612/22, 1234 PM ‘WikIPEDIA Machine learning Machine learning - Wikipedia. Machine learning (ML) isa field of inquiry devoted to understanding and building methods that learn’, that is, methods that leverage data to improve performance on some set of tasks! It is seen as a part of artifical intelligence. Machine learning algorithms build a ‘model based on sample data, known as training data, in order to make predietions or decisions without being expliitly programmed to 0 s0.2] Machine learning algorithms are used in a wide variety of applications, such as in medicine, email filtering, speech recognition, and computer vision, where it is difficult or unfeasible to develop conventional algorithms to perform the needed tasks, 2 ‘A subset of machine learning is closely related to computational statisties, which focuses on making predictions using computers; but not all machine learning, is statistical learning. The study of mathematical optimization delivers methods, theory and application Gomains to the field of machine learning. Data mining is a related field of study, focusing on exploratory data analysis through insupervised learning!sl( Some implementations of machine learning use data and neural networks in a way that mimies the working of a biological brain.1748 In its application across business problems, machine learning is also referred to as predictive analytics. Contents Overview History and relationships to other fields ‘Artificial inteligence Data mining Optimzation Generalization Statistics Theory Approaches ‘Supervised learning Unsupervised learning ‘Semi-supervised learning Reinforcement learning Dimensionality reduction Other types Models ‘Training models Applications, Limi Blas Overfiting (Other limitations and vulnerabittios Model assessments Ethies Hardware Neuromorphic/Physical Neural Networks Embedded Machine Learning Software Free and open-source sofware Proprietary software with free and open-source editions Proprietary software Journals Conforences See also References Sources Further reading External links hitpstien wikipedia. orgwikiMachine_learing Computational statis ‘oF statistical computing ond between statistics and computer science. Tt means statistical methods that are enabled by using ‘computational methods. It is the area of computational science specific t ae612722, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. Overview Learning algorithms work on the basis that strategies, algorithms, and inferences that worked well in the past are likely to continue working well in the future, These inferences can be abvious, such as "since the sun rose every morning for the last 10,000 days, it will probably rise tomorrow morning as well”. They can be nuanced, such as "X% of families have geographically separate species with color variants, so there is a Y9 chance that undiscovered black swans exist"/2] Machine learning programs can perform tasks without being explicitly programmed to do so. It involves computers learning from data provided so that they earry out certain tasks. For simple tasks assigned to computers, itis possible to program algorithms telling the machine how to execute all steps required to solve the problem at hand; on the computer's part, no learning is needed. For more advanced tasks, it can be challenging for a human to manually create the needed algorithms. Tn practice, it can turn out to be more effective to help the machine develop its own algorithm, rather than having human programmers specify every needed step. ‘The discipline of machine learning employs various approaches to teach computers to accomplish tasks where no folly satisfactory algorithm is available. In eases where vast numbers of potential answers exist, one approach is to label some of the correct answers as valid. This can then be used as training data for the computer to improve the algorithm(s) it uses to determine correct answers, For example, to train a system for the task of digital character recognition, the MNIST dataset of handwritten digits has often been used./!91 History and relationships to other fields ‘The term machine learning was coined in 1959 by Arthur Samuel, an IBM employee and pioneer in the field of computer gaming and artifical intelligence./(1 Also the synonym sel/-teaching computers was used in this time period. (Il A representative book of the ‘machine learning research during the 1960s was the Nilsson’s book on Learning Machines, dealing mostly with machine learning for pattern classification.'5] Interest related to pattern recognition continued into the 1970s, as described by Duda and Hart in 1973.°) In 2981 a report was given on using teaching strategies so that a neural network learns to recognize 40 characters (26 letters, 10 digits, and 4 special symbols) from a computer terminal.'7) ‘Tom M. Mitchell provided a widely quoted, more formal definition of the algorithms studied in the machine learning field: "A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks T and performance measure P if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E."®] This definition of the tasks in which machine learning is concerned offers a fundamentally operational definition rather than defining the field in cognitive terms. This follows Alan Turing’s proposal in his paper ‘omputing Machinery and Intelligence”, in which the question "Can machines think?” is replaced with the question "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) ean do?".091 Modern day machine learning has two objectives, one is to classify data based on models which have heen developed, the other purpose is to make predictions for future outcomes based on these models. A hypothetical algorithm specific to classifying data may use computer vision of moles coupled with supervised learning in order to train it to classify the cancerous moles. A machine learning algorithm for stock trading may inform the trader of future potential predictions. {#91 Artificial intelligence Asa scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out ofthe quest for artificial intelligence. In the early Gays of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what ‘was then termed "neural networks"; these were mostly perceptrons and other models that were later found to be reinventions of the generalized linear models of statistics.