Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 10 0 015

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Geosystems and Geoenvironment

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Neoproterozoic extensional basins and its control on the distribution

of hydrocarbon source rocks in the Yangtze Craton, South China
Fengli Yang a, Xiaofeng Zhou b,∗, Yuyang Hu a, Xiaodong Yang c, Ruiqing Yang a
a
State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, School of Ocean and Earth Science, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
b
Hubei Cooperative Innovation Center of Unconventional Oil and Gas, Yangtze University, Wuhan, 430100, China
c
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, 511458, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Hydrocarbon exploration in the Neoproterozoic extensional basins in the Yangtze Craton of South China
Received 4 November 2021 has made prominent progresses in the past decades. However, the spatial distribution of source rocks
Revised 10 November 2021
across the craton still remains unclear. Here, we use outcrop observations, borehole data, and reflective
Accepted 12 November 2021
seismic profiles to investigate the prototype, distribution and sediment infilling of these basins in the
Yangtze Craton during the periods of source rock deposition. The basin prototype is categorized based
Keywords: on its tectonic origin and structural-sedimentary feature as follows. (1) During the deposition of the
Neoproterozoic Datangpo Formation, rift basins extensively developed, band are characterized by a series of graben or
Extensional basin half graben structures that consist of basin-controlling normal faults. The source rocks in the Datangpo
Hydrocarbon source rock
Formation were deposited as the inner shelf basin or deep shelf facies, obtaining high thickness (i.e.,
Rodinia
200 m) in the Wuling rift basin. (2) During the deposition of the Doushantuo Formation, the intracratonic
Yangtze Craton
rift basin and passive continental margin basin formed. These basins were controlled by syn-depositional
faults that inherited the existing rift fault structures. The source rocks of the Doushantuo Formation were
deposited as shelf lagoon, slope to deep-water basin facies. (3) During the deposition of the Dengying
Formation, the intraplatform rift basin and passive continental margin basin developed with influence
of regional tectonic extension. Not only are these basins affected by the preexisting faults, but also by
the newly developed syn-depositional faults. The argillaceous source rocks of the Dengying Formation
deposited as slope and deep-water basin facies. Further in-depth analyses revealed that a range of mech-
anisms may have contributed to the formation and distribution of source rocks in the Yangtze Craton,
such as the break-up of the Rodinia Supercontinent, paleaolatitudes, glacial-interglacial geological events,
basin extension and sedimentary environments. By integrating the distribution of the source rocks and
the late tectonic reworking, this study predicts several targets for the source rock distribution in the
Yangtze Craton, including in the central Sichuan, northeastern Sichuan, southern Shanxi, western Hubei,
northeastern Guizhou-western Hunan, and the northeastern Guangxi-central Hunan areas.
© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Ocean University of China.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

1. Introduction to Phanerozoic (Craig et al., 2009; J. 2013; Ghori et al., 2009;

Extensional basins include rift basins, intracratonic sags and
passive continental margin basins, which form part of an evolu-
tionary sequence of basins unified by processes of lithospheric ex-
tension (Allen and Allen, 2005). The extensional basins, as im-
portant basin types for oil-gas exploration, play great roles in
the formation of hydrocarbon source rocks from the Proterozoic
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: yangfl@tongji.edu.cn (F. Yang), zhouxf803@163.com (X. Zhou).
Macgregor, 1996).
During the Neoproterozoic, the most remarkable geological
events in the Earth’s evolution are the assembly and breakup
of the Rodinia Supercontinent (Cawood et al., 2013, 2016;
Hoffman, 1999; Li et al., 2008b; Y. 2013), which have greatly
impacted the interactions between tectonics and sedimentation,
climate and environment, biological evolution and distribution
of petroleum source rocks worldwide (J. Craig et al., 2013;
Hoffman, 1999; Hoffman et al., 2002; Li et al., 2008a; Z.X. Li et al.,
2013; Merdith et al., 2019). A number of primary oil-gas pools
with commercial value have been found in basins developed

