TOPIC 4 :

FAULT ANALYSIS

1
 Introduction
• Transformer introduces various voltage levels.
• So far we can only reflect the load from one side of the transformer to
another. Still we need to consider different voltage level at each side
of the transformer when we try to find voltage and current.
• It is difficult to calculate voltage and current of the system at various
points.
• It is even more difficult for the system operator to observe the current
situation of the system.

2
 Per Unit System
• Per unit system is when we normalize the voltage and current at each
location.
• The normalization typically follows transformer ratings.
• This makes the per unit value of either voltage or current to be
around 1.0 per unit.
• Per unit system allows the system operator to overlook abnormalities
in the system easily.

3
 Per Unit Quantity

• The per unit quantity of voltage, current, power and impedance is

found from dividing the actual quantity by a base value of that
quantity.
•

•
•

• Definition : Per Unit value of a given quantity is the ratio of the

actual value in any given unit to the base value in the same unit.
• Per unit value is denoted by ‘p.u.’.
• The base value quantity typically follows transformer rating.
• The per unit values are the same irrespective of the sides of the
transformer.
4
 Example 1

Consider a single phase 480/120 V transformer as shown below.

Choose the base value of voltage on the primary side to be 480 and
that of secondary side to be 120. If the voltage at primary is
measured to be 432 V, which is 0.9 per unit, the voltage at
secondary side is 108 V. What is the per unit quantity on the
secondary side?

5
 Base Value Selection

• Base values are real numbers, denote by subscript ‘B’.

• Voltage base values follow transformer voltage ratings.
1
• Only single base complex power SB in the system.
• The base value of power is used to normalize the
quantity. Thus, the base values of real power,
reactive power, and complex power are all the same
real number.

6
 Base Value Selection

• Current base values are calculated from the base power

and base voltage.
•
•
• Impedance base values (same value for impedance,
resistance, or reactance) are calculated from voltage
and current.

7
Base Value Selection

8
 KVL, KCL, Complex Power Calculation

• We can still apply KVL, KCL, complex power calculation

to the per unit value.
• The actual quantity is simply found from multiplying the
per unit quantity (normalized quantity) with the base
value.

9
 Example 2 : Per Unit Value

A single-phase 20kVA, 480/120 V, 60 Hz transformer has

an equivalent leakage impedance referred to 120-volt
winding of Ω.
Using the transformer rating as base values, find per-unit
leakage impedance.

10
 Example 2 : Per Unit Value
Solution : Find per-unit leakage impedance :

11
 Example 3 : Per Unit Circuit

There is no transformer in the per unit equivalent

circuit.

12
P.U. Unit Equivalent Circuit of a
Transformer

13
 Change of Base Value

• Manufacturers usually specify equipment impedances in per

unit values together with voltage ratings (V) and apparent
power rating (VA).
• The impedance base values can be found from the ratings of
the equipment.
• Different equipment has different ratings.
• We may need to calculate per unit values on the new basis.

14
 Steps of Per Unit Analysis

1
1. Choose SB for the system.
2. Select VB for different zones (usually follows
transformer voltage ratings).
3. Calculate ZB for different zones.
4. Express all quantities in p.u.
5. Draw impedance diagram and solve for p.u.
quantities.
6. Convert back to actual quantities if needed.
15
 Example 5 : 1ɸ, Per Unit Analysis

• Three zones of a single-phase circuit are shown below.

Use base value of 30 kVA and 240 V in zone 1, draw
per unit circuit and find per unit value of source
voltage and all impedances.

16
Example 5 : Base Value of Each Zone

17
Example 5 : P.U Transformer Reactance

18
Example 5 : Per Unit Circuit

19
 Example 6

• An electrical load is rated 120 volts, 500 watts.

Compute the per-unit and percent impedance of
the load. Give the per unit equivalent circuit.
•

Solution :

20
Example 6…continue

21
Example 6…continue

22
 Advantages of Per Unit Analysis

• Simplify calculation by eliminating

transformers.
•

• Helps to spot errors in data

– p.u. is more uniform compare to
actual impedance value of different
sizes of equipment.

• Helps to detect abnormality in the system

–Operator at control center can spot
over/under voltage/current rating easily.

