B.P.Ed.

- VI Sem

Basics of Sports Training

Unit-III

STRENGTH

Strength has been considered as the most important conditional ability. Strength is the ability of a muscle
to get over resistance. In games and sports, the following four types of resistance are overcome by the
sportsperson:

1) Resistance of implement, e.g. resistance of throwing implements in throwing events.

2) Resistance of own body, e.g. running, jumping, etc.
3) Resistance of opponent, e.g. wrestling, judo, etc.
4) Frictional resistance, e.g. swimming, cycling, etc.

FACTORS DETERMINING STRENGTH:

1. Physiological cross-section of the muscle

2. Morphology of the muscle
3. Co-ordination of muscles that participate in the movement
4. Phosphagen stores in the body
5. Body weight
6. Psychic factors (motivation, arousal, emotions)
7. Bio-mechanical factors (leverage and angle of pull)

TYPES OF STRENGTH:

1. Maximum strength – it is the ability of a muscle to get over resistance of maximum intensity of
stimulus in a single muscular contraction. The best examples are weight lifting and throwing events.
2. Explosive strength – it is the ability of a muscle to get over resistance of sub-maximum intensity
of stimulus as fast as possible. The best examples are sprints, jumps, smashing in volleyball, hitting in
hockey, etc.
3. Strength endurance – it is the ability of a muscle to get over resistance of medium intensity of
stimulus for as long as possible. The best examples are long distance races in track and field, swimming,
distance cycling, wrestling, boxing, etc

METHODS OF STRENGTH TRAINING

The popular methods of strength training are:

→ Simple method
→ Combination method
 → Super set method
→ Pyramid method
→ Plyometric or reactive method
→ Circuit training
1. Simple method
This method is recommended for the beginners. A simple schedule of 6 to 8 exercises is developed so as to
cover all the major muscle groups of the body. 3 x 8 repetitions of each exercise are performed. In this
method exercises are not performed in a circuit method. Required number of repetitions and sets of each
exercise are completed before proceeding to the next exercise. Variations in intensity, repetitions, sets and
recovery can be done to develop different forms of strength.

2. Combination method
This method is most suited for developing strength endurance. This system is not at all recommended for
maximum strength development. The procedure is very much similar to simple method. Combined method
differs from simple method in terms of recovery to be provided between various sets. Using the same 6 to
8 exercises as for the simple method, exercises 1 and 2 are combined, as are 3 and 4, 5 and 6 and ultimately
7 and 8. the sportsperson performs one set of 8 repetitions of exercise 1 and immediately switches over to
exercise 2. After performing 8 repetitions of exercise 2, one returns back to exercise 1 until three sets of 8
repetitions of both exercises are completed. The recovery period which the first muscle group gets is the
time for which exercise 2 is performed.

3. Super set method

This method is most suited for development of maximum strength. It is not recommended for beginners.
This system is similar to combination method in all respects except categorization of exercises. Two arm
or leg exercises are combined in such a way so that the flexor and extensor muscles are trained one after
the other. No recovery is provided between a set for developing flexor and a set for developing extensor
muscles. Examples of a schedule of six strength training exercises:

→ Sit ups
→ Back hyperextension
→ Half squat
→ Leg curl from supine position
→ Arm curls
→ French press
Three sets, each of 6 to 8 repetitions are performed.

4. Pyramid method
This method is best for developing maximum strength. Any strength training exercise is chosen and in each
set 3 to 5 repetitions are performed with maximum load. Between 2 sets complete recovery should be
ensured.

5. Plyometrics or reactive method (Jump Training/plyos)

Muscles exert maximum force in short intervals of time. Goal-develop power (speed-strength). Rapid
explosive extension and contraction of muscles.

This method is effective for development of explosive strength. This system involves stretch-shortening
cycle of the muscle. The following exercises are done:

→ Hopping
→ Bounding
→ Depth jumps

6. Circuit training
Circuit training is an effective method of developing strength endurance. A circuit of 6 to 10 exercises is
arranged in such a way that different muscle groups are exercised at different stations. The performer moves
from one station to another and undertakes load recovery in the following two ways:

→ 30 sec exercise and 30 sec rest between two stations.

→ 20 sec exercise and 40 sec rest between two stations.

ENDURANCE

The ability of a muscle or muscle group to perform repeated movements for extended periods of
time.

Endurance is characterized by the

 maintenance of working capacity and by the
 degree of resistance of the organism against fatigue and against the influence of
 unfavorable environmental conditions.
 It is also characterized by the pace of recovery after a tiresome activity.

Endurance loads cause numerous changes in the functions and structure of the organism. These changes
refer to the performance of heart, circulation, respiration, metabolism, hormonal system and bio-chemical
changes in the muscle cells.