{28! Probabilistic reasoning was also employed, especially in automated medical diagnosis,(241488 However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between A and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of )scr leaning o9subalof data acquisition and representation. (2488 By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and 2 statistics was out of favor.#5! Work on symbolie/knowledge-based learning did continue within Al, leading to inductive logie programming, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of Al proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval, [24178-70.755 Neural networks research had been abandoned by Al and computer science around the same time. This line, too, was continued outside the AI/CS field, as “connectionism’, by researchers from other disciplines including Hopfield, Rumelhart and Hinton, Their main Suecess came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation [245 Machine learning (ML), reorganized as a separate field, started to flourish in the 19908. The field “> changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical part machin earings subfield nature, It shifted focus away from the symbolic approaches it had inherited from AI, and toward gral or par ot Alas subeléo methods and models borrowed from statistics, fuzzy logic, and probability theory.5) rracrine esningl@ hitpsten.wikipeia.orgwikiMachine_learing 2018612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. “The difference between ML and AI is frequently misunderstood. ML. learns and predicts based on passive observations, whereas AL implies an agent interacting with the envizonment to learn and take actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals (21 As of 2020, many sources continue to assert that ML remains a subfield of AI.(27(28I25] Others have the view that not all ML. is part of AI, bat only an ‘intelligent subset’ of ML should be considered AL411911301 Data mit 1g Machine learning and data mining often employ the same methods and overlap significantly, but while machine learning focuses on prediction, based on known properties learned from the training data, data mining focuses on the discovery of (previously) unknown properties in the data (this isthe analysis step of knowledge discovery in databases). Data mining uses many machine learning methods, ‘but with different goals; on the other hand, machine learning also employs data mining methods as "unsupervised learning” or as preprocessing step to improve learner accuracy. Much of the confusion between these two research communities (which do often have separate conferences and separate journals, ECMI PKDD being a major exception) comes from the basic assumptions they work with: in machine learning, performance is usually evaluated with respect to the ability to reproduce known knowledge, while in knowledge discovery and data mining (KD) the key task is the discovery of previously unknown knowledge. Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD ‘ask, supervised methods cannot be used duc to the unavailability of training data. Optimization Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples) 357 Generalization ‘The difference between optimization and machine learning arises from the goal of generalization: while optimization algorithms can minimize the loss on a training set, machine learning is concerned with minimizing the loss on unseen samples. Characterizing the generalization of various learning algorithms is an active topic of current research, especially for deep learning algorithms, Statistics Machine learning and statistics are closely related fields in terms of methods, but distinet in their principal goal: statistics draws population inferences from a sample, while machine learning finds generalizable predictive patterns.'5#! According to Michael 1. Jordan, ‘the ideas of machine learning, from methodological principles to theoretical tools, have had a long pre-history in statistics. [381 He also suggested the term data seience as a placeholder to call the overall field Leo Breiman distinguished two statistical modeling paradigms: data model and algorithmic model,*7I wherein “algorithmic model" ‘means more or less the machine learning algorithms like Random forest. Some statisticians have adopted methods from machine learning, lending to a combined field that they call statistical learning (#8! Theory A core objective ofa learner is to generalize from its experience 129] Generalization in this context is the ability ofa learning machine to perform accurately on new, unseen examples/tasks after having experienced a learning data set. The training examples come from. some generally unknown probability distribution (considered representative of the space of occurrences) and the learner has to build general model about this space that enables it to produce sufficiently accurate predietions in new cases. ‘The computational analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as, computational learning theory via the Probably Approximately Correct Learning (PAC) model, Because training sets are finite and the future is uncertain, learning theory usually does not yield guarantees of the performance of algorithms. Instead, probabilistic