2

Torsors and Torsor Calculus

Vectors play an essential role in the formalism of solid mechanics and form families that
express the characteristics and properties of their movements. In addition, in the case of
rigid solids, these families have strong connections which perfectly organize their
evolution. This is the case for velocity field, which affects all particles of a rigid solid in
motion and expresses its rigidity. The need to characterize these families is satisfied
through torsors. This concept proved so satisfactory that it is found in formalism,
bringing rigor and greatly simplifying notation.

2.1. Vector sets

2.1.1. Discrete set of vectors

Consider, in the affine space of dimension 3 linked to the frame

λ ≡ O λ xλ yλ zλ , a set of points M1 , M 2 ,… , M i ,… , M n and a set
of vectors φ1 ,φ2 ,…,φi ,…,φn associated with points as follows:

φi → Mi , ∀i = 1,2,… n .

It is therefore defined in the affine space as a discrete vector

field. In area mechanics, this field is associated with two vector
quantities:

Movement Equations 2: Mathematical and Methodological Supplements, First Edition.

Michel Borel and Georges Vénizélos.
© ISTE Ltd 2017. Published by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
36 Movement Equations 2

– its resultant, which is the sum (in the vector sense of the term), of
all the vectors that make it:
n
s = ∑φi ;
i =1

– its moment at point P of the space:

n
MP = ∑ PMi ∧ φi = PMα ∧ φα .
i =1

Consider, from this definition, another point Q of this discrete set

of vectors:
n n n
MQ = ∑ QMi ∧ φi = ∑ ( QP + PMi ) ∧ φi = QP ∧ ∑φi + MP .
i =1 i =1 i =1

We thus recognize a relationship which shows that the second

quantity applied to this vector field considered here, defines a
moment, that is to say:

MQ = MP + QP ∧ s .

2.1.2. Set of vectors defined on a continuum

Consider in the affine space of dimension 3 a continuous field

( D ) with a measurement μ (the measure of volume or mass, for
example). Each plot (or point) M of ( D ) is associated with an
elementary vector φ ( M ) d μ ( M ) , where d μ ( M ) is the basic
measurement (volume or mass) associated in the vicinity of the plot
M in the sense of differential or integral calculus.

Consider also on ( D ) a continuous set of vectors characterized by

a vector density per unit of measurement.
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 37

In the same way as mentioned above, both quantities are associated

with this field of vectors:
– a resultant
s=∫ φ ( M )dμ ( M ) ;
M∈( D )

– a moment at a given point P

MP = ∫ PM ∧ φ ( M ) d μ ( M ) ,
M∈( D )

a formula that, like before, satisfies the relation of the moment.

2.2. Introduction to torsors

2.2.1. Definition

A set of vectors associated with points in space, thus forming a

vector field, whether discrete or continuous, can be characterized by
the two vector quantities:
– a resultant, which is the sum (in the vector sense of the term) of
the vectors of the field;
– a moment at a point, which is the sum (always in the vector sense
of the term) of moments at the same point P of all the vectors of the
field.

This set is called torsor and these two quantities, which represent it
and are its essential characteristics, are the reduction elements
at point P being considered. This will be noted by an expression in
italic brackets containing the name of the torsor, for example {T } ;
it is also denoted in its reduction elements form between square
brackets. The reference point is where the moment is calculated,
and it is indicated by an index to the right of the second italic
bracket around the name of the torsor when the term of moment
38 Movement Equations 2

does not point out explicitly this point, or in the expression of the
moment, as follows:

{T }P = ⎡⎣ s M ⎤⎦ or {T } = ⎡⎣ s M P ⎤⎦ .

2.2.2. Equivalence of vector families

All vector fields, discrete or continuous, which have the same

reduction elements at the same point P, are equivalent, and the torsor
serves to represent this equivalence. The concept of torsor in the
vector affine space of dimension 3 expresses in fact the equivalence
class of set theory.

The equivalence property associated with the torsor {T } is not

just a theoretical consideration. In practical terms, it makes perfect
sense. Imagine the operation of a mechanical device moving under the
action of a set of suitably applied forces; however, the choice of
application method depends on how it is done, the techniques
available, or the conceivable view of the system in motion. The
important thing is that the resultant and the moment at the same point
of these forces are equivalent. The technical ability will depend upon a
selection of these criteria. We see from this example the interest of
this synthesis that represents the torsor.

2.3. Algebra torsors

The torsor is considered here as a mathematical tool with which it

is possible to perform operations in the algebraic sense. We first
clarify its operating characteristics.

2.3.1. Equality of two torsors

We say that two torsors {T1 } and {T 2 } are equal when they
have the same reduction elements at the same arbitrarily chosen
point P.
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 39

⎧⎪ s {T1 } = s {T2 }
{T1 } = {T2 } ⇔ ⎨ .
⎪⎩ M P {T1 } = M P {T2 }

2.3.2. Linear combination of torsors

Consider two torsors {T1 } and {T 2 } , two scalars λ1 , λ2 ∈ and

the operation:

λ1 {T1 } + λ2 {T 2 } .

The following definition in fact covers two operations, the sum of

torsors and multiplication of a torsor by a scalar. The result of this
operation is defined as the torsor:

{T } = λ1 {T1 } + λ2 {T 2 } ,

whose reduction elements are:

⎧⎪ s {T } = λ1 s {T1 } + λ2 s {T2 }
⎨ .
⎪⎩ M P {T } = λ1M P {T1 } + λ2 M P {T2 }

We can verify that M P {T } is a moment, well within the

meaning of vector moments, that is to say:

M Q {T } = M P {T } + QP ∧ s {T } .

2.3.3. Null torsors

The torsor {T ' } is such that:

{T } + {T ' } = {T ' } + {T } = { 0 } .
40 Movement Equations 2

According to the algebra of vectors, this is the torsor

whose reduction elements at an arbitrary point P are both equal to
the vector 0 :

s {T ' } = 0, M P {T ' } = 0 .

We can easily demonstrate that at any arbitrarily taken point Q ,

we have:

M Q {T ' } = 0 .

This torsor will be written as:

{ 0 } = ⎡⎣ 0 0 ⎤⎦ .

2.3.4. Opposing torsor

Two torsors {T } and {T ' } are said to be opposite if:

{T } + {T ' } = {T ' } + {T } = { 0 } ,

that is to say, ∀P ∈ affine space:

⎪⎧ s {T '} = − s {T }
⎨ ,
⎪⎩ M P {T '} = − M P {T }

and consequently:

{T '} = − {T } .

2.3.5. Product of two torsors

We define the product of two torsors {T1 } and {T 2 } , whose

reduction elements are taken at the same arbitrary point P as the scalar
p , such that:
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 41

p = {T1 } ⊗ {T 2 } = {T 2 } ⊗ {T1 }
= s {T1 } ⋅M P {T 2 } + s {T 2 } ⋅M P { T1 }
.
Consider the moment of the two torsors at another point Q:

s {T1 }⋅M P {T 2 } + s {T 2 }⋅M P {T1 }

"" = s {T1 }⋅ ⎡⎣ M Q {T 2 } + PQ ∧ s {T 2 } ⎤⎦ …
… + s {T 2 }⋅ ⎡⎣ M Q {T1 } + PQ ∧ s {T1 } ⎤⎦
"" = s {T1 }⋅M Q {T 2 } + s {T 2 }⋅M Q {T1 }…
… + ( s {T1 } , PQ, s {T 2 } ) + ( s {T 2 } , PQ, s {T1 } ) .

Yet both the mixed products involved in the equation above are
opposite, due to the permutation from one to the other of the two
resultants s {T1 } and s {T2 } ; we observe therefore that the product
of these two torsors is independent of the point where their moments
are determined, on the condition that there is the same point for both.
Therefore:

p = s {T1 } ⋅M P {T 2 } + s {T 2 } ⋅M P {T1 } , ∀P ∈ affine space.

2.3.6. Scalar moment of a torsor – equiprojectivity

A moment of a torsor {T } is a moment in the vector sense of the

term, which obeys, between two points P and Q, the law already seen:

M P {T } = M Q {T } + PQ ∧ s {T } .

With the scalar product of both sides of this expression by the

vector PQ , a remarkable projection property is obtained for those
moments on a particular axis:

PQ ⋅M P {T } = PQ ⋅M Q {T } .
42
2 Movement Equations
E 2

Figure 2.1. Equiprojec

ctivity of a torssor

The axis coonsidered heere is the onee whose direcction is givenn by the
PQQ
wo points P and Q withh its unit vecctor u =
tw . This prooperty is
PQQ
caalled the equiprojectivity of the torsor. It reflects the fact thatt, on the
axxis generatedd by the tw wo points in space wherre the momeents are
caalculated, theey have projeections whosse algebraic mmeasures aree equal.

