofthe
theproposed
proposedface
facegear
gearpair.
pair.

6.6.Conclusions
Conclusions
Thispaper
This paperpresented
presentedaadesign
designmethod
method for
for face
face gear
gear drive
drive associated
associatedwith
withaalow
lowsliding
slid-
ratio. Based on the analysis and results, the conclusions are as follows:
ing ratio. Based on the analysis and results, the conclusions are as follows:
(1) Based on the provided contact path function y = a x + a x3 , general mathematical
(1) Based on the provided contact path function y = a1x1 + a2x23, general mathematical
models of a pair of the conjugated spur gear and rack with low sliding ratio were given,
models of a pair of the conjugated spur gear and rack with low sliding ratio were given,
including the working and the fillet profiles;
including the working and the fillet profiles;
(2) Using the established spur gear as the shaper to envelope the face gear, the math-
(2) Using the established spur gear as the shaper to envelope the face gear, the math-
ematical models of the working and the fillet surfaces of the face gear were obtained,
ematical models of the working and the fillet surfaces of the face gear were obtained, and
and the tooth width restriction conditions were established, including the undercutting
the tooth width restriction conditions were established, including the undercutting of the
of the inner and the pointing of the outer. The results show that the tooth width of the
inner and the pointing of the outer. The results show that the tooth width of the proposed
proposed face gear was larger than that of general face gear, due to the smaller inner radius.
face gear was larger than that of general face gear, due to the smaller inner radius. Fur-
Furthermore, as the coefficients a1 or a2 increased, the inner radius and the outer radius
thermore, as the coefficients a1 or a2 increased, the inner radius and the outer radius in-
increased; conversely, the tooth width of the face gear increased.
creased;(3)conversely,
An explicitthe tooth width
solution methodoffor
thethe
facecontact
gear increased.
point of the tooth surface of the face
(3) An explicit solution method for the contact
gear pair was provided, which is more convenient point of the
than the tooth
generalsurface of the
solution face
method.
gear pair was provided, which is more convenient than the general solution method. Ad-
ditionally, this method is also suitable for solving the meshing points of the general face
gear drive, in which case, let a2 = 0;
(4) The calculation method of the sliding ratio of the spatial meshing of the face gear
pair was studied, and the effects of design parameters on the sliding ratio were analyzed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 18 of 19

Additionally, this method is also suitable for solving the meshing points of the general face
gear drive, in which case, let a2 = 0;
(4) The calculation method of the sliding ratio of the spatial meshing of the face gear
pair was studied, and the effects of design parameters on the sliding ratio were analyzed.
The sliding ratio of the proposed face gear pair was lower than those of the general face
gear pair. Moreover, as the coefficient a1 or a2 decreased, the sliding ratio of the face gear
drive decreased.
(5) The rationality of the proposed face gear was demonstrated by accurate 3D mod-
eling and motion simulation. However, to determine the optimum design and precision
machining, further studies are needed.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.S. and J.Z.; methodology, W.S.; software, J.Z.; validation,
H.Z. and R.Z.; formal analysis, W.S. and J.Z.; investigation, R.Z.; resources, Z.L.; data curation, W.S.;
writing—original draft preparation, W.S.; writing—review and editing, J.Z. and H.Z.; visualization,
H.Z.; supervision, Z.L.; project administration, Z.L.; funding acquisition, Z.L. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Key R&D Program of China, grant number 2019YFB2004700;
National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 52175053; National Science and Tech-
nology Major Project, grant number 2019-VII-0017-0158.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by National Key R&D Program of China (Grant
No. 2019YFB2004700), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52175053), and
National Science and Technology Major Project (Grant No. 2019-VII-0017-0158). The authors also
sincerely appreciate the comments and suggestions for modifications made by the editors and
anonymous referees.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Litvin, F.L.; Fuentes, A. Gear Geometry and Applied Theory, 2nd ed.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2004;
ISBN 9780521815178.
2. Litvin, F.L.; Wang, J.-C.; Bossler, R.B.; Chen, Y.-J.D.; Heath, G.F.; Lewicki, D.G. Application of face-gear drives in helicopter
transmissions. J. Mech. Des. 1994, 116, 672–676. [CrossRef]
3. Heath, G.; Slaughter, S.C.; Fisher, D.J.; Lewicki, D.G.; Fetty, J. Helical face gear development under the enhanced rotorcraft drive
system program. In Proceedings of the 67th Annual Forum and Technology Display, Virginia Beach, VA, USA, 3–5 May 2011;
Volume 3, pp. 2422–2433, NASA/TM-2011–217125.
4. Benz, A. Cylkro® face gears: Dutch design and Swiss ingenuity cause transmission breakthrough. In Proceedings of the
International Gear Conference 2014, Lyon, France, 26–28 August 2014; pp. 1184–1187.
5. Choy, F.K.; Polyshchuk, V.; Zakrajsek, J.; Handschuh, R.F.; Townsend, D.P. Analysis of the effects of surface pitting and wear on
the vibrations of a gear transmission system. Tribol. Int. 1994, 29, 77–83. [CrossRef]
6. Morales-Espejel, G.E.; Rycerz, P.; Kadiric, A. Prediction of micropitting damage in gear teeth contacts considering the concurrent
effects of surface fatigue and mild wear. Wear 2018, 398, 99–115. [CrossRef]
7. Litvin, F.L.; Gonzalez-Perez, I.; Fuentes, A.; Vecchiato, D.; Hansen, B.D.; Binney, D. Design, generation and stress analysis of
face-gear drive with helical pinion. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 2005, 194, 3870–3901. [CrossRef]
8. Litvin, F.L.; Nava, A.; Fan, Q.; Fuentes, A. New geometry of face worm gear drives with conical and cylindrical worms: Generation,
simulation of meshing, and stress analysis. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 2002, 191, 3035–3054. [CrossRef]
9. Litvin, F.L.; Fuentes, A.; Howkins, M. Design, generation and TCA of new type of asymmetric face-gear drive with modified
geometry. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 2001, 190, 5837–5865. [CrossRef]
10. Zschippang, H.A.; Weikert, S.; Küük, K.A.; Wegener, K. Face-gear drive: Geometry generation and tooth contact analysis. Mech.
Mach. Theory 2019, 142, 103576. [CrossRef]
11. Lin, C.; He, C.; Hu, Y. Analysis on the kinematical characteristics of compound motion curve-face gear pair. Mech. Mach. Theory
2018, 128, 298–313. [CrossRef]
12. Hu, Y.; Lin, C.; Li, S.; Yu, Y.; He, C.; Cai, Z. The Mathematical Model of Curve-Face Gear and Time-Varying Meshing Characteristics
of Compound Transmission. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8706. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2936 19 of 19