bounds on the performance are quite common. The biasvariance decomposition is one way to quantify generalization error. For the best performance in the context of generalization, the complexity of the hypothesis should match the complexity ofthe function underlying the data. Ifthe hypothesis is less complex than the function, then the model has under fited the data. Ifthe complexity of the ‘model is increased in response, then the training error decreases. But if the hypothesis is too complex, then the model is subject to overfitting and generalization will be poorer (3°) hitpstien wikipedia. orgwikiMachine_learing a8612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. In addition to performance bounds, learning theorists study the time complexity and feasibility of learning. In computational learning. theory, a computation is considered feasible if it can be done in polynomial time. There are two kinds of time complexity results: Positive results show that a certain class of functions can be learned in polynomial time. Negative results show that certain classes cannot be learned in polynomial time. Approaches Machine learning approaches are traditi available to the learning system: nally divided into three broad categories, depending on the nature of the signal” or “feedbacl = Supervised learning: The computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a "teacher", and the goal is to leam a general rule that maps inputs to outputs. ' Unsupervised learning: No labels are given to the leaming algorithm, leaving it on is own to find structure in its input, Unsupervised learning can be a goal n itself (discovering hidden pattems in data) or a means towards an end (Feature learning). ‘= Reinforcement leaming: A computer program interacts with a dynamic environment in which it must perform a certain goal (such driving a vehicle or playing a game against an opponent). As it navigates its problem space, the program is provided feedback that's ‘analogous to rewards, which i tries to maximize.) Supervised learning Supervised learning algorithms build a mathematical model of a set of data that contains both the inputs and the desired outputs. The data is known as training data, and consists of a set of training examples, Each training example has one or more inputs and the desired output, also known as a supervisory signal. Inthe mathematical model, each training example is represented by an array or vector, sometimes called a feature vector, and the training data is represented by 2 matrix. Through iterative optimization of an objective funtion, supervised learning algorithms learn a function that ean be used to predict the output associated with new inputs.8! An optimal function ‘will allow the algorithm to correctly determine the output for inputs that were not a part of the training data. An algorithm that improves the accuracy of its outputs or predictions over time is said tw have learned to perform that task. 8) 4 x ‘Types of supervised-learning algorithms include active learning, classification and regression [261 Classification algorithms are used when the outputs are restricted to a limited set of values, and A regression algorithms are used when the outputs may have any numerical value within a range. Asan supervised earn mode that example, fora classification algorithm that filters emails, the input would be an incoming email, and ois ne dts no regions ‘the output would be the name ofthe folder in which to file the email eparated by a near boundary. Here the near Boundary éviges Similarity learning is an area of supervised machine learning closely related to regression and re slack ots ftom bo wha classification, but the goal is to learn from examples using a similarity function that measures how similar or related two objects are. It has applications in ranking, recommendation systems, visual identity tracking, face verification, and speaker verification Unsupervised learning Unsupervised learning algorithms lake a set of data that contains only inputs, and find structure in the data, like grouping or clustering of data points. The algorithms, therefore, learn from test data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algorithms identify commonalities in the data and react based on the presence or absence of such ‘commonalities in each new piece of data. A central application of unsupervised learning is in the field of density estimation in statisties, such as finding the probability density function!) Though unsupervised learning eneompasses other domains involving summarizing and explaining data features. Cluster analysis isthe assignment of a set of observations into subsets (called clusters) so that observations within the same cluster are similar according to one or mote predesignated criteria, while observations drawn from different clusters are dissimilar. Different clustering techniques make different assumptions on the structure of the data, often defined by some similarity metric and evaluated, for example, by internal compactness, or the similarity between members of the same cluster, and separation, the difference between clusters, Other methods are based on estimated density and graph connectivity ‘Semi-supervised learning Semi-supervised learning falls between unsupervised learning (without any labeled training data) and supervised learning (with completely labeled training data). Some ofthe training examples are missing training labels, yet many machine-learning researchers have found that unlabeled data, when used in conjunction with a small amount of labeled data, ean produce a considerable improvement in Tearning accuracy. hitpstien wikipedia. orgwikiMachine_learing ane612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. In weakly supervised learning, the training labels are noisy, limited, or imprecise; however, these labels are often cheaper to obtain, resulting in larger effective training sets.