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2021.10 0 015
2772-8838/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Ocean University of China. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
in the Neoproterozoic cratons (e.g., the East Siberia, Oman, In-
dia and Yangtze), suggesting that the hydrocarbon source rocks
can be well deposited in the Neoproterozoic extensional basins
that were formed due to the breakup of the Rodinia Supercon-
tinent (J. Craig et al., 2013; Frolov et al., 2015). The extensional
basins, especially the rift basin and passive continental margin
basin, are conducive to an accumulation of argillaceous sediments
(J. Craig et al., 2013; Zhao et al., 2017) and an enrichment of or-
ganic carbon (Och and Shields-Zhou, 2012). These organic-rich sed-
iments can readily evolve into effective source rocks and thus,
form oil-gas pools through later geological evolution. As such,
there appears to be a genetic link between the supercontinent
breakup, extensional basin development and source rocks forma-
tion (J. Craig et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014).
In the Yangtze Craton, a number of extensional basins devel-
oped during the Middle-Late Neoproterozoic (Guan et al., 2017;
Wang and Li, 20 01, 20 03; Wang et al., 2015a, 2015b; Zhuo et al.,
2013; Li et al., 2019) together with the deposition of three sets
of hydrocarbon source rock, i.e. the Datangpo Formation, the
Doushantuo Formation and the Dengying Formation (Wang et al.,
2016; Xie et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2019). During
the past few decades, a remarkable progress has been seen in Neo-
proterozoic hydrocarbon exploration in the Yangtze Craton, South
China, e.g., the discovery of the Weiyuan-Anyue Sinian gas field in
Sichuan Province, the breakthrough of the Doushantuo shale gas
in Hubei Province (Peng et al., 2017; G. Wei et al., 2015). Although
previous studies have proposed that there was an inner-cratonic
rift basins developed in central and northeast Sichuan Province
(G. Wei et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2017), the coupling between the
basin type, sedimentary environment and distribution of source
rock still remain poorly understood, which largely prevents further
oil-gas exploration in the Yangtze Craton.
To address this issue, we conducted a comprehensive study us-
ing outcrop and drilling core observations, and seismic profiles in-
terpretation to investigate the characteristics of the Neoprotero-
zoic extensional basins and their influence on the formation of
the associated source rocks in the Yangtze Craton. We aim to (1)
classify the prototype of the extensional basins in Yangtze Craton,
(2) identify the controlling factors for the formation of hydrocar-
bon source rocks, and (3) evaluate and predict the Neoproterozoic
source rocks. These results are expected to lay foundations for the
future oil-gas exploration in Yangtze Craton.
2. Tectonic setting of the Neoproterozoic extensional basins
The Yangtze Craton lies in the southeastern China mainland
(Fig. 1). It is separated from the North China Craton by the Qinling-
Dabie Orogen Belt to the north, from the Songpan-Ganzi Orogen
by the Longmenshan Fault Zone to the northwest, from the In-
dochina Block by the Ailaoshan-Songma Shear Zone to the south-
west (Zhao and Cawood, 2012), and from the Cathaysia Block by
the Chenzhou-Linwu and Jiangshan-Shaoxing fault zones to the
southeast (Fig. 1). The Yangtze Craton has a minor Archaean-
Palaeoproterozoic crystalline basement that is unconformably over-
lain by the weakly metamorphosed strata of early-middle Neo-
proterozoic age. Although the stratigraphic classification is dis-
puted, this study accepts that the Neoproterozoic strata are divided
into the Qingbaikou (10 0 0–720 Ma), Nanhua (720–635 Ma) and
Sinian systems (635–541 Ma), corresponding to the Tonian, Cryoge-
nian and Ediacaran systems in the international stratigraphic chart
(Fig. 2; Wang et al., 2015b; Zhai, 2015; Zhu et al., 2016).
In response to the breakup of the Rodinia Supercontinent, the
Yangtze Craton has well documented a range of global geological
events during the Nanhua and Sinian periods, such as magmatic
activities (Ling et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2008a,
2013b; Zhou et al., 2004; Zhu et al., 2014), glaciations (Gao et al.,
2
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015
2015; Zhang et al., 2009, 2008a), life evolution (Chen et al.,
2009; Liu et al., 2009) and continental rifting and basin forma-
tion (Guan et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018, 2003; Wang and Li, 2001;
Wang et al., 2015b; Wei et al., 2018). Previous studies using geo-
chemical techniques showed that the Yangtze Craton has divergent
plate-boundary during the Nanhua and Sinian periods despite vari-
ous initiation timing across different regions. On the northern mar-
gin of the Yangtze Craton, the continental rifting began as early
as 705 Ma (Y. Dong et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2017); while on the
western margin of the Yangtze Craton, the divergent continental
margin started at approximately 740 Ma (Zhao and Zhou, 2007;
Zhou et al., 2006). In contrast, the south-eastern margin of the
Yangtze Craton and the interior transitioned to post-orogenic ex-
tension at much early time of 805 Ma (He et al., 2017; Sun et al.,
2018; Xia et al., 2018; Xin et al., 2017; Yao et al., 2013). In ad-
dition, some evidences from palaeogeographic reconstruction sug-
gested that, with effects of the Rodinia assembly, the Yangtze Cra-
ton was subjected to convergence during the Early Neoproterozoic,
and transit to divergent continental margins during the Nanhua-
Sinian period (Z.X. Li et al., 2013; Merdith et al., 2017; Zhao et al.,
2018). So the Yangtze Craton can be further divided into two evolu-
tionary stages during the Nanhua-Sinian period based on different
tectonic mechanisms: the early and the late divergent continental
margins.
Furthermore, field geological observation has indicated that the
Nanhua System is in an unconformity contact with the underlying
strata, and unconformably or conformably underlain by the Sinian
System (Wang et al., 2015b). The Sinian System is unconformably
or conformably underlain by the Cambrian System (Fig. 2).
3. Deformation and sedimentation of the extensional basins
Previous studies of the tectonic history, basin architecture, and
stratigraphic development of the Yangtze Craton suggested that the
evolution of the Neoproterozoic extensional basins can be further
classified into two phases: (1) the early divergent continental mar-
gin (the Nanhua; 720–635 Ma) characterized by continental rift-
ing, volcanic activity and extensional faulting (Guan et al., 2017;
Li et al., 2018; Ling et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017;
Zhu et al., 2014); (2) the late divergent continental margin (the
Sinian; 635–541 Ma) characterized by post-rifting thermal subsi-
dence and absence of volcanic activity. In the following section, we
will discuss the basin distribution and sediment infilling in relation
to the source rocks deposition.
3.1. Period of the Datangpo formation deposition
3.1.1. Basin distribution and structural pattern
During the Datangpo Period representing the depositional pe-
riod of the Datangpo Formation in this study, influenced by the
breakup of the Rodinia Supercontinent, a number of rift basins
were developed in the Yangtze Craton. They are characterized by
a series of grabens or half grabens that consist of basin-controlling
extensional faults, and thinning sequence from the depocenter to-
wards the basin edges (Wang and Li, 2003) so the sediments
deposited during the Datangpo Period have obtained significant
thickness in the rift basins, such as the Wuling Rift Basin on the
southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton (Zhou et al., 2016). In
the interior Yangtze Craton, the Datangpo Formation could not be
further identified on the seismic profiles, but the parallel and sub-
parallel seismic reflection profiles of the Nanhua System show the
graben structures (Fig. 3; Gu and Wang, 2014; Li et al., 2018).
Moreover, the dating results of granites at the base of the Sinian
System (Well W117 and W28; Gu et al., 2014; He et al., 2017) sug-
gest that the chaotic seismic reflections outside the basin are the
Pre-Nanhua crystalline basement, indicating the presence of uplifts
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
Fig. 1. Geological map of the Yangtze Craton showing the distribution of Precambrian rocks, modified after Charvet (2013); Wang et al., (2015b); Zhao and Cawood (2012).
in the interior Yangtze Craton during the Datangpo Period. Obvi-
ously, the spatial distribution of the rift basins can be readily re-
vealed by the geological and geophysical data as mentioned above.
