THREE 

PHASE SYSTEM 
CONFIGURATION
 General Principle
of 
Generation 3 Phase EMF
 General Principle of Generation 3‐phase EMF

• Consider an elementary
3‐phase, two pole generator
N and S as shown in Fig 1.

Fig 1 : Generation of 3 phase emf
 General Principle of Generation 3‐phase EMF

• The armature has 3 coils              
(3 phases) AA1, BB1 and CC1 , 
whose axes are displaced from 
each other by 120° in space. The 
three windings can be 
represented schematically as 
shown in Fig 2.

Fig 2 : Schematic representation of
coil windings
 General Principle of Generation 3‐phase EMF
• When the 3 coil windings are rotated in 
an anticlockwise direction, they cut the 
magnetic field due to the magnetic poles 
NS and emfs are generated in the three 
phases (accordance Faraday’s Law of 
electromagnetic induction). 

• If we consider the position of the 
windings as shown in Fig 1, the induced 
emf in coil A (EA) is zero and the induced 
emfs in coils B and C (EB and EC) are 
finite.  Fig 1 : Generation of 3 phase emf
 General Principle of Generation 3‐phase EMF

• When the coils have rotated by 90°, EA will have maximum 
value and EB and EC will have finite values. 

• When the set coils are rotated by 120°, EB attains its 
maximum value  and similarly, EC attains the maximum value 
when it is rotated by another 120°. 
 General Principle of Generation 3‐phase EMF

• When the coils make one 
complete rotation          
(0° to 360°), all the three 
emf will have varied 
sinusoidally and will have 
waveforms as shown in 
Fig 3. 
Fig 3 : Waveforms of 3 phase emf
 General Principle of Generation 3‐phase EMF

• All the three emfs waveforms will have exactly the same 
amplitude if the flux distribution is uniform.

• If the flux distribution over the poles is truly sinusoidal, the 
three emf waves will also have a phase difference of 120°
corresponding to their axes being displaced by 120° in space .
 General Principle of Generation 3‐phase EMF
• The phasor diagram of the rms value of 
the three emfs is shown in Fig 4.

• If EA is taken as the reference emf, then :
EA = E∠0° = E + j∠0°
EB = E∠ − 120° = E (−0.5 − j 0.866)
EC = E∠ − 240° = E (−0.5 + j 0.866)

• If it is assumed that the voltages are 
balanced, then 
EA = EB = EC = E Fig 4: Vector diagram of 3‐phase emf
SINGLE‐LINE DIAGRAM
 SINGLE‐LINE DIAGRAM

Single line representation of a simple power system
 SINGLE‐LINE DIAGRAM

• A one‐line diagram of a power system shows the main 
connections and arrangement of components.
• Any particular component may or may not to shown 
depending on the information required in a system study, e.g. 
circuit breakers need not be shown in a load flow study but 
are a must for a protection study.
• Power system networks are represented by single line 
diagram using suitable symbol for generators, motors, 
transformers and loads.
 SINGLE‐LINE DIAGRAM

• It is a convenient practical way of network representation 
rather than drawing the actual three‐phase diagram which 
may indeed be quite cumbersome and confusing for a 
practical size power network.
• Generator and transformer connections – star, delta, and 
neutral grounding are indicated by symbols drawn by the side 
of the representation of these elements.
• Circuit breaker are represented as rectangular blocks. 
IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
 IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

Impedance diagram of power system
 IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

• The impedance diagram on single phase basis under balanced 
operating conditions can be easily drawn from single line 
diagram.
• Single phase transformer equivalent are shown as ideal 
transformer with transformer impedances are indicated on the 
appropriate side. 

• Magnetizing reactances of the transformers are been neglected. 
This is a good approximation for most power system studies.
 IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

• The generators are represented as voltage sources with series 
resistance and inductive reactance.

• Loads are assumed to be passive and are represented by 
resistance and inductive reactance in series.

• Neutral grounding impedance do not appear in the diagram 
as balanced conditions are assumed. 
 Concept of
Electrical Energy Demand
 INTRODUCTION 
• The function of a power station is to deliver power to a
large number of consumers.
• However, the power demands of different consumers
vary in accordance with their activity.
• The result of this variation in demand is that load on a
power station is never constant.
• Most of the complexities of modern power plant
operation arise from the inherent variability of the load
demanded by the users.
 INTRODUCTION 
• Unfortunately, electrical power cannot be stored and,
therefore, the power station must produce power as and
when demanded to meet the requirements of the
consumers.
Variable Load on Power Station

The load on a power station varies 
from time to time due to 
uncertain demands of the 
consumers and is known as 
variable load on the station
 Variable Load on Power Station
• Load on a power station or a group of power stations
varies during the day in accordance with the daily
activities of the consumers.
• Maximum load on the station during the day is called
Peak Load.
• The power station (or group of stations) should have
enough installed capacity to meet peak demand.
• During the off peak period the installed capacity will not
be fully loaded and the installed capacity is under-utilized.
 Demand Curve for Load 
Consumption in 24 hours
Load Curves

The curve showing the variation 
of load on the power station with 
respect to time is known as a load 
curve.
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• A load at a particular point on the power system is the
power flow expressed in terms of kW or MW through that
point (3 phase).

• Thus a load on a generator unit or a power station or a

group of power stations is expressed in terms of MW.

• The load varies during the hours of the day, days of the
week and during seasons.
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• These load variations, during the whole day (i.e 24
hours) are recorded half-hourly or hourly and are plotted
against time on the graph.

• Load curve is a graph with chronological time on X-axis

and load (MW) on Y-axis.

• Load curves are basic tools for planning and operation of

a generating station and distribution system.
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• Daily Load Curve is drawn with hours of the day on X-
axis and load MW on Y-axis.

• Weekly Load Curves are drawn with seven days of a

week on X-axis and load in MW on Y-axis. Load on each
day has some variation.

• Yearly Load Curves are drawn with months on X-axis

and average monthly load (MWhr/hrs) on Y-axis.
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• Figure 1 shows a typical daily load curve of a power
station.

Figure 1 : Load curve
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• It is clear that load on the power station is varying, being
maximum at 6pm in this case.

• It may be seen that load curve indicates at a glance the

general character of the load that is being imposed on
the plant.

• Such a clear representation cannot be obtained from

tabulated figures.
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• The monthly load curve can be obtained from the daily
load curves of that month.

• For this purpose, average values of power over a month

at different times of the day are calculated and then
plotted on the graph.

• The monthly load curves is generally used to fix the rates

of energy
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• The yearly load curve is obtained by considering the
monthly load curves of that particular year.

• The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the

annual load factor.
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
• Importance : The daily load curves have attained a great
importance in generation as they supply the following information
readily:

i. The daily load curve shows the variations of load on the power
station during different hours of the day.

ii. The area under the daily load curves gives the number of units
generated in the day.
Units generated/day = Area (in kWh) under daily load curve.
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
iii. The highest point on the daily load curve represents the
maximum demand on the station on that day.

iv. The area under the daily load curve divided by the total number
of hours gives the average load on the station in the day.

Average load =  Area (in kWh) under daily load curve
24 hours 
 Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
v. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area
rectangle in which it is contained gives the load factor.

Load factor  =      Average load   =     Average load  x  24     

Max. demand             Max. demand x 24

=    Area (in kWh) under daily load curve                      .              
Total area of rectangle in which the load curve is contained 
Demand Curve for Load Consumption
in 24 hours
vi. The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of
generating units.

vii. The load curve helps in preparing the operation schedule of the
station.
Important Terms and Factors
1) Connected load. It is the sum of connected loads in its 
network or supply system. It is expressed in MW. It is a 
fixed quantity during the day of or the month.

For instance , if a consumer has connections of five 100 
watt lamps and a power point of 500 watts, then the 
connected load of the consumer is 5 x 100 + 500 = 1000 
watts. The sum of the connected loads of all the 
consumers is the connected load to the power station.
Important Terms and Factors
2) Maximum demand. It is the greatest demand of load on the 
power station during a  given period.

The load on the power station varies from time to time. The 

maximum of all the demands that have occurred during a given
period (i.e a day) is the maximum demand. Thus referring back to 
the load curve of Figure 1, the maximum demand on the power 
station during the day is 6 MW and it occurs at 6 pm.

Maximum demand is generally less than the connected load

because all the consumers do not switch on their connected load
to the system at a time. The knowledge of maximum demand is
very important as it helps in determining the installed capacity of 
the station. The station must be capable of meeting the 
maximum demand.
Important Terms and Factors
3) Demand factor. It is the ratio of maximum demand on the 
power station to its connected load i.e.,

Demand factor   =   Maximum demand
Connected load 

The value of demand factor is usually less than 1. It is expected 
because maximum demand on the power station is generally 
less than the connected load. 

If the maximum demand of on the power station is 80 MW, then 
demand factor = 80/100 = 0.8. The knowledge of demand factor 
is vital in determining the capacity of the plant equipment. 
Important Terms and Factors
4) Average Load. The average of loads occuring on the power 
station in a given period (i.e. a day or month or year) is known as 
average load or average demand.

Daily average load   =   No. of units (kWh) generated in a day 
24 hours 

Monthly average load   =   No. of units (kWh) generated in a month
No. of hours in a month 

Yearly average load   =   No. of units (kWh) generated in a year
8760 hours 
Important Terms and Factors
5) Load factor. The ratio of average load to the maximum demand 
during a given period is known as load factor.

Load Factor  =    Average load    
Max. demand 

If the plant is in operation for T hours, 

Load Factor  =    Average load x T    
Max. demand x T
=   Units generated in T hours
Max. demand x T hours
Important Terms and Factors
• The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or 
annually load factor if the time period considered is a day or 
month or year.
• Load factor is always less than 1 because average load is smaller 
than the maximum demand.
• The load factor plays key role in determining the overall cost per 
unit generated.
• Higher the load factor of the power station, the lesser will be the 
cost per unit generated. It is because higher load factor means 
lesser maximum demand. The station capacity is so selected that 
it must meet the maximum demand. Now, lower maximum 
demand means lower capacity of the plant which, therefore, 
reduces the cost of the plant. 
 EXAMPLE
A generating station has the following daily load cycle :
Time 
0 – 6 6 – 10 10 – 12 12 – 16 16 – 20 20 – 24
(hours)
Load 
40 50 60 50 70 40
(MW)

Find :
i. Average load
ii. Load factor
 ANSWER

i. Average load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a day

24 hours

=
[( 40 × 6) + (50 × 4) + (60 × 2) + (50 × 4) + (70 × 4) + ( 40 × 4)]MWh
24 h
1200MWh
= = 50MW = 50,000kW
24h
 ANSWER

ii. Load factor = Average load

Max. demand

50 MW
= ×100% = 71.4%
70 MW
 EXERCISE
A generating station has the following daily load cycle :
Time 
0 – 6 6 – 10 10 – 12 12 – 16 16 – 20 20 – 24
(hours)
Load 
20 25 30 25 35 20
(MW)

Find : i) Maximum demand

ii) Average load
iii) Load factor
Significant of Power Quality
 Significant of Power Quality
• The ultimate reason that we are interested in power quality is 
economic value. There are economic impacts on utilities, their 
customers, and suppliers of load equipment. 
• The quality of power can have a direct economic impact on 
many industrial consumers.

• While designing and building a power station, efforts should 
be made to achieve overall economy so that the per unit cost 
of production is as low as possible.
 Significant of Power Quality

• There has recently been a great emphasis on revitalizing 
industry with more automation and more modern equipment.

• This usually means electronically controlled, energy‐efficient 
equipment that is often much more sensitive to deviations in 
the supply voltage than were its electromechanical 
predecessors.
Factors Effecting
Power Quality
 Factors Effecting Power Quality

• The economics of power generation has assumed a great 
importance in this fast developing power plant engineering.

• While designing and building a power station, efforts should 
be made to achieve overall economy so that the per unit cost 
of production is as low as possible.

• This will enable the electrical energy at a profit and ensure 
reliable service.
 Factors Effecting Power Quality
• There are several factors which influence the production cost such 
as land and equipment, depreciation of equipment, interest on 
capital investment etc. 

• Economics consideration include cost of power generation, 
metering, tariffs and revenues, and power factor improvement.

• Common aspects for planning and economic consideration include 
choice of generating plants, operating costs, plant scheduling and 
economic loading. 
 Factors Effecting Power Quality
1.0  Transients 
• Impulsive 3.0  Long‐duration variations 
• Oscillatory • Interruption, sustained                     
• Undervoltages                                    
2.0  Short‐duration variations  • Overvoltages                                       
• Instantaneous • Voltage unbalance                             
• Momentary • Waveform distortion 
• Temporary • DC offset                                            
• Interruption                                     • Harmonics                     
• Sag (dip)                                         • Interharmonics 
• Swell   
Methods to Enhance 
Power Quality
 Methods to Enhance Power Quality
• There are several method to enhance power quality :

1) Installing capacitors (KVAR Generators)
2) Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors
3) Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage.
4) Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy‐
efficient motors.