BENEFITS OF ENDURANCE
Endurance is an important conditional ability. It is primarily determined by energy liberation processes.
The ability of the individual to maintain a certain load of energy production forms the physiological basis
of endurance. Performance in endurance activities does not depend only on physiological factors but also
on the qualities of the sportsperson.
The benefits of endurance are discussed as under:
1. Endurance facilitates maintenance of pace and tempo of an activity during training and competition.
2. Endurance is necessary for good quality of sports technique.
3. Endurance enables sportspersons to successfully complete training schedules of high loads.
4. Endurance facilitates maintenance of working capacity and thus enables a person to continue activity
for a prolonged period of time.
5. Endurance helps in delaying the onset of fatigue and to recover quickly from fatigue and during
competition and training.
6. Endurance enables a sportsperson to maintain rhythm, concentration and mental alertness during
training and competition.
7. Endurance helps in the maintenance of good health, improves resistance of the body against general
infections and cures various cardio-respirotry diseases and metabolic disorders.

FORMS OF ENDURANCE

Endurance can be classified based on the nature of the activity and duration of the activity.

Keeping in mind the nature of the activity, the endurance can be classified into following four types:

1. Basic Endurance
2. Speed Endurance
3. Sprint Endurance
4. Strength Endurance

Basic Endurance:

It is the ability of the organism to resist against fatigue in the case of endurance loads of medium intensity
of stimulus and mainly aerobic muscular metabolism.

Speed Endurance:

It is the ability of the organism to resist against fatigue in the case of endurance loads of sub-maximum
intensity of stimulus and mainly anaerobic gaining energy and maximum loss of oxygen.

Sprint Endurance:

It is the ability of the organism to resist against fatigue during endurance load of maximum intensity and
maximum motor frequency.

Strength Endurance:

It is the ability of the muscle to get over resistance in the case of loads of medium intensity of stimulus
for as long time as possible.

Keeping in mind the duration of different games and sports, endurance can be classified into following
three types:

1. Short Time Endurance

2. Middle Time Endurance
3. Long Time Endurance
Short Time Endurance

This ability is required for cyclic activities which last form 45 sec to 2 min. These activities result in high
amount of lactic acid concentration in the blood and muscles. To perform well in short time endurance
activities, speed endurance and strength endurance are important per-requisites.

Example of short time endurance are 400 meters run, 800 meters run, few events of swimming, complete
performance of few elements in gymnastics, selected combative sports namely Wrestling, judo etc.

Middle Time Endurance

This ability is needed for cyclic activity continuing between 2 to 8 min. In these activities also, there is a
high amount of lactic acid concentration in the blood and muscles. Speed endurance and strength endurance
are important motor components required for good performance. Anaerobic Lactic system. ATP + PC +
Glycogen

Examples of middle time endurance are 1500 meters run, 3000 meters run, few events in swimming,
selected combative activities etc.

Long Time Endurance

This ability is essential for all games and sports and activities continuing for more than 8 min. For long
time endurance activities, the main source of energy is the glycogen store in muscles and liver. Energy is
produced by the oxidation of glycogen. For activities continuing upto 30 min., energy production is
achieved form oxidation of glycogen whereas for activities lasting for more then 30 min. the energy is
produced as a result of fats metabolism. As the duration of activity increases , production of lactic acid in
the muscles and blood reduces.

Examples of long time endurance are long distance events in track and field and swimming, ball games,
racketgames , kabaddi , kho-kho etc.

FACTOR DETERMINING ENDURANCE

Endurance ability depend upon the following factors

1. Aerobic capacity-
To enable a person to continue an activity for a prolonged period, continuous flow of oxygen has to be
ensured to the working muscle for liberation of energy. The aerobic capacity of a person can be measured
by the maximum amount of oxygen consumed by the working muscles in one minute (VO max).
The aerobic capacity (VO max) of a person depends upon the following factors.
(a) Amount of oxygen which can be extracted by the blood from the atmosphere.
(b) Amount of oxygen that can be transported from the lungs to the working muscle.
(c) Amount of oxygen taken up by the muscle cells from the blood.
(d) Amount of glycogen stores in the muscles and liver.

2. Anaerobic Capacity
Anaerobic capacity is the ability of the organism to perform an activity in the absence of oxygen. For these
activities energy production comes either from breakdown of phosphate (ATP and CP) or from glycolsis of
muscle glycogen. The process of production of energy due to break down of ATP and CP is termed as
alactacid mechanism and production of energy due to glycolsis of muscle glycogen is called lactacid
mechanism. The amount of phosphogen stores in the muscle limited and can supply oxygen for high
intensity activity lasting for 8 to 10 seconds. Hence lactacid mechanism supports continuance of high speed
activities.
Anaerobic capacity depends upon the following factors:
(a) Adenosine Triphosphate and Creatine Phosphate stores in the body (Phosphogen Stores).
(b) Ability of the alkali reserve of the body to the neutralize lactic acid (Buffer Capacity).
(c) Ability of the individual to tolerate high concentrated of lactic acid in the blood and muscle (Lactic
Acid Tolerance).
(d) Amount of oxygen consumed by the working of muscles per minute (VO2 max).
3. Economy of Movement
All the movements are to be efficiently executed and unwanted movements are to be avoided so that
activities are performed with minimum expenditure of energy. To achieve this, complete efficiency is to be
ensured. A sports person who can perform an activity with less expenditure of energy can continue with
same speed for longer duration.