The U-Pb zircon ages of volcanic ash from the base and top of
the Datangpo Formation in the Yangtze Craton suggest that these
rift basins were formed between 663 ± 4 Ma and 654.5 ± 3.8 Ma
(Fig. 2; Zhang et al., 2008a; Zhou et al., 2004).
3.1.2. Sediment infilling
(1) Basin on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton. On the
southeastern margin of the Yangtze Craton, three rift basins de-
veloped, namely the Wuling, Xuefeng and northern Zhejiang rift
basins (abbreviated as WLRB, XFRB, NZRB, respectively), extended
in orientation of SW-NE (Fig. 4A). In the WLRB, previous scholars
have conducted a great deal of research on the basin structures
to explore the Datangpo-type Manganese Ores (Du et al., 2018;
Zhou et al., 2016). The basin is dominated by shales and siltstones
with few conglomerates and volcanic rocks. The depositional suc-
cession of the Datangpo Formation can be further divided into two
lithologic members: the lower and the upper ones. The lower one
is characterized by black Mn-bearing dolomites and carbonaceous
shales, deposited as restricted inner shelf basin facies. The upper
3
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015
one is composed of dark-gray silty mudstones and shales, appar-
ently representing the low-energy shelf basin deposits. Sea level
rose in coincidence with fault activity during the interglacial pe-
riod (Li et al., 2012; Z.X. Li et al., 2013), allowing nutrient-rich deep
marine waters to enter the restricted rift basin (Li et al., 2012). The
basin deposits have gained a thickness up to 300 m. The XFRB con-
tains the interglacial deposits of the Fulu Formation (Fig. 2). It is
made up of three lithologic members (Lu et al., 2010): the lower,
middle and upper ones. The lower one consists of fuchsia ferrug-
inous shales, siltstones and arkoses, indicating tidal flat and some
restricted lagoon deposits; the middle one contains gray thick to
massive arkoses, with channel-like conglomeratic sandstones, de-
posited mainly as an inner-shelf sand shoal facies. The abrupt sea-
level rise could result from rift-related faulting. The upper one con-
tains thin-bedded Mn-bearing black mudstones and siltstones, in-
dicating deep shelf facies. The thickness of the basin deposits var-
ied from a few meters to a few hundred meters, while the upper
one has a thickness ranging from 4.5 to 20 m (Fig. 4B). The concept
of the NZRB was first proposed by Wang and Li (2003). During the
Dangtangpo Period, the basin consists of some shelf Mn-bearing
siliceous shales and silty shales, with a thickness of 4.5–9 m, in-
dicative of low rates of sedimentation and tectonic subsidence.
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column for the Neoproterozoic strata in the Yangtze Craton, modified after Kuang et al., (2019); Wang and Li (2003); Wang et al., (2015b); Zhou (2016).
(2) Basin on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton. On the
northern margin of the Yangtze Craton, a W-E-oriented rift basin
formed, namely the northern Yangtze rift basin (NYRB) (Fig. 4A),
with two depositional domains. On the south, the basin contains
argillaceous siltstones of the Datangpo Formation (Wang, 2009),
depositing as deep shelf to inner-shelf basin facies, with thick-
ness ranging from 13 to 147 m (Fig. 4B). However, on the north,
the basin is characterized by alternation of metamorphic volcanic
rocks and clastic rocks of the Yaolinghe Group (Fig. 4B), including
some volcanic lava and breccia (Liu and Zhang, 1993). The Yaol-
4
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015
inghe Group has a thickness of more than 1500 m, and therein,
the volcanic rocks have an average age of 682 ± 6 Ma (Ling et al.,
2008). Thus, it is indicative that the rift-related magmatic activity
had lasted longer in the NYRB, and might be of great importance
to the complete departure of the South China Block from the Ro-
dinia Supercontinent (Ling et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2021).
(3) Basins on the western margin of the Yangtze Craton and its in-
terior. On the western margin of the Yangtze Craton and its in-
terior, there are two rift basins, namely the Kangdian Rift Basin
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
Fig. 3. Interpreted seismic profiles across the basins in the Yangtze Craton (see Fig. 1 for the profile locations). A, B. Normal faults and graben structures of the Nanhua rift
basin (modified after Gu and Wang, 2014; Li et al., 2018); C. the Sinian platform subsidence in central Sichuan Province (modified after Zhong et al., 2013).
(KDRB) and the central Sichuan Rift Basin (CSRB) (Fig. 4A). The
KDRB is bounded by the Anninghe-Yimen Fault to the west and
the Ganluo-Xiaojiang Fault to the east (Cui et al., 2014), with an N-
S orientation. Field outcrops reveal that the basin is filled by a set
of volcanic and volcaniclastic deposits during the Datangpo Period
(Wang and Li, 2001, 2003; Wang et al., 2015; Zhuo et al., 2013).
The CSRB is also imaged on the seismic profiles (Fig.3; Gu and
Wang, 2014; Li et al., 2018; Zhong et al., 2013), yet its sediment
infilling remains unclear. It is worth noting that the rift basin sed-
imentation has a characteristic of segmentation and variation sim-
ilar to that in the Great Rift Valley of central Africa. Therefore, the
areas in the KDRB and CSRB where volcanism is null or very lim-
ited are still possible to deposit argillaceous sediments (Wen et al.,
2012; Zhao et al., 2019, 2017).
3.2. Period of the Doushantuo formation deposition
3.2.1. Basin distribution and structural pattern
After the Nanhua rifting stage, the Yangtze Craton started ther-
mal subsidence as a result of the weakening of global mantle su-
perplume activities (Li et al., 2008a; Z.X. Li et al., 2013; Wang and
Li, 2003). During the Doushantuo Period representing the depo-
sitional period of the Doushantuo Formation in this study, the
postglacial transgression effectively connected all the Nanhua rift
basins (Jiang et al., 2011). The northern and southeastern mar-
gins of the Yangtze Craton then became stable, and evolved as
passive continental margin basins. After this, the interior Yangtze
Craton entered an initial platform stage (Fig. 5A) with intracra-
tonic rift basins (Zhao et al., 2019). Numerous deformed and con-
voluted beddings, slump breccia and slide collapse blocks doc-
umented these processes as recognized in the outcrop sections
(Vernhet et al., 2007). These gravity-related sedimentary structures
are interpreted to record the syn-depositional faulting at basin
margins. The syn-depositional faults are possible to inherit from
5
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015
the pre-existing faults which subsequently controlled the exten-
sional basins during the Doushantuo Period. On most of seismic
profiles, the Doushantuo and Dengying formations are interpreted
as the same stratigraphic sequence due to difficulties to distinguish
them. They are characterized by laterally continuous, parallel and
subparallel seismic reflections in the central Sichuan area (Fig. 3).
The U-Pb zircon dating of volcanic ash beds from the base and the
top of the Doushantuo Formation in the western Hubei Province
indicates that the basin subsidence occurred at ca. 635–551 Ma
(Fig. 2; Condon et al., 2005).
3.2.2. Sediment infilling
(1) Intracratonic rift basins. Intracratonic rift basins are predomi-
nantly distributed in the low relief and deep-water areas within
the Yangtze platform. During the Doushantuo Period, two intra-
cratonic rift basins formed, namely the S-N-oriented west Hubei-
east Chongqing intracratonic rift basin (HCIB) and the SW-NE
trending northeast Sichuan intracratonic rift basin (NSIB) (Fig. 5A).
Due to rapid sea-level rise during the post-glaciation, these basins
are filled with relatively shallow water deposits. Represented by
well YY1 in the HCIB, the sedimentary succession can be divided
into four members. From bottom to top, the first one with 0–5 m
in thickness is characterized by the “cap carbonates” at the base
of the Doushantuo Formation, representing the initial transgres-
sive succession. The second one up to 94 m in thickness contains
some alternating thin-bedded organic-rich shales and argillaceous
carbonate rocks, with considerable chert nodules. The third one
up to 60 m in thickness consists of some predominate carbonate
rocks with chert layers. The forth one with 0–10 m in thickness is
composed of black, organic-rich shales at the top of the Doushan-
tuo Formation (Fig. 5B; Jiang et al., 2011). As documented by these
rocks, the HCIB has experienced several sea-level changes during
the Doushantuo Period, receiving deposits of tidal-flat to restricted
shelf lagoon facies. However, as observed from the drilling core,
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015