(371 Reinforcement learning Reinforcement learning is an area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so fas to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Due to its generality, the fied is studied in many other disciplines, such as game theory, control theory, operations research, information theory, simulation-based optimization, multi-agent systems, swarm intelligence, statistics and genetic algorithms. In machine learning, the environment is typically represented as a Markov decision process (MDP). Many reinforeement learning algorithms use dynamic programming techniques. Reinforcement learning algorithms o not assume knowledge of an exact mathematical model of the MDP, and are used when exact models are infeasible, Reinforcement learning algorithms are used in autonomous vehicles or in learning to play a game against a human opponent. Dimensionality reduction Dimensionality reduction is a process of reducing the number of random variables under consideration by obtaining a set of principal variables/99l In other words, its a process of reducing the dimension of the feature set, also called "number of features", Most of the dimensionality reduetion techniques can be considered as either feature elimination or extraction. One of the popular methods of dimensionality reduction is principal component analysis (PCA). PCA involves changing higher- {burger} found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such information ean be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as promotional pricing or produet placements. In addition to market basket analysis, association rules are employed today hitpstien wikipedia. orgwikiMachine_learing e8612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. in application areas including Web usage mining, intrusion detection, continuous production, and bioinformaties. In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across ‘transactions Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with a learning component, performing either supervised learning, reinforcement learning, or unsupervised learning, They seek to identify a set of context-dependent rules that collectively store and apply knowledge in a piecewise manner in order to make predictions.{63! Inductive logic programming (ILP) is an approach to rule-learning using logic programming as a uniform representation for input examples, background knowledge, and hypotheses. Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented asa logical database of facts, an TLP system will derive a hypothesized logie program that entail all positive and no negative examples, Inductive programming is related field that considers any kind of programming language for representing hypotheses (and not only logic programming), such as functional programs. Inductive logic programming is particularly useful in bioinformatics and natural language processing. Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting!*#I(5I°% Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples.(°7I The term inductive here refers to philosophical induction, suggesting a theory to explain observed facts, rather than ‘mathematical induction, proving a property for all members ofa well-ordered set. Models Performing machine learning involves ereating a model, which is trained on some training data and then can process additional data to ‘make predictions. Various types of models have been used and researched for machine learning systems. Artificial neural networks Artificial neural networks (ANNs), or connectionist systems, are computing systems vaguely inspired by the biological neural networks that constitute animal brains. Such systems "leam" to perform tasks by considering examples, generally without being programmed with any task-specifc rules. ‘An ANN is a model based on a collection of connected units or nodes called “artificial neurons", which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. Each eonneetion, like the synapses in a biological brain, can transmit information, a "signal", from one artificial neuron to another. An artificial neuron that receives a signal can process it and then signal additional artificial neurons connected to it. In common ANN implementations, the signal at a connection between artificial neurons is a real number, and the output of each artificial neuron is computed by some non-linear function of the sum ofits inputs. ‘The connections between artificial neurons are called "edges". Artificial neurons and edges typically have a weight that adjusts as learning proceeds. The weight increases or Gecreases the strength of the signal at a connection. Artificial neurons may have a threshold such that the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal crosses that threshold. ‘Typically, artificial neurons are aggregated into layers. Different layers may perform different kinds of transformations on their inputs. Signals travel from the first layer (the input layer) to the last layer (Uhe output layer), possibly after traversing the layers multiple times. ‘An atl neural network i an interconnected uP of nods, akin to he vast natwork of ‘The original goal of the ANN approach was to solve problems in the same way that a Pourons na bran. Were, eae cular rode human brain would. However, over time, attention moved to performing specific tasks, _‘oprosors en arial naron ané an artow leading to deviations from biology. Artificial neural networks have been used on a variety _@9"es00\s a comecion rom te oulul of one of tasks, including computer vision, speech recognition, machine translation, social ="cel neuron tte input ot anamer network filtering, playing board and video games and medical diagnosis. Deep learning consists of multiple hidden layers in an artificial neural network. This approach tries to model the way the human brain processes light and sound into vision and hearing, Some suecesfl application of ceep lerning are computer vision and speech recognition 68 Dei ion trees, Decision tree learning uses a decision tree as a predictive model to go from observations about an item (represented in the branches) to conclusions about the item's target value (represented in the leaves). IL is one of the predictive modeling approaches used in statisties, Gata mining, and machine learning. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of values are called classification trees; in these tree structures, leaves represent class labels and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those class labels, hitpstien wikipedia. orgwikiMachine_learing me612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. Decision trees where the target variable ean take continuous values (typically real numbers) are called regression trees. In decision analysis, a decision tree ean be used to visually and explicitly represent decisions and decision making, In data mining, a decision tree eseribes data, but the resulting classification tree can be an input for decision making, Supportvector machines Support-veetor machines (SVMs), also known as support-vector networks, are a set of related supervised learning methods used for classification and regression. Given a set of training examples, each marked as belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model that predicts whether a new example falls into one eategory or the other.{°2] An SVM training algorithm is & non-probabilistic, binary, linear classifier, although methods such as Platt scaling exist to use SVM in a probabilistic classification setting. In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a non-linear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into high-dimensional feature spaces. Regression analysis Regression analysis encompasses a large variety of statistical methods to estimate the relationship between input variables and their associated features. Its most common form is linear regression, where a single line is drawn to best fit the given data according to & mathematical criterion such as ordinary least squares. The latter is often extended by regularization (mathematies) methods to mitigate overfitting and bias, as in ridge regression. When dealing with non-linear problems, go-to models include polynomial regression (for example, used for trendline fitting in Microsoft Excell), logistic regression (often used in statistical classification) or even kernel regression, which introduces non-linearity by taking advantage of the kernel trick to implicitly map input variables to higher-dimensional space. Bayesian networks A Bayesian network, belief network, or directed aeyclic graphical model is a probabilistic graphical ‘model that represents a set of random variables and their conditional independence with a directed acyelie graph (DAG). For example, a Bayesian network could represent the probabilistic relationships between diseases and symptoms. Given symptoms, the network can be used to compute the probabilities of the presence of various diseases. Efficient algorithms exist that perform inference and learning. Bayesian networks that model sequences of variables, like speech signals or protein sequences, are called dynamic Bayesian networks. Generalizations of Bayesian networks that ean Asmple Sayesan network. Fain represent and solve decision problems under uncertainty are called influence diagrams. Irtueneas whether te sprker te D pr aa activated, and both rain ar the inl iuence whether the Genetic algorithms sass is wet A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimies the process of natural selection, using methods such as mutation and erossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. in machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 19908747") Conversely, machine learning ‘techniques have been used to improve the performance of genetic and evolutionary algorithms.) Tr ing models ‘Typically, machine learning models require a high quantity of reliable data in order for the models to perform accurate predietions. When training a machine learning model, machine learning engineers need to target and collect a large and representative sample of data. Data from the training set can be as varied as a corpus of text, a collection of images, sensor data, and data collected from individual users ofa service. Overfitting is something to watch out for when training a machine learning model. Trained models derived from biased or non-evaluated data can result in skewed or undesired predictions. Bias models may result in detrimental outcomes ‘thereby furthering the negative impacts to society or objectives. Algorithmic bias is a potential result from data not fully prepared for training, Machine learning ethies is becoming a field of study and notably be integrated within machine learning engineering teams. Federated learning Federated learning is an adapted form of distributed artificial intelligence to training machine learning models that decentralizes the training process, allowing for users’ privacy to be maintained by not needing to send their data to a centralized server. This also increases efficiency by decentralizing the training process to many devices. For example, Gboard uses federated machine learning to train search «query prediction models on users’ mobile phones without having to send individual searches back to Google |?) Applications hitpsten.wikipeia.orgwikiMachine_learing