energies
Article
A Combined CFD-FEM Approach to Predict Fluid-Borne
Vibrations and Noise Radiation of a Rotary Vane Pump
Timm Hieronymus 1, * , Thomas Lobsinger 1






Citation: Hieronymus, T.; Lobsinger,
T.; Brenner, G. A Combined CFD-FEM
Approach to Predict Fluid-Borne
Vibrations and Noise Radiation of a
Rotary Vane Pump. Energies 2021, 14,
1874. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14071874
Academic Editor: Satoru Okamoto
Received: 8 March 2021
Accepted: 26 March 2021
Published: 29 March 2021
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 1874. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14071874
and Gunther Brenner 2
1 Robert Bosch Automotive Steering GmbH, Richard-Bullinger-Straße 77,
73527 Schwaebisch Gmuend, Germany; thomas.lobsinger@bosch.com
2 Institute of Applied Mechanics, Clausthal University of Technology, Adolph-Roemer-Straße 2A,
38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany; gunther.brenner@tu-clausthal.de
* Correspondence: timm.hieronymus@bosch.com
Abstract: The rising demand for lower noise emissions of car ancillary units due to electrification
and higher customer expectations regarding driving comfort results in the need for more silent car
components. Hydraulic driven car components in particular are often identified as a major source of
noise in the system. Therefore, it is mandatory to investigate the noise sources inside the hydraulic
system. In this work, a combined CFD-FEM approach is applied to estimate the flow-induced noise
radiation of a mechanically driven transmission pump. To achieve this goal, the mapping procedure
to hand over the pressure field from the CFD to the FEM mesh must be valid. For this purpose,
the error during the mapping process is evaluated and different parameters, which influence the
mapping results, are analyzed. Additionally, the impact of the time step size and the length of
the time signal on the frequency resolution of the force signal is investigated to get an appropriate
excitation force for the vibroacoustic simulation. Subsequently, a force analysis and a structural FEM
simulation are performed to identify which flow phenomenon contributes most to the excitation
of the pump housing. Specific locations in the pump with high loads are pointed out. In a final
step, the results of the vibroacoustic model are compared to acceleration and sound pressure level
measurements of the pump performed in a hemi-anechoic room.
Keywords: rotary vane pump; NVH; noise radiation; CFD; FEM; vibroacoustic
1. Introduction
Automated car transmissions have high demands of power, reliability, low fuel con-
sumption and low noise emissions. On the one hand, for most of these requirements a
hydraulic, positive displacement pump is a suitable power supply. This kind of pump
is able to provide high power, high reliability and lubrication of the system. Therefore,
positive displacement pumps, especially rotary vane pumps, are often applied as power
supplies in automated transmissions [1,2]. On the other hand, mechanically driven trans-
mission pumps typically lead to an increased fuel consumption and to high noise emissions.
Nowadays, rising demands for improved vehicle acoustics and lower noise emissions
of other components, lead to the fact that often the pump is dominant in the acoustic
characteristic of hydraulic systems [3–8]. There are different ways to enhance the acoustic
characteristics of a pump. One approach is e.g., to change the excitation frequencies by
asymmetric spacing or to reduce the radiated noise by structural changes [3,9]. Another
approach is to directly reduce the noise sources in the flow of the pump. In general,
to reduce the noise radiation of a pump, a fundamental knowledge of the noise source
mechanisms and the system dynamic behavior is mandatory [10–12]. To identify the source
mechanisms of noise in the flow of the pump, a coupled CFD-FEM approach is chosen. The
pump investigated in this work is a Bosch rotary vane pump for transmission applications
with a displacement volume of 11.1 cm3 /rev. The external dimension of the housing are
70 mm in axial direction with a diameter of 110 mm. This rotary vane pump is pictured
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 2 of 23

in Figure 1. In this figure, the suction port (left picture blue part) and the delivery port
(left picture red part) are spatially separated. Fluid is conveyed from the suction port,
through the inlet (1) and the injector (2), to the delivery port and the outlet (3) by a set of
pressure sealed displacement chambers (7). These chambers are formed by the static cam
ring part (A), the static inner pump surfaces, the rotating rotor (B) and by the vanes (C),
which are able to slide in and out of the rotor in radial direction. These components are
pictured in Figure 1 on the right. The kinematics of the vanes is determined by the shape
of the cam ring. The back vane notch (6) which is connected to the high pressure section
ensures that the vanes slide along the cam ring. During the suction process the volume
of a displacement chamber is increasing which leads to an inflow in the displacement
chamber at the suction ports (4). Subsequently, the displacement chamber disconnects
from the suction port and hence, is neither connected to the suction nor to the delivery
port (5). In this phase, the volume of the displacement chamber decreases slightly, leading
to a pressure rise in the displacement chamber. This so called pre-compression is already
enhancing the pressure level and therefore reduces the pressure surges arising from the
connection of a displacement chamber with low pressure to the delivery port with high
pressure. Additionally, to ensure a smoother transition, grooves are implemented at the
delivery port. These grooves connect the delivery port and the next displacement chamber,
leading to a smoother volume change and hence, help to avoid high pressure surges. The
optimal size and shape of these grooves is depending on the density and viscosity of the
oil and the actual operating speed of the pump [13]. If the displacement chamber passes
the groove and fully connects to the delivery port, the vane slides further back into the
rotor. This decreases the volume of the displacement chamber leading to a fluid flow out
of the chamber. The investigated pump is an asymmetric vane pump with two suction
and two delivery ports. The stroke of the pump is slightly different for both delivery ports.
Therefore, the pump can provide two different flow rates. The suction and delivery ports
are located transversely and lead to a partly compensation of flow forces. Nevertheless, this
working principle leads to flow and pressure pulsations, which excite enclosing structural
elements and cause noise radiation of the pump [7,14,15]. A combined CFD-FEM approach
is applied to identify which flow induced effects are crucial for the noise radiation of the
pump. There are a couple of studies focusing on noise radiation of pumps. In Ref. [16] the
authors investigate the fluid-borne sound of an axial piston pump by the use of a coupled
1D-3D simulation approach. The flow is modeled in a 1D simulation in AmeSim and a
3D FEM/BEM model in Virtual.Lab is used to predict noise sources and transmission
paths. A similar approach is used by [8,11,12,15]. Here, the noise radiation of a gear
pump is simulated using a lumped parameter model along with an FEM/BEM model. The
coupling of a 3D-CFD model and an FEM/BEM model to predict the flow induced pressure
pulsations and vibrations of a centrifugal pump is assessed in [17,18]. For rotary vane
pumps a study using a coupled approach to analyze the structural forces acting on the rotor
and vanes is presented by [19] using a 3D CFD simulation of the flow in Ansys Fluent along
with Ansys Mechanical. However, there is no study to predict the fluid induced vibrations
and noise radiation of a rotary vane pump using a 3D-CFD model in combination with a
FEM/BEM-based model.
For this purpose, in this work the flow in the pump is analyzed using a 3D-CFD
simulation model build up in the commercial software STAR-CCM+. The results of this
CFD model have been validated against displacement chamber pressure measurements
in [20]. Based on these results, the present paper focuses on the data transfer between
the simulations and the vibroacoustic analysis. Therefore, the pressure field of this CFD
simulation is mapped to a FEM grid. The pressure field is chosen, because it is assumed
to be the main source in the flow for the pump’s noise radiation. Subsequently, the data
transfer and processing are investigated and a vibroacoustic simulation is performed in
the frequency domain. The vibroacoustic simulation results are compared to acceleration
and sound pressure level measurements of the pump, which have been performed in a
hemi-anechoic room.
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

Energies 2021, 14, 1874 3 of 23

sound pressure level measurements of the pump, which have been performed in a hemi-
anechoic room.

Figure 1. Rotary vane pump; (1) Inlet, (2) Injector, (3) Outlets, (4) Connection suction port to cam ring, (5) Connection
Figureport
delivery 1. Rotary
to cam vane pump;
ring, (6) Back(1) Inlet,
vane (2) Injector,
notch, (3) Outlets,
(7) Displacement (4) Connection
chamber; (A) Cam suction
ring, (B)port to (C)
Rotor, camVanes.
ring, (5) Connection
delivery port to cam ring, (6) Back vane notch, (7) Displacement chamber; (A) Cam ring, (B) Rotor, (C) Vanes.
2. Methods
2.1.2.CFD
Methods
Setup
2.1.InCFD Setup work, the model of [20] is used to perform the CFD simulations. This
the present
model uses a morphing
In the mesh
present work, the approach
model ofto[20] discretize
is usedthe moving parts.
to perform the CFD To simulations.
ensure a good This
mesh quality a remeshing approach is applied. The unsteady Reynolds-averaged
model uses a morphing mesh approach to discretize the moving parts. To ensure Navier-
a good
Stokes
mesh(URANS) equations are
quality a remeshing used to
approach model the
is applied. Theunsteady
unsteadyflow together with the
Reynolds-averaged k-
Navier-
ε-turbulence model. In a first step, only operating points at low rotational
Stokes (URANS) equations are used to model the unsteady flow together with the k-ε- speeds are
investigated
turbulenceand hence,
model. In athe
firstflow
step,isonly
assumed to bepoints
operating incompressible. For the
at low rotational CFDare
speeds mesh
inves-
a fixed angular resolution of ∆γ = 0.5 ◦ is chosen. Subsequently, the time step ∆t is
tigated and hence, the flow is assumed to be incompressible. For the CFD mesh a fixed
determined by the rotational
angular resolution of ∆𝛾 =speed n and
0.5° is the angular
chosen. resolution
Subsequently, the according
time step to ∆𝑡Equation (5).
is determined
During the CFD simulation, the pressure field acting on the static inner surfaces
by the rotational speed n and the angular resolution according to Equation (5). During the of the
pump, which encase the flow, is written to a CGNS file in every time step. Subsequently,
CFD simulation, the pressure field acting on the static inner surfaces of the pump, which
the pressure field is imposed as load condition in the FEM simulation. This is analogously
encase the flow, is written to a CGNS file in every time step. Subsequently, the pressure
done with the wall shear stress. Since the rotating pump surfaces cannot be modeled in a
field is imposed as load condition in the FEM simulation. This is analogously done with
frequency response analysis, the pressure acting on the moving surfaces is used to calculate
the wall shear stress. Since the rotating pump surfaces cannot be modeled in a frequency
a rotor torque, which is also used as load for the FEM simulation. In this CFD model only
response analysis, the pressure acting on the moving surfaces is used to calculate a rotor
the pump is considered. The hydraulic circuit of the transmission system or in this case of
torque, which is also used as load for the FEM simulation. In this CFD model only the
the test bench as well as resulting reflections in connected tubes are neglected.
pump is considered. The hydraulic circuit of the transmission system or in this case of the
2.2.test
FEMbench
and as well as resulting
Vibroacoustic Setup reflections in connected tubes are neglected.
The FEM model is build up in the commercial software Simcenter 3D (Siemens, Plano,
2.2. FEM and Vibroacoustic Setup
TX, USA). As in the CFD model, only the pump is modeled, neglecting the test bench or
connectedThetubes.
FEM Themodel
meshis of
build up in theconsists
the structure commercial software
of ten-node Simcenter
tetrahedral 3D (Siemens,
elements with
Plano, TX, USA). As in the CFD model, only the pump is modeled, neglecting
a base size of 3 mm. The size and element type were estimated in a grid convergence study. the test
Thebench or connected
material tubes.
information for The mesh ofthe
the density, theYoung’s
structuremodulus
consists and
of ten-node tetrahedral
the Poisson’s ratio isele-
ments with
obtained from aliterature
base sizeorofdata
3 mm. Theand
sheets sizeisand element
listed type
in Table 1. were estimated in a grid con-
vergence study.
In Figure The
2a the material conditions
boundary informationofforthethe
FEMdensity,
modelthe areYoung’s modulus
displayed. and the
The pump
Poisson’s
is fixed ratio
at six is obtained
surfaces, wherefromtheliterature
screws areor data sheets
applied at and
the is listed
test in Table
bench, with1.fixation
constraints (1). Either the part contacts in the pump are modeled by using glue or by using
a contact mesh. The pump shaft is glued to the housing at the bearing positions (2). If
surface to surface gluing is used, the displacements and loads are directly transferred at
a mesh interface from one mesh to another. The grid points do not need to be coincident
on glued surfaces [21]. The bolts connecting the housing and the cover are modeled using
 Table 1. Material properties.