Fig. 4. A. Distribution of the rift basins during the Datangpo period (outcrop sections are from published literatures and this study; WLRB=Wuling rift basin, XFRB=Xuefeng
rift basin, NZRB=Northern Zhejiang rift basin, NYRB=Northern Yangtze rift basin, CSRB=Central Sichuan rift basin, KDRB=Kangdian rift basin); B. Schematic cross-section of
the Yangtze basins (see Fig. 4A for the location of line C–C’ and the relevant stratigraphic sections; see Table 1 for the abbreviations of the facies marked on right side of
the lithologic column).

the NSIB comprises thicker sediments, compared to the peripheral
area. It consists of up to 450 m thick siltstones and argillaceous
rocks of shelf lagoon facies (Zhao et al., 2019).
(2) Passive continental margin basins. On the southeastern and
northern margins of the Yangtze Craton, two passive continental
margin basins developed, namely the southeastern Yangtze passive
continental margin basin (SYPB) and the northern Yangtze passive
continental margin basin (NYPB), with SW-NE and W-E orienta-
tions, respectively (Fig. 5A). In contrast to the underlying rift se-
quence, sedimentation rates were low compared to the rates of
subsidence and/or sea-level rise. For the SYPB, previous workers

6
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015

Fig. 5. A. Distribution of the basins during the Doushantuo period (outcrop sections come from published literatures and this study; NSIB=Northeast Sichuan intracratonic rift
basin, HCIB=West Hubei-east Chongqing intracratonic rift basin, SYPB=Southeastern Yangtze passive continental margin basin, NYPB=Northern Yangtze passive continental
margin basin); B. Schematic cross-section of the basins (see Fig. 5A for the location of line d-D’ and the associated stratigraphic sections; see Table 1 for the abbreviations
of the facies marked on right side of the lithologic column).

have conducted detailed investigations into the structures and sed-
imentary setting (Jiang et al., 2011; Vernhet, 2007; Vernhet et al.,
20 06, 20 07). In the northwest, the basin has a southeast-dipping
paleo-slope and comprises thin, laminated, marlstones, limestones
and mudstones with deformed bedding and contorted bedding.
While in the southeast, the basin consists of black, thin-bedded,
carbonaceous shales, silicified shales and siliceous rocks, locally in-
terbedded with siltstones. The depositional sequence has a thick-
ness of 20–103 m, deposited as slope to deep-water basin facies
(Fig. 5B). However, the NYPB changed to a palaeogeographic pat-
tern that was higher in the north and lower in the south. The
basin contains sandstones and silty mudstones of the littoral facies