ane612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. ‘There are many applications for machine learning, including: = Agriculture + Knowledge graph embedding = Anatomy + Linguistics = Adaptive website + Machine learning control * Affective computing + Machine perception = Astronomy + Machine translation * Automated decision-making + Marketing = Banking + Medical diagnosis * Bioinformatics + Natural language processing + Brain-machine interfaces + Natural language understanding = Cheminformatics + Online advertising = Citizen science + Optimization = Climate science + Recommender systems = Computer networks + Robot locomotion = Computer vision + Search engines = Credi-card fraud detection + Sentiment analys's = Data quality + Sequence mining 1 DNA sequence classification ' Software engineering = Economics + Speech recognition = Financial market analysis(751 + Structural health monitoring = General game playing + Syntactic pattern recognition = Handwriting recognition + Telecommunication * Information retrieval + Theorem proving = Insurance + Time-series forecasting * Internet fraud detection + User behavior analytics * Behaviorism In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy ofits existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from ATE Labs-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million.“ Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers’ ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing. patterns (everything is a recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly. In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis!"8) in 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors’ jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software.™! In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously ‘unrecognized influences among artists '*°l In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book ereated using machine learning 41 In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19 [#2] Machine learning is recently applied to predit the green behavior of human-being/&2) Recently, machine learning technology i also applied to optimise smartphone's performance and thermal behaviour based on the user's interaction with the phone. t#I#sI# Limitations Although machine learning has been transformative in some fields, machinelearning programs often fail to deliver expected results.S7188(89) Reasons for this are numerous: lack of (suitable) data, lack of aceess to the data, data bias, privacy problems, badly chosen tasks and algorithms, wrong tools and people, lack of resources, and evaluation problems.) In 2018, a self-driving car from Uber failed to detect a pedestrian, who was killed after a collision. [24] Attempts to use machine learning, in healthcare with the IBM Watson system failed to deliver even after years of time and billions of dollars invested.{921193) Machine learning has been used as a strategy to update th to the growth of biomedical literature. While it has improved with training sets, it has not yet developed sufficiently to reduce the workload burden without limiting the necessary sensitivity for the findings research themselves. [241 ‘evidence related to systematic review and inereased reviewer burden related Machine learning approaches in particular can suffer from different data biases. A machine learning system trained specifically on current customers may not be able to prodict the needs of new customer groups that are not represented in the training data. When ‘trained on man-made data, machine learning is likely to pick up the constitutional and unconscious biases already present in society..991 Language models learned from data have been shown to contain human-like biases.(91/71 Machine learning systems used for eriminal risk assessment have been found to be biased against black people.(%119) In 2015, Google photos would often tag black people as hitpstien wikipedia. orgwikiMachine_learing one612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. gorillas and in 2018 this still was not well resolved, but Google reportedly was still using the workaround to remove all gorillas from the training data, and thus was not able to recognize real gorillas at all°H1 Similar issues with recognizing non-white people have been found in many other systems.!*©#] In 2016, Microsoft tested a chatbot that learned from Twitter, and it quickly picked up racist and sexist language.(°8) Because of such challenges, the effective use of machine learning may take longer to be adopted in other omains.°41 Concern for fairness in machine learning, that is, reducing bias in machine learning and propelling its use for human good is increasingly expressed by artificial intelligence scientists, including Fei-Fei Li, who reminds engineers that "There's nothing artificial about AL...t's inspired by people, i's created by people, and—most importantly—it impacts people, It is a powerful tool we are only just ‘beginning to understand, and that is a profound responsibility.”128 Overfitting Settling on a bad, overly complex theory gerrymandered to fit all the past training data is known as overftting. Many systems attempt to reduce overfitting by rewarding a theory in accordance with ‘how well it fits the data, but penalizing the theory in accordance with how complex the theory is.!2! Other limitations and vulnerabilities Learners can also disappoint by "learning the wrong lesson”. toy example is that an image classifier ‘trained only on pictures of brown horses and black cats might conclude that all brown patches are THe cals be an examole likely to be horses.24) 4 real-world example is that, unlike humans, current image classifiers often °®¥ttng® near unston eto don't primarily make judgments from the spatial relationship between components of the