23
Fault Analysis in Power
System

24
 Fault Analysis in Power System

• Most of the faults on the power system lead

to a short circuit condition.
•

• When such a condition occurs, a heavy

current (called short circuit current) flows
through the equipment, causing
considerable damage to the equipment and
interruption of service to the consumer.
25
 Fault Analysis in Power System

• The choice of apparatus and the design and

arrangement of practically every equipment
in the power system depends upon short
circuit current consideration.
•
• The fault analysis of a power system is required
in order to provide information for the
selection of switchgear, setting of relays and
stability of system operation.
26
•
 Fault Analysis in Power System
• Fault currents cause equipment damage due to
both thermal and mechanical processes.
•

• Goal of fault analysis is to determine the

magnitudes of the currents present during the
fault.
– need to determine the maximum current to insure
devices can survive the fault.
– need to determine the maximum current the circuit
breakers (CBs) need to interrupt to correctly size
the CBs.
27
 Type of Faults

1. Un-symmetric faults: those faults on the power

system which give rise to unsymmetrical
fault currents (i.e unequal fault currents in
the lines with unequal phase displacement).
2.
3. Symmetrical faults: that fault on the power
system which gives rise to symmetrical fault
currents (i.e. equal fault currents in the lines
with 120° displacement).
• 28
Unsymmetric & Symmetric
Faults
1. Unsymmetrical faults :
a. Single phase to earth fault
b. Phase to phase fault
c. Double phase to earth fault
Ø
2. Symmetrical faults :
a. Triple phase fault
b. Triple phase to Earth fault
29
Unsymmetrical Faults
a. Single phase to earth fault
b. Phase to phase fault
c. Double phase to earth fault
Ø

30
 Single-phase to earth fault

• The Single phase to earth occurs when one

phase falls to ground or contacts the
neutral wire.
•

Diagram 1 : Single phase to earth Fault on phase a

31
 Phase to phase fault

• Occurs when two phase are short circuited.

Diagram 2 : Phase to phase fault on phase b & c

32
 Double phase to earth fault

• Double phase to earth fault occurs when two

phase fall and are connected through
ground or when two phase contact the
neutral of three phase grounded system.

Diagram 3 : Double Phase to Earth Fault on

33 phase b & c
Symmetrical Faults
a. Triple phase fault
b. Triple phase to Earth fault
Ø

34
 Triple phase fault

• Triple phase fault involving all the three

phases.

Diagram 4 : Triple phase Fault

35
 Triple phase to Earth fault

• Triple phase to earth fault involving all the

three phases to earth.

Diagram 5 : Triple phase to earth Fault

36
 Analysis of Un-Symmetric
Systems
• System is only unbalanced at point
of fault!
•

• The easiest method to analyze

unbalanced system operation due
to faults is through the use of
Symmetrical Components

37
 Symmetrical Component

• In 1918, C.L. Fortescue invented a technique for

analyzing unbalanced three-phase power systems.
•

• He proved that any unsymmetrical set of three-phase

voltages or currents could be broken down into three
symmetrical sets of balanced three-phase
components.
•

• The symmetrical component method is basically a

modelling technique that permits systematic analysis
and design of three-phase systems. 38
 Symmetrical Component :
Positive Sequence Component

1. The three phasors equal in :

2.

- magnitude
- displaced from each other by
120°
- have same phase sequence
as the original power system
(in clockwise Figure 1 :
direction). Positive Sequence
Components;
A-B-C
39
 Symmetrical Component :
Negative Sequence Component

2. The three phasors equal in :

3.

- magnitude
- displaced from each
other by 120°
- have opposite phase
sequence as the original
power system (in clockwise
direction). Figure 2 :
Negative Sequence
Components;
A-C-B40
 Symmetrical Component :
Zero Sequence Component

3. The three phasors equal in :

4.

- magnitude
- phase.

Figure 3 :
Zero Sequence
Components

41
 Symmetrical Component
• If the voltages in phases of
the original power system
are designed VA,VB and VC,
then the:
•

• +ve sequence component of

voltages VA1, VB1 and VC1
• -ve sequence component of Figure 4 : The voltage in each
voltages VA2, VB2 and VC2 phase of a power system with an
abc phase sequence.
• ‘0’ sequence component of
voltages VA0, VB0 and VC0
• 42
 Symmetrical Component

• The voltages in each phase can be represented in

terms of symmetrical components (total voltage in
each phase) as :

VA = VA1 + VA2 +
Phase VA0
VB = VB1 + VB2 +
VB0 Symmetrical Components
43
 Symmetrical Component

• The currents in each phase can be represented

in terms of symmetrical components (total
current in each phase) as :