7
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
in the north and shales and argillaceous carbonate rocks of deep-
water basin facies in the south (Fig. 5A), with thickness ranging
from 70 m to more than 700 m (Wu and Yao, 2017).
(3) Atypical carbonate platforms. The interior Yangtze Craton is
characterized by atypical carbonate platforms during the Doushan-
tuo Period (Fig. 5A). The platforms comprise littoral and tidal flat
deposits of sandstones, carbonate rocks and layers of mudstones,
with thickness of 40–667 m. They are characterized by an irregu-
lar relief due to the Nanhua rifting. Therefore, some relatively shal-
low water sediments deposited in certain area of the Yangtze plat-
forms. For instance, the Nanjiang Section in Sichuan Province con-
tains ca. 20 m thick lagoon mudstones (Fig. 5B; G.Z. Wang et al.,
2019). These argillaceous rocks formed in the platforms are still
capable of evolving to good source rocks.
3.3. Period of the Dengying formation deposition
3.3.1. Basin distribution and structural pattern
The southeastern and northern margins of the Yangtze Craton
maintained passive continental margin basins during the Dengying
Period (in this study, the Dengying Period presents the depositional
period of the Dengying Formation). The majority of the Yangtze
Craton steadily developed to be a typical carbonate platform. In
addition, influenced by the “Xingkai taphrogenesis”, the Yangtze
Craton was subjected to tectonic extension during the Dengying
Period, likely in response to the final breakup of the Rodinia Su-
percontinent (Liu et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2019), thus, a series of
intracratonic rift basins were established in the platform interior
(Fig. 6A; Hou et al., 2017; G. Wei et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2016;
Zhao et al., 2017). These basins are not only affected by the pre-
existing faults, but also by the newly developed syn-depositional
faults (Hou et al., 2017; G. Wei et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2016;
Zhong et al., 2013). The extensional fault activity has lasted at
least at the end of the Dengying Period. Argillaceous dolomite
rocks with irregular breccia and knobby structure are probably de-
posited at the basin edges, which resulted from syn-depositional
faulting (G. Wei et al., 2015). On the seismic profiles, the in-
tracratonic rifts exhibit continuous parallel amplitude, medium-
to high-frequency reflections, and are governed by normal faults
(Hou et al., 2017; G. Wei et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2016; Zeng et al.,
2017). Geochronological results from the base of the Dengying For-
mation reveal that the subsidence stage started at 551.1 ± 0.7 Ma
(Fig. 2; Condon et al., 2005) and lasted until the late Cambrian.
3.3.2. Sediment infilling
(1) Intracratonic rift basins. Three intracratonic rift basins have
been found in the interior Yangtze Craton; a newly formed one
lies in central Sichuan, namely the central Sichuan intracratonic
rift basin (CSIB); while the rest two basins formed in the north-
east Sichuan and west Hubei-east Chongqing (NSIB and HCIB) area
had certain vertical inheritance (Fig. 6A). Influenced by exten-
sion and syn-depositional faulting, these basins show some distinct
characteristics of depositional thickness and environments. Gener-
ally, the intracratonic rift basins have obtained a thickness of 90–
300 m, thinner than that in the regions outside the basin (800–
10 0 0 m) (Du et al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2017). The basin interiors
are characterized by sediments of slope or deep-water basin fa-
cies, while the basin edges are dominated by sediments of plat-
form margin facies (Fig. 6B). Outcrop, drilling core and seismic data
further reveal three members during the intracratonic subsidence
(G. Wei et al., 2015). In the CSIB, from bottom up, the first (100–
200 m thick) contains nodular argillaceous dolomites and siliceous
dolomite rocks of slope facies and shallow shelf facies. The sec-
ond (5–35 m thick) comprises mudstones, shales and argillaceous
8
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015
carbonate rocks of deep-water basin facies, indicating rapid sea-
level rise (Fig. 6B). The third (15–40 m thick) is dominated by thin-
bedded argillaceous carbonate rocks deposited in deep water en-
vironments (Fig. 6B). The evolution of the NSIB and HCIB began
during the Doushantuo Period, but the basins were then narrowed
due to the development of carbonate platforms during the Dengy-
ing Period (Zhao et al., 2017). They have similar depositional char-
acteristics compared to the CSIB in which the second succession
consists of up to 40 m thick argillaceous rocks (Gu et al., 2015).
(2) Passive continental margin basins. On the southeastern and
northern margins of the Yangtze Craton, two passive continental
margin basins developed, namely the southeastern Yangtze passive
continental margin basin (SYPB) and the northern Yangtze passive
continental margin basin (NYPB), showing some pre-existing struc-
tures. During the Dengying Period, the marine transgression con-
tinued. In the SYPB, the depositional succession cannot be further
subdivided; the carbonate and argillaceous rocks of the Dengy-
ing Formation evolve southeastward to become the siliceous rocks
of the Liuchapo Formation (Fig. 2). In the basin interior, the Li-
uchapo Formation comprises up to 215 m thick black siliceous
rocks and silicified shales of deep-water basin facies (Fig. 6B), re-
flecting low sediment supply compared to the relatively rapid sea-
level rise. While in the NYPB, the Dengying Formation varies from
massive algal dolomite rocks in the north to over 100 m thick
siliceous shales and argillaceous carbonate rocks in the south. As
documented by the sedimentary rocks, from the north to south,
the basin sediments change from restricted platform to slope and
deep-water basin facies (Fig. 6A). In addition, the basin contains
deformed beddings and nodular structures at its southern edge
which result from the syn-sedimentary faulting (Zhao et al., 2017).
(3) Carbonate platforms. Carbonate platforms have developed in
the Yangtze Craton with a sediment thickness ranging from 300
to 1400 m during the Dengying period (Fig. 6A). Generally, the
carbonate platforms developed in shallow water environments at
stable tectonic settings. The Dengying Formation is also composed
of three distinct members. The first and third members com-
prise dolomite and algal-rich dolomite rocks of some restricted to
open platform facies, while the second member mainly consists of
siliceous limestones, mudstones and clay-bearing carbonate rocks.
Mudstones of tidal flat lagoon facies are occasionally found in the
second member with thickness of merely a few meters (Fig. 7). For
instance, in the E’bian Section of Sichuan Province, the mudstone is
only 0.6 m thick (Fig. 6B). Recent oil-gas exploration found primary
bitumen in the Sichuan Basin, in which the algal-rich argillaceous
carbonate rock might have certain hydrocarbon-bearing potential
(Wei et al., 2017).
It appears that the extensional basins in the Yangtze Craton are
at different stages of evolution. The rift basins essentially formed
during the deposition period of the Datangpo Formation of the
Nanhua System, while the intracratonic rift and passive continen-
tal margin basins primarily formed during the depositional periods
of the Doushantuo and Dengying formations of the Sinian System.
The argillaceous rocks in these basins are proved to be important
source rocks in the Yangtze Craton (Wang et al., 2014).
4. Discussion
4.1. The hydrocarbon source rocks
Based on detailed outcrop observations, borehole data and in-
formation from published literatures, we analyze the source rocks
of the Datangpo, Doushantuo and Dengying formations in the
Yangtze Craton.
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015

Fig. 6. A. Distribution of the basins during the Dengying period (outcrop sections come from published literatures and this study; CSIB= Central Sichuan intracratonic
rift basin, NSIB= Northeast Sichuan intracratonic rift basin, HCIB= West Hubei - east Chongqing intracratonic rift basin, SYPB= Southeastern Yangtze passive continental
margin basin, NYPB= Northern Yangtze passive continental margin basin); B. Schematic cross-section of the basins (see Fig. 6A for the location of line E-E’ and the relevant
stratigraphic sections; see Table 1 for the abbreviations of the facies marked on right of the lithologic column).