picture, ‘"%2""28® and they learn relationships between pixels that humans are oblivious to, but that still correlate with images of certain types of real objects. Modifying these patterns on a legitimate image ean result in “adversarial” images that the system misclassities227108) Adversarial vulnerabilities can also result in nonlinear systems, or from non-pattern perturbations. Some systems are so brittle that changing a single adversarial pixel predictably induces misclassification. Machine learning models are often vulnerable to manipulation and/or evasion via adversarial machine learning (291 Researchers have demonstrated how backdoors can be placed undetectably into classtying (e.g for eategories "spam" and well-visible “not spam” of posts) machine learning models which are often developed and/or trained by third parties. Parties can change the classification of any input, including in cases for which a type of data/software transparency is provided, possibly including white-box feces 11] 3) Model assessments Classification of machine learning models ean be validated by accuracy estimation techniques like the holdout method, which splits the Gata in a training and test set (conventionally 2/3 training set and 1/3 test set designation) and evaluates the performance ofthe training ‘model on the test set. In comparison, the K-fold-eross-validation method randomly partitions the data into K subsets and then K experiments are performed each respectively considering 1 subset for evaluation and the remaining K-t subsets for training the model In addition to the holdout and cross-validation methods, bootstrap, which samples n instances with replacement from the dataset, ean be used to assess model accuracy. lS] In addition to overall accuracy, investigators frequently report sensitivity and specificity meaning True Positive Rate (TPR) and True Negative Rate (INR) respectively. Similarly, investigators sometimes report the fase postive rate (FPR) as well as the false negative rate (ENR). However, these rates are ratios that fail to reveal their numerators and denominators. The total operating characteristic (TOC) is an effective method to express a model's diagnostic ability. TOC shows the numerators and denominators of the previously mentioned rates, thus TOC provides more information than the commonly used receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and ROC’s associated area under the eurve (AUC) U4 Ethics Machine learning poses a host of etieal questions. Systems which are trained on datasets collected with biases may exhibit these biases ‘pon use (algorithmic bins), thus digitizing cultural prejudices."S] For example, in 1988, the UK's Commission for Racial Equality found that St. George's Medical School had been using a computer program trained from data of previous admissions staff and this program thad denied nearly 60 candidates who were found to be either women or had non-European sounding names. Using job hiting data fom a firm with racist hiring policies may lead to a machine learning system duplicating the bias by scoring job applicants by similarity to previous successful applicants. "161271 Responsible collection of data and documentation of algorithmie rules used by a system thus is a critical part of machine learning, AT ean be well-equipped to make decisions in technical fields, which rely heavily on data and historical information, These decisions rely fon objectivity and logical reasoning.8] Because human languages contain biases, machines trained on language corpora will necessarily also learn these biases '8911201, hitpsten.wikipeia.orgwikiMachine_learing 10118612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. Other forms of ethical challenges, not related to personal biases, are seen in health care. There are concerns among health care professionals that these systems might not be designed in the public's interest but as income-generating machines.) This is especially ‘rue in the United States where there is a long-standing ethical dilemma of improving health care, but also inereasing profits. For example, the algorithms could be designed to provide patients with unnecessary tests or medication in which the algorithm's proprietary owners hold stakes. There is potential for machine learning in health care to provide professionals an additional tool to diagnose, ‘mediate, and plan recavery paths for patients, but this requires these biases to be mitigated, {1221 Hardware Since the 2010s, advances in both machine learning algorithms and computer hardware have led to more efficient methods for training deep neural networks (a particular narrow subdomain of machine learning) that contain many layers of non-linear hidden units.!"28! By 2019, graphie processing units (GPUs), often with AL-specfie enhancements, had displaced CPUs as the dominant method of training large-scale commercial cloud AI.24! OpenAl estimated the hardware compute used in the largest deep learning projects from AlexNet (Got2) to AlphaZero (2017), and found a 300,000-fld increase in the amount of compute required, with a doubling-time trendline of 3.4 months, 25126 Neuromorphic/Physical Neural Networks A physical neural network or Neuromorphic computer is type of artificial neural network in which an electrically adjustable material i used to emulate the function of a neural synapse. "Physieal” neural network is used to emphasize the reliance on physical hardware used to emulate neurons as opposed to software-based approaches. More generally the term is applicable to other artificial neural networks in which a memristor or other electrically adjustable resistance material is used to emulate a neural synapse, (271228 Embedded Machine Learning Embedded Machine Learning is a sub-feld of machine learning, where the machine learning model is run on embedded systems with limited computing resources such as wearable computers, edge devices and mierocontrollers.