The common quantity μ defined ass:

μ = u ⋅M P { T } = u ⋅M Q { T } ,

is called the scalar

s orsor {T } relative to tthe axis
momeent of the to
( P u ) . We caan deduce froom the relatiionship:
( u ⋅M P {T } ) u = ( u ⋅M Q {T } ) u ,

thhat the vectorrs, projectionns on the ax

xis ( P u ) off the momennts at P
annd Q of the torsor
t {T } , are equal.
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 43

2.3.7. Invariant scalar of a torsor

Always starting from the same relationship of the moment, if we

consider the scalar product of both sides by the resultant s {T } , we
obtain:

I { T } = s { T } ⋅ M P { T } = s { T } ⋅M Q { T } .

The quantity I {T } , called the scalar invariant of the torsor, is

specifically representative since it does not depend on the point where
the moment of this torsor is calculated. It is therefore important to
know whether it can be considered, and how, as an indicator of the
nature of the torsor.

2.4. Characterization and classification of torsors

Different element characteristics of the torsors can be discerned:

the resultant, the moment at a point, the scalar invariant and certain
projection properties, such as the equiprojectivity and the scalar
moment. Now, we need to examine how to identify them better, and
eventually, make a classification.

2.4.1. Torsors with a null resultant

The first approach can be made on the value of the result. In

particular, if the torsor resultant {T } is 0, the moment law:

M P {T } = M Q {T } + PQ ∧ s {T } ,

shows that the moment of this torsor is constant regardless of the point
of the affine space at which it is established.

s {T } = 0; M P {T } = M Q {T } .
44 Movement Equations 2

2.4.1.1. Null moment at a point: null torsor

Under these conditions, if the moment of the torsor at a point is
zero, it is constantly zero. The torsor considered is the null torsor
whose reduction elements are:

s {T } = 0 ; M P {T } = MQ {T } = 0 ∀P,Q ∈ affine space.

Any family of vectors that boils down to a resultant and a moment

null at a point is part of the equivalence class of null torsor. Such a
torsor can amount to two vectors with the same norm, the same
support but in opposite directions.

Figure 2.2. Synthesized representation of null torsor

2.4.1.2. No-null moment at a point: couple torsor

When a torsor has a resultant null and a moment which is not null
at a point, this moment keeps the same value at any other point of the
affine space. The corresponding torsor is a couple torsor with the
reduction elements:

s {T } = 0 ; MP {T } = MQ {T } ∀P,Q ∈ affine space.

Figure 2.3. Synthetic representation of a couple torsor

 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 45

Any family of vectors meeting these last two characteristics is

nothing more than two vectors of distinct parallel supports, but in
opposite directions.

2.4.2. Torsors with a no-null resultant

When a family of vectors is represented by a torsor {T } with a

no-null resultant, we can find an axis ( Δ ) such that:

∀Q ∈ ( Δ ) , s {T } ∧ MQ {T } = 0?

If this axis exists, all the calculated moments at points onto it are
collinear with the resultant.

2.4.2.1. Central axis of a torsor

The torsor {T } is known by its resultant s {T } and its moment
M P {T } at a point P within the affine space. One tries to find, if it
exists, the location of points Q such as:

s {T } ∧ M Q {T } = s { T } ∧ ( M P {T } + QP ∧ s {T } ) = 0,

which is:

s {T } ∧ M P {T } = s {T } ∧ ( PQ ∧ s {T } )
.
= s {T } PQ − ( s {T }⋅ PQ ) s {T }
2
""

We deduce that the vector PQ has an expression as:

s {T } ∧ M P {T }
PQ = 2
+ λ s {T } .
s {T }
46 Movement Equations 2

And if we consider a point Q 0 such that:

s {T } ∧ M P {T }
PQ0 = 2
and Q0 Q = λ s {T } ,
s {T }

where PQ0 is orthogonal to s {T } and Q0 Q collinear, we get the

following diagram.

Figure 2.4. Centerline of a torsor

The axis ( Δ ) , location of points Q for which the moment of this

torsor {T } is collinear with its resultant, is obtained as follows:

– tracing by P the orthogonal plane to the resultant s {T } ;

– placing the point Q 0 as defined by the vector

s {T } ∧ M P {T }
PQ0 = 2
;
s {T }

– by this point plotting the axis collinear to s {T } .