The source rocks of the Datangpo Formation contain black Mn-
bearing carbonaceous shales and silty shales widely developed in
the rift basins with up to 300 m thickness. In the WLRB, repre-
sented by the Songtao Section in Guizhou Province, the argilla-
ceous rocks have a thickness up to 200 m, and their TOC content
ranges from 3.05% to 6.29% (Table 2; Fig. 7B; Xie et al., 2017). In
the NYRB, the Datangpo Formation in the Zhenba Section, Shanxi
Province consists of 63–103 m thick source rocks (Wang, 2009).
In contrast, the source rocks are thinner in other regions. For in-
stance, in the Yangjiaping Section of Hunan Province, the source
rocks are only 11 m thick and yield their TOC content of 0.1–
3.8% (Fig. 7A; Li et al., 2012). The thickness Datangpo Formation

9
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
Fig. 7. Photos of the Neoproterozoic source rocks in the Yangtze Craton. A. Gray-black silty mudstone of the Datangpo Fm. in Yangjiaping section, Hunan Province; B. Black
carbonaceous shale (left) and argillaceous siltstone (right) of the Datangpo Fm. in Well ZK1909, Songtao, Guizhou Province; C. Black shale at the top of the Doushantuo Fm.
in Jiulongwan section, Hubei Province; D. Black shale of the Doushantuo Fm. in Songlin section, Guizhou Province; E. Black mudstone of the Dengying Fm. in Well GK1,
Sichuan Province; F. Black mudstone of the Dengying Fm. in Well W117, Sichuan Province.
in Songluo Section, Shennongjia is about 11.5 m and the source
rocks yield their TOC average content of 3.19% (Table 2; Zheng,
2020).
The source rocks of the Doushantuo Formation consist of black
shales and mudstones with thickness of 0 to 380 m, and ex-
tensively developed in all basins. The argillaceous rocks of the
Doushantuo Formation in the HCIB, represented by the Jiulong-
wan Section in Hubei Province, have TOC value up to 7.59% and
are >90 m thick (Fig. 7C; Table 2). The Well WT1 in the NSIB
also contains black mudstones of >200 m thickness. In Mingyue
Section of the NYPB, the black shales have TOC value as high
as 13.1% and >300 m thickness (G.Z. Wang et al., 2019; Wu and
Yao, 2017; Zhu et al., 2020) (Table 2). In the SYPB, represented by
the Songlin Section in Guizhou Province, the argillaceous rocks of
the Doushantuo Formation are characterized by TOC value as high
as 4.64% and thickness of 124 m (Fig. 7D). In the Ligonggang Sec-
tion of the SEY-PCM, the black shales have thickness <44 m, and
TOC value higher than 4.14% (Table 2; Yang et al., 2012).
The source rocks of the Dengying Formation are predominantly
composed of black shales, siliceous mudstones and lime mud-
stones. In the CSIB, represented by Well GS1, the argillaceous rocks
of the Dengying Formation have a thickness of 35.5 m and TOC
content of 0.33–4.73% (Table 2; G. Wei et al., 2013). In the NYPB,
represented by the Zhenping Section, siliceous mudstones and lime
mudstones of the Dengying Formation are >75 m thick (Zhao et al.,
2017). Besides, the argillaceous carbonate rocks of the Dengying
Formation on the platforms are also proved available for source
rocks (G. Wei et al., 2013) mostly distributed in Sichuan Province
and its surrounding areas with a thickness of 10 0–40 0 m (Table 2;
G. Wei et al., 2013, 2017).
4.2. Control of sedimentary environment to source rocks
Global petroleum exploration has revealed that relatively low-
latitude locations are favorable for the formation of hydrocarbon
10
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015
source rocks. For example, the source rocks of the Huqf Supergroup
in the Oman Basin (i.e., the Arabian-Nubian Craton) deposited in
the southern tropics between ca. 15°S and 35°S (Li et al., 2008b),
and generated at least 12 billion barrels of oil (Ghori et al., 2009;
Grantham et al., 1987). The source rocks of the Riphean System
in the Siberia Craton formed between 30°N and 30°S latitudes
(Li et al., 2008b; Merdith et al., 2017), and have TOC content as
high as 13.5% (Frolov et al., 2015). The source rocks of the Xiama-
ling Formation in the North China Craton developed in the north-
ern tropics between about 10°N and 30°N, which have TOC value
up to 20% (Evans and Mitchell, 2011; Zhang et al., 2015a, 2012;
G.Z. Wang et al., 2019). The formation of these source rocks was
affected by paleolatitude and the intertropical convergence zone
(ITCZ) that controlled the intensities of rainfall and trade wind
(Wagner et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2005, 2015a). Since rainfall
affects rates of nutrient delivery from the continents, and trade
wind strength controls marine upwelling intensity, the primary
production and accumulation of organic carbon will be enhanced
(Meyers et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2015a). As such, hydrocarbon
source rocks are broadly deposited in the tropical area between
the 30° parallels.
Palaeogeographic reconstruction revealed that the Yangtze Cra-
ton had long been situated in the northwest of the Rodinia Su-
percontinent, with an affinity of the India Craton (Cawood et al.,
2018; Merdith et al., 2017). In response to the large-scale breakup
of Rodinia, the paleogeographic location of the Yangtze Craton
has changed during the Nanhua and Sinian periods (Li et al.,
2008b; Z.X. 2013; Zhao et al., 2018). As palaeogeographic data sug-
gested, during the depositional periods of the Datangpo, Doushan-
tuo and Dengying formations, the Yangtze Craton was situated in
the north tropics, with varying latitudes from relatively high re-