(212°10] Running machine learning model in embedded devices removes the need for transferring and storing data on cloud servers for further processing, henceforth, reducing data breaches and privacy leaks happening because of transferring data, and also minimizes theft of intellectual properties, personal data and business secrets. Embedded Machine Learning could be applied through several techniques including hardware acceleration, (1239) using approximate computing, (4) optimization of machine learning models and many more, (51038) Software Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following: Free and open-source software = Caffe = Mallet = scikitlearn = Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit = MLNET = Shogun = Deeplearningsj = mipack = Spark MLiib = DeepSpeed = MXNet = SystemML = ELK! = Neural Lab = TensorFlow = Infor. NET = OpenNN Torch / PyTorch = Keras = Orange = Weka / MOA = Lighten * pandas (software) = XGBoost = Mahout = ROOT (TMVA with ROOT) = Yooreeka Proprietary software with free and open-source editions = KNIME = RapidMiner Proprietary software = Amazon Machine Learning = IBM SPSS Modeler = NeuroSolutions 1» Angoss KnowledgeSTUDIO = KXEN Modeler = Oracle Data Mining = Azure Machine Learning = LiONsoWver = Oracle Al Platform Cloud Service = Ayasdi = Mathematica = PolyAnalyst = IBM Watson Studio = MATLAB. = RCASE = Google Prediction API = Neural Designer = SAS Enterprise Miner hitpstien wikipedia. orgwikiMachine_learing nine612/22, 1234 PM Machine learning - Wikipedia. = Sequencel = Splunk = STATISTICA Data Miner Journals ‘= Journal of Machine Learning Research = Machine Learning 1 Nature Machine Inteligence = Neural Computation Conferences ' AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence = Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD) ' International Conference on Computational nteligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (CIBB) ® International Conference on Machine Learning (\EML) + Intemational Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) * International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) = Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) * Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS) See also + Automated machine learning — Process of automating the application of machi *= Big data — information assets characterized by high volume, velocity, and variety = Differentiable programming — Programming paragigm + List of important publications in machine learning + List of datasets for machine-earning research References ‘Mitchell, Tom (1997). 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ISBN 978-1-55860-467-4, Archived (ntips/web archive orq/web/20200726 131654 hips: //archive. orgidetailsiarificiaintell0000niis) ‘rom the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Russell, Stuart J-; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (hitpliaima.cs.berkeley.edul) (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Mall, ISBN 0-13-780396-2. + Poole, David: Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1988). Computational Inteligence: A Logical Approach (niips:larchive.orgdetalsico ‘putational (00pool). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510270-3, Archived (nitps:/web, archive, orgiweb/2020072 6131436/https:/archive.orgidetails/computationalintOOpool) from tho original on 26 July 2020. Retrioved 22 August 2020. Further reading ' Nils J. Nilsson, Introduction to Machine Learning (httos:/ai stan ford.edu/people/niissonv/mlbook.htma!) ' Trevor Hastie, Robert Tibshirani and Jerome H. Friedman 200"), The Elements of Statistical Learning (hitos:/web.stanfo ‘d.odu/-hastie/ElomStatLearn), Springer. ISBN 0-387-95284- 5 = Pedro Domingos (September 2015), The Master Algorithm, Basic Books, ISBN 978-0-465-06570-7 * lan H. Witten and Elbe Frank (2011). Data Mining: Practical ‘machine leaming tools and techniques Morgan Kaufmann, 564pp., ISBN 978-0-12-374856-0. = Ethem Alpaydin (2004). Introduction to Machine Learning, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-01243-0, = David J. C. MacKay. Information Theory, Inorence, and Learning Algonthms (hitp:/iwwrw.inference,phy.cam.ac.uk/mack ay/itiarbook html) Cambridge: Camridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-64298-4 External links Richard 0. Duda, Peter E. Hart, David G. Stork (2001) Pattern Classification (2nd edition), Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471- 5669-3, Christopher Bishop (1995). Neural Networks for Pattem Recognition, Ox‘ord University Press. ISBN 0-19-853864.2 Stuart Russell & Peter Norvig, (2009). Artificial inteligence — A Moder Approach (htp:/aima.cs.borkoley.edu/). Pearson, ISBN 9789332543515, Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Me Convention Record, Section on Information 56-62, 1957 Ray Solomonoff, An Inductive Inference Machine (http:/world.s {e.com/rjsfindinf56,pdl) A privately circulated report from the “7956 Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on Al Kevin P, Murphy (202"), Probabilistic Machine Learning: An Introduction (htps:/probml github. iofpmi-book/book htm), MIT Press, ' «Quotations related to Machine learning at Wikiquote ' International Machine Learning Society (hitps:iweb archive. orgiweb/20171230081341 http Imachinelearing.org/) = mioss (ntips:/mloss.orgl) is an academic database of open-source machine learning software. Rotrioved fom "tpl wikipedia orgwindx psi This page was last odted on 26 May 2022, at 07:44 (UTC). Privacy Poly. Wikipedia® isa rag hitpsten.wikipeia.orgwikiMachine_learing ‘wademark of he Waimesia Foundation, In refit organization s8n8