4. Psychological Factors
In addition to physiological factors, certain psychological factors namely motivation, will power, ability
to tolerate pain and discomfort etc. are also important in enabling a sports person to continue activity for a
prolonged period.

MEANS AND METHODS FOR ENDURANCE DEVELOPMENT

Means of Endurance Training

Duration Load Interval Running Repetition Training Competition and

Method Method Method Test Method

Constant Alternating Fartlak

Method Method Short Time Middle Long Time
Interval Time Interval
Method Interval Method
Method

Slow Constant Method

 Fast Constant Method

Varied Pace Method Extensive Interval

Intensive Interval
Method Method

Duration of Load Method

This training means includes those methods of endurance training in which uninterrupted medium to sub-
maximum intensity loads are maintained for a relatively longer period of time.

a. Constant Method

This method involves continuous loads administered for a prolonged period of time. In as much as the loads
are continued for a long time, the intensity of running is low. This method has three variations.

i. Slow Constant Method

In this method the intensity of intensity of running is such that as a result of undertaking the training
loads the heart rate increase from normal to between 140-160 beats per minute. In order to produce best
results, the volume of load in terms of duration should not be less than 30 minutes. The maximum
duration can even go upto 120 minutes in the case of trained sportspersons. This method improves
capillarisation, improves quality of alkali reserve of the body, improves thermo regulation and brings
about efficiency of movements. This method also enhances will power and determination of the
sportsperson.

ii. Fast Constant Method

In this method, the intensity of running is such that as a result of administration of training load, the
heart rate increases from normal value to between 160-180 beats per minute. The volume of load in
term of duration should not be less than 20 minutes. This method is effective for enhancing vo2 max,
oxygen extraction ability of the muscle, increased number and size of mitochondria and quality of
enzymes. In addition, this method also brings about changes in the heart and lungs.

iii. Varied Pace method

This method also involves application of uninterrupted loads but with changes of pace or spread. In this
method the sportsperson starts with fast constant method first and continues about 15 minutes and
switches over to slow constant method for the remaining 45 minutes. During this period of undertaking
of load, the heart rate is maintained between 140 to180 per minute. This method is beneficial for
improving both aerobic and anaerobic capacities.

b. Alternating Method
In this method of endurance training also the load is uninterrupted but the intensity of running is changed.
The change of intensity is fixed by the coach. In view of the that intensity of running and its change in
planning by the coach, this method has not become popular. Invariable sportspersons are unable to maintain
intensity of running planned by the coach.

c. Fartlek
Fartlek is a swedishi term meaning ‘’speed play ‘’. The method was developed in Scandinavia to provide
an alternatives to constant running. It is used to describe cross country runs were the steady speed of
ordinary cross country running is changed into a mixture of faster and slower phases ,each covering a
different distance over a natural terrain according to the individual approach of the sportsperson. The
change of intensity is done depending upon the surface of running, surrounding, condition of the
sportsperson, climate and the like. In Scandinavia , special tracts were developing for using this method
effectively. The terrain selected was such that it involved running on different surfaces, running through
the woods, running by the river or sea side, running up and down the hill etc.This method is effective for
developing both aerobics and anaerobic capacities of sportspersons.

An example of training schedule using fartlek is as follows:

1. Warm up by jogging for 5to10 minutes followed by free hand exercises (calisthenics) for different
parts of the body for about 4to6 minutes.
2. Run at fast steady pace over a distance of 800 to 1200m.
3. Brisk walking for 5minutes.
4. Perform easy running, separated by 40 t050 meters sprints, repeating until symptoms of fatigue
appear.
5. Slow jogging for about 3to5 minutes.
6. Run up the hill at full speed over a distance of 80 to 100 meters. Run down the hill at a jogging pace
after each repetition.
7. Walk for 5 minutes.
8. Run at fast pace for about one minute.
9. Jog about 1 to 1.5 km to limber down.
10. End with free hand and stretching exercises.

INTERVAL RUNNING METHOD

It is perhaps the most versatile method of endurance training which involves repeated effort art at a
relatively faster pace, separated by measured intervals of incompletes recovery. The intensity of each bout
of running should be such that the heart rate increases from normal to between 170 to 180 beats per minute.
The bouts of loads are repeated when the heart rate comes down from the above value to about 120 beats
per minute. The training load in this method is best maintained by repeatedly checking the heart rate.
The interval method can be classified as follows:

a) Short Time Interval Method: In this method the duration of each bout of load is between 15 sec.
to 2 minutes.
b) Middle Time Interval Method: In this method the duration of each bout of load is between 2 to 8
minutes.
 c) Long Time Interval Method: in this method the duration of each bout of load is between 8 to 15
minutes.
The above three variations of interval method can be categorized into intensive internal running method
and extensive interval running method. The intensity interval running method is dominated by high intensity
(80 to 90 percent). The extensive interval running method is dominated by volume of stimulus and intensity
is comparatively less (60 to 80 percent).

REPETITION TRAINING METHOD

This method involves loads of high intensity (90 to 100 percent) of stimulus separated by intervals of
complete recovery. It is considered as the best method for developing speed endurance and pace judgment.
This method enhances anaerobic a capacity thus improving phosphogen stores, lactive acid tolerance and
non oxidative enzymes.

COMPETITION AND TEST METHOD

This method is also effective for improving specific endurance and several psychologic characteristics
important for good endurance performance. In this method games and sports are played for the actual
duration at competitive intensity. Games are also played for slightly longer and shorter duration. With the
increase and decreases in duration, the intensity is slightly adjusted to make the longer effective. Actual,
over and under distances are also covered at high intensity in track and field and swimming.

SPEED
Speed is one of the main fitness components, whether one plays sport s or not, everybody needs
speed because movements in everyday situations have to be performed at the appropriate speed
in order to be successful. Speed also has a very important role in many sports. For some athletes
such as Track and Field sprinters, sprint swimmers, cyclists and speed skaters, speed is the most
important aspect of fitness. In many other sports, including team field sports, good speed is also
very important as part of the overall fitness profile.

WE CAN DEFINE SPEED AS THE CAPACITY OF PERFORMING A

MOVEMENT OR COVERING A DISTANCE AS FAST AS POSSIBLE.

SPEED IN SPORT
Speed in training theory defines the capacity of moving a limb or part of the body's lever system
or the whole body with the greatest possible velocity. Maximum value of such movements would
be without loading. Thus, the discus thrower's arm will have greatest velocity in the throwing phase
if no discus is held and velocity would be reduced as the implement's weight is increased relative
to the athlete's absolute strength. Speed is measured in metres per second, as, for example, in
quantifying the value for speed of moving one part of the body's lever system relative to another;
the forward speed of the body in sprinting or at point of take off in jumping; and the velocity of
implements and balls at release or on being struck. The time taken to achieve a certain task may
also be considered a measure of the athlete's speed. So, controls for sprinting speed might be time
taken to sprint 30 m. Or again, the number of repetitions of a task within a short period of time
might be considered an index of speed. For example, the number of repetition runs in a shuttle
run over 5 m in 20 seconds. Measuring equipment includes stop watches, photo-electric cells
coupled to print-out devices, cinematographic techniques based on film speed, force plates, and so
on.

Speed is a critical component of that complex requirement for achievement in competitive sport.
It has four strands

Strength in itself will not influence maximum speed of limb movement but developing greater
strength and applying it at speed will certainly positively influence performance. There is a critical
sequence in the progression of developing performance in this respect.
 Develop the general strength and mobility consistent with the technical model(s) required.
 Learn sound technique(s) (technical models).
 Develop related and specific strength. Learn to perform these at optimal speed.
 Develop general/related/specific strength to apply at optimal speed'

'Optimal' speed is as close to maximum as possible without compromising the technical model(s).
In endurance sports, speed's role on the one hand expands the range of tactical variants. On the
other' it as in the progression suggested above, within development of related and specific
endurance.
TYPES OF SPEED
1. Reaction speed: is how quickly a person can respond to an external stimulus. It can be
tactile, visual or auditory. Reactions can be simple or complex: -
Simple : the performer is involved in only one stimulus and one response, both known in
advance ((the start in a race responding to the starting pistol).
Complex : the performer must react to different types of stimulus and choose between
different reactions using the most suitable in each situation (goalkeeper actions, combat
sports actions)

2. Displacement speed: the ability to cover a certain distance as fast as possible. (How fast
the runner can run, or the swimmer can swim). It depends on: - Range of movement. -
Strength of muscles involved. - Frequency of the movement. - Correct technique
3. Movement speed: is how quickly a person can carry out a movement or perform a skill
(tennis serve, kicking a ball, hitting a baseball). Coordination is a very important factor in
this type of speed, it´s also related to a correct learning in the specific sport movement or
technique.

FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED

Speed in the transmission of nerve impulses (it varies from one person to another). Neuro-
muscular coordination: it relates to the ability of the nervous system to efficiently recruit a
muscle or group of muscles in order to perform a specific task. Neuromuscular coordination
works on two levels:

1. Intra - Muscular Coordination: If the fibers in the muscle all contract and relax in
synchronization, then you are producing more muscle power. Basically, the better your
intramuscular coordination, the more efficiently the muscle is working.
2. Inter - Muscular Coordination is the coordination between different muscles or group
muscles (agonists, antagonists, stabilizers and neutralizers) while performing a specific
task or activity. Intra and inter-muscular coordination improve with repetitions training;
muscles adapt and learn to do those specific sport movements more and more efficiently,
once a person develops a certain level of coordination in a movement they don't need to
focus as much on it.
3. Speed in the muscle contraction. Speed of contraction depends on the characteristics
and distribution of slow and fast twitch fibers each person mainly has and it is genetically
determined so it does not change significantly with training. The fast muscle (type IIa)
moves 5 times faster than the slow muscle, and the super-fast (type IIb) moves 10 times
faster than the slow muscle fiber.
 4. Muscle strength levels: There is a strong link between speed and strength; both
contribute to power (the ability to produce strength quickly over a certain distance or
time). - Gender and age: Speed levels increase at the same time that the nervous system
and the locomotor system develop. Boys and girls have the same speed levels until the
beginning of puberty (12 years old); during puberty, muscular strength develops in both
genders but is more pronounced in boys, therefore it provides them higher speed levels.
The maximum speed development is achieved around the age of 20 years and with the
appropriate training it can be maintained and even get better until 30-35 years old age.
5. Proper technique and sport performance: will allow you to be more efficiently in your
movements, do them faster and also avoid injuries. You can improve the biomechanical
sport movements by teaching the body and the mind the correct motor patterns and store
them in your muscle memory so you can repeat them without thinking particularly when
you are tired.
6. Anticipation Skills: influence the response time to the stimulus. Developing anticipation
skills is one the characteristics of great athletes. Anticipation is a sport specific ability to
reduce the time it takes to respond to a stimulus, being able to react to an event before it
has actually happened (a tennis player who anticipates the type of serve the opponent will
use, detecting certain cues early in the serving sequence that predicts the potential type of
serve so the player can start moving towards the direction of the serve quicker than
usual). Experience is also a very important factor in anticipation.

METHODS OF DEVELOPING SPEED

1. Interval training: It consists of exercising through relatively short distances followed by
incomplete resting periods. Intensity can be high, between 70-95 % of the maximum.
Distances are from 100 m to 400 m if running or efforts lasting between 15”–4´;
repetitions are between 10-30, and the resting periods can be done, resting, walking or
with very easy running, until the heart rate reaches 120-140 bmp
2. Repetitions training: It consists of exercising through relatively short distances or time
followed by complete resting periods. This allows a higher intensity of workout. Intensity
is very high, between 85-100 % of the maximum; it can be done using series (3-5) and
repetitions (3-5). Recovering between repetitions and series should be until the heart rate
reaches around 90-bmp.
3. Other complementary methods to develop speed are:
 Plyometrics to develop explosive hopping, jumping, bounding, hitting, and kicking.
 Ballistics to develop high-speed sending and receiving movements.
 Sprinting form and speed endurance to develop sprinting technique and improving the
length of time you are able to maintain your speed.
 Specific sport loading movements to develop specific speed. (Parachute, belts…)
 Weight lifting to improve muscle strength.
 Running uphill and downhill to work on muscle strength and running technique.
  Over speed training: reacting to things that move faster than the needs of the sport to
improve reaction time: a baseball player might take batting practice while using a
special pitching machine that throws pitches at 130-150 miles/hour. His brain would
adapt to seeing the faster pitches, this would improve his ability to react to a real pitch
(90-100 mile/hour)

THINGS TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT FOR DEVELOPING SPEED

The development of speed is highly specific and to achieve it we should ensure that:

 All speed workouts should include an appropriate warm up and cool down.
 Sprint and speed training drills should be used only after a general level of fitness has
been achieved.
 Flexibility is developed and maintained all year round (joint mobility and muscular
elasticity)
 Strength and speed are developed in parallel.
 Skill development and coordination (technique) should be pre – learned, rehearsed and
perfected before it is done at high speed levels.
 Speed training is performed by using high velocity for brief intervals. This will ultimately
bring into play the correct neuromuscular pathways and energy sources used.
 Control resting periods not only with the heart rate but also with muscle fatigue.
 It is necessary to rest from 48 to 72 hours between speed training sessions.
 If in the same session more physical components are going to be worked, the training
should start with speed.

UNIT-IV

To be a sportsman at any level, you must have skill, ability and technique. These components of fitness
are essential in the development and production of any activity, varying from simple movements such as
walking, to more complex activities such as the high jump or tennis serve. There are many definitions of
skill, ability, and technique and they are often related and underpin each other.

TECHNIQUE

Technique is defined as the motor procedure for tackling a motor task. Motor procedure should be
understood as a system of movements of body parts in a definite sequence. Many of these movements,
however may take place simultaneously. Motor procedure of technique is always task or goal oriented.