Density Young’s Modulus

Parts Material Poisson’s Ratio [-]
[kg/m3] [MPa]
Pressure die-casted
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 Housing, Cover 2700 74,000 0.35 4 of 23
Aluminum
Screws, Pins Steel 7850 193,000 0.284
Cam ring Sintered steel 6700 130,000 0.3
Shaft Hardened steel 7850 210,000 0.3
beam elements with rigid spider connections (3). Similar to the experiments the acceleration
is observed at the positions of the accelerometers (4.1) and (4.2) at the test bench.
In Figure 2a the boundary conditions of the FEM model are displayed. The pump is
fixed at six surfaces,
Tablewhere the properties.
1. Material screws are applied at the test bench, with fixation con-
straints (1). Either the part contacts in the pump are modeled by using glue or by using a
Parts Material 3]
contact mesh. The pumpDensity [kg/m
shaft is glued to Young’s Modulus
the housing [MPa]
at the Poisson’s Ratio
bearing positions (2). If[-]sur-
Housing, Cover
face to
Pressure surface gluing is used,
die-casted
2700
the displacements 74,000
and loads are directly transferred
0.35
at a
Aluminum
mesh interface from one mesh to another. The grid points do not need to be coincident on
Screws, Pins Steel
glued 7850 connecting the housing
surfaces [21]. The bolts 193,000 0.284
and the cover are modeled using
Cam ring Sintered steel 6700 130,000 0.3
Shaft
beam elements
Hardened steel
with rigid spider
7850
connections (3). Similar
210,000
to the experiments the
0.3
accelera-
tion is observed at the positions of the accelerometers (4.1) and (4.2) at the test bench.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) FEM setup (1) Fixation constraints at test bench connections, (2) Glue at shaft bearing, (3) Bolts modeled as
beam elements,
Figure (4.1)setup
2. (a) FEM and (4.2) Accelerometer
(1) Fixation positions;
constraints at test(b) Vibroacoustic
bench setup
connections, (2)(A) Structural
Glue at shaftmesh, (B) (3)
bearing, Acoustic fluid mesh,
Bolts modeled as
beam
(C) elements, mesh,
Microphone (4.1) and (4.2) Accelerometer
(D) Microphone point. positions; (b) Vibroacoustic setup (A) Structural mesh, (B) Acoustic fluid
mesh, (C) Microphone mesh, (D) Microphone point.
In Figure 2b the meshes for the vibroacoustic model are displayed. The boundary
conditions and 2b
In Figure thethe
structural
meshesmesh (A)vibroacoustic
for the in the vibroacoustic
model aremodel are similar
displayed. Thetoboundary
the ones
of the structural
conditions and themodel. Onlymesh
structural the pump
(A) inshaft and the gluing
the vibroacoustic at the
model arebearing
similarpositions
to the onesis
neglected in the vibroacoustic
of the structural model. Only setup.
the pumpThis shaft
is justified
and theby gluing
the investigations
at the bearingin Section 3.3.is
positions
In thein
neglected simulation model thesetup.
the vibroacoustic acoustic
Thisfluid is applied
is justified by as
thea convex hull, which
investigations surrounds
in Section 3.3.
the pump.
In the simulation model the acoustic fluid is applied as a convex hull, which The
The used meshing elements are four-node linear acoustic tetrahedrons. sur-
mesh
rounds hastheanpump.
extendThe ∆α =meshing
of used 15 mm (Figure
elements 2bare(B)) and an element
four-node ∆β = 3 mm.
size of tetrahedrons.
linear acoustic
The
The size
mesh of has
the an extend∆β
elements of isΔɑestimated
= 15 mmby(Figurethe speed of sound
2b (B)) and an air c = 343
in element sizem/s and
of Δ𝛽 =
the
3 mm.maximum
The sizefrequency f max =
of the elements Δβ6000 Hz investigated
is estimated in this
by the speed of model
sound in (see
airEquation
𝑐 = 343 (1)).
m/s
Therefore, at least five
and the maximum elements𝑓are used
frequency = 6000 perHz wave length (Equation
investigated in this (2)):
model (see Equation
(1)). Therefore, at least five elements are used per c wave length (Equation (2)):
∆β ≤𝑐 (1)
𝛥𝛽 ≤ f max (1)
𝑓
∆α = Ne ∗ ∆β, (2)
Here, Ne is the number of elements per wavelength. On the outer surface of the convex
mesh an automatically matched layer with five layers is applied. The layers absorb all
radiated sound waves providing a non-reflecting boundary condition. To compute the
solution at microphone points outside the acoustic fluid mesh, the pressure and velocity
at the automatically matched layer along with a boundary element method are used [21].
 (2)
Here,To𝑁obtain
is the number the loads fromper
of elements the CFD simulation
wavelength. On the outerasurface Load ofRecipethe con-is u
vexusesmeshthe CGNS files
an automatically fromlayer
matched thewithCFD five simulation
layers is applied. asThe input
layers toabsorbmap all th
radiated sound waves providing a non-reflecting
CFD mesh to the FEM mesh. For this purpose, the CFD5 ofmesh boundary condition. To compute the an
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 23
solution at microphone points outside the acoustic fluid mesh, the pressure and velocity
at other variables
the automatically of the
matched flow
layer along canwithbe derivedelement
a boundary frommethod the CGNS are usedfiles[21]. i
Thestep,
sound different
pressure at mapping
a distance of methods 96 mm to theare model available
is subsequently andmonitored
mapping usingpar
The sound pressure
a microphone mesh (see at a distance
Figure 2b of 96
(D)).mm to the model is subsequently monitored using a
justed.
microphone
Additionally, the time to frequency conversion in form of a
To obtainmesh (see Figure
the loads from the 2b (D)).
CFD simulation a Load Recipe is used in Simcenter 3D. It
to the
uses force
ToCGNS conversion
obtain the loads
files fromfrom thecanthe
CFD CFDbe performed
simulation
simulation Load in
asainput to this
Recipe
map step
is used
the by Simcenter
in Simcenter
transient 3D.of the 3
data
It uses the CGNS files from the CFD simulation as input to map the transient data of
CFDquencymesh toconversion
the CFD mesh
the FEM mesh.the
to the FEM mesh. For
ForHanning
this purpose,window the CFD mesh
this purpose, the CFD mesh is applied withfield
and the pressure
and the pressure thefieldcorre
or
other variables of the flow can be derived from the CGNS files in Simcenter 3D. In this
Subsequently,
step,
or other variables ofthe mapping
the flow can be derived process from theismapping
conducted and need
CGNS files in Simcenter the3D.force
In am
thisdifferent mapping
step, different methods
mapping are available
methods are availableandand mapping parameters
parameters need totobe ad-
phase
justed. derived
Additionally,
be adjusted. the
Additionally,fromtime thethe
totime pressure
frequency field
conversion
to frequency ofform
in
conversion the ofCFD
in form anofFFT
ansimulation
and and
FFT the are
the pressure
toFEM
force
pressure conversion
grid.
to forceBecausecan be performed
conversion thebe mapping
can performedin thisinstep by Simcenter
process
this step will 3D.
by Simcenter be3D.For
For the timetoto fre-
investigated
the time in
quency conversion
frequency conversion thethe Hanning
Hanningwindowwindow is is applied
applied with withthethe correction
correction modemode amplitude.
amplitude.
method
Subsequently,
Subsequently, isthe
explained
the mapping process
mapping in the
process following
isisconducted
conducted andandthein more
force
the detail.
amplitudes
force amplitudes as well as their
as well as their
phase
phase derivedderived from
In Simcenter the
from the pressurepressure
3D there field
field of of the
are CFD
thetwo simulation
differentare
CFD simulation are available
mapping as load on theon the
available asalgorithms
load
FEM grid. Because the mapping process will be investigated in this work the mapping
FEM grid. Because
Maximum the mapping
Distance (MD), process
the will be one
other investigated
Conservativein this work the mapping
Maximum Dist
method is explained in the following in more detail.
method is explained in the following in more detail.
ods In
useSimcenter
two3D 3D there are two
mapping different mapping
parameters (see algorithms
Figure available.
3). The One Maximum
is called
In Simcenter
Maximum Distance therethe
(MD), are two
other onedifferent mapping
Conservative Maximumalgorithms
Distanceavailable.
(CMD). Both One is called
meth-
fines
ods usethe
Maximum searchparameters
Distance
two mapping (MD), radius(see
the other and
one the3). Number
The Maximumof
Conservative
Figure Maximum Influencing
Distance
Distance (CMD). Nodes
Both
parameter defines meth-pa
odsthe use two radius
mapping and parameters (see Figure 3).Nodes
nodes search
which are the Number of
considered Influencing
theThe
for within Maximum
parameter the
mapping Distance
numberparameter
process of nodes de-
within the s
fines the search radius and the Number of Influencing Nodes parameter the number of
which are considered for the mapping process the search radius.
nodes which are considered for the mapping process within the search radius.

Figure 3. Mapping parameters.

Figure 3. Mapping parameters.
In this3.
Figure work, the MDparameters.
Mapping method is used. The MD method loops over all the target mesh
In this work, the MD method is used. The MD method loops over all the target mesh
nodes (FEM-Nodes) and searches within a user defined search radius (Maximum Dis-
nodes (FEM-Nodes) and searches within a user defined search radius (Maximum Distance)
tance) for nodes
for nodes of theof the source
source mesh (CFD-mesh).
mesh (CFD-mesh). Subsequently,
Subsequently, the user
the user defined numberdefined number
of nodes
of nodes
(Number
In this
(Number work,
of Influencing
the
of Influencing MD
Nodes) of the
method
Nodes)
sourceofmesh is used.
the source mesh
within this
The MD
within
search
method
this
range
loops
search range
is considered is
nodes
considered (FEM-Nodes)
to
to contribute to the target meshand
contribute to the target searches
mesh
node and node within
and
the variable the a user
variable
is interpolatedis defined
interpolated
(distance search
(distance
weighted)
weighted) to the
to the node node
of the of mesh
target the target mesh 4).
(see Figure (see Figure 4).
tance) for nodes of the source mesh (CFD-mesh). Subsequently, th
of nodes (Number of Influencing Nodes) of the source mesh wit
considered to contribute to the target mesh node and the variable i
weighted) to the node of the target mesh (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Maximum distance mapping scheme.

Figure 4. Maximum distance mapping scheme.
Therefore, the MD method can consider source nodes of the CFD mesh multiple times,
if the mapping parameters are not adjusted correctly. This can lead to an error due to the
mapping and hence, the mapping process needs to be validated.

Figure 4. Maximum distance mapping scheme.

Energies 2021, 14, 1874 6 of 23

3. Results
In this section the mapping process is checked for validity. A further investigation
focuses on the required length of the time signal and the required time step size of the CFD
simulation to get an appropriate frequency resolution of the excitation forces. Additionally,
a force analysis and a structural FEM simulation are performed to identify which flow
phenomenon contributes the most to the excitation of the pump housing. Finally, a vibroa-
coustic simulation is preformed using the parameters from the previous investigations and
its results are compared to acceleration and sound pressure level measurements performed
in a hemi-anechoic room.

3.1. Mapping Validation

In order to ensure, that the source for the excitation is correctly transferred from the
CFD to the FEM mesh a criterion is needed to check the original and the mapped data. For
this purpose, it is decided to use the sum of the forces caused by the flow as a criterion.
Since, the surface on which the pressure is acting on in the CFD and the FEM simulation
remains the same, the force sum has to be equal in both models:
Z
F= pdA, (3)

To determine this excitation force F caused by the static pressure p, the surface integral
of the pressure acting on the enclosing pump surfaces A is evaluated (Equation (3)) in
the CFD simulation. In a first step, only one time step of the CFD simulation is taken
into account. The pressure acting on the rotating parts of the pump is excluded from
the mapping process, because moving meshes can not be used in the frequency response
analysis in the FEM simulation. Subsequently, the mapping action of the fluid pressure
from the CFD to the FEM grid is performed and the resulting forces are calculated in
Simcenter 3D. The sum of these resulting forces is evaluated in the FEM model. To verify
that the pressure is transmitted correctly to the FEM mesh and to estimate the size of the
error, the force sum of the original CFD data and the force sum after the mapping action
are compared. Furthermore, the mapping result is checked by comparing the CFD and the
FEM pressure distribution visually. At first, the influence of different mapping parameters
on the mapping result is investigated. In the following investigations the base size of the
CFD mesh (source mesh) is 1 mm and the base size of the FEM mesh (target mesh) is set to
3 mm using ten-node tetrahedral elements.
In this investigation the parameter Number of Influencing Nodes is set to 4, while the
Maximum Distance parameter is varied. In Figure 5 it is visible that the maximum distance
parameter has a high impact on the mapping result. In an initial guess, the maximum
search distance is set to 0.75 mm, because ten-node tetrahedral elements of a base size of
3 mm are used. That means the half node distance between two target mesh (FEM mesh)
nodes is used as search distance. As can be seen from Figure 5, this guess seems to be
valid. As the maximum search distance is enhanced, the force sum in the FEM simulation is
increased nearly linear, leading to higher, physically incorrect force values. If the maximum
search distance is decreased, the force sum in the FEM simulation drops below the force
sum of the CFD simulation indicating a loss of information. As a consequence, the search
distance is set to 0.75 mm for all further investigations.
To investigate the influence of the parameter Number of Influencing Nodes, the
maximum search distance is held constant at 0.75 mm. Figure 6 shows, that the impact of the
parameter Number of Influencing Nodes on the mapped force sum is less significant, than
the maximum search distance. For a number of three nodes, the force sum in the mapped
data shows a minimum, while the total force sum is still overprediced by about 30 N.
Therefore, a number of three influencing nodes are chosen for all further investigations.
Furthermore, this can be justified by the fact, that a 3D surface is used and one node is
considered for each spatial direction.
 23,800
23,600

Force [N]
23,400
23,200 Reference
23,000
Energies 2021,
Energies 14, 14,
2021, x FOR
1874PEER REVIEW Mapped force 7 of723
of 23
22,800
22,600
22,400
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
24,200
24,000 Maximum Distance [mm]
23,800
Figure23,600
5. Influence of the maximum distance parameter on the mapped force sum.

Force [N]
23,400
23,200
To Reference
investigate the influence of the parameter Number of Influencing Nodes, the max-
23,000
imum search distance is held constant at 0.75 mm. Figure 6 shows,Mapped
that theforce
impact of the
22,800
parameter Number of Influencing Nodes on the mapped force sum is less significant, than
22,600
the maximum search distance. For a number of three nodes, the force sum in the mapped
22,400
data shows a minimum, while the total force sum is still overprediced by about 30 N.
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Therefore, a number of three influencing nodes are chosen for all further investigations.
Maximum Distance [mm]
Furthermore, this can be justified by the fact, that a 3D surface is used and one node is
considered for each of
Figure 5. Influence spatial direction.
the maximum distance parameter on the mapped force sum.
Figure 5. Influence of the maximum distance parameter on the mapped force sum.
24,200
To24,000
investigate the influence of the parameter Number of Influencing Nodes, the max-
imum 23,800
search distance is held constant at 0.75 mm. Figure 6 shows, Reference
that the impact of the
parameter Number of Influencing Nodes on the mapped force sumMapped
23,600 is less significant,
force than
Force [N]

the maximum
23,400 search distance. For a number of three nodes, the force sum in the mapped
data shows
23,200 a minimum, while the total force sum is still overprediced by about 30 N.
Therefore, a number of three influencing nodes are chosen for all further investigations.
23,000
22,800 this can be justified by the fact, that a 3D surface is used and one node is
Furthermore,
22,600for each spatial direction.
considered
22,400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
24,200
24,000 Number of Influencing Nodes [-]
Reference
23,800
Figure 6. Influence of the number of influencing nodes parameter on the mapped force sum.
Mapped force
Figure23,600
6. Influence of the number of influencing nodes parameter on the mapped force sum.
Force [N]

For the estimated mapping parameters, the total error for the mapping process at this
23,400
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW Forstep
time23,200 is 0.144%. mapping
the estimated In the next steps the influence
parameters, of different
the total error mesh sizes
for the mapping of target
process mesh
at8 of
this
23
and source
23,000 mesh on the mapping error should be investigated. At first the
time step is 0.144%. In the next steps the influence of different mesh sizes of target mesh source mesh
size22,800
(CFDmesh mesh)
and source onisthe
varied. The results
mapping can be seen
error should in Figure 7. At first the source mesh
be investigated.
22,600
size (CFD mesh) is varied. The results can be seen in Figure 7.
22,400
22,750
22,700 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

22,650
Number of Influencing Nodes [-]
Force [N]

22,600
Figure 22,550
6. Influence of the number of influencing nodes parameter on the mapped force sum.
Reference
22,500 Mapped force
For the estimated mapping parameters, the total error for the mapping process at this
22,450
time step is 0.144%. In the next steps the influence of different mesh sizes of target mesh
and source
22,400mesh on the mapping error should be investigated. At first the source mesh
size (CFD mesh) 1 is varied. 2The results can
3 be seen in4Figure 7. 5 6
Source mesh size [mm]
Figure 7. Influence of the source mesh size on the mapped force sum.
Figure 7. Influence of the source mesh size on the mapped force sum.
It is clearly visible, that a larger source mesh size leads to a loss of information and
hence, the force
It is clearly sum drops
visible, that abelow
largerthe reference
source meshforce derived
size leads to from
a lossthe
of original
informationCFDandmesh,
if the mapping parameters are held constant. This is caused by the lower
hence, the force sum drops below the reference force derived from the original CFD mesh, number of source
mesh
if the nodes parameters
mapping within the search
are helddistance
constant.of the
Thistarget mesh.
is caused byThat means
the lower some target
number mesh
of source
nodes, which should have a load are not able to find a corresponding
mesh nodes within the search distance of the target mesh. That means some target mesh source mesh node
within the search distance. This effect is vice versa for smaller source
nodes, which should have a load are not able to find a corresponding source mesh node meshes. Some nodes,
which
within theshould
searchnot have aThis
distance. loadeffect
are able to find
is vice a source
versa meshsource
for smaller node within
meshes. theSome
search radius.
nodes,
Consequently, the force sum transmitted to the target mesh increases, because
which should not have a load are able to find a source mesh node within the search radius. source nodes
Consequently, the force sum transmitted to the target mesh increases, because source
nodes are considered multiple times for the mapping process. The influence of the target
mesh size can be seen in Figure 8.
 hence, the force sum drops below the reference force derived from the original CFD mesh,
if the mapping parameters are held constant. This is caused by the lower number of source
mesh nodes within the search distance of the target mesh. That means some target mesh
nodes, which should have a load are not able to find a corresponding source mesh node
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 8 of 23
within the search distance. This effect is vice versa for smaller source meshes. Some nodes,
which should not have a load are able to find a source mesh node within the search radius.
Consequently, the force sum transmitted to the target mesh increases, because source
nodes are considered
are considered multiple
multiple times
times for mapping
for the the mapping process.
process. TheThe influence
influence of the
of the target
target mesh
mesh size can be seen in Figure
size can be seen in Figure 8. 8.