13. Liu, D.; Wang, G.; Ren, T. Transmission principle and geometrical model of eccentric face gear. Mech. Mach. Theory 2017, 109,
51–64. [CrossRef]
14. Cui, Y.; Fang, Z.; Su, J.; Feng, X. Precise modeling of arc tooth face-gear with transition curve. Chin. J. Aeronaut. 2013, 26,
1346–1351.
15. Tan, J. Face gearing with a conical involute pinion: Part 2—The face gear: Meshing with the pinion, tooth geometry and generation.
In Proceedings of the ASME 2003 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in
Engineering Conference, Chicago, IL, USA, 2–6 September 2003; pp. 297–306.
16. Zhang, Y.; Wu, Z. Offset Face Gear Drives: Tooth geometry and contact analysis. J. Mech. Des. 1997, 119, 114–119. [CrossRef]
17. Chang, H.L.; Tsai, Y.C. A mathematical model of parametric tooth profiles for spur gears. J. Mech. Des. 1992, 114, 8–16. [CrossRef]
18. Kapelevich, A. Geometry and design of involute spur gears with asymmetric teeth. Mech. Mach. Theory 2000, 35, 117–130.
[CrossRef]
19. Xu, L.; Li, S.; Wang, W. Sliding ratio for novel cycloidal gear drive. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 2017, 232,
3954–3963. [CrossRef]
20. Liu, L.; Meng, F.; Ni, J. A novel non-involute gear designed based on control of relative curvature. Mech. Mach. Theory 2019, 140,
144–158. [CrossRef]
21. Chen, Z.; Zeng, M.; Fuentes, A. Computerized design, simulation of meshing and stress analysis of pure rolling cylindrical helical
gear drives with variable helix angle. Mech. Mach. Theory 2020, 153, 103962. [CrossRef]
22. Yeh, T.; Yang, D.C.H.; Tong, S.-H. Design of new tooth profiles for high-load capacity gears. Mech. Mach. Theory 2001, 36,
1105–1120. [CrossRef]
23. Fong, Z.-H.; Chiang, T.-W.; Tsay, C.-W. Mathematical model for parametric tooth profile of spur gear using line of action. Math.
Comput. Model. 2002, 36, 603–614.
24. Wang, Y.; Ren, S.; Li, Y. Design and manufacturing of a novel high contact ratio internal gear with a circular arc contact path. Int.
J. Mech. Sci. 2019, 153, 143–153. [CrossRef]
25. Wang, J.; Luo, S.; Wu, R. A method for the preliminary geometric design of gear tooth profiles with small sliding coefficients.
J. Mech. Des. 2010, 132, 054501. [CrossRef]
26. Wang, J.; Liang, H.; Luo, S.; Wu, R. Active design of tooth profiles using parabolic curve as the line of action. Mech. Mach. Theory
2013, 67, 47–63. [CrossRef]
27. Buckingham, E. Analytical Mechanics of Gears; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1949.
28. Litvin, F.L.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, J.-C.; Bossler, R.B.; Chen, Y.-J.D. design and geometry of face-gear drives. J. Mech. Des. 1992, 114,
642–647. [CrossRef]
29. Chang, S.-H.; Chung, T.-D.; Lu, S.-S. Tooth contact analysis of face-gear drives. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 2000, 42, 487–502. [CrossRef]
30. Wu, Y.; Zhou, Y.; Zhou, Z.; Tang, J.; Ouyang, H. An advanced CAD/CAE integration method for the generative design of face
gears. Adv. Eng. Softw. 2018, 126, 90–99. [CrossRef]
31. Sheng, W.; Li, Z.; Zhang, H.; Zhu, R. Geometry and design of spur gear drive associated with low sliding ratio. Adv. Mech. Eng.
2021, 13, 16878140211012547. [CrossRef]