IA = IA1 + IA2 + IA0

Phase
IB = IB1 + IB2 + IB0
IC = IC1 + IC2 + IC0
Symmetrical Components 44
 Symmetrical Component

(a) (b) (c)

(a) +ve sequence components have an abc phase

sequence. (b) –ve sequence components have an acb phase
sequence. (c) zero sequence components are in phase with
each other.
45
 The a Constant
• In working with the symmetrical components of
an unbalanced 3Φ power system, the
operation of shifting a phasor through an angle
of 120° occurs over and over again.
•

• This operation is equivalent to multiplying the

phasor by the quantity1120 in the anti-
clockwise direction. Because multiplying by this
quantity occurs so often, constant a represent:
a  1120 46
 The a Constant
• In example, consider a vector I represented by OA as
shown in Fig A. If this vector is multiplied by operator
‘a’, the vector is rotated through 120° in the anti-
clockwise and assume the position OB. 
aI  I (1120)
 I (cos120  j sin 120)
I
0  I (0.5  j 0.866)
a  0.5  j 0.866
47
Figure A
 The a Constant
• If the vector position OA is multiplied by operator ‘a2’,
the vector is further rotated through 240° in the anti-
clockwise to the position OC.
a 2 I  I (1240)
 I (cos 240  j sin 240)
I  I (0.5  j 0.866)
0
a 2  0.5  j 0.866
This is the same as turning the vector
through 120° in clockwise direction:
2
Figure A a I  I  120
48
 The a Constant

Similarly,

a 3 I  I (1360)
I
0
 I (cos 360  j sin 360)
3
a 1
Figure A

49
 The a Constant
• Each multiplication by a rotates by 120° without
changing its magnitude. Therefore,

a  1120
2
a  1240
3
a  1360  10  1

50
 Representing Symmetrical
Components with the a Constant

(a) +ve sequence (b) -ve sequence (c) zero sequence

VB1 = a2VA1 VB2 = aVA2 VB0 = VA0

VC1 = aVA1 VC2 = a2VA2 51 VC0 = VA0

 Conversion Sequence to Phase

• The unbalanced set of three-phase voltages is given

in terms of symmetrical components:

VA = VA1 + VA2 + VA0

Phase VB = a2VA1 + aVA2 + VA0
VC = aVA1 + a2VA2 + VA0
Sequence

(is use for conversion from sequence to

52
phase)
 Conversion Sequence to Phase

• The unbalanced set of three-phase current is given

in terms of symmetrical components
•
IA = IA1 + IA2 + IA0
Phase IB = a2IA1 + aIA2 + IA0
IC = aIA1 + a2IA2 + IA0
Sequence

(is use for conversion from sequence to

53
phase)
 EXERCISE 1
QUESTION :
Given the values of the positive, negative and zero
phase sequence components for each line :
V 0  100V
V 1  20060V
V 2  100120V
Calculate the phase voltage VA and VB .

Ans : 300 60°V, 300 - 60°V

54
 EXERCISE 2
QUESTION :
Given the values of the positive, negative and zero
phase sequence components for each line :
I 0  100300 A
I 1  2000 A
I 2  10060 A
Calculate the phase current IA , IB and IC

Ans : 300  0° A , 300  -120° A , 0 A

55
 Conversion Phase to Sequence

• The symmetrical components of the unbalanced 3Φ

voltage is expressed as :

VA0 = 1/3(VA + VB + VC) zero sequence

Sequence VA1 = 1/3(VA + aVB + a2VC) +ve sequence

VA2 = 1/3(VA + a2VB + aVC ) -ve sequence

Phase
(is use for conversion from phase to
sequence) 56
 Conversion Phase to Sequence

• The symmetrical components of the unbalanced 3Φ

current is expressed as :

IA0 = 1/3(IA + IB + IC) zero sequence

Sequence IA1 = 1/3(IA + aIB + a2IC) +ve sequence

IA2 = 1/3(IA + a2IB + aIC ) -ve sequence

Phase

(is use for conversion from phase to57

 EXERCISE 1
QUESTION :
Given the values of three phase current in unbalance
conditions in each phase :

IA  10030 A
IB  50300 A
IC  30180 A
Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence
currents.
58
 EXERCISE 2
QUESTION :
The following currents were recorded under the
following conditions in the three phase system:
IA  15045V
IB  250150V
IC  100300V
Calculate the values of the zero sequence
components of the current for each line.
59Ans : 52.2  112.7°
 Symmetrical Components of an
Unbalanced 3Φ Current
• The current in neutral (ground) of a power system (in
Y-connection generator) is given by :

I N = IA + I B + I C
• The current in neutral (ground) of the power system
is equal to 3 times the zero sequence current :

IN = 3IA0
60
 Symmetrical Components of an
Unbalanced 3Φ Current

• Therefore, if a component has no neutral

current, then there can be no zero sequence
currents in the component.
•

• Thus a Δ-connected and ungrounded Y-

connected components cannot have zero
sequence components of currents.

61
 EXAMPLE 1
QUESTION :
An ungrounded Y-connected
three phase load is shown in
Figure A. The currents in each
leading to the load are :
IA  100 A IB  10  180 A
IC  00 A
Determine the symmetrical
components of current in eachFigure A : An ungrounded Y-
connected 3Φ load with unbalanced
phase in this load. currents 62
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION :
The zero sequence current for phase a of this load
is given by :
IA0 = 1/3(IA + IB + IC) zero sequence
1
IA0  (100  10180  00)
3
IA0  0 A

Continue……..
63
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION : a  1120
The positive sequence current for phase a of this
load is given by :
IA1 = 1/3(IA + aIB + a2IC) +ve
sequence
1 2
IA1  [100  a(10180)  a (0)]
3
1
IA1  [100  10  60)  0]
3
IA1  5.77  30 A Continue……..
64
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION : a  1120
The negative sequence current for phase a of this
load is given by :
IA2 = 1/3(IA + a2IB + aIC ) -ve
sequence 1 2 2
IA2  [100  a (10180)  a (0)]
3
1
IA 2  [100  1060)  0]
3
IA 2  5.7730 A Continue……..
65
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION : a  1120
So, we can conclude that the zero, positive, and
negative sequence currents for phase a are:

IA0  0 A
IA1  5.77  30 A
IA 2  5.7730 A

Continue……..
66
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION : a  1120
The zero, positive, and negative sequence currents
for phase b are:

IB 0  IA0  0 A
2 2
IB1  a IA1  a (5.77  30 A)  5.77  150 A
IB 2  aIA 2  a (5.7730 A)  5.77150 A

Continue……..
67
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION :
The zero, positive, and negative sequence currents for
phase c are:

IC 0  IA0  0 A
IC1  aIA1  a (5.77  30 A)  5.7790 A
IC 2  a 2 IA 2  a 2 (5.7730 A)  5.77  90 A
Note that the zero sequence components of current in the
load are zero, which makes sense, since an ungrounded Y-
connected load cannot have a current flowing in the neutral.
68
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES
&
SEQUENCE NETWORKS

69
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES &
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
• To analyze an unsymmetrical fault, we must construct three
different per-phase equivalent circuit, for each type of
symmetrical component.
•

• The positive sequence network is a per-phase equivalent circuit

containing only the +ve sequence impedance and source (Z1 & EA)
• The negative sequence network is a per-phase equivalent circuit
containing only the -ve sequence impedance (Z2).
• The zero sequence network is a per-phase equivalent circuit
containing only the zero sequence impedance (Z0).
• 70
 POSITIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK

• The positive sequence network is a per-phase equivalent

circuit containing only the +ve sequence impedance
and source (Z1 & EA)
•
• By applying Kirchoff’s
voltage law:
Figure 1a :
Positive-sequence VA1 = EA1 – IA1Z1
network

71
 NEGATIVE SEQUENCE NETWORK

• The negative sequence network is a per-phase

equivalent circuit containing only the -ve sequence
impedance (Z2).
•
• By applying Kirchoff’s
voltage law:
Figure 1b :
Negative-sequence VA2 = – IA2Z2
network

72
 ZERO SEQUENCE NETWORK

• The zero sequence network is a per-phase equivalent

circuit containing only the zero sequence impedance
(Z0).
•
By applying Kirchoff’s
• Figure 1c : voltage law:
Zero-sequence
network VA0 = – IA0Z0

73
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES &
SEQUENCE NETWORKS
• The +ve, -ve and zero sequence voltages in phase a of
this generator can be found by applying Kirchoff’s
voltage law to each of the phase equivalent circuits.

VA1 = EA1 – IA1Z1 +ve sequence

VA2 = – IA2Z2 -ve sequence

VA0 = – IA0Z0 zero sequence

74
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES &
SEQUENCE NETWORKS

• Once these per-phase equivalent circuits are

constructed, they are interconnected in different
ways, depending on the type of fault being
analyzed, and the +ve, -ve and zero-sequence
components of current are calculated.
•
•

75
 Analysis of Unsymmetrical
Faults
• Most faults that occur on power systems
are unsymmetrical faults, which result in
unbalanced current flows, and therefore
require symmetrical components to solve
for the voltages currents during the fault.
•

• We will now analyze the three major types

of unsymmetrical faults (single phase-to-
earth, phase-to-phase, and double
phase to earth) on a single unloaded
generator.
76
Analysis of Unsymmetrical Faults
• In the analysis of unsymmetrical faults, the following
assumption will be made :
i. The generated e.m.f system is of positive sequence only.
ii. No current flows in the network other than due to fault
i.e. load currents are neglected
iii. The impedance of the fault is zero.
iv. Phase A shall be taken as reference phase.
v.

• In each case of unsymmetrical faults, e.m.f.’s per phase

are denoted by EA, EB and EC and the terminal power
distribution per phase by VA, VB and VC.
77
 SINGLE PHASE
TO EARTH FAULT

78
 Single Phase to Earth Fault

• The three-phase circuit diagram is shown in Figure 1,

where the three phases are on open-circuit at their
ends.
Single Phase
• to Earth Fault

Figure 1 : Single phase to earth fault on phase

79 R
 Single Phase to Earth Fault

• Let I1, I2 and I0 be the symmetrical components of IR

and let V1, V2 and V0 be the components of VR.
•
• For single phase to earth fault :
• IB = IY = 0
• VR = 0
•
• Also, ZR includes components Z1, Z2, and Z0.
•
80
 Single Phase to Earth Fault
• From the equation :
•
I0 = 1/3(IR + IY + IB) zero sequence
•
• I 1 = 1/3 (I R + aI Y + a2IB) +ve sequence

• I2 = 1/3(IR + a2IY + aIB ) -ve sequence

•

• Hence,
IR
I0   I1  I 2 (as IB = IY = 0)
3
81
 Single Phase to Earth Fault

• Also we know that phase voltage, VR = VR1 + VR2 + VR0

•
VR  ( E  I 1Z 1)  ( I 2 Z 2)  (  I 0 Z 0)  0
•
• Eliminating I0 and I2, we obtain
•
•
•
E  I 1( Z 1  Z 2  Z 0)  0
•

• Hence,
E
• I1 
Z1  Z 2  Z 0 82
 Single Phase to Earth Fault
• The fault current,
• IF  IR  3I 1
• So, 3E
IF 
• Z1  Z 2  Z 0
•
•

Figure 2 : Interconnection of positive,

negative and zero sequence
networks for single phase to
earth fault is in series connection.

83
 EXAMPLE 1
QUESTION :
A 3Φ, 10 MVA, 11kV generator with a solidly
earthed neutral point supplies a feeder. The relevant
impedances of the generator and feeder in ohms are
as under :
● Generator ● Feeder
● +ve sequence impedence ● j1.2 ● j1.0
● -ve sequence impedance ● j0.9 ● j1.0
● Zero sequence impedance ● j0.4 ● j3.0

Continue……..
84
 EXAMPLE 1

QUESTION :

If a fault from one phase

to earth occurs on the far
end of the feeder, calculate :
i. The magnitude of fault
current
ii. Line to neutral voltage at
the generator
terminal

85
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION :
As refered to the diagram, the fault is assumed
to occur on the phase a. Taking phase a as
reference 11k
EA   6350V
Ø Phase e.m.f. of phase a, 3

Ø Z 1Total
 j1impedence
.2  j1.0 : j 2.2
Z 2  j 0.9  j1.0  j1.9
Z 0  j 0.4  j 3.0  j 3.4 86 Continue……..
 EXAMPLE 1

SOLUTION :

i) Fault current at phase a :

3EA
IA  3IA1 
Z1  Z 2  Z 0
3(6350)
   j 2540 A
j 2.2  j1.9  j 3.4
87 Continue……..
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION :
ii) Line-to-neutral voltage of phase a :
VA  VA1  VA 2  VA0
VA  ( EA  IA1Z 1)  ( IA2 Z 2)  ( IA0 Z 0)
 EA  IA1( Z 1  Z 2, asZ 0) IA1  IA 2  IA0  IA
 j 2540 IA
 6350  ( )( j1.2  j 0.9  j 0.4) IA1  3
ii) 3
 6350  j846.67( j 2.5)
 6350  2116.67  4233.33V 88
 EXERCISE
QUESTION :
A 3Φ, 75 MVA, 11.8kV star connected generator with
a solidly earthed neutral supplies a feeder. The relevant
impedances of the generator in ohms are as under :
● Generator ● Feeder
● +ve sequence impedence ● j1.7 ● j0.1
● -ve sequence impedance ● j0.18 ● j0.1
● Zero sequence impedance ● j0.12 ● j0.3

Determine the fault current for a one line-to-earth

fault occuring at the far end of the feeder.
89
PHASE TO PHASE
FAULT

90
 Phase to Phase Fault

• Figure 2 show the three phase circuit diagram of

phase to phase fault on phase Y and B.
•

Phase to
Phase Fault

Figure 3 : Phase to phase fault on phase Y and

91 B
 Phase to Phase Fault

• E = e.m.f. per phase and the R phase is again taken as

the reference phasor.
•
• For phase to phase fault :

V B = VY
IR = 0
I B = - IY
92
 Phase to Phase Fault
• Substitute IR = 0 & IB = -IY into current sequence eq. :
•
I0 = 1/3(IR + IY + IB) zero sequence
•
I1 = 1/3(IR + aIY + a2IB) +ve sequence
•
• I 2 = 1/3 (IR + a 2IY + aIB ) -ve sequence

• We get that ,
•
1 2 1 2
I 1  IY ( a  a ) , I 2  IY ( a  a )
3 3
so, and
I0  0 I1  I 2 93
 Phase to Phase Fault

• As VY = VB , substitute into this voltage sequence eq :

•
• V0 = 1/3(VR + VY + VB) zero sequence
• V1 = 1/3(VR + aVY + a2VB) +ve sequence
•
•
•
• V2 = 1/3(VR + a2VY + aVB ) -ve sequence
• So we get ,
•

and
•
V1 V 2 V0 0
94
 Phase to Phase Fault
• As IO = 0 and V1 = V2 , sub into sequence network eq :
•
V1 = E1 – I1Z1 +ve sequence
•
•
•
V2 = – I2Z2 -ve sequence

• We get ,
V0 = – and
I0Z0 zero
sequence
• V V
1 2 V0 0
•
• E1  I 1Z 1   I 2 Z 2 as I1 = - I2

E1
E 1  I 1Z 1  I 1Z 2 so, I1 
Z1  Z 2
95
 Phase to Phase Fault
• This can be represented by the equivalent circuit in Figure 3,
where there is no zero sequence network. If the connection
between the two lines has an impedance Zf (the fault
impedance), this is connected in series.
•

Figure 4 : Interconnection of sequence network for a phase

to phase fault (including fault impedance Z f, if present)
96
DOUBLE PHASE TO
EARTH FAULT

97
 Double Phase to Earth Fault

• Figure 2 show the three phase circuit diagram of

double phase to earth fault on phase Y and B.
•

Double
Phase to
Earth Fault

Figure 5 : Double Phase to Earth Fault on phase Y98 and B

 Double Phase to Earth Fault
• For double phase to earth fault :
• IR = 0
•
VY = VB = 0
•
• Substitute IR = 0 into phase equation :
• IR = I1 + I2 + I0
•
• We get that , IR  I 1  I 2  I 0  0
so, I 0  I1  I 2
•
99
 Double Phase to Earth Fault

• Substitute VB = VY = 0 into sequence equation :

•
V0 = 1/3(VR + VY + VB) zero sequence
•
V1 = 1/3(VR + aVY + a2VB) +ve sequence
•
• V2 = 1/3(VR + a2VY + aVB ) -ve sequence
•

• We get,
1
V 1  V 2  V 0  VA
3
100
 Double Phase to Earth Fault

• So as V1 = V2 = V3 ,
•
• VA1  VA 2
•
• EA1  IA1Z 1   IA 2 Z 2
•
IA1Z 1  EA1
•
IA 2  ……eq 1
Z2
101
 Double Phase to Earth Fault

• And,
•
•
VA1  VA0
• E  IA1Z 1   IA0 Z 0
A1
•
• IA1Z 1  EA1
• IA0  ……eq 2
Z0
102
 Double Phase to Earth Fault
• Substituting eq 1 and eq 2 into this equation,
• I 0  I1  I 2
•
IA1Z 1  EA1 IA1Z 1  EA1
•   IA1 
Z0 Z2
•
IA1Z 1Z 2  EA1Z 2   IA1Z 0 Z 2  ( IA1Z 0 Z 1  EA1Z 0)
•
IA1Z 1Z 2  IA1Z 0 Z 2  IA1Z 0 Z 1  EA1Z 2  EA1Z 0
•

EA1( Z 2  Z 0) EA1
IA1  
Z 1Z 2  Z 0 Z 1  Z 0 Z 2 Z 1  Z 2 Z 0
Z2  Z0
103
 Double Phase to Earth Fault

• Hence,
E
I1 
Z 2Z 0
Z1 
Z2  Z0
Z0
I 2  I1
Z2  Z0
Z2
I 0  I 1
Z2  Z0 104
 Double Phase to Earth Fault

• These can be represented by the equivalent circuit as

shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 : Interconnection of sequence network for a

105
double phase to earth fault
 Double Phase to Earth Fault
• The inclusion of impedances in the earth path, such as the
star-point-to earth connection in a generator or
transformer, modifies the sequence diagrams.
• For a phase-to earth fault an impedance Zg in the earth
path is represented by an impedance of 3Zg in the zero-
sequence network. Zg can include the impedance of the
fault itself, usually the resistance of the arc.
• As I1 = I2 = I0 and 3I1 flows through Zg in the physical system,
it is necessary to use 3Zg to obtain the required effect.
Hence,
3 EA
IF 
Z 1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z g 106
 Double Phase to Earth Fault
• The inclusion of impedances in the earth path, such as the
star-point-to earth connection in a generator or
transformer, modifies the sequence diagrams.
• For a phase-to earth fault an impedance Zg in the earth
path is represented by an impedance of 3Zg in the zero-
sequence network. Zg can include the impedance of the
fault itself, usually the resistance of the arc.
• As I1 = I2 = I0 and 3I1 flows through Zg in the physical system,
it is necessary to use 3Zg to obtain the required effect.
Hence,
3 EA
IF 
Z 1  Z 2  Z 0  3Z g 107
Line Diagram of Power
System

108
 Line Diagram of Power
System
• Any complex power system even
though they are three phase
circuits, can be represented by a
single line diagram, showing
various electrical components of
power system and their
interconnection.

109
 Line Diagram of Power System

• In single line representation of substation the

electrical components such as power transformers,
incoming and outgoing lines, bus-bars, switching
and protecting equipments, are represented by
standard symbols and their interconnections
between them are shown by lines.
•

• Single line diagrams are useful in planning a

substation layout.

110
Line Diagram of Power System

111
112
Some of the standard symbols used to represent
substation components are given in Table 1 above.
113
Unsymmetrical Faults
on Power System

114
 Unsymmetrical Faults on Power
System
• Consider calculating the voltages and currents in
unsymmetrical faults on a more complex power
system.
•

• The key to extending our treatment of generators to

more complex power system is Thevenin’s theorem.
•

• Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear circuit that

can be separated by two terminals from the rest of
the circuit can be replaced by a single voltage source
in series with an impedance.
115
 Unsymmetrical Faults on Power
System
• To understand the significance of this theorem for fault
analysis, consider the power system shown in Figure
1.
•
•
•
• Figure 1

• Assume that there is a fault occurs at point X of the

power system. If a fault occurs on the point X, then a
current IF will flow out of the fault. 116
 Unsymmetrical Faults on Power
System
• The positive, negative, and zero sequence networks
for this power system is shown in figure below
with the location of the fault labelled on each
network.

(a) Positive ( b) Negative ( c) Zero

sequence network sequence network sequence network
117
Figure 2 :
Symbols, connection
diagrams and zero-
sequence equivalent
circuits for various
types of 3Φ
transformers.

118
Example

Figure 3

119
 Example

QUESTION

By referring the Figure 3, draw :

i. Positive sequence network

ii. Negative sequence network
iii. Zero sequence network

120
 Example

ANSWER
1. The fence-like symbols at either end of the figure
represent “infinite buses”,or positive sequence
voltage sources.

121
 Example

2. Negative sequence network

122
 Example

3. The zero sequence network is open at the right hand

side because of the delta-wye transformer
connection there.

123
 EXERCISE
QUESTION

Figure 4

By referring the Figure 4 above,

i. Draw equivalent circuit diagram of positive sequence.

ii. Draw equivalent circuit diagram of negative
sequence.
iii. Draw equivalent circuit diagram of zero124sequence.
 EXERCISE
SOLUTION

i. Draw equivalent circuit diagram of positive

sequence.
ii.

125
 EXERCISE
SOLUTION

ii. Draw equivalent circuit diagram of negative

sequence.
iii.

126
 EXERCISE
SOLUTION

iii. Draw equivalent circuit diagram of zero sequence.

iv.

127
 EXERCISE 1
QUESTION
Figure below is a three-phase single-line diagram. Sketch the :-
i. Positive sequence network.
ii. Negative sequence network.
iii. Zero sequence network.

●   ● Z1 (pu) ● Z2 (pu) ● Z0 (pu)

● G1 ● 0.15 ● 0.17 ● 0.05
● T1 ● 0.1 ● 0.1 ● 0.1
● XA ● 0.105 ● 0.105 ● 0.315
● T2 ● 0.1 ● 0.1 ● 0.1
● G2 ● 0.2 ● 0.21 ● 0.15
128
 EXERCISE 2
QUESTION
Figure below is a three-phase single-line diagram. Sketch the :-
i. Positive sequence network.
ii. Negative sequence network.
iii. Zero sequence network.

129
 EXERCISE 3
QUESTION
Figure below is a three-phase single-line diagram. Sketch the :-
i. Positive sequence network.
ii. Negative sequence network.
iii. Zero sequence network.

130
 EXERCISE 4
QUESTION
Based on the diagram below, calculate the total impedance of :
i. Positive sequence.
ii. Negative sequence.

●   ● Z1 (pu) ● Z2 (pu) ● Z0 (pu)

● G1 ● 0.24 ● 0.3 ● 0.15
● T1 ● 0.15 ● 0.2 ● 0.4
● X1 ● 0.2 ● 0.3 ● 0.15
● T2 ● 0.22 ● 0.45 ● 0.15
● X2 ● 0.2 ● 0.3 ● 0.3
131
 Types of Fault
• In the following, a single voltage source in series with
an impedance is used to represent the power
network as seen from the point of the fault.
• This is an extension of Thevenin’s theorem to three-
phase systems. It represents the general method
used for manual calculation, that is the successive
reduction of the network to a single impedance and
voltage or current source.
• The network is assumed to be initially on no-load
before the occurrence of the fault, and linear, so
that superposition applies.
132
Typical transmission link and form of associated sequence
133 networks
Example 1

134
Solution Example 1

135
Solution Example 1

136
Solution Example 1

137
Example 2

138
Solution Example 2

139
Solution Example 2

140
Solution Example 2

141
SIGNIFICANT OF
FAULT LEVEL

142
 Significant of Fault Level
• Fault level can be calculate. It is necessary to ensure
that all the components in your power system can
safely handle the maximum fault currents if they
occur.
• As a power system designer or maintenance person ,
you have to assume that during the life of the
facility, faults will develop.
• When they do , your design must be able to detect the
fault location and the protective devices must
respond fast enough to isolate the fault to prevent
significant disturbance to the system. 143
 Significant of Fault Level

• The components in the system must be

capable of handling the maximum fault
levels which will be generated without
themselves suffering catastrophic failures.
•
• CTs , circuit breakers , fuses etc can shatter if
underrated
•
144
 Significant of Fault Level

• For this reason , earthing grids and circuit

breakers and other components in the
system must be properly earthed so as to
ensure the development of fault currents
that can be detected by the protection relays
and trip the required circuit breakers to
isolate the faults.
•

145
SIGNIFICANT OF REDUCING
FAULT CURRENT

146
 Significant of Reducing Fault
Current
• To avoid large voltage drop in the system leading
simultaneous fault condition in other parts of
the system when the loads try to consume more
•
current to maintain the power requirements.
• To avoid effects on the component or lines as a
result of high current passing through
•

• To avoid disturbance stability of system leading to

total shutdown.
•
147
 Significant of Reducing Fault
Current
• To avoid substantial voltage dip in pressure
coil of protection relays leading to possible
malfunctions of the protection system and
other associates effects.
•

148
METHODS OF REDUCING
FAULT CURRENT

149
METHODS OF REDUCING FAULT
CURRENT

a. Changing some lines from AC to DC.

b. Apply current limiters.

c. Dividing the bus bars.

d. Splitting the network

150