23,400 Reference
23,200
TET4 Mapped force
23,000
Force [N] TET10 Mapped force
22,800
22,600
22,400
22,200
22,000
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Target mesh size [mm]
Figure 8. Influence of the target mesh size on the mapped force sum.
Figure 8. Influence of the target mesh size on the mapped force sum.
The mapping parameters have been adjusted for the ten-node tetrahedral elements
mesh
The with
mappinga baseparameters
size of 3 mm. haveFigure
been 8adjusted
shows, for thatthe
theten-node
mappingtetrahedral
error increases for all
elements
meshother target
with a basemesh sizes.
size of 3Onmm.oneFigure
hand, 8this is related
shows, that tothethe MD method.
mapping error Since, the for
increases adjusted
all
maximum
other search
target mesh distance
sizes. On one is chosen
hand, thisfor is
a related
ten-node totetrahedral
the MD method.elements mesh
Since, the with a base
adjusted
size mesh
maximum of 3 mm
search the maximum
distance is chosen search distancetetrahedral
for a ten-node for other meshes
elements is not
mesh optimal. On the
with a base
size mesh of 3 mm the maximum search distance for other meshes is not optimal. Onsize
other hand, it is expected, that a four-node tetrahedral elements mesh with a base the of
1.5 mm shows similar results as the reference mesh, because the
other hand, it is expected, that a four-node tetrahedral elements mesh with a base size ofinitial guess for the half
1.5 mm shows similar results as the reference mesh, because the initial guess for the half in
node search distance is 0.75 mm in this case, too. It is not clear, why the error is higher
nodethissearch
case. Overall,
distancethe target
is 0.75 mm mesh sizecase,
in this has too.
a high impact
It is on the
not clear, why mapping
the error error and hence,
is higher in
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW the mapping parameters have to be adjusted for the derived mesh
this case. Overall, the target mesh size has a high impact on the mapping error and hence, sizes. 9 of 23
In a last step the impact of different transient conditions on the mapping error are
the mapping parameters have to be adjusted for the derived mesh sizes.
evaluated. The results are pictured in Figure 9. This is done, because the CFD simulation
In a last step the impact of different transient conditions on the mapping error are
uses a morphing mesh method, which could lead to a different node distribution in every
evaluated.
time step. The results arethis
Additionally, pictured
checkinallows
Figureto9.draw
This isconclusions
done, because the CFD
regarding thesimulation
mapping
time step. Additionally, this check allows to draw conclusions regarding the mapping
uses a morphing
procedure. mesh method, which could lead to a different node distribution in every
procedure. If the force sum of the CFD simulation drops at any point below thesum
If the force sum of the CFD simulation drops at any point below the force force
of sum
the FEM simulation, this could hint towards neglected source
of the FEM simulation, this could hint towards neglected source nodes during nodes during the map-the
ping procedure.
mapping procedure.

18,000
17,800 Reference
Mapped force
17,600
Force [N]

17,400
17,200
17,000
16,800
16,600
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Rotation Angle [°]
Figure 9. Influence of morphing mesh nodes on the mapped force sum.
Figure 9. Influence of morphing mesh nodes on the mapped force sum.
From Figure 9 it is visible, that the mapping error depends on the actual angular
position
From of the pump
Figure 9 it isrotor. While
visible, thatatthe
a rotation
mappingangle around
error 0◦ and
depends
◦
on30thethe mapping
actual error
angular
is higher (at pump
about rotor.
0.5%),While
the mapping errors for 7.5 ◦ ◦
, 15 0°and ◦
position of the at a rotation angle around and22.5 aremapping
30° the lower (aterror
about
◦ and 30◦ in the CFD
is 0.1%).
higher This could0.5%),
(at about be traced back to pressure
the mapping surges
errors for occurring
7.5°, 15° at 0are
and 22.5° lower (at about
model
0.1%). (also
This visible
could by the back
be traced highertoforce sum).surges
pressure Theseoccurring
pressure surges are 30°
at 0° and tracked in CFD
in the a high
number of small computational cells, which could lead to an overprediction
model (also visible by the higher force sum). These pressure surges are tracked in a high in the FEM
number of small computational cells, which could lead to an overprediction in the FEM
model, if mesh nodes of these cells are considered multiple times during the mapping
action. However, the overall mapping error is still less than 0.5% and consequently, the
mapping procedure does not significantly affect the results.
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 9 of 23

model, if mesh nodes of these cells are considered multiple times during the mapping
action. However, the overall mapping error is still less than 0.5% and consequently, the
mapping procedure does not significantly affect the results.

3.2. Required Time Signal

In the CFD simulation a transient solution in the time domain is obtained, while in
the FEM simulation the solution is obtained in the frequency domain. In order to prescribe
dynamic loads in the FEM based on the CFD results, a Fourier transformation of the time
evolution of the pressure in the flow field through the pump is necessary. In the present
work, this is realized in Simcenter 3D. In order to obtain an appropriate excitation signal
from the transient evolution of the pressure field, the time step as well as the length of
the time signal are important. The time step determines the highest frequency which
can be resolved. The length of the time signal determines the lowest frequency which
can be resolved as well as the increment ∆ f for a given time step. A longer time signal
leads to a better frequency resolution, but also the computational effort increases. This
investigation focuses on the length of the time signal and the resulting forces of the signals
in the frequency domain.
The sampling frequency is the reciprocal of the time step and determines the maximum
resolvable frequency by the means of the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem. The Nyquist-
Shannon sampling theorem states, that the maximum frequency f max of a signal, which
can be obtained is half of the sampling frequency f s , i.e.,:

fs
f max ≤ . (4)
2
In the CFD simulation a fixed angular resolution of ∆γ = 0.5◦ is applied, which gives
the time step depending on the actual rotational speed n (Equation (5)). Since in the present
approach each time step is used to process the dynamic loads this equals the inverse of the
sampling frequency,
1 ∆γ
∆t = = . (5)
fs 360◦ ∗ n
The frequency resolution of the signal is obtained from the interval size of the sig-
nal. If the solution is stored each time step, then Ns data files are written during one
revolution, i.e.,:
360◦
Ns = . (6)
∆γ
This leads to Nb bins which are available to process the FFT for Nrev pump revolutions:

Ns
Nb = Nrev (7)
2
The increment ∆ f in the frequency domain is calculated by Equation (8):

f max n
∆f = = (8)
Nb Nrev

Subsequently, the number of pump revolutions used for the time signal processing
and the rotational speed of the pump determine the resolution of the time signal in the
frequency domain. This is caused by the fixed time step of the CFD simulation which is
depending on the rotational pump speed and is determining the sampling frequency f s .
The only way to adjust the frequency resolution in this case is to use a different time signal
length for the time to frequency conversion. Therefore, the number of revolutions Nrev
influences the maximum forces obtained from the time evolution of the pressure field at
different frequencies due to the changing frequency resolution.In the transient simulation
of the pump, the characteristic flow phenomena repeat every 30◦ , because the investigated
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 10 of 23

pump has Nv = 12 vanes. The blade passing frequencies f bp,k and its kth -harmonics are
defined in Equation (9):

f bp,k = k ∗ Nv ∗ n, k = 1, 2, 3, . . . (9)

The minimum number of revolutions, which can be used for the time to frequency
conversion, is Nrev = 1/12 pump revolution. Note that the CFD simulation has to be
already at a steady state condition, when the pressure field is stored. The obtained forces
for 30◦ , 90◦ , 180◦ , 360◦ , 720◦ , 1440◦ and 2160◦ rotation angle of the pump are investigated
for a rotational speed of 2000 rpm (see Table 2). The time step size is 4.16E-05 s for
all simulations and the maximum resolvable frequency f max derived by Equation (4) is
12,000 Hz. The results are pictured in Figure 10.

Table 2. Frequency resolution depending on number of revolutions at 2000 rpm.

Rotation Angle [◦ ] Nrev [-] ∆f [Hz]

30 1/12 400
90 1/4 133.3333
180 1/2 66.6667
360 1 33.3333
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 720 2 16.6667 11 of 23
1440 4 8.3333
2160 6 5.5556

100,000
30° 90° 180° 360° 720° 1440° 2160°

10,000
Force Sum [N]

1,000

100

10

1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 10. Influence of time signal length on the forcing frequencies at 2000 rpm.
Figure 10. Influence of time signal length on the forcing frequencies at 2000 rpm.
The blade passing frequency of the pump and two harmonics are visible at 400 Hz,
800 Hz
The and 1200passing
blade Hz. At frequency
the blade passing frequency
of the pump and (400
two Hz) it is visible
harmonics are that theat
visible excitation
400 Hz,
force obtained from 30 ◦ revolution of the pump is higher than in the other cases. This is
800 Hz and 1200 Hz. At the blade passing frequency (400 Hz) it is visible that the excitation
due toobtained
force the smallest
fromresolvable
30° revolution frequency
of the in this case
pump which
is higher is 400
than Hzother
in the and consequently,
cases. This is
due to the smallest resolvable frequency in this case which is 400 Hz andlow
the forces of the static pressure are obtained at this frequency due to the frequency
consequently,
resolution. In all other cases, the amplitudes of the excitation forces
the forces of the static pressure are obtained at this frequency due to the low frequency show nearly similar
amplitudesInatall
resolution. theother
blade passing
cases, frequency and
the amplitudes of the its excitation
harmonics. Theshow
forces excitation
nearlyforces at
similar
intermediate frequencies (between the blade passing frequency and
amplitudes at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics. The excitation forces at in- its harmonics) are
overpredicted ◦ -case and the 180◦ -case due to the low frequency resolution. Here,
for the 90(between
termediate frequencies the blade passing frequency and its harmonics) are over-
the side lobe
predicted response
for the 90°-caseof and
the blade passingdue
the 180°-case frequency
to the low andfrequency
its harmonics overpower
resolution. Here, the
the
main lobe responses of nearby week sinusoidal signals. For the
side lobe response of the blade passing frequency and its harmonics overpower the main cases using more than
one pump
lobe revolution,
responses of nearby theweek
increasing number
sinusoidal of samples
signals. leadsusing
For the cases to anmore
increased frequency
than one pump
revolution, the increasing number of samples leads to an increased frequency resolution
and to a narrowing of the lobes at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics. Conse-
quently, the ability to distinguish between two closely spaced frequency components in-
creases, leading to overall lower amplitudes. Especially, near the blade passing frequency
and its harmonics as well as at the intermediate frequencies the magnitude of the obtained
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 11 of 23

resolution and to a narrowing of the lobes at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics.
Consequently, the ability to distinguish between two closely spaced frequency components
increases, leading to overall lower amplitudes. Especially, near the blade passing frequency
and its harmonics as well as at the intermediate frequencies the magnitude of the obtained
excitation forces reduces with an increased frequency resolution.
From Figure 11 it can be seen that the locations of high excitation forces at a frequency
of 400 Hz are the same for 90◦ , 180◦ and 360◦ time signal length. For 30◦ the location is
different and the excitation is not captured correctly. If only transient data of 30◦ are used
as excitation force, the complete delivery port shows high excitation forces due to the low
frequency resolution and the influence of the 0 Hz lobe. For 90◦ , 180◦ and 360◦ transient
data the excitation forces are only visible in the area in which the displacement chamber
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
disconnects from or connects to the delivery port. This is caused by the pressure change,12 of 23

which appears with the blade passing frequency of 400 Hz at a pump speed of 2000 rpm.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Force distribution in
Force distribution in the
the FEM
FEM model
model at
at 400
400 Hz.
Hz.

Table
To 3 shows
achieve the time
a tradeoff step size
between of the time
simulation CFDandsimulation,
frequency the maximum
resolution, resolvable
it is decided,
frequencies
that transientof the
filessignal and
of one revolution (360◦resolution
the frequency ) are usedforto different
obtain theinvestigated
excitation rotational
forces of
the pump
speeds for for
onethepumpFEMrevolution.
simulation. Thethat
Note blade
thepassing
time stepfrequency
has to beofchosen
the pump and its
carefully in
harmonics are captured
order to achieve well and
a reasonable the amplitudes
convergence in theofCFD
frequencies between the blade passing
simulation.
frequency and its harmonics are already in the same order of magnitude as with more
Tablepump
3. Relations betweenConsequently,
revolutions. operating points,
alltime andoccurring
effects frequency during
resolution.
one revolution of the pump
are captured in the excitation forces.
Rotation Rate [rpm] 𝜟𝒕 [s] 𝑵 [-] 𝒇 [Hz] 𝑵𝒃 [-] 𝒇 [Hz] 𝜟𝒇 [Hz]
Table 3 shows𝒔 the time step 𝒔size of the CFD simulation,𝒎𝒂𝒙the maximum resolvable
1000 8.3333 ∙ 10 720 12,000 360 6000 16.6667
frequencies of the signal and the frequency resolution for different investigated rotational
1500 5.5555 ∙ 10 720 18,000 360 9000 25.0
speeds for one pump revolution. Note that the time step has to be chosen carefully in order
2000 4.1667 ∙ 10 720 24,000 360 12,000 33.3333
to achieve a reasonable convergence in the CFD simulation.
From Table 3 it is clearly visible, that a smaller time step and consequently, a higher
Table 3. Relations between operating points, time and frequency resolution.
sampling frequency leads to a lower frequency resolution Δ𝑓, for the same number of
Rotation Rate [rpm] ∆t [s]
revolutions. On the one hand,
Ns [-] with the applied
fs [Hz] Nb time
[-] step size fmaxof[Hz] ∆f [Hz] for
the CFD simulation
1000 the 1000
8.3333 × 10−5 rpm simulation,
720 excitation
12,000 frequencies are
360 only resolvable
6000 up to 6000 Hz. On the
16.6667
1500 other
5.5555 × 10−5hand, the720 frequency resolution
18,000 of the data360 for the 2000 rpm CFD simulation
9000 is rather
25.0
2000 4.1667 × 10−5 (33.3333720
coarse Hz). This effect has to be taken360
24,000 into account and leads to the33.3333
12,000 fact that at
higher rotational speeds the number of pump revolutions used for the time signal pro-
cessing
Fromneeds
Tableto3be increased
it is to get that
clearly visible, the same timetime
a smaller signal
steplength and a reasonable
and consequently, fre-
a higher
sampling frequency leads to a lower frequency resolution ∆ f , for the same number vi-
quency resolution of the signal. The influence of a higher frequency resolution on the of
broacoustic solution
revolutions. On the one is derived in Section
hand, with 3.4. time step size of the CFD simulation for
the applied
the 1000 rpm simulation, excitation frequencies are only resolvable up to 6000 Hz. On
3.3. other
the Influence of Fluid
hand, Rotor Forcesresolution
the frequency and Wall Shear
of theStress
data for the 2000 rpm CFD simulation
In the FEM simulation the solution is computed in the frequency domain. Hence, it
is not possible to model the rotating surfaces of the rotor and the vanes (see Figure 1B,C)
in the FEM setup. Consequently, the fluid forces in form of pressure and wall shear stress
acting on these rotating surfaces cannot be transferred to the FEM grid. Therefore, it is
decided to estimate the contribution of these fluid rotor forces (FRF) to the excitation of
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 12 of 23

is rather coarse (33.3333 Hz). This effect has to be taken into account and leads to the
fact that at higher rotational speeds the number of pump revolutions used for the time
signal processing needs to be increased to get the same time signal length and a reasonable
frequency resolution of the signal. The influence of a higher frequency resolution on the
vibroacoustic solution is derived in Section 3.4.

3.3. Influence of Fluid Rotor Forces and Wall Shear Stress

In the FEM simulation the solution is computed in the frequency domain. Hence, it is
not possible to model the rotating surfaces of the rotor and the vanes (see Figure 1B,C) in
the FEM setup. Consequently, the fluid forces in form of pressure and wall shear stress
acting on these rotating surfaces cannot be transferred to the FEM grid. Therefore, it is
decided to estimate the contribution of these fluid rotor forces (FRF) to the excitation of the
pump housing in form of a rotor torque. This torque is implemented in the FEM simulation
at the mid position of the rotor in the shaft. Furthermore, the magnitude of the forces
resulting from the pressure and the wall shear stress acting on the static flow enclosing
pump surfaces (FEPS) is investigated, too. These surfaces include the blue and red surfaces
in Figure 1 left and in Figure 1 right the inner surface of the cam ring (A).
To get a first order of magnitude of the FRF, the resulting forces due to the pressure
field and the wall shear stress are evaluated on the rotating parts in the CFD simulation.
Because the investigated pump is a double stroke type vane pump, the FRF can compensate
each other, due to the transversally located high pressure and low pressure sections (see
Figure 1). Therefore, the resulting fluid force acting on the rotor parts, which can lead to a
deflection of the rotating parts, is of interest for the excitation of the pump housing. For
this purpose, the resulting FRF in each spatial direction are calculated. Then the magnitude
of the three force vectors is determined.
Table 4 shows the time averaged value of the resulting forces in the transient CFD
simulation and the fluctuation of these forces in form of its standard deviation. The
resulting forces are derived one time considering the static pressure acting on the FEPS,
one time considering the wall shear stress acting on the FEPS and one time for the FRF.
These values are evaluated at three different operating points. It is visible, that the FRF
show low resulting standard deviations and low resulting mean values compared to the
pressure field acting on the FEPS for all operating points. This can be explained by the
methodology, where all the forces in each direction are summed up, before comparing the
forces. Nevertheless, it is possible to compare the forces using this methodology, because
most FRF act against the direction of rotation of the pump and the shaft has a rotational
degree of freedom. Therefore, mainly the resulting forces, which lead to a deflection of
the shaft from its initial position, will contribute to the pump’s noise radiation via the
pump housing. As it can be seen in Table 4, the resulting average FRF as well as the
resulting average force from the wall shear stress acting on the FEPS is about three orders
of magnitude lower than the forces resulting from the static pressure acting on the FEPS.
In addition, the standard deviation which represents an evaluation criteria for the force
fluctuations is less significant for the wall shear stress acting on the FEPS and for the FRF.

Table 4. Force fluctuations at different operating points.

Operating Point Value Pressure on FEPS Wall Shear Stress on FEPS FRF
Average [N] 1.69 × 104 3.53 × 100 2.99 × 101
2000 rpm, 15 bar
Standard deviation [N] 2.15 × 102 9.76 × 10−2 7.72 × 100
Average [N] 1.66 × 104 2.33 × 100 2.53 × 101
1000 rpm, 15 bar
Standard deviation [N] 6.10 × 101 5.01 × 10−2 6.85 × 100
Average [N] 1.16 × 104 2.94 × 100 2.59 × 101
2000 rpm, 10 bar
Standard deviation [N] 2.68 × 102 1.30 × 10−1 1.06 × 101
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 13 of 23

Consequently, the forces and force fluctuations resulting from the wall shear stress
acting on the FEPS and the FRF are less significant for the pump’s noise radiation than
the forces caused by the static pressure acting on the FEPS at the investigated operating
points. The magnitude of the wall shear stress force acting on the FEPS is even lower than
the error of 0.5% due to the data mapping compared to the static pressure acting on the
FEPS. Therefore, the wall shear stress will be neglected in the following investigations. The
influence of the FRF is investigated further by the use of a structural model.
Figure 12 displays the acting forces on the pump housing resulting from the static
pressure acting on the FEPS at different operating conditions. The resulting forces are
pictured at the blade passing frequency for 2000 rpm and 15 bar (a) and for 1000 rpm and 15
bar (b). The locations in Figure 12, where the highest forces are tracked for the blade passing
frequency match with the locations of high forces at k-times the blade passing frequency.
These frequencies were chosen for evaluation, because the highest noise radiation of the
pump takes usually place at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics. Regarding
Figure 12a,b only small differences in the locations of high load can be observed. In the top
view four locations of high load can be identified. These locations are similar for different
operating points and are located between the pressure and the suction port. The spatial
extend of these locations with high forces matches the angular extend of a conveying
chamber of the pump (here 30◦ ). The locations where high forces occur can be traced back
to the pressure signal of the vane pump (compare Figure 18), which shows a pressure rise
from about 1 bar at the suction port to the pressure level of the delivery port or vise versa
at these locations. At these locations additional pressure surges may arise, if the pump is
not optimized for the operating condition. This is caused by the instantaneous connection
between a chamber with low pressure and the delivery port. The blade passing frequency
always shows the highest force amplitudes (compare Figure 10). The magnitude of the
forces at the blade passing frequency is mainly depending on the pressure difference from
suction to delivery port. If the rotational speed of a pump is increased, the blade passing
frequency with the highest force amplitude as well as its harmonics are shifted to higher
frequencies. Therefore, the pump housing is excited at higher frequencies.
This investigation underlines that the change in the static pressure of the flow and the
resulting pressure surges are the flow phenomena which contribute most to the pump’s
noise radiation. For sure, this is only valid for standard operating conditions of the pump.
If the rotational speed is increased and exceeds the cavitation onset or air is introduced into
the system, additional high pressure fluctuations and hence, non-negligible noise sources
may arise in the pump [22,23].
To verify the conclusion that the FRF have less impact on the noise radiation of the
pump, the excitations of the pump housing resulting from the FRF and from the static
pressure acting on the FEPS are investigated. The simulations are performed using the
FEM setup for the structural model described in Section 2.2. One simulation is performed
only considering the FRF in form of a rotor torque and one simulation only considering
the forces due to the static pressure acting on the FEPS. To estimate the magnitude of
the excitation by the rotor torque, the shaft is glued to the pump housing at the bearing
positions. In the real pump the axial shaft position is derived by the pressure forces in the
fluid. The plain bearings are lubricated by a leakage oil connection to the conveyed oil.
Therefore, the shaft can usually not handle axial forces and has only a rotational degree
of freedom. Hence, the excitation through the rotor torque is exaggerated in this model.
To evaluate the impact of the FRF and the pressure field acting on the FEPS, the velocity
at four representative positions at the outer surface of the pump housing is analyzed
and compared. The locations are pictured in Figure 13 in red. The outer surface of the
pump housing is chosen, since the noise radiation outside of the pump, which excites the
surrounding air, is of interest. Subsequently, an average of the surface velocity of these four
locations is calculated. The average can be seen in Figure 14. The evaluated frequencies of
this investigation range from 100 Hz to 1300 Hz with a step size of 100 Hz. The rotational
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

pump is not optimized for the operating condition. This is caused by the instantaneous
connection between a chamber with low pressure and the delivery port. The blade passing
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 frequency always shows the highest force amplitudes (compare Figure 10). The magni- 14 of 23
tude of the forces at the blade passing frequency is mainly depending on the pressure
difference from suction to delivery port. If the rotational speed of a pump is increased, the
blade passing frequency with the highest force amplitude as well as its harmonics are
speed
shifted toof the underlying
higher frequencies.simulation is 2000
Therefore, the pump rpm and the
housing pressure
is excited load isfrequen-
at higher 15 bar. Hence, the
first
cies. blade passing frequency and two harmonics can be observed.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23

(a)
FEM setup for the structural model described in Section 2.2. One simulation is performed
only considering the FRF in form of a rotor torque and one simulation only considering
the forces due to the static pressure acting on the FEPS. To estimate the magnitude of the
excitation by the rotor torque, the shaft is glued to the pump housing at the bearing posi-
tions. In the real pump the axial shaft position is derived by the pressure forces in the
fluid. The plain bearings are lubricated by a leakage oil connection to the conveyed oil.
Therefore, the shaft can usually not handle axial forces and has only a rotational degree
of freedom. Hence, the excitation through the rotor torque is exaggerated in this model.
To evaluate the impact of the FRF and the pressure field acting on the FEPS, the velocity
at four representative positions at the outer surface of the pump housing is analyzed and
compared. The locations are pictured in Figure 13 in red. The outer surface of the pump
housing is chosen, since the noise radiation outside of the pump, which excites the sur-
rounding air, is of interest. Subsequently, an average of the surface velocity of these four
locations is calculated. The average can be seen in Figure 14. The evaluated frequencies of
this investigation range from 100 Hz to 1300 (b) Hz with a step size of 100 Hz. The rotational
speed of12.
Figure the
Figure 12.underlying
Locations
Locations ofsimulation
of high excitation is 2000
forces
high excitation due rpm
to
forces dueand
the staticthe pressure
pressure
to the static in the load
pressure in is
pump 15pump
bar.atHence,
housing
the housing the
at blade
blade
first passing
blade
passing frequencies;
passing (a)2000
frequency
frequencies; (a) 2000and
rpmtwo
rpm and
and1515bar
baratat400
harmonics 400Hz;
can
Hz;(b)
be1000
(b) rpmrpm
observed.
1000 and and
15 bar
15atbar
200atHz.
200 Hz.

This investigation underlines that the change in the static pressure of the flow and
the resulting pressure surges are the flow phenomena which contribute most to the
pump’s noise radiation. For sure, this is only valid for standard operating conditions of
the pump. If the rotational speed is increased and exceeds the cavitation onset or air is
introduced into the system, additional high pressure fluctuations and hence, non-negligi-
ble noise sources may arise in the pump [22,23].
To verify the conclusion that the FRF have less impact on the noise radiation of the
pump, the excitations of the pump housing resulting from the FRF and from the static
pressure acting on the FEPS are investigated. The simulations are performed using the

Figure
Figure 13. Positions
13. Positions wherewhere the surface
the surface velocity
velocity is evaluated.
is evaluated.

1 Pressure acting on FEPS FRF

city [mm/s]

0.1

0.01
 Energies 2021, 14, 1874 15 of 23
Figure 13. Positions where the surface velocity is evaluated.

Surface Velocity [mm/s] 1 Pressure acting on FEPS FRF

0.1

0.01

0.001

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR 0.0001

PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

0.00001
100 It is 300
clearly visible500that the excitation
700 on the900exterior surface
1100 of the pump1300 housing
shows the same blade passing Frequencyfrequency[Hz]
and harmonics for the FRF and the pressure act-
ing on the FEPS. These frequencies are only depending on the rotational speed and the
Figure 14. Comparison
number ofofdisplacement
the surface velocity magnitudes
chambers. caused bythe
Furthermore, FRFexcitation
and pressure
on on
theFEPS.
exterior surface of
Figure 14. Comparison of the surface velocity magnitudes caused by FRF and pressure on FEPS.
the pump housing by the FRF is about 200 times lower (logarithmic scale) than the excita-
It is clearly visible that the excitation on the exterior surface of the pump housing
tion due to the pressure acting on the FEPS. Since the shaft is glued to the pump housing,
shows the same blade passing frequency and harmonics for the FRF and the pressure acting
the excitation of the pump housing due to the FRF caused by the flow should be overesti-
on the FEPS. These frequencies are only depending on the rotational speed and the number
mated in the model. That means, in the experiment the vibration of the pump housing,
of displacement chambers. Furthermore, the excitation on the exterior surface of the pump
due to the FRF is negligible for this pump type.
housing by the FRF is about 200 times lower (logarithmic scale) than the excitation due to
This is underlined by simulations at different delivery pressures and rotational
the pressure acting on the FEPS. Since the shaft is glued to the pump housing, the excitation
speeds,
of thetoo
pump(seehousing
Figure 15).
dueHere,
to thethe ratio
FRF of thebysurface
caused the flowvelocity
should caused by the FRF 𝑣in the
be overestimated
with regard to the surface velocity caused by the pressure acting
model. That means, in the experiment the vibration of the pump housing, due on the FEPSto 𝑣the FRF
is is
visualized. For that purpose,
negligible for this pump type. an average value of the surface velocity at the four surface
nodes of theispump
This housing
underlined is calculatedatsimilar
by simulations to delivery
different the previous investigation.
pressures Addition-
and rotational speeds,
ally, the results at the blade passing frequency and at two harmonics are
too (see Figure 15). Here, the ratio of the surface velocity caused by the FRF v FRF with averaged to
achieve a representative single value (see Equation (10)):
regard to the surface velocity caused by the pressure acting on the FEPS v is visualized.
FEPS
For that purpose, an average value of the𝑣 surface velocity at the four surface nodes of
𝑅 =to the previous investigation. Additionally, (10)
the pump housing is calculated similar 𝑣 the
results
Figure 15 shows that an increased rotation rate leads to slightly higher proportions a
at the blade passing frequency and at two harmonics are averaged to achieve
representative single
of the rotor torque value
in the (see Equation
resulting (10)): However, the ratio is still lower than
surface velocity.
0.5% for 2000 rpm at all loads. Because only lower
v rotational speeds up to 2000 rpm are
investigated in this work, it is decidedRto = FRF
neglect
FRF (10)
the rotor torque in the vibroacoustic
v FEPS
simulations in the next section.

0.5 1000 rpm

0.45
2000 rpm
0.4
0.35
0.3
RFRF [%]

0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10 15 20
Perssure [bar]
Figure 15. Comparison of R FRF for two different pressure loads and rotational speeds.
Figure 15. Comparison of 𝑅 for two different pressure loads and rotational speeds.

3.4. Vibroacoustic Results

For this investigation the vibroacoustic model as described in Section 2.2 is used. To
validate the results of the vibroacoustic model the acceleration at the sensor positions and
the sound pressure level at a specific microphone point in 96 mm distance to the pump
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 16 of 23

Figure 15 shows that an increased rotation rate leads to slightly higher proportions
of the rotor torque in the resulting surface velocity. However, the ratio is still lower than
0.5% for 2000 rpm at all loads. Because only lower rotational speeds up to 2000 rpm are
investigated in this work, it is decided to neglect the rotor torque in the vibroacoustic
simulations in the next section.

3.4. Vibroacoustic Results

For this investigation the vibroacoustic model as described in Section 2.2 is used. To
validate the results of the vibroacoustic model the acceleration at the sensor positions
and the sound pressure level at a specific microphone point in 96 mm distance to the
pump surface is compared to measurements at 2000 rpm and 15 bar. The measurements
are performed at an acoustic test bench in a hemi-anechoic room (see Figure 16). The
powertrain of the test bench is located outside of the hemi-anechoic room to measure only
the noise caused by the pump itself. However, to ensure the pump function a test device to
mount the pump, as well as connections to the suction and delivery ports in form of tubes
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23
are mandatory, which are located in the hemi-anechoic room and influence the measured
noise radiation.

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Sound
Sound pressure
pressure level
level measurement
measurement setup
setupin
inaahemi-anechoic
hemi-anechoicroom.
room.

The
The first
first investigation
investigation focuses
focuses on on the
the number
number of of revolutions
revolutions of of the
the pump
pump needed
needed to
to
capture
capture the
the sound
sound pressure
pressure inin the
the frequency
frequency domain
domain accurately.
accurately.In Inaapre-investigation
pre-investigationof of
the
the excitation
excitationforces
forcesfrom
fromthe
theload,
load,it it
waswasfound
found that at at
that least transient
least data
transient of one
data revolution
of one revolu-
is required
tion to getto
is required anget
appropriate resolution
an appropriate of the excitation
resolution forces inforces
of the excitation the frequency domain
in the frequency
(see Section 3.2). Therefore, the impact of different numbers of transient
domain (see Section 3.2). Therefore, the impact of different numbers of transient data N s derived 𝑁
data by
different
derived by numbers
differentof numbers
completeof revolutions of the pumpofare
complete revolutions theanalyzed.
pump areTable 5 shows
analyzed. the5
Table
resulting
shows theproperties
resulting for the investigated
properties numbers ofnumbers
for the investigated revolutions.of revolutions.

Table5.5. Parameters
Table Parametersof
ofthe
theCFD
CFDsimulation
simulationand
andthe
theresulting
resultingproperties
propertiesin
inthe
thefrequency
frequencydomain.
domain.

Number
NumberofofRevolu- Rotation
Rotation Rate
∆t [s] 𝜟𝒕 [s] Ns [-] 𝑵𝒔 [-] fmax𝒇[Hz]
𝒎𝒂𝒙 [Hz] Nb 𝑵
[-]𝒃 [-] 𝒇𝒔 [Hz]
fs [Hz] ∆f𝜟𝒇
[Hz]
[Hz]
Revolutions [-]
tions [-] Rate [rpm]
[rpm]
1 1 4.1667
2000 2000 4.1667 × 10−5 ∙ 10 720 720 24,000
24,000 360360 12,000
12,000 33.3333
33.3333
2 2 4.1667
2000 2000 4.1667 × 10−5 ∙ 10 1440 1440 24,000
24,000 720720 12,000
12,000 16.6667
16.6667
4 4 4.1667
2000 2000 4.1667 × 10−5 ∙ 10 2880 2880 24,000
24,000 1440
1440 12,000
12,000 8.3333
8.3333

Figure 17
Figure 17 shows
shows the
the results
results ofof the
the predicted
predicted sound
sound pressure
pressure level
level at
atthe
themicrophone
microphone
point in
point in 96
96 mm
mm distance
distance to
to the
the pump
pump housing
housing for
for one,
one, two
two and
and four
four revolutions
revolutions of
of the
the
pump. The solution of the
pump. the FEM
FEM model
model is is computed
computed for
for each
each excitation
excitation frequency.
frequency. ItIt isis
clearly visible that the blade passing frequency of the pump and its harmonics at k-times
400 Hz are visible in all solutions. The magnitude of at the blade passing frequency and
its harmonics is nearly independent of the number of revolutions used for the excitation
of the pump. Nevertheless, as the frequency resolution increases, the resulting amplitudes
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 17 of 23

clearly visible that the blade passing frequency of the pump and its harmonics at k-times
400 Hz are visible in all solutions. The magnitude of at the blade passing frequency and its
harmonics is nearly independent of the number of revolutions used for the excitation of
the pump. Nevertheless, as the frequency resolution increases, the resulting amplitudes
at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics narrow and appear over a reduced
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
frequency range. Additionally, the fluctuations of the sound pressure level between 18 of 23
the
blade passing frequency and its harmonics increase and occasionally different trends and
small deviations occur.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23
40 360° 720° 1440°
30
[dB] Level [dB]

20
40 360° 720° 1440°
10
30
Pressure

200
SoundLevel

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

–10
10
Sound Pressure

–20
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
–30
–10

–40
–20
Frequeny [Hz]
–30
Figure 17. Sound pressure level derived by the vibroacoustic solution for different numbers of pump revolutions.
Figure 17.
–40Sound pressure level derived by the vibroacoustic solution for different numbers of pump revolutions.
The frequencies, which Frequeny
match[Hz]the blade passing frequency of the pump and its
harmonics, usually contribute with the
Subsequently, the vibroacoustic results highest amount
of the surfacetoacceleration
the pump’sand noise radiation.
of the sound
Since,
pressurethese frequencies
level at the are predicted
microphone point in
are all simulations
compared to approximately
the measurements with the same
performed in
Figure 17. Sound pressure level derived by the vibroacoustic solution for different numbers of pump revolutions.
magnitude
the it is decided
hemi-anechoic room.to Inuse only
order toone revolution
do so, of the signal
the excitation pump ofto reduce
the pump thehas
required
to be
computational
correct.
Subsequently, time.the
Therefore, the vibroacoustic
pressure in a results
displacement chamber
of the surface of the pump
acceleration and isof monitored
the sound
Subsequently,
(compare [20]). The the vibroacoustic
numerical and results of
experimental the surface
results acceleration
for 2000 rpm
pressure level at the microphone point are compared to the measurements performed and
and of the
15 bar sound
outlet
in
pressure
pressure level at the
are displayed microphone
in In
Figure point are compared to the measurements performed
18.to do so, the excitation signal of the pump has to be in
the hemi-anechoic room. order
the hemi-anechoic room. In order to do so, the excitation signal of the pump has to be
correct. Therefore, the pressure in a displacement chamber of the pump is monitored
correct. Therefore, the pressure in a displacement chamber of the pump is monitored
25 (compare [20]). The numerical and experimental results for 2000 rpm and 15 bar outlet
Simulation
(compare [20]). The numerical and experimental results for 2000 rpm and 15 bar outlet
pressure are displayed in Figure 18.
pressure are displayed in Figure 18. Measurment
20
25 Simulation
Pressure [bar]

15 Measurment
20
10
Pressure [bar]

15
5
10
0
5 0 90 180 270 360
Rotation Angle [°]
0
Figure 18.0 Internal displacement90 180
chamber pressure of simulation 270 for 2000 rpm and 15360
and measurement bar.
Rotation Angle [°]
On thechamber
Figure 18. Internal displacement one hand it canofbe
pressure seen, that
simulation andthe characteristic
measurement pressure
for 2000 rpm andcurve could be cap-
15 bar.
Figure 18. Internal displacement chamber pressure of simulation and measurement for 2000 rpm and 15 bar.in the high
tured well. On the other hand, at the second delivery port some fluctuations
pressure section of the measurement which are not captured by the simulations are visi-
ble. These
On themay
oneresult
handfrom
it caninteractions
be seen, thatwiththethe connected system.
characteristic pressure Additionally,
curve couldthebe high
cap-
frequency
tured well.fluctuations
On the othervisible
hand,inatthe
themeasurement
second delivery cannot
portbe captured
some by the in
fluctuations CFDthesimu-
high
lations. Possible
pressure section ofcauses for these fluctuations
the measurement which areare notvibrations
captured by of the
the simulations
pump housing and
are visi-
pipes, which interact with the fluid in the pump [20]. Overall, the simulation
ble. These may result from interactions with the connected system. Additionally, the high and the
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 18 of 23

On the one hand it can be seen, that the characteristic pressure curve could be captured
well. On the other hand, at the second delivery port some fluctuations in the high pressure
section of the measurement which are not captured by the simulations are visible. These
may result from interactions with the connected system. Additionally, the high frequency
fluctuations visible in the measurement cannot be captured by the CFD simulations. Pos-
sible causes for these fluctuations are vibrations of the pump housing and pipes, which
interact with the fluid in the pump [20]. Overall, the simulation and the measurement
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
show a reasonable agreement. 19 of 23

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW To validate the results of the simulation model, the surface acceleration of the model
19 of 23
and the measurement is compared for the two different sensor positions (see Figure 2a).
The results are displayed in Figure 19a,b.
100 Simulation Measurement 100 Simulation Measurement
Acceleration [m/s²]

Acceleration [m/s²]
10
100 10
100
Simulation Measurement Simulation Measurement
110 110
Acceleration [m/s²]

Acceleration [m/s²]
0.1 1 0.1 1
0.010.1 0.010.1
0.001
0.01 0.001
0.01
0.0001
0.001 0.0001
0.001
0 2000 4000 6000 0 2000 4000 6000
0.0001 Frequency [Hz] 0.0001 Frequency [Hz]
0 2000 4000 6000 0 2000 4000 6000
(a)
Frequency [Hz] (b)
Frequency [Hz]
(a) (b)
Figure 19. Surface acceleration obtained from the simulation and measurement for 2000 rpm and 15 bar; (a) Sensor posiT-
able 4. 1);
Figure 19.(b) Sensor
Surface position (4.2).
acceleration obtained from the simulation and measurement for 2000 rpm and 15 bar; (a) Sensor position
Figure 19. Surface acceleration obtained from the simulation and measurement for 2000 rpm and 15 bar; (a) Sensor posiT-
4.1); (b) Sensor position (4.2).
able 4. 1); (b) Sensor position (4.2).
These figures show that the blade passing frequency and its harmonics are clearly
visible in the
These simulation
figures and the
show that in the measurements.
blade However,
passing frequency and the simulation are
its harmonics underpre-
clearly
These
visiblethe
figures
in accelerations
show
the simulationover
that
and the
the
in the
blade passing
measurements.
frequency and
However, range.
its harmonics
the simulation
are clearly
underpredicts
dicts whole evaluated frequency While there is a huge
visible in the
the accelerations simulation and in the measurements. However, the simulation underpre-
deviation at low over the whole
frequencies up evaluated
to 2400 Hz,frequency range. at
the agreement While there
higher is a huge deviation
frequencies becomes
atdicts
better.
the accelerations
low frequencies
The accelerations
over Hz,
up to 2400 the the
whole evaluated
agreement
at the frequencies between
frequency
at higher range. While there
frequencies
the blade passing becomes
frequencies
is a The
better. huge
are in a
deviation
accelerations at low frequencies
at the frequencies up to 2400 Hz,
between the bladethe agreement
passing at higher
frequencies frequencies
areaccelerationbecomes
in a reasonable
reasonable agreement with the measurements above 4000 Hz, while the am-
better. The
agreement accelerations at the frequencies between thethe
blade passing frequencies are in a
plitudes at with the measurements
the blade passing frequency aboveand
4000its
Hz, while
harmonics acceleration
are amplitudes In
still underpredicted. at the
reasonable
bladestep,
passing agreement
frequency with the
and its measurements
harmonics above 4000 Hz,
are still underpredicted. while the
In the acceleration am-
next the sound pressure level at the microphone point is compared to next step, the
the measure-
plitudes
sound at thelevel
pressure bladeat passing
the frequency
microphone andisits
point harmonics
compared to are measurement.
the still underpredicted.
The In the
results
ment. The results can be seen in Figure 20.
next
can be step,
seen the sound20.
in Figure pressure level at the microphone point is compared to the measure-
ment. The results can be seen in Figure 20.
70 Simulation Measurement
60
70 Simulation Measurement
50
Sound Pressure Level [dB]

60
40
50
Sound Pressure Level [dB]

30
40
20
30
10
20
0
10
–10 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0
–20 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
–10
–30
–20
–40
–30 Frequeny [Hz]
–40
Figure 20. Sound pressure level obtained from simulation
Frequenyand
[Hz]measurement for 2000 rpm and 15 bar.
Figure 20. Sound pressure level obtained from simulation and measurement for 2000 rpm and 15 bar.

Figure 20. Sound pressure level obtained

It is visible that at from simulation and
low frequencies themeasurement for 2000
sound pressure rpm
level is and 15 bar.
underpredicted in the
simulation similar to the surface accelerations. A noticeable deviation between the simu-
It is visible that at low frequencies the sound pressure level is underpredicted in the
lation and the experiment can be observed at the blade passing frequency and its harmon-
simulation similar to the surface accelerations. A noticeable deviation between the simu-
ics. The peaks in the measurement are sharper than in the simulation, which is caused by
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 19 of 23

It is visible that at low frequencies the sound pressure level is underpredicted in the
simulation similar to the surface accelerations. A noticeable deviation between the simula-
tion and the experiment can be observed at the blade passing frequency and its harmonics.
The peaks in the measurement are sharper than in the simulation, which is caused by
the lower frequency resolution in the simulation. At about 3800 Hz to about 6000 Hz
the magnitude of the sound pressure level in the simulation shows a good agreement
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
with the experiment, even though the sound pressure level at the harmonics of the 20 blade
of 23

passing frequency is underpredicted. All harmonics of the blade passing frequency, except
the ones at 2800 Hz and 3200 Hz are visible in the simulated sound pressure level. At
frequencies
these frequencies the the
measurement
measurement shows a reduction
shows a reduction in theinamplitude
the amplitudetoo. Except at lowatfre-
too. Except low
quencies, the
frequencies, the simulation
simulationresults
resultscapture
capturethe therelevant
relevanteffects
effectsvisible
visibleininthethemeasurements.
measurements.
This
This is mainly
is mainly causedbybythe
caused thesimplifications
simplifications used used in the the vibroacoustic
vibroacousticsimulation
simulationmodel. model.
In this model, only the stiff pump housing is contributing to the noise radiation ofthe
In this model, only the stiff pump housing is contributing to the noise radiation of the
pump.Because
pump. Becauseonly onlythe
thepump
pumpisisinvestigated
investigated in in the
the model,
model, fixation
fixationconstraints
constraintsatatthe the
pump
pump housing
housing areare necessary,
necessary, which
which leadlead
to atoless
a less vibration-prone
vibration-prone simulation
simulation model.
model. InInthe
experiment, the test device and tubes can be easier excited by the lower harmonics of of
the experiment, the test device and tubes can be easier excited by the lower harmonics the
the blade
blade passing passing frequency
frequency of theofpump
the pump thanthan the pump
the pump housing
housing itself
itself andand contribute
contribute to tothe
the noise radiation (see Figure 15). Especially, the pressure pulsation
noise radiation (see Figure 15). Especially, the pressure pulsation in the tubes connected to in the tubes con-
thenected
pumpto is the pump is ansource
an additional additional source of
of vibration and vibration and noiseofradiation
noise radiation the pump, of which
the pump,is not
which is not considered in this approach. Furthermore, the
considered in this approach. Furthermore, the surfaces which can excite the surroundingsurfaces which can excite the
airsurrounding
are much smaller air arein much smaller in the
the simulation simulation
model. In the model. In the additional
pump itself, pump itself, additional
noise sources
noise sources arise from the change in the radial inertia forces of the vanes and the radial
arise from the change in the radial inertia forces of the vanes and the radial vane movement,
vane movement, which is not implemented in the model. Regarding the overall agreement
which is not implemented in the model. Regarding the overall agreement of measurement
of measurement and simulation confirms that the rotor torque and the wall shear stress
and simulation confirms that the rotor torque and the wall shear stress are not able to close
are not able to close the gap between the simulation results and the experiments.
the gap between the simulation results and the experiments.
Figure 21 shows only the simulated and measured sound pressure levels of the pump
Figure 21 shows only the simulated and measured sound pressure levels of the pump
at the blade passing frequency and the harmonics at k times 400 Hz. To visualize the
at the blade passing frequency and the harmonics at k times 400 Hz. To visualize the
trends, the sound pressure is normalized with the average value of the blade passing fre-
trends, the sound pressure is normalized with the average value of the blade passing
quency and its harmonics. It can be seen that the trend of the sound pressure level at the
frequency
blade passingand itsfrequency
harmonics. andIt its
canharmonics
be seen that the trendcorrectly
is captured of the soundat mostpressure level at
frequencies.
theHowever,
blade passing frequency and its harmonics is captured correctly
a further enhancement of the simulation model and the test bench setup are at most frequencies.
However,
necessary a further
to achieve enhancement of the simulation
a better agreement between the model and the test
measurements andbench setup are
the numerical
necessary to achieve a better agreement between the measurements
results. Possible approaches to achieve this goal are to acoustically enclose the connected and the numerical
results.
tubes Possible
at the testapproaches to achieve
bench to reduce this goal areto
their contribution tothe
acoustically
sound pressureenclose theatconnected
level the mi-
tubes at the test bench to reduce their contribution to
crophone. Another approach is to model the hydraulic circuit and the test device the sound pressure levelforatthethe
microphone.
pump in theAnother approach
simulation. is to model
Nevertheless, the hydraulic
this will circuit and
lead to increased the testtimes.
simulation device Forfor
thesure
pump in the simulation.
a combination of theseNevertheless,
approaches isthis will lead
possible, too. to increased simulation times. For
sure a combination of these approaches is possible, too.
Simulation Measurement
1.4
Relative Sound Pressure Level [-]

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
400 1400 2400 3400 4400 5400
Frequency [Hz]
Figure
Figure 21. Normalized
21. Normalized sound
sound pressure
pressure level
level at at passing
blade blade passing frequencies
frequencies of simulation
of simulation and measurement
and measurement for 2000
for 2000 rpm rpm
and 15 bar.
and 15 bar.

4. Conclusions
A combined CFD-FEM approach to predict the noise radiation of a double stroke rotary
vane pump for transmission applications was presented in this work. The CFD simulation
model for the vane pump uses a morphing approach to model the moving parts. The devel-
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 20 of 23

4. Conclusions
A combined CFD-FEM approach to predict the noise radiation of a double stroke
rotary vane pump for transmission applications was presented in this work. The CFD
simulation model for the vane pump uses a morphing approach to model the moving parts.
The developing pressure field in the pump as well as the wall shear stress were considered
as noise sources of the fluid and used as load for the FEM model. In the FEM model the
solution is obtained in the frequency domain in form of a frequency response analysis. To
transfer the data from the CFD to the FEM grid a mapping approach is mandatory.
To ensure the correctness of the mapping approach the impact of mapping parameters
and the impact of the mesh size on the mapping results have been investigated. To validate
the mapping process the surface integral of the pressure field in the CFD simulations is
evaluated and compared to the force sum in the FEM simulations. The results show that
the mapping parameter Maximum Distance has the highest impact on the mapping results
and has to be chosen according to the mesh size of the FEM and the CFD grid. Additionally,
the impact of different angular positions of the pump rotor mesh have been investigated,
since a morphing approach is used in the CFD simulation, which leads to a change in the
element shape of the rotor mesh. This procedure also allows to draw conclusions for the
mapping error depending on the transient pressure signal. If the mapping parameters are
adapted correctly for the specific mesh size, a total error of less than 0.5% can be achieved.
To avoid a loss of information, the mapping parameters were set to values, which led to
slightly higher forces in the FEM model.
Within the scope of a study about the required length of the underlying time signal
to obtain the correct excitation forces it was derived that one revolution of the pump
is already sufficient to provide a reasonable resolution in the frequency domain. The
reoccurring characteristic fluctuations of the excitation force could be captured within
one revolution. This is due to the periodicity of the pump signal. Nevertheless, to get
a better frequency resolution of the mapped forces and to enhance the resolution of the
intermediate frequencies longer time signals can be taken into account, if the computational
power and time is available. As a tradeoff between accuracy and computational time, it
was decided to use the transient data of one full revolution of the pump with an angular
resolution of 0.5◦ for the following investigations.
Different effects in the pump contribute to the noise radiation. Therefore, an investi-
gation on the noise sources in the flow with the highest impact on the noise radiation of
the pump was conducted. For this purpose, the static pressure field acting on the FEPS,
the wall shear stress acting on the FEPS and the FRF have been taken into account. A
force analysis derived that the pressure acting on the FEPS leads to the highest forces in
the model. Here, the blade passing frequency and its harmonics show the highest force
amplitudes. The locations where high forces are observed are located in the transition area
of a displacement chamber from the suction to the delivery port or vice versa. The spatial
extend of these locations matches with the angular extend of a displacement chamber. This
is due to the pressure rise or drop within the displacement chamber during the transition.
The forces resulting from the wall shear stress acting on the FEPS are small compared to
the ones caused by the pressure field acting on the FEPS and lay within the magnitude of
the mapping error of 0.5%. Consequently, the wall shear stress influence is neglected in
this model.
Since the CFD model uses moving parts to model the pump function, one approach
to take the FRF into account in the FEM simulation is to calculate a rotor torque from the
pressure and wall shear stress acting on the moving surfaces. This torque was implemented
as load in the FEM simulation at the mid position of the rotor in the rotor shaft. Additionally,
the shaft was glued at the bearing positions to the housing to exaggerate the influence
of the rotor torque. It was found that the impact of the FRF on the surface velocity of
the pump housing is low for low rotation rates up to 2000 rpm. The magnitude of the
surface velocity of the pump caused by the FRF is only 0.5% of the magnitude of the surface
velocity caused by the pressure acting on the FEPS. Hence, the FRF is neglected for the
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 21 of 23

vibroacoustic simulation of this pump. This conclusion is depending on the pump type. For
the investigated pump, the transversal location of delivery and suction ports reduces the
forces which lead to a deflection of the rotor and hence, strongly reduces the bearing forces.
Finally, the acceleration and noise radiation of the pump were predicted by the
vibroacoustic simulation at an operation condition of 2000 rpm and 15 bar. To validate the
CFD simulation the pressure signal in a rotating displacement chamber was compared to
measurements and showed a reasonable agreement. Subsequently, acceleration and sound
pressure level measurements, which have been performed in a hemi-anechoic room, were
compared to the predicted acceleration and sound pressure level at a microphone point
in 96 mm distance to the pump. On the one hand, the results show a strong deviation
for lower frequencies which can be traced back to the higher stiffness and less vibration-
proneness of the model, due to the missing test device and the missing connecting tubes.
On the other hand, it was shown that the trend of the sound pressure level at the blade
passing frequency and its harmonics is in a reasonable agreement with the measurements.

Author Contributions: Concept T.H.; methodology T.H.; formal analysis/investigation T.H.; writing
T.H.; review, editing and discussion G.B., T.L. and T.H.; supervision G.B. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Jochen Abele for performing the measurements.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Latin Symbols
A surface [m]
c speed of sound [m/s]
d differential operatior [-]
fbp,k k-th blade passing frequency [1/s]
fmax maximum resolvable frequency [1/s]
fs sampling frequency of a signal [1/s]
F force [N]
k positive integer [-]
n rotational speed [1/s]
Nb number of FFT bins [-]
Ne number of elements per wave length [-]
Nrev number of pump revolutions [-]
Ns number of samples [-]
Nv number of vanes [-]
p static pressure [Pa]
RFRF ratio of surface velocity caused by FRF [%]
vFEPS surface velocity caused by pressure acting on FEPS [mm/s]
vFRF surface velocity caused by FRF [mm/s]
Greek Symbols
∆f frequency resolution [1/s]
∆t time step size [s]
∆α extend of acoustic fluid mesh [m]
∆β acoustic element size [m]
∆γ angular resolution [◦ ]
Energies 2021, 14, 1874 22 of 23

Abbrevations
BEM Boundary Element Method
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CMD Conservative Maximum Distance
FEM Finite Element Method
FEPS flow enclosing pump surfaces
FRF fluid rotor forces
MD Maximum Distance
rpm rounds per minute
URANS unsteady Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes

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