gion (approximately 45°N) to lower region (ca. 10–25°N) (Fig. 8;
Evans et al., 20 0 0; Merdith et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2013a,
2015b; Zhao et al., 2018). The Datangpo Formation deposited dur-
ing the two major periods (i.e., the Changan glaciation, Nantuo
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
Table 1
Lithofacies and depositional environments during the deposition of hydrocarbon source rocks in the Yangtze Craton.
Facies Constituents
DY Fm. Facies 18 Gray-black to dark gray siliceous
(F18) rock, some silty shale and
siliceous shale
Facies 17 Black shale, marlstone,
(F17) argillaceous dolomite
Facies 16 Gray-black to dark gray siliceous
(F16) rock, argillaceous dolomite,
lenticular dolomite and breccia
dolomite
Facies 15 Blue-gray sandy shale, fuchsia
(F15) shale; alternation of gray
limestone and shale, with
intercalation of dolomitic siltstone
Facies 14 Gray to gray-black limestone
(F14) interbedded with siliceous
limestone
Facies 13 Gray-white algae dolomite,
(F13) botryoidal dolomite, and a small
amount of calcirudite
DST Fm. Facies 12 Black carbonaceous shale,
(F12) interbedded with siliceous shale,
and black silty shale
Facies 11 Dark-gray marlstone interbedded
(F11) with mudstone; black shale,
mudstone, olistoliths
Facies 10 Black to gray-black shales,
(F10) interbedded with argillaceous
limestone or dolomite
Facies 9 Gray oolitic dolomite; black-gray
(F9) marlstone; a small amount of
calcareous dolorudite; locally
contains phosphorus
Facies 8 Light gray dolomite with dolomite
(F8) stromatolites and breccia
Facies 7 Gray-white medium-fine grained
(F7) quartz sandstone, containing
quartz or muddy gravel with
particle size of 1–2cm
DTP Fm. Facies 6 Basaltic volcanic lava, containing
(F6) volcanic breccia, tuff, argillaceous
siltstone
Facies 5 Gray fine - medium grained
(F4) sandstone, silty sandstone;
contains fine gravel belts with
distribution instability
Facies 4 Fuchsia to gray-purple Fe-bearing
(F4) shale, siltstone and medium - fine
grained sandstone; hematite
intercalation
Facies 3 Gray dolomite; Gray-green
(F3) argillaceous siltstone; Dark gray
siltstone to sandstone,
interbedded with shale
Facies 2 Black Mn-bearing shale,
(F2) carbonaceous shale, and
Mn-bearing carbonate rocks;
contains sedimentary manganese
ore
Facies 1 Black mudstone; dark gray silty
(F1) mudstone, interbedded with
argillaceous siltstone, locally
contains manganese
glaciation) in the Yangtze Craton; the Doushantuo and Dengy-
ing formations developed in the post-glacial period (Fig. 2). Con-
sequently, the glacial melting led to the upwelling of deep-
water rich in nutrients, thus promoting the primary production
(Hu, 1997; Huang et al., 2010; Wang and Han, 2011). Three bio-
logical evolution events have been well recorded in the Datangpo,
Doushantuo and Dengying formations of the Yangtze Craton
(Brocks et al., 2017; Liu and Moczydlowska, 2019; Meng et al.,
20 03, 20 06; Meyer et al., 2014), illustrating that the organic ma-
11
Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015
Sedimentary structures Interpretation
Cm-thick bedding, laterally Deep-water basin
continuous
Cm-thick bedding, laterally Shallow shelf to deep-water
continuous basin
Cm-thick bedding, laterally slope
discontinuous, collapse and
deformed bedding
Cm-thick bedding, laterally tidal flat lagoon
continuous, containing pyrite
nodules
Cm-to-dm-thick bedding, laminar Open platform
algal, chert banding and nodules
Thick- massive bedding, laminar Restricted platform to
algal, stromatolites platform margin
Cm-thick bedding, laterally Deep-water basin
continuous
Cm-thick bedding, laterally Slope with olistostromes
discontinuous, slump folds,
deformed bedding
Cm-thick bedding, laterally Restricted shelf lagoon
discontinuous, organic-rich;
siliceous/calcareous nodules
Dm-to m-thick bedding, scour Subtidal shallow shoal
structure; some oncolite, peloid
and ooid
Dm-thick bedding, wave bedding, Tidal flat
lenticular bedding, horizontal
bedding
Dm-thick bedding, horizontal Littoral facies
bedding, parallel bedding,
cross-bedding, and scour structure
Massive, volcanic eruption cycle Marine volcanic facies
Thick to massive bedding; parallel Shallow shelf sand shoal
lamination, interbedded strata,
inverse graded bedding
Cm- to dm-thick bedding, parallel Tidal flat and dry tidal flat
lamination lagoon
Cm- to dm-thick bedding, Shallow restricted tidal flat
interbedded strata
Cm-thick bedding, horizontal Deep shelf to shelf basin
lamination
Cm-thick bedding, horizontal Shelf
lamination, interbedded strata,
Mn-bearing limestone lens
terial of hydrocarbon source rocks was probably derived from
the planktonic alga, benthic alga and metazoans (Ye et al., 2017;
Zhao et al., 2019). As shown in Table 2, the argillaceous rocks
are deposited in a low-energy water environment, i.e., the inner
shelf basin, restricted shelf lagoon and slope to deep-water basin
facies.
It is obvious that the development of hydrocarbon
source rocks in the Yangtze Craton is associated with the
paleao-latitudes, glacial events, and sedimentary environ-
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015

Fig. 8. The updated paleolatitudes vs. ages plot during the time interval for the Yangtze Craton. The paleolatitude data are from Niu et al., (2016), Li et al., (2004), Evans et al.,
(20 0 0), Jing et al., (2015), Zhang et al., (2013), Zhang et al., (2015), Yang et al., (2004) and Han et al., (2015).

Table 2
Geochemistry of the source rocks in the Yangtze Craton.