This axis ( Δ ) is called the central axis of the torsor.

2.4.2.2. Null moment at a point: sliding torsor

If there exists a point A in the space where M A {T } = 0, this
point is necessarily located on the central axis since the relationship
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 47

s ∧ M A = 0, that characterizes this axis, is checked. However, for

any other point Q on the axis, we have QA = λ s {T } , hence:

MQ {T } = M A {T } + QA ∧ s {T }
= M A {T } + λ s {T } ∧ s {T } = 0
.

When the resultant s {T } of a torsor is not null and its moment is

null at a point A within the affine space, this point belongs to the
central axis ( Δ ) of the torsor and at any other point Q of this central
axis, the moment of the torsor is null.

The family of vectors represented by this torsor boils down to a

unique vector s {T } along the straight line ( Δ ) . This torsor is said
to be a sliding torsor.

{T }∀Q∈( Δ ) = ⎡⎣ s {T } 0 ⎤⎦ .

2.4.2.3. Screwing torsor

In the general case, when the resultant is not null and if there is no
point in the affine space where the moment of this torsor may be zero,
along the central axis ( Δ ) this moment is collinear with the resultant
and expressed as:

M Q { T } = M P {T } + ( QQ0 + Q0 P ) ∧ s {T }
s {T } ∧ M P {T }
" = M P {T } + λ s {T } ∧ s {T } + s {T } ∧ 2
s {T }

" = M P {T } +
( s {T } ⋅M P { T } )
s {T }…
2
s {T }

…−
( s {T } ⋅ s {T } )
M P {T }
2
s {T }
48 Movement Equations 2

that is

I {T }
M Q {T } = 2
s {T } .
s {T }

This torsor, whose resultant and moment taken at any arbitrarily

selected point are not null, is the most general form that may be
encountered. This is called the screwing torsor.

This term is explained as follows: any family of vectors with these

characteristics can be reduced to a vector s = s {T } along the central
I {T }
axis ( Δ ) and characters size C = 2
s:
s

{T } = {G } + {C } ,

with

⎡ I {T } ⎤
{G }∀Q∈( Δ ) = ⎡⎣ s {T } 0 ⎤⎦ and {C }∀P = ⎢ 0 s {T }⎥ .
⎣ s {T }
2
⎦

Such a configuration gives the idea of a screw, whose progression

follows the axis ( Δ ) during its rotation around this axis, powered by
a couple torsor.

2.5. Derivation torsors

In mechanics, the reduction elements of a torsor associated with

the motion of a system, and therefore the torsor itself, are generally
based on the parameters that describe this movement. As in the latter,
when these parameters change, so does the torsor. It is therefore
legitimate and even appropriate to consider the derivation with respect
to these parameters.
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 49

2.5.1. Torsor dependent on a single parameter q

In the frame λ ≡ O λ xλ yλ zλ , consider a torsor {T ( q ) }
whose reduction elements are a function of a parameter q:

⎧⎪ s ( {T ( q ) } ) = X ( q ) xλ + Y ( q ) yλ + Z ( q ) zλ = s ( q )
⎨ .
⎪⎩ M Oλ ( {T ( q ) } ) = L ( q ) xλ + M ( q ) yλ + N ( q ) zλ = M Oλ ( q )

By definition, the derivative of such a function is given by the

relation:

1
lim [ {T ( q + h ) } − {T ( q ) } ] .
h→0 h

As we will see in Chapter 3, the derivative of a vector or a vector

function depends on the frame where it is considered; furthermore, the
passage to the limit can have consequences not only on their vector
norms, but also on their orientations and their directions. We cannot
talk in absolute terms about the derivative of any quantity, as long as it
is a vector, and it is therefore necessary to specify the frame where
this derivative is being considered.

By definition, we note that:

⎧ d(λ ) 1
⎪⎪ dq s {T ( q ) } = lim s [ {T ( q + h ) } − {T ( q ) } ]
h →0 h
⎨ (λ ) ,
⎪ d M {T ( q ) } = lim 1 M [ { T ( q + h ) } − { T ( q ) } ]
⎪⎩ dq Oλ
h→0 h
Oλ

and we say, also by definition, that these limits are the reduction
elements of the derivative torsor of {T } with respect to q in the
frame λ , which is denoted as:

⎧ d(λ ) ⎫
⎨ T ⎬,
⎩ dq ⎭
50 Movement Equations 2

whose reduction elements at Oλ can be calculated by:

⎧ ⎧ d(λ) ⎫ d(λ)
⎪ σ = s ⎨ T ⎬= s {T ( q ) }
⎪ ⎩ dq ⎭ dq
⎨ (λ) (λ)
.
⎪ μ = M ⎧ d T ⎫ = d M {T ( q ) }
Oλ ⎨ ⎬
⎪⎩ Oλ ⎩ dq ⎭ dq
Oλ

One must, with this definition, ensure that this new functional
quantity is a right torsor, that is to say it meets the moment
relationship:

⎧ d(λ ) ⎫ ⎧ d(λ ) ⎫ ⎧ d(λ ) ⎫

μP = M P ⎨ T ⎬ = M Oλ ⎨ T ⎬ + POλ ∧ s ⎨ T ⎬.
⎩ dq ⎭ ⎩ dq ⎭ ⎩ dq ⎭

d(λ ) d(λ)
μP = M Oλ {T } + POλ ∧ s {T }
dq dq
,
d(λ ) d(λ )
" = ⎡⎣ M P {T } + O λ P ∧ s {T } ⎤⎦ + POλ ∧ s {T }
dq dq

that is

⎧ d(λ ) ⎫ d(λ ) ⎡ d(λ ) ⎤

μP = M P ⎨ T ⎬= M P {T } + ⎢ Oλ P ⎥ ∧ s {T } .
⎩ dq ⎭ dq ⎣ dq ⎦

This relationship, which ensures the torsor character to the function

⎧ d(λ ) ⎫
⎨ T ⎬ , shows that:
⎩ dq ⎭

⎧ d(λ ) ⎫ d(λ )
μP = M P ⎨ T ⎬= M P {T }
⎩ dq ⎭ dq

is only true if:

– the location of point P in the frame λ is independent of the

parameter q;
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 51

d(λ )
– the vector O P is collinear with s {T } ;
dq λ

– s {T } = 0 , that is the case of the couple torsor.

NOTE.– When the parameter is the time t, the expression of the

derivative in λ of the moment P of the torsor {T } is noted as:

⎧ d(λ ) ⎫ d(λ )
μP = M P ⎨ T ⎬= M P {T } + v( λ ) ( P ) ∧ s {T } .
⎩ dt ⎭ dt

2.5.2. Torsor dependent of n parameters qi functions of p

Consider the torsor {T ( q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… qn ) } as a function of n
parameters qi , that are all in turn functions of a parameter p (time t
for example).

{T ( q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… qn ) } = …
… ⎡⎣ s {T ( q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… qn ) } M P {T ( q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… qn ) } ⎤⎦

It is normal to consider, in the frame λ , the partial derivative of

this torsor with respect to each explicit parameter qi , derivative noted
⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫
according to the previous paragraph ⎨ T ⎬ , which has reduction
⎩ ∂qi ⎭
elements at P:

⎧ ⎧ d(λ ) ⎫
n
⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫ dq ⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫ dq
s
⎪ ⎨ dp T ⎬ ∑ ⎨
= s T ⎬ i = s⎨ T ⎬ α
⎪ ⎩ ⎭ i =1 ⎩ ∂qi ⎭ dp ⎩ ∂qα ⎭ dp
⎨ .
(λ ) (λ )
⎧ ∂( λ )
n
⎪M ⎧ d T ⎫ = M ⎧ ∂ T ⎫ dqi ⎫ dqα
⎪⎩ P ⎨
⎩ dp
⎬ ∑
⎭ i =1
P ⎨
⎩ ∂qi
⎬
⎭ dp
= MP ⎨
⎩ ∂qα
T ⎬
⎭ dp
52 Movement Equations 2

And if we consider the derivative torsor in the frame λ of

⎧ ⎫ d(λ )
{T } relative to the implicit parameter p , noted as ⎨ T ⎬ , it has
⎩ dp ⎭
reduction elements at P:

⎧ ⎧ d(λ ) ⎫
n
⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫ dqi ⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫ dq
⎪ s ⎨ dp T ⎬ = ∑ s ⎨ ∂q T ⎬ dp = s⎨
∂q
T ⎬ α
⎪ ⎩ ⎭ i =1 ⎩ i ⎭ ⎩ α ⎭ dp
⎨ .
(λ ) (λ )
⎧ ∂( λ )
n
⎪M ⎧ d T ⎫ = M ⎧ ∂ T ⎫ dqi ⎫ dqα
⎪⎩ P ⎨⎩ dp ⎬ ∑ P⎨ ⎬ = MP ⎨ T ⎬
⎭ i =1 ⎩ ∂qi ⎭ dp ⎩ ∂qα ⎭ dp