In different sports sportsmen have to tackle different types of motor tasks. Therefore, different motor
procedures are or techniques are required in different sports. Technique is the basic movements that we
make in any sport. For example blocks start in a 100m sprint. We can put together a number of different
techniques to create a sequence. For example the triple jump. In order to perform a particular skill in
sport, we must learn the required technique. In order to learn the technique fully, we must have the
necessary abilities.
SKILL

A motor skill is acquired through a long process of motor learning. Skill denotes the level of effectiveness
with which a movement or motor action can be done. Skill is defined as automatization of motor
procedures. A sportsman tries to learn a technique or motor procedure and through continuous and
systematic process he is able to acquire the skill i.e. automatization of the motor procedure.

Skill can be defined as the ability to choose and perform the right techniques at the correct time, regularly
and with the minimum of effort in a specific movement in a sport. “It is a co-ordinated act, involving
complex movements brought together in a consistent and smooth manner”.

ABILITY

Whereas, Ability is the quality of being able to perform; a quality that permits or facilitates achievement
or accomplishment. “Motor abilities are innate inherited traits that determine an individual’s co-
ordination, balance, ability and speed of reactions”. Ability is also what you are born with; we inherit our
ability from our parents, which means it is genetic. Therefore it is likely that you will play the sport that
your parents still or used to play. So if your parents were good at a particular sport, then that could be
what makes you good at that sport. There are various aspects that can determine your ability at a sport.
These are: - Height, Strength and co-ordination.

The difference between skill and ability is that a skill can be taught and changed and your ability is
something that is inherited from your parents and cannot be taught.

AIMS OF TECHNICAL TRAINING

1. To direct the athletes learning and perfect the most efficient technique relative to a given sport
2. To direct the athlete towards a stable performance of the learning technique.
3. To help the athlete make a rapid selection of correct technique from a reservoir of many

PROCESS OF SKILL ACQUISITION

The process of motor learning in sports training is normally a long process. As the nature of motor
learning is not uniform throughout, therefore different types of means and measures are adopted to affect
it positively at different times. The motor learning process is normally divided into three phases.
 Phase-I It begins with the Starts with the It begins with the

Phase-II

Phase-III
introduction of a acquisition of rough achievement of fine
sportsperson to the
movement/ technique
co-ordination and co-ordination and
which he/she has to ends with the ends with the
learn. It ends with the acquisition of fine mastery of the
achievement of rough co-ordination. technique. This
co-ordination. phase never ends.

Skill learning is a continuous and dynamic process without distinct and definite stages. For convenience,
however, certain ‘general’ changes can be described in skill learning. For example, over time,
improvements in accuracy and rate are observed, as are greater consistency, a reduction in errors and the
development of smooth, effortless performances. These changes can be broadly placed into three stages,
as developed by Paul Fitts and Michael Posner in 1967. The stages are known as the:

Cognitive
•(or understanding) stage

Associative
•(or practice) stage

Autonomous
•(or automatic) stage.

COGNITIVE STAGE

• The cognitive stage is characterized by thinking - trying to understand the skill. In this stage the
learner forms a cognitive picture of the skill and what is required to do it. The movements in this
stage are jerky, halting and poorly timed.

• Performance is variable with a large number of gross errors - the learner knows that something is
wrong but is unsure how to correct it.

• While learning to play a golf shot, for example, someone in the cognitive stage will often hit the
ground or miss the ball completely. An increase in ‘self-talk’ is evident as this stage progresses.
Fortunately, this stage is also quite short and, with regular practice and thought, the learner will
make rapid and large gains in proficiency
 • The coach should teach simple, fundamental skills in this stage, by demonstrating, modelling and
giving clear instructions. Instructions should be brief and should focus on only a few skills at a
time. Coaches should observe the following general points:

• Employ a range of motivational techniques.

• Keep instructions and demonstrations short and simple.

• Have athletes follow an example at first and then try the skills themselves with more
instruction and feedback.

• Allow for constant blocks of practice.

• Use frequent knowledge of performance (KP) feedback.

• Remember that the aim at this stage is a rough approximation of the required skills.

• Feedback at this stage is very important and is supplied predominantly with visual
demonstrations and verbal information. The learner needs specific information for
corrections and requires attention to individual skills. It must be remembered that the
learner might not understand the task, so the amount and speed of information should be
controlled, and the task itself must be clarified, perhaps by visual, auditory or even
manual means.

ASSOCIATIVE STAGE

• In comparison with the cognitive stage, the associative stage is quite long. In fact, the person
might never move beyond the associative stage.

• In this stage, the fundamentals and mechanics of the skill have been learnt, and performance is
less variable and more consistent. There are fewer errors and they are less gross because the
athlete has developed the ability to detect and correct errors.

• Movements become coordinated and refined to the task as the athlete learns to use
environmental cues for timing.

• Anticipation develops, and smoother, unrushed movements result as the individual needs to
think less about the skill and there is a shift to memorized movements.

• There is rapid improvement with a marked decrease in energy expenditure.

• In the associative stage it is important for the coach to communicate well and give good feedback.
Instruction needs to be more individual, with errors identified and corrections prescribed. There
should be a progressive increase in task complexity. Demonstrations, videos of the athlete
performing and verbal descriptions of corrections are useful.

• Coaches of players in the associative stage should:

 • Teach movement patterns first and then add other environmental situations (game-like
situations).

• Provide variable practice situations. For example, soccer passing could include ‘keep off’
and corner passing.

• Use both knowledge of performance (KP) and knowledge of results (KR) feedback, and
avoid giving feedback on every attempt.

• Practice skills randomly rather than in blocks.

• Encourage the use of mental imagery

AUTONOMOUS STAGE

• After much practice and experience, the skill becomes habitual or automatic. This is the
autonomous stage.

• In this stage, improvements come slowly, but there is good consistency of performance. Most of
the skill is performed without thinking because the athlete requires less attention to basics.

• Instead, he or she can give more selective attention to higher-order cognitive activities, such as
game strategies and external cues; for example, the spin on the ball or the position of the
opposition.

• The athlete has good timing and can detect and adjust errors and disguise actions. This develops
self-confidence and risk-taking in performance situations.

• In the autonomous stage the practice sessions need to be well organized to ensure the best
improvements. The athlete must be highly motivated and given a great deal of feedback. Training
should attempt to simulate the actual performance conditions. Psychological skills training can be
very effective in this stage, especially when dealing with anxiety in competitions.

PLANNING

To maximize sports performance, athlete need to train systematically, placing the varying sports
conditioning training ingredients into an ordered methodology which is known as training Plan. Failure to
develop such a plan, complete with appropriate goals and monitoring, will prevent optimum performance
from being achieved. This could also lead to staleness and increase the risk of injury.

• The way to controlled training process and meaningful planning of training was long, starting
with the first of attempts and errors, leading to scientific based planning which has started to
develop during the 19thCentury.

• Developing or training physical abilities has existed, though in a basic form at first, since the
ancient times; it was used for Olympic Games preparation or for military purposes. First
systematic principles in training were probably used by the Greek athlete Milon who
implemented the principle of systematic planning as early as in the 6th Century BC. He
 determined the training cycle by carrying a bull calf on his back each day until the animal reached
maturity.

• Since the mid-19th century studies on human muscular performance have been appearing and
these scientific results were published in the then popular Philosophical Magazine.

• At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, first studies on human fatigue during work and
exercise appeared. Modern scientific theories from the mid of 20th century formed the basis of
training planning – periodization. It was introduced to training practice in the 1950s and early
1960s when coaches realized that focusing on an important competition was more effective than
preparing athletes for a year-round competition programme as the athletes are not able to
withstand the enormous training load to which they were subjects.

Goal Setting and Training Planning

• Establishing sports goal/ set of goals is central to determining the delivery of training plan.

• Example: Sprinter: reducing 100m time by0.2. seconds and running the improved time by fixed
time period.

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNNING

S-SPECIFIC

M-MEASURABLE

A-ACHIEVABLE

R-REALISTIC

T-TARGETED

E-EMPOWERING

R-REVISABLE

TYPES OF TRAINING PLAN

Training plan can be classified according to the duration and according to the number Of person involved
in the training.

According to the duration the training plan of following types

 1. Training conception
2. Yearly plan
3. Meso-cycle plan
4. Micro- cycle plan
5. Training session plan

I. TRAINING CONCEPTI ON
As it is clear by the name itself in real sense it is not a plan but a concept for planning and carrying out of
training process for a long period. It involves principles and fundamentals rules for the formulation of
training.

 Training plan normally prepared by concerned federation

 It is prepared for different level and class of sportsmen
 It is prepared on the basis of analysis
 It is also prepared on the basis of international trend
 It forms the basis of all kinds of training plans which can be further classified into three:
 Training conception for complete duration.
 Training conception for different stages.
 Training conception for a training cycle longer than a year i.e Olympic plan.

II. YEARLY PLAN

These plans are made for the effective formulation and proper implementation of training for the period of
one year. The yearly plan is a kind of document in which training details are laid down clear and
precisely.

The yearly training document generally contains the following:

 Time available for training.

 Level of sportsmen.
 Analysis of present state to be achieved.
 Information about the training contents.
 Sequence of training
 Arrangement of Meso cycles
 Date of competition.
 Other relevant information.

III. MESO-CYCLE PLAN

These plans are perhaps the important plan because in these plans are formulated for the sufficient
duration i.e 3-6-week duration, hence it helps to check the adaptation process caused by training. Meso
plan is the important tool for the control and regulation of sports training. Each Meso cycle has its sets
aims and objectives which are to be achieved by proper formulation and arrangements of micro cycles.
These plans are more specific and detailed in comparison to yearly plan. Meso plan is also called as
operative plan.

After each Meso cycle some sort of test or competition are to be conducted so as to check whether the
desire objectives have been achieved or not. If the aims and objectives are not achieved then the training
plan for subsequent Meso cycle has to be changed or readjusted.

IV. MICRO- CYCLE PLAN :

Micro cycle is the short-term plan which form the basis for Meso cycle. Due to short duration of micro
cycle desired objectives can be achieved by systematic arranging the load of a sportsman in number of
micro cycles and as a result of which adaptation can be achieved in Meso cycle.

In micro cycle plan number of training sessions are planned with contents in details. On the basis of this
training is carried out in each training session. The planning of micro cycle depends upon several factors
such as training state, Meso cycle, nature of sports etc.

TRAINING SESSION PLAN

Training session plan is the basic unit of training process. The actual process of training is realized in a
training in a training session. Keeping in mind the importance of training session it will be discussed
separately.

Training plan is also divided into individual and group plan:

INDIVIDUAL PLAN
o Individual plans are more common in individual sports.
o These plans are necessary to ensure optimum development of sportsman as in individual
plan the individual factors form the basis of planning.

GROUP PLAN
The group plans are most often used in team games. In the initial stage of training group
training plans are generally used to ensure uniform type of training facilitating training of
large number of sportsman. The group plans are most often used in team games. In the
initial stage of training group training plans are generally used to ensure uniform type of
training facilitating training of large number of sportsman.

FACTORS AFFECTING SK ILL ACQUISITION

The ability of individuals to experience, learn and refine motor skills greatly affects their ability to
perform any physical activity.

• Stages of skill acquisition

• Characteristics of the learner
• Environment
 PERIODISATION

 Breaking the training programme into periods of time that will help the athlete reach their peak
performance at a certain time (organized division of the training year)

 Periodisation is the process of preparing the sportsman to achieve peak performance in a

particular competition.

 Periodization may be defined as a training plan, whereby peak performance is brought about
through the potentiation of biomotors and the management of fatigue and accommodation. This
is principally achieved through the logical yet creative variation of training methods and volume
loads.

“Variations in training specificity, intensity, and volume organized in planned periods or cycles within
an overall program”

– Proposed in 1960’s by Leo Matveyev

PERIODISATION CYCLES

The length of each cycle will depend on the type of activity and their aims

MACRO-CYCLE
 A yearly programme with the aim of peaking for a specific event. Ex. 1 year

MESO-CYCLE
 a phase (3 to 6-week blocks)
  Major Mesocycles of Training (Matveyev)
o Preparatory
o First Transition (added later)
o Competition
o Second Transition (Active Rest)

MICRO-CYCLE
 A training week within the meso-cycle
 Training unit - a day within that week

There are 6 separate phases that are placed within 3 areas:

1. Preparation
2. Competition
3. transition

PHASES 1 & 2 - PREPARATION

PHASE 1 – GENERAL PREPARATION

 General fitness work
 This phase is usually known as “training to train”
 Usually the longest period
 Occurs during “down time” (no competitions)
 Very few skill practices
 Emphasize basic conditioning
Consists of three mini-phases
1. Hypertrophy/Endurance Phase
 Early stages of preparatory period
 1 to 6 weeks
 High Volume/Low Intensity
 3-6 sets of 10-20 reps @ 50-75% 1RM
2. Basic Strength Phase
 Middle stage of prep. Period
 Few weeks
 Moderate Volume/High Intensity
 2-5 sets of 4-8 reps @ 80-90% 1RM
3. Strength/Power Phase
 Final Prep. Stage
 Few weeks
  Low Volume/High Intensity
 3-5 sets of 2-5 reps @ 75-95% 1RM

PHASE 2 – SPECIFIC PREPARATION

 Specific fitness, ex. Speed, strength, skills and techniques
 Intensity of training increases significantly
 “training to compete”
 Evaluate the previous year’s plan and actual achievements (Strengths & Weaknesses).

PHASES 3, 4 & 5 – COMPETITION

PHASE 3 (PRE-COMPETITION/ COMP)

 Beginning of competition season
 Lots of fine tuning
 Low level competitions
 General training is reduced
 Training is competition specific

PHASE 4 – COMPETITION
Competitions will occur every week
 The goal is to peak strength and power
 Increase intensity/Decrease volume
 In-Season Training
 Peak only lasts a few weeks
 Maintain strength for the season with moderate volume/intensity
 Practice in skill technique increases rapidly
 Time spent conditioning decreases
 1-3 sets of 1-3 reps @ ≥93% 1RM

PHASE 5 – PEAK
 The championship final (nationals, Olympics, etc.)

PHASE 6 – TRANSITION

 Recovery phase during which the body can recover from the rigours of training and competition
 Placed between competitive season and next macrocycle
 Active rest or restoration
 1 to 4 weeks
 Recreational activity that may not involve resistance training.
Q. Questions to be asked while designing Periodization
1. Define the length of your macro-cycle? What are you planning towards?

2. Divide your macro-cycle into meso-cycles. Do you need all 6 phases?

3. Design a micro-cycle from each of your meso-cycles? Demonstrate the difference in content
depending on the time of year?