Basin Section Thickness(m) Mainlithology TOC(%) Ro E (%) Facies

DY CSIB GS1 35.5 mudstone 0.33–4.73 3.16–3.21 shelf - deep water basin
1.03 (20)
W117 290 limestone 0.04–0.98 2.99–3.46 subtidal lagoon
DST HCIB Jiulongwan 90 mudstone 0.11–7.59 1.46–2.08 shelf lagoon
(T54) 2.15 (119)
NYPB Mingyue 340 shale 0.5–13.10 2.86–3.22 deep water basin
(T27)
SYPB Songlin 124 shale 0.11–4.64 2.08–2.34 slope
(T15) 1.51 (35)
SYPB Ligonggang 44 shale 4.14–9.64 2.74–3.02 deep water basin
(T29) 6.38 (5)
DTP WLRB Songtao (P14) 200 shale 3.05–6.29 2.19–2.47 shelf basin
4.32 (13)
Yangjiaping (P10) 11 mudstone 0.1–3.8 / shallow shelf
1.17 (7)
Songluo 11.5 mudstone 0.34–5.05 / shallow shelf
(P03) 3.19 (6)
Data source: Songluo (Zheng, 2020); Songtao (Xie et al., 2017); Yangjiaping (Li et al., 2012); Songlin (Wei et al., 2017); Jiulongwan (McFadden et al., 2008); Mingyue
(Gu et al., 2015; G.Z. Wang et al., 2019); Ligonggang (Li et al., 2014); GS1, W117 (G. Wei et al., 2013; Wei et al., 2017).

ments. This is interpreted to result from the unique cli-
mate, abundant nutrients, relatively deep-water environments,
and life evolution during the interglacial and postglacial
periods.
4.3. Prediction for source rock distribution
Previous studies of the thermal evolution history of the central
Sichuan region (Fig. 9) revealed that the rapid increase in buried
depth of the Datangpo Formation as a result of the Nanhua rifting,
led to hydrocarbon generation that started at the Nanhua Period,
and entered Late Mature stage at the Late Sinian Period. The or-
ganic matter of the Datangpo Formation entered the stage of main
gas generation at the Early Triassic (Xie et al., 2017), influenced
by the “Indosinian Movement”. The source rocks within the Sinian
Doushantuo and Dengying formations began the hydrocarbon gen-
eration threshold in the Mid-Cambrian, and maintained early-mid
mature stage until the Late Permian, and entered late mature stage
in the Early Triassic and then experienced main gas generation in
the Early Jurassic (Wei et al., 2017). Therefore, the three sets of
source rocks in the Yangtze Craton have already completed the
overall process of immature-early mature-mid mature-late mature-
main gas generation stages. Present-day maturity of the source
rocks across the Yangtze Craton is shown in Table 2. Their equiv-
alent vitrinite reflectivity (Ro E ) values are up to >2.0%, indicating
that the source rocks have fully undergone oil-gas generation pro-
cesses and are currently at the over maturation stage. The discov-
ery of the Weiyuan-Anyue Sinian-Cambrian gas fields in central
Sichuan (Wei et al., 2010; G. 2013; Zou et al., 2014), and the latest
Sinian shale gas breakthroughs in Yichang, western Hubei Province

12
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al. Geosystems and Geoenvironment 1 (2022) 100015

Fig. 9. A burial history plot with temperature grid and source rocks maturity in the central Sichuan area, modified after Wei et al., (2017), Xie et al., (2017).

Fig. 10. Predicted targets for the Neoproterozoic source rocks in the Yangtze Craton.

13
F. Yang, X. Zhou, Y. Hu et al.
(Chen et al., 2016; Peng et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2019), have proved
the hydrocarbon potential of the Neoproterozoic source rocks in
the Yangtze Craton.
Based on the analysis of basin prototype, sedimentary infilling
and depositional environment, and the investigation of late tec-
tonic process, residual thickness and TOC contents, we predicted
several potential areas for the distribution of hydrocarbon sources
rocks (Fig. 10), i.e., the central Sichuan, the northeastern Sichuan,
the southern Shanxi, the western Hubei, the northeastern Guizhou-
western Hunan, the northeastern Guangxi-central Hunan areas.
5. Conclusions
Using abundant outcrop observations, seismic reflective profiles
and borehole data, we investigated the tectonic development of the
Neoproterozoic extensional basins and its control on the forma-
tion of the hydrocarbon source rocks in the Yangtze Craton, South
China. Based on evidence and analysis presented above, we draw
the following conclusions:
(1) Three sets of Neoproterozoic hydrocarbon source rocks were
recognized in the Yangtze Craton, i.e., the Datangpo Formation of
the Nanhua System, the Doushantuo and Dengying formations of
the Sinian System. With the deposition of source rocks, a number
of extensional basins developed in the Yangtze Craton in response
to the breakup of the Rodinia Supercontinent. (a) During the
Datangpo Period, the rift basins were essentially formed across the
Yangtze Craton and were controlled by extensional faults, graben
and horst structures. (b) During the Doushantuo Period, the passive
continental margin and intracratonic rift basins were established
on the northern and southeastern margins of the Yangtze Craton
and its interior. These basins were controlled by syn-depositional
faults that inherited from the pre-existing faults. (c) During the
Dengying Period, the passive continental margin and intracratonic
rift basins continued to evolve. Under the regional extension, the
basins are largely affected by both the pre-existing and newly de-
veloped syn-depositional faults.
(2) The development of hydrocarbon source rocks in the
Yangtze Craton are associated with the paleao-latitudes, glacial-
interglacial events, and sedimentary environments, as results of
unique climate condition, considerable nutrients, relatively deep-
water environments and life evolution during the interglacial and
postglacial periods. The Datangpo source rocks were deposited as
the inner shelf basin or deep shelf facies; the Doushantuo source
rocks were developed as the restricted shelf lagoon and slope to
deep-water basin facies; the Dengying argillaceous source rocks
formed as the slope and deep-water basin facies. By integrating
the tectonic history, source rock features in the Yangtze Craton,
we suggest the several favorable regions for the search of source
rocks which are the central and northeastern Sichuan, southern
Shanxi, western Hubei, northeastern Guizhou-western Hunan, and
the northeastern Guangxi-central Hunan, respectively.
Acknowledgments
This study is financially supported by the National Key
Research & Development Plan (Grant no. 2016YFC0601005,
2016YFC0601003) and SINOPEC Petroleum Exploration and Produc-
tion Research Institute (no. 33550 0 07-19-ZC0613-0 071). We thank
Prof. Hongjun Qu and Prof. Hongwei Kuang for their useful sugges-
tions.
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