In the same way, the differential torsor in the frame λ of torsor

{T } , noted as { d ( λ )T } , has reduction elements at P :

⎧ ⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎧ ∂( λ )
n
⎫ ⎫
⎪
⎪
s { d (λ )
T } = ∑
i =1
s ⎨
∂
⎩ i q
T ⎬ dqi
⎭
= s⎨
∂
⎩ αq
T ⎬ dqα
⎭
⎨ .
(λ )
⎧ ∂( λ )
n
⎪ M { d ( λ )T } = M ⎧ ∂ T ⎫ ⎫
⎪⎩ P ∑
i =1
P ⎨
⎩ ∂qi
⎬dqi = M P ⎨
⎭ ⎩ ∂qα
T ⎬ dqα
⎭

2.5.3. Explicitly dependent torsor of n + 1 parameters

The torsor {T } is not only an explicit function of the parameters
q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… , qn , which are all functions of the basis parameter p,
but also explicitly of p; it is written in the form:

{T ( q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… , qn p ) } = …
… ⎡⎣ s {T ( q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… , qn p ) } M P {T ( q1 , q2 ,… , qi ,… , qn p ) } ⎤⎦

The partial derivative of the torsor {T } , in relation to qi , in the

⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫
frame λ , noted as ⎨ T ⎬ , has reduction elements at P:
∂
⎩ i q ⎭
 Torsors and Torsor Calculus 53

⎧ ⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫ ∂( λ )
⎪ s ⎨ ∂qi T ⎬ = ∂qi s {T }
⎪ ⎩ ⎭
⎨ (λ ) (λ ) (λ )
.
⎪ M ⎧ ∂ T ⎫ = ∂ M {T } + ∂ ( O P ) ∧ s {T }
⎪⎩ P ⎩⎨ ∂qi ⎬
⎭ ∂qi
P
∂qi λ

The partial derivative of the torsor {T } in relation to the variable

⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫
p , in the frame λ , noted as ⎨ T ⎬ , has reduction elements at
⎩ ∂p ⎭
P:

⎧ ⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫ ∂( λ )
⎪ s ⎨ ∂p T ⎬ = ∂p s {T }
⎪ ⎩ ⎭
⎨ (λ ) (λ ) (λ )
.
⎪ M ⎧ ∂ T ⎫ = ∂ M {T } + ∂ ( O P ) ∧ s {T }
⎪⎩ P ⎩⎨ ∂p ⎬
⎭ ∂p
P
∂p λ

The derivative of the torsor {T } in relation to the variable p, in

⎧ d(λ ) ⎫
the frame λ , noted as ⎨ T ⎬ , has reduction elements at P:
⎩ dp ⎭

⎧ ⎧ d(λ ) ⎫
n
⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫ dq ⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎫
s
⎪ ⎨ dp T ⎬ ∑s⎨
= T ⎬ i + s⎨ T ⎬
⎪ ⎩ ⎭ i =1 ⎩ i∂q ⎭ dp ⎩ ∂p ⎭
⎨ .
(λ ) n (λ ) (λ )
⎪M ⎧ d ⎫ ⎧ ∂ ⎫ dq ⎧ ∂ ⎫
T ⎬ = ∑M P ⎨ T ⎬ i +M P ⎨ T ⎬
⎪⎩ P ⎩⎨ dp ⎭ i =1 ⎩ ∂qi ⎭ dp ⎩ ∂p ⎭

Finally, the differential, in the frame λ , of the torsor {T } ,

noted as { d ( λ )T } , has reduction elements at P:
⎧ ⎧ ∂( λ ) ⎧ ∂( λ )
n
⎫ ⎫
⎪
⎪
s { d (λ)
T } = ∑
i =1
s ⎨
⎩ ∂qi
T ⎬ dqi
⎭
+ s⎨
⎩ ∂p
T ⎬ dp
⎭
⎨ ( )
.
λ
⎧ ∂( λ )
n
⎪ M { d ( λ )T } = M ⎧ ∂ T ⎫ ⎫
⎪⎩ P ∑
i =1
P ⎨
⎩ ∂qi
⎬dqi + M P ⎨
⎭ ⎩ ∂p
T ⎬ dp
⎭