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Design of machine elements

First Edition Kamaraju Ramakrishna Design of Machine Elements provides a detailed exposition of the principal theories behind the design process and their application in various machine members, including transmission elements. It is written to cater to the students of undergraduate mechanical
engineering and allied disciplines for a two-semester course on the subject. Suitable for: Students of undergraduate mechanical engineering and allied disciplines for a two-semester course on the subject Rights: World Rights View larger First Edition Kamaraju Ramakrishna Description Design of
Machine Elements provides a detailed exposition of the principal theories behind the design process and their application in various machine members, including transmission elements. It is written to cater to the students of undergraduate mechanical engineering and allied disciplines for a two-semester
course on the subject. Beginning with a detailed discussion of the underlying principles of materials selection, load, stress analysis, and theories of failure in the first nine chapters, the book in subsequent chapters, applies the learnt principles through various machine members such as welded joints,
springs, bearings, gears, and shafts. It further provides an exhaustive coverage of the design application of various transmission elements such as belts, pulleys, and flywheels. View larger First Edition Kamaraju Ramakrishna Table of contents Design of Machine Elements - A Perspective Load Analysis
Engineering Materials Static Body Stresses Deflection and Stability Principal Stresses Theories of Failure Fluctuating Loads Surface Damage Welded Joints Threaded Fasteners Power Screws Springs Plain Bearings Spur Gears Helical Gears Bevel Gears Worm Gears Rolling Bearings Shafts Keys
Couplings Chain Drives Wire Ropes, Drums, and Pulleys Belt Drives IC Engine Components Clutches Brakes Flywheels Oil Seals and Gaskets Pressure Vessels and Rivetted Joints Gear Boxes and Planetary Gears Machine Tool Beds and Slideways Piping View larger First Edition Kamaraju
Ramakrishna Features Adopts a step-wise solution methodology along with contextual headings to each step Includes photographs of various machine components that are directly relevant to the discussion Provides a solution outline listing the steps to be followed for arriving at the desired solution for
select complex problems Presents more than 360 solved examples and as many as 350 numerical exercises Includes more than 370 multiple-choice questions and plenty of review questions Includes exclusive chapters on piping, which assumes significance in transportation of fluids, and machine tool
beds and slideways that provide a quick overview of machine tool design Online Resources For Faculty: Solutions manual Powerpoint lecture slides For Students: Photographs of machines illustrated in the book Additional multiple-choice questions with answers Students in this course design, construct,
and analyze a high-precision desktop manual lathe. (Image by Martin Culpepper.) The store will not work correctly in the case when cookies are disabled. Content Area ©2020 McGraw Hill. All Rights Reserved. This site uses cookies, which we use to enable the functions of the site, to tailor marketing to
areas that may be more appropriate for you, and to customize, maintain, & improve the site. By continuing to use this site you are agreeing to our use of cookies for these purposes. Find out more in our Privacy Center.. Now in its eighth edition, this newly revised version of a classic text from the field of
machine design contains 15 self-contained chapters covering the fundamental principles for this important branch of mechanical engineering. The material is drawn from a variety of sources and makes extensive use of structured computational examples to illustrate actual design applications. Among the
key features of this new edition are: A new chapter on the design with plastic materials. A chapter devoted to form synthesis of machine parts to enable the reader to critique existing machine assemblages with a view toward creating improved designs. A CD-ROM containing 54 Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet modules to assist with the implementation of complex design tasks. Most of these modules now feature drop-down menus, as well as dual-unit capability. A review of the fundamentals of the strength of materials appropriate for the study of machine design. Introduction. 1. Fundamental
Principles. 2. Working Stresses and Failure Theories. 3. Design of Shafts. 4. Springs. 5. Screws. 6. Belts, Clutches, Brakes, and Chains. 7. Welded and Riveted Connections. 8. Lubrication. 9. Ball and Roller Bearings. 10. Spur Gears. 11. Helical, Bevel and Worm Gears. 12. Miscellaneous Machine
Elements. 13. Principles of Form Synthesis. 14. Engineering Materials. 15. Designing with Plastic Materials. Appendix—Spreadsheet Modules. Index. Gerard Voland, ... Uffe Hindhede, in Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology (Third Edition), 2003Machine design is the single most important
activity in the mechanical industries. Success or failure of a company has it roots in product design, whether it is done in-house or contracted out. It is here that manufacturing costs and profits are determined. Even the best of manