SQL Lab Manual

MIT Academy of Engineering, Alaldi(D), Pune School of Computer Engg.
& Tech
TOPIC 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SQL
The Structured Query Language (SQL) comprises one of the

fundamental building blocks of modern database architecture. SQL defines
the methods used to create and manipulate relational databases on all major
platforms.
SQL comes in many flavors. Oracle databases utilize their proprietary

PL/SQL. Microsoft SQL Server makes use of Transact-SQL. However, all of
these variations are based upon the industry standard ANSI SQL.
SQL commands can be divided into two main sublanguages.
1. Data Definition Language

2. Data Manipulation Language
1.2 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)
It contains the commands used to create and destroy databases and

database objects. These commands will primarily be used by database
administrators during the setup and removal phases of a database project.
DDL Commands :
a) Create table command :
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column_name1 data_type(size),
column_name2 data_type(size),
.......
)
Example 1
This example demonstrates how you can create a table named "Person",
with four columns. The column names will be "LastName", "FirstName",
"Address", and "Age":
CREATE TABLE Person

( LastName varchar,
SQL Lab Manual- ANB 1

MIT Academy of Engineering, Alaldi(D), Pune School of Computer Engg. & Tech
FirstName varchar,
Address varchar,
Age int )
This example demonstrates how you can specify a maximum length for
some columns:
Example 2
CREATE TABLE Person

(
LastName varchar(30),
FirstName varchar,
Address varchar,
Age int(3)
)
Creating table from another ( existing table ) table :
Syntax
CREATE TABLE tablename

[(columnname,columnaname)]]
AS SELECT columnname,columnaname
FROM tablename;
b. Alter table command :
Once table is created within a database, we may wish to modify the

definition of that table.The ALTER command allows to make changes to the
structure of a table without deleting and recreating it.
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD (newcolumn_name1 data_type(size),
newcolumn_name2 data_type(size),
.......)
Example
ALTER TABLE personal_info

ADD salary money null

This example adds a new attribute to the personal_info table -- an

employee's salary. The "money" argument specifies that an employee's
salary will be stored using a dollars and cents format. Finally, the "null"
keyword tells the database that it's OK for this field to contain no value for
any given employee.
c. Drop table command :
DROP command allows us to remove entire database objects from our

DBMS. For example, if we want to permanently remove the personal_info
table that we created, we'd use the following command:
Syntax
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example
DROP TABLE personal_info;
1.3 DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE(DML) :
After the database structure is defined with DDL, database administrators

and users can utilize the Data Manipulation Language to insert, retrieve and
modify the data contained within it.
a. INSERT COMMAND :
The INSERT command in SQL is used to add records to an existing table.
Format 1:-Inserting a single row of data into a table
Syntax
INSERT INTO table_name

[(columnname,columnname)]
VALUES (expression,expression);
To add a new employee to the personal_info table

Example
INSERT INTO personal_info

values('bart','simpson',12345,$45000)
Format 2 : Inserting data into a table from another table
Syntax
INSERT INTO tablename

SELECT columnname,columnname
FROM tablename
b. SELECT COMMAND :
The SELECT command is the most commonly used command in SQL.

It allows database users to retrieve the specific information they desire from
an operational database.
Syntax
SELECT A1,A2……..
FROM tablename
WHERE predicate
A1,A2 is the list of attributes and predicate is the condition which must
be satisfied by the resulting rows .
Example 1
It displays list of all last names in personal_info table
SELECT last_name
FROM personal_info
The command shown below retrieves all of the information contained within
the personal_info table. The asterisk is used as a wildcard in SQL. This
means "Select everything from the personal_info table."

Example 2
SELECT *
FROM personal_info
Finally, the WHERE clause can be used to limit the records that are retrieved
to those that meet specified criteria. The CEO might be interested in
reviewing the personnel records of all highly paid employees. The following
command retrieves all of the data contained within personal_info for records
that have a salary value greater than $50,000 :
Example 3
SELECT * FROM personal_info

WHERE salary > $50000
c. UPDATE COMMAND :
The UPDATE command can be used to modify information contained within a

table.
Syntax
UPDATE tablename
SET columnname=expression,columnname=expression,…..
WHERE columnname=expression;
Each year,company gives all employees a 3% cost-of-living increase in

their salary. The following SQL command could be used to quickly apply this
to all of the employees stored in the database :
Example
UPDATE personal_info
SET salary=salary*1.03
d. DELETE COMMAND :
The DELETE command can be used to delete information contained within a

table.

Syntax
DELETE FROM tablename

WHERE search condition
The DELETE command with a WHERE clause can be used to remove his
record from the personal_info table:
Example
DELETE FROM personal_info

WHERE employee_id=12345
The following command deletes all the rows from the table
Example
DELETE FROM personal_info;

TOPIC 2
2.1 DATA INTEGRITY :
Enforcing data integrity ensures the quality of the data in the

database. For example, if an employee is entered with an employee_id
value of “123”, the database should not allow another employee to have an
ID with the same value.
Two important steps in planning tables are to identify valid values for a
column and to decide how to enforce the integrity of the data in the column.
Data integrity falls into four categories:
 Entity integrity
 Domain integrity
 Referential integrity
 User-defined integrity
There are several ways of enforcing each type of integrity.
Integrity type Recommended options
Entity PRIMARY KEY constraint

UNIQUE constraint
Domain FOREIGN KEY constraint

CHECK constraint
NOT NULL
Referential FOREIGN KEY constraint
CHECK constraint
User-defined All column- and table-level constraints in CREATE
TABLE
StoredProcedures
Triggers
ENTITY INTEGRITY :
Entity integrity defines a row as a unique entity for a particular table. Entity
integrity enforces the integrity of the identifier column(s) or the primary key
of a table (through indexes, UNIQUE constraints, PRIMARY KEY constraints,
or IDENTITY properties).

DOMAIN INTEGRITY :
Domain integrity is the validity of entries for a given column. You can
enforce domain integrity by restricting the type (through data types), the
format (through CHECK constraints and rules), or the range of possible
values (through FOREIGN KEY constraints, CHECK constraints, DEFAULT
definitions, NOT NULL definitions, and rules).
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY :
Referential integrity preserves the defined relationships between tables when

records are entered or deleted. In Microsoft® SQL Server™, referential
integrity is based on relationships between foreign keys and primary keys or
between foreign keys and unique keys. Referential integrity ensures that key
values are consistent across tables. Such consistency requires that there be
no references to nonexistent values and that if a key value changes, all
references to it change consistently throughout the database.
a. PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT :
Definition:- The primary key of a relational table uniquely identifies each

record in the table.
A primary key constraint ensures no duplicate values are entered in

particular columns and that NULL values are not entered in those columns.
b. NOT NULL CONSTRAINT :
This constraint ensures that NULL values are not entered in those
columns.
c. UNIQUE CONSTRAINT :
This constraint ensures that no duplicate values are entered in those

columns.
d. CHECK CONSTRAINT :
The CHECK constraint enforces column value restrictions. Such

constraints can restrict a column, for example, to a set of values, only
positive numbers, or reasonable dates.

e. FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT:
Foreign keys constrain data based on columns in other tables. They

are called foreign keys because the constraints are foreign--that is, outside
the table. For example, suppose a table contains customer addresses, and
part of each address is a United States two-character state code. If a table
held all valid state codes, a foreign key constraint could be created to
prevent a user from entering invalid state codes.
To create a table with different types of constraints:
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column_name1 data_type [constraint],
column_name2 data_type [constraint],
.......
)
Example
Create table customer

( customer-name char(20) not null,
customer-street char(30),
customer-city char(30),
primary key ( customer-name));
create table branch

( branch-name char(15) not null,
branch-city char(30),
assets number,
primary key ( branch-name));
create table account

( branch-name char(15),
account-number char(10) not null,
balance number,
primary key ( account-number),
foreign key ( branch-name) references branch,
check (balance>500));

create table depositor

( customer-name char(20) not null,
account-number char(10) not null,
primary key ( customer-name,account-number),
foreign key ( account-number) references account,
foreign key ( customer-name) references customer);

TOPIC 3
3.1 JOINS :
Sometimes we have to select data from two or more tables to make
our result complete. We have to perform a join. Tables in a database can be
related to each other with keys.
In the "Employees" table below, the "Employee_ID" column is the primary
key, meaning that no two rows can have the same Employee_ID. The
Employee_ID distinguishes two persons even if they have the same name.
 The "Employee_ID" column is the primary key of the "Employees"

table
 The "Prod_ID" column is the primary key of the "Orders" table
 The "Employee_ID" column in the "Orders" table is used to refer to the
persons in the "Employees" table without using their names
Employees :
Employee_ID Name
01 Hansen, Ola
02 Svendson, Tove
03 Svendson, Stephen
04 Pettersen, Kari
Orders :
Prod_ID Product Employee_ID

234 Printer 01
657 Table 03
865 Chair 03
Referring to Two Tables

We can select data from two tables by referring to two tables, like this:
Example
Who has ordered a product, and what did they order?

SELECT Employees.Name, Orders.Product

FROM Employees, Orders
WHERE Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID
Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer
Svendson, Stephen Table
Svendson, Stephen Chair
Using Joins
OR we can select data from two tables with the JOIN keyword, like this:
3.2 INNER JOIN :
The INNER JOIN returns all rows from both tables where there is a
match. If there are rows in Employees that do not have matches in Orders,
those rows will not be listed.
Example 1
SELECT field1, field2, field3

FROM first_table
INNER JOIN second_table
ON first_table.keyfield = second_table.foreign_keyfield
Example 2
Who has ordered a product, and what did they order?

FROM Employees
INNER JOIN Orders
ON Employees.Employee_ID=Orders.Employee_ID
Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer

3.3 LEFT OUTER JOIN :
The LEFT JOIN returns all the rows from the first table (Employees),
even if there are no matches in the second table (Orders). If there are rows
in Employees that do not have matches in Orders, those rows also will be
listed.
Syntax :

FROM first_table
LEFT JOIN second_table
Example :
List all employees, and their orders - if any.

FROM Employees
LEFT JOIN Orders
Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer
Svendson, Tove
Pettersen, Kari
3.4 RIGHT OUTER JOIN :
The RIGHT JOIN returns all the rows from the second table
(Orders), even if there are no matches in the first table (Employees). If
there had been any rows in Orders that did not have matches in Employees,
those rows also would have been listed.
Syntax :


FROM first_table
RIGHT JOIN second_table
Example :
List all orders, and who has ordered - if any.

FROM Employees
RIGHT JOIN Orders
Result
Name Product
Hansen, Ola Printer

TOPIC 4
4.1 AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS :
If we want to summarize our data to produce top-level reports (For

example, the purchasing manager may not be interested in a listing of all
widget sales, but may simply want to know the number of widgets sold this
month ) , SQL provides aggregate functions to assist with the
summarization of large volumes of data.
OrderID FirstName LastName Quantity UnitPrice Continent

122 John Jacob 21 4.52 North America
923 Ralph Wiggum 192 3.99 North America
238 Ryan Johnson 87 4.49 Africa
829 Mary Smith 842 2.99 North America
824 Elizabeth Marks 48 3.48 Africa
753 James Linea 9 7.85 North America
942 Alan Jonas 638 3.29 Europe
1. SUM :
It is used within a SELECT statement and, predictably, returns the

summation of a series of values. If the widget project manager wanted to
know the total number of widgets sold to date, we could use the following
query:
Example :
SELECT SUM(QUANTITY) AS TOTAL

FROM WidgetOrders
Result :
Total
-----------
1837

2. AVG :
The AVG (average) function works in a similar manner to provide the

mathematical average of a series of values. To find out the average amount
of all orders placed on the North American continent.
Example :
SELECT AVG(UnitPrice*Quantity) as AveragePrice

FROM WidgetOrders
WHERE Continent = “North America”
3. COUNT :
SQL provides the COUNT function to retrieve the number of records in

a table that meet given criteria. We can use the COUNT(*) syntax alone to
retrieve the number of rows in a table. Alternatively, a WHERE clause can
be included to restrict the counting to specific records.
Example :
SELECT COUNT(*) AS 'Number of Large Orders'

FROM WidgetOrders
WHERE Quantity > 100
Above query displays how many orders are processed by company that
requested over 100 widgets.
4. MAX AND MIN :
SQL provides Min and Max functions to locate the records containing
the smallest and largest values for a given expression
The MAX() function returns the largest value in a given data series. We can
provide the function with a field name to return the largest value for a given
field in a table.To find the order in our database that produced the most
revenue for the company,following query will be used:
Example :
SELECT MAX(Quantity*UnitPrice) as ‘largest order’

FROM WidgetOrders
The MIN() function functions in the same manner, but returns the minimum
value for the expression.

TOPIC 5
5.1 NUMERIC FUNCTIONS :
They are used for performing various operations on numbers.
1. ABS :
Returns the absolute, positive value of the given numeric

expression.
ABS ( numeric_expression )
Example :
SELECT abs(-15.0)
FROM dual
Result: 15
2. POWER :
Returns the value of the given expression to the specified

power.
POWER ( numeric_expression , y )
Example :
SELECT power(3,2)
FROM dual
Result :
3. ROUND :
Returns a numeric expression, rounded to the specified length or

precision
ROUND ( numeric_expression , length [ , function ] )

Example :
SELECT round(15.133,1)
FROM dual
Result: 15.1
4. SQRT : |
Returns the square root of the given expression.
SQRT ( float_expression )
Example :
SELECT sqrt(49)
FROM dual
Result : 7
5. EXP :
Returns the exponential value of the given float expression.
EXP ( float_expression )
Example :
SELECT exp(4)
FROM dual
Result : 54.59815
6. LOG :
Returns the natural logarithm of the given float expression.

LOG ( base,no )
Example :
SELECT log(10,100)
FROM dual
Result : 2
7. COS :
A mathematic function that returns the trigonometric cosine of

the given angle (in radians) in the given expression.
COS ( float_expression )
Example :
SELECT cos(0)
FROM dual
Result: 1
8. SIN :
Returns the trigonometric sine of the given angle (in radians) in

an approximate numeric (float) expression.
SIN ( float_expression )
Example :
SELECT sin(0)

FROM dual
Result: 0
9. TAN :
Returns the tangent of the input expression
TAN ( float_expression )
Example :
SELECT tan(0)
FROM dual
Result: 0
10. SIGN :
Returns the positive (+1), zero (0), or negative (-1) sign of the
given expression
SIGN ( numeric_expression)
Example :
SELECT sign(-15)
FROM dual
Result : -1
5.2 CHARACTER FUNCTIONS :
1 LOWER :
Returns a character expression after converting uppercase

character data to lowercase.
LOWER ( character_expression )

Example :
SELECT lower(‘DYPIET’)
FROM dual
Result: dypiet
2. UPPER :
Returns a character expression with lowercase character data

converted to uppercase.
UPPER ( character_expression )
Example :
SELECT upper(‘dypiet’)
FROM dual
Result: DYPIET
3. REPLACE :
Replaces all occurrences of the second given string expression in

the first string expression with a third expression.
REPLACE ( 'string_expression1' , 'string_expression2', ,'string_expression3'

)
Example :
SELECT replace(‘scott’,’s’,’boy’)
FROM dual;
Result: boycott

4. SUBSTRING :
Returns part of a character, binary, text, or image

expression.
SUBSTRING ( expression , start , length )
Example :
SELECT substr(‘daisy’,2,3)
FROM dual;
Result: AIS
5. LENGTH :
Returns the number of characters, rather than the number of

bytes, of the given string expression, excluding trailing blanks.
LENGTH(string_expression)
Example :
SELECT length(‘daisy’)
FROM dual;
Result: 5
6. CONCATENATION :
Returns joined character expressions.
Example :
SELECT ‘mit’ || ‘aoe’

FROM dual;
Result: mitaoe

7. INITCAP :
Changes the first character of the string to upper case.
INITCAP(string_expression)
Example :
SELECT initcap(‘college’)
FROM dual;
Result: College
8. USER :
Returns the name of the current user.
Example :
SELECT user
FROM dual;
Result: SCOTT
5.3 DATE FUNCTIONS:
1. ADD_MONTHS :
Returns date after adding the number of months specified with

function.
ADD_MONTHS(date,no. of months)
Example :
SELECT add_months(’20-nov-04’,3)
FROM dual;

Result: 20-FEB-05
2. LAST_DAY :
Returns the last date of the month.
LAST_DAY(date)
Example :
SELECT last_day(’20-nov-04’)
FROM dual;
Result:30-NOV-04
3. MONTHS_BETWEEN :
Returns no of months between two parameters.
MONTHS_BETWEEN(date,date)
Example :
SELECT months_between(’20-feb-05’,’20-nov-04’)
FROM dual;
Result:3
4. NEXT_DAY :
Returns the date of the first weekday named by ‘char’ that is

after date.
NEXT_DAY (date,char);
Example :
SELECT next_day(’16-nov-04’,’sunday’)
FROM dual;
Result:21-NOV-04

5. ALTER SESSION
6.
7. :
Changes the format of the date
Alter session set nls_date_format = ‘ date format ‘;
Example :
Alter session
set nls_date_format = ’DD.MM.YYYY’;
5.4 CONVERSION FUNCTIONS :
Conversion functions convert a value from one datatype to

another.
1. TO_DATE :
Converts character value representing date into a date value according

to format specified.
TO_DATE(‘character’[,fmt])
Example :
SELECT TO_DATE(’3004SEP04’,’DD-MON-YYYY’)
FROM dual;
Result:30-SEP-04
2. TO_CHAR :
Converts character value representing date into a date value according

to format specified.
TO_CHAR(date,format)

Example :
SELECT TO_CHAR(sysdate,’mon dd yy’)

FROM dual;
Result: sep 3 04
3. TO_NUMBER :
The to_number function converts a string to a number.
TO_NUMBER (string1, [format], [nls_language])
string1 is the string that will be converted to a number.
format is optional. This is the format that will be used to convert string1 to
a number.
Example :
SELECT to_number ('1210.73', '9999.99')

FROM dual;
Result: 1210.73

TOPIC 6
1. UNION :
The UNION query allows to combine the result sets of 2 or more "select"
queries. It removes duplicate rows between the various "select"
statements.Each SQL statement within the UNION query must have the
same number of fields in the result sets with similar data types.
Syntax :
select field1, field2, … field_n

from tables
UNION
from tables;
Example :
Select supplier_id
from suppliers
UNION
select supplier_id
from orders;
2. UNION ALL :
The UNION ALL query allows to combine the result sets of 2 or

more "select" queries. It returns all rows (even if the row exists in
more than one of the "select" statements)i.e.it does not remove
duplicates.
Example :
Select supplier_id
from suppliers
UNION ALL
select supplier_id
from orders;
3. INTERSECT : The INTERSECT query allows to return the results of 2 or

more "select" queries. However, it only returns the rows selected by all
queries. If a record exists in one query and not in the other, it will be

omitted from the INTERSECT results.Each SQL statement within the

INTERSECT query must have the same number of fields in the result sets
with similar data types.
Syntax

from tables
INTERSECT
from tables;
Example :
select supplier_id
from suppliers
INTERSECT
select supplier_id
from orders;
4. MINUS :
The MINUS query returns all rows in the first query that are not
returned in the second query.Each SQL statement within the MINUS query
must have the same number of fields in the result sets with similar data
types.
Syntax

from tables
MINUS
from tables;
Example :
Select supplier_id
from suppliers
MINUS
select supplier_id
from orders;

TOPIC 7
7.1. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE :
Data control commands in SQL allow you to control access to

data within the database. These DCL commands are normally used to
create objects related to user access and also control the distribution
of privileges among users. Some data control commands are as
follows:
GRANT
REVOKE
1. GRANT :
The objects created by one user are accessible to another user only
when the owner gives permission by using Grant statement.
Syntax
GRANT {object privileges}

ON objectname
TO username
[WITH GRANT OPTION]
Various Types of Object privileges :

a. Alter
b. Delete
c. Index
d. Insert
e. Select
f. Update
With grant option allows the grantee to grant object privileges
to other users.
Example :
GRANT select,update
ON stud
TO scott

2. REVOKE :
Once permissions are granted, it often proves necessary to revoke

them at a later date. SQL provides REVOKE command to remove previously
granted permissions.
Syntax
REVOKE {object privileges}

ON object_name FROM username
REVOKE select,update
ON stud
FROM scott
7.2 TRANSACTIONAL CONTROL COMMANDS :
These commands allow the user to manage database

transactions.Some of those are as
 COMMIT
 ROLLBACK
1. COMMIT :
The COMMIT statement in SQL marks the final step in the processing
of a database transaction.It makes permanent any changes made during
that transaction.
COMMIT;
2. ROLLBACK :
The ROLLBACK statement in SQL cancels the proposed changes in a

pending database transaction. It is exactly opposite to commit.It undoes the
changes made during the transaction.
ROLLBACK;

TOPIC 8
8.1 VIEWS :
Database views allow to create "virtual tables" that are generated on

the fly when they are accessed. A view is stored on the database server as
an SQL statement that pulls data from one or more tables and (optionally)
performs transformations on that data. Users may then query the view just
as they would any real database table.
Creation of Views :
Syntax
CREATE VIEW viewname AS
SELECT columnname, columnname
FROM tablename
WHERE columnname=expression list;
Example 1
CREATE VIEW vstud AS
SELECT name,no
FROM stud;
View vstud will contain two columns name and no.
Renaming the columns of a view:-
CREATE VIEW vstud1(name,number) AS

SELECT name,no
FROM stud;
View vstud1 will contain two columns name and number.
8.2 RESTRICTIONS ON VIEW :
1. The view must be created on a single table.

2. Primary key column of the table must be included in the view.
3. Aggregate functions, distinct keyword, group by clause and having
can’t be included in select statement.

TOPIC 9
9.1 LIKE CONDITION :
The LIKE condition allows to use wildcards in the where clause of an

SQL statement. This allows to perform pattern matching. The LIKE
condition can be used in any valid SQL statement - select, insert, update, or
delete.
The patterns that can be chosen are:
 % allows to match any string of any length (including zero

length)
 allows to match on a single character
Example 1
To find all of the suppliers whose name begins with ‘H’.
SELECT *FROM supplier

WHERE supplier_name like 'H%';
Example 2
To find suppliers whose name does not start with 'T'.

WHERE supplier_name not like 'T%';
Example 3
To find all suppliers whose name is 5 characters long, where the first two
characters is 'Sm' and the last two characters is 'th'.

WHERE supplier_name like 'Sm_th';

9.2 IN CONDITION :
The IN function helps to reduce the need to use multiple OR

conditions.
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE column1 in (value1, value2, .... value_n);
This SQL statement will return the records where column1 is value1,
value2..., or value_n. The IN function can be used in any valid SQL
statement - select, insert, update, or delete.
Example 1
SELECT *
FROM supplier
WHERE supplier_name in ( 'IBM' , 'Hewlett Packard', 'Microsoft');
This would return all rows where the supplier_name is either IBM, Hewlett
Packard, or Microsoft.
Example 2
SELECT *
FROM supplier
WHERE supplier_name not in ( 'IBM' , 'Hewlett Packard',
'Microsoft');
This would return all rows where the supplier_name is neither IBM,
Hewlett Packard, or Microsoft.
9.3 BETWEEN CONDITION :
The BETWEEN condition allows to retrieve values within a range.
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE column1 between value1 and value2;
This SQL statement will return the records where column1 is within the
range of value1 and value2 (inclusive).

Example 1
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id between 5000 AND 5010;
This would return all rows where the supplier_id is between 1000 and
5010, inclusive.
Example 2
SELECT *
FROM orders
WHERE order_date between to_date ('2003/01/01', 'yyyy/mm/dd')
AND to_date ('2003/12/31', 'yyyy/mm/dd);
This SQL statement would return all orders where the order_date is
between Jan 1, 2003 and Dec 31, 2003 (inclusive).
Example 3
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE supplier_id not between 5000 and 5500;
9.4 EXISTS CONDITION :
The EXISTS condition is considered "to be met" if the subquery returns

at least one row.
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE EXISTS ( subquery );
Example
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE EXISTS
(select *
from orders
where suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id);

This select statement will return all records from the suppliers table
where there is at least one record in the orders table with the same
supplier_id.
Example
SELECT *
FROM suppliers
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(select *
from orders
where suppliers.supplier_id = orders.supplier_id);
This will return all records from the suppliers table where there are no
records in the orders table for the given supplier_id.
9.5) GROUP BY CLAUSE:-
The GROUP BY clause can be used in a SELECT statement to collect

data across multiple records and group the results by one or more columns.
SELECT column1, column2, ... column_n, aggregate_function

(expression)
FROM tables
WHERE predicates
GROUP BY column1, column2, ... column_n;
aggregate_function can be a function such as sum,count,min,max.
Example
To return the name of the department and the total sales (in the associated
department).
Example
SELECT department, SUM (sales) as "Total sales"

FROM order_details
GROUP BY department;

9.6 HAVING CLAUSE :
The HAVING clause is used in combination with the GROUP BY clause.

It can be used in a SELECT statement to filter the records that a GROUP BY
returns.
Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ... column_n,

aggregate_function (expression)
FROM tables
WHERE predicates
GROUP BY column1, column2, ... column_n
HAVING condition1 ... condition_n;
aggregate_function can be a function such as sum,count,max,min
Example
To return the name of the department and the total sales (in the
associated department). The HAVING clause will filter the results so that
only departments with sales greater than $1000 will be returned.
Example
SELECT department, SUM (sales) as "Total sales"

FROM order_details
GROUP BY department
HAVING SUM (sales) > 1000;
9.7) ORDER BY CLAUSE:-
The ORDER BY clause allows you to sort the records in your result set.
The ORDER BY clause can only be used in SELECT statements. The ORDER
BY clause sorts the result set based on the columns specified. If the ASC or
DESC value is omitted, the system assumed ascending order.

Syntax
SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE predicates
ORDER BY column ASC/DESC;
ASC indicates ascending order. (default)

DESC indicates descending order.
Example 1
SELECT supplier_city
FROM supplier
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
ORDER BY supplier_city;
This would return all records sorted by the supplier_city field in

ascending order.
Example 2
SELECT supplier_city
FROM supplier
WHERE supplier_name = 'IBM'
ORDER BY supplier_city DESC;
This would return all records sorted by the supplier_city field in descending
order.

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MIT Academy of Engineering, Alaldi(D), Pune School of Computer Engg.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SQL

The Structured Query Language (SQL) comprises one of the

SQL comes in many flavors. Oracle databases utilize their proprietary

SQL commands can be divided into two main sublanguages.

1. Data Definition Language

1.2 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL)

It contains the commands used to create and destroy databases and

a) Create table command :

CREATE TABLE table_name

CREATE TABLE Person

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CREATE TABLE Person

Creating table from another ( existing table ) table :

CREATE TABLE tablename

b. Alter table command :

Once table is created within a database, we may wish to modify the

ALTER TABLE table_name

ALTER TABLE personal_info

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This example adds a new attribute to the personal_info table -- an

c. Drop table command :

DROP command allows us to remove entire database objects from our

DROP TABLE table_name;

DROP TABLE personal_info;

1.3 DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE(DML) :

After the database structure is defined with DDL, database administrators

The INSERT command in SQL is used to add records to an existing table.

Format 1:-Inserting a single row of data into a table

INSERT INTO table_name

To add a new employee to the personal_info table

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INSERT INTO personal_info

Format 2 : Inserting data into a table from another table

INSERT INTO tablename

The SELECT command is the most commonly used command in SQL.

It displays list of all last names in personal_info table

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SELECT * FROM personal_info

The UPDATE command can be used to modify information contained within a

Each year,company gives all employees a 3% cost-of-living increase in

The DELETE command can be used to delete information contained within a

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DELETE FROM tablename

DELETE FROM personal_info

DELETE FROM personal_info;

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2.1 DATA INTEGRITY :

Enforcing data integrity ensures the quality of the data in the

There are several ways of enforcing each type of integrity.

Integrity type Recommended options

Entity PRIMARY KEY constraint

Domain FOREIGN KEY constraint

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Referential integrity preserves the defined relationships between tables when

a. PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT :

Definition:- The primary key of a relational table uniquely identifies each

A primary key constraint ensures no duplicate values are entered in

b. NOT NULL CONSTRAINT :

This constraint ensures that no duplicate values are entered in those

The CHECK constraint enforces column value restrictions. Such

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e. FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT:

Foreign keys constrain data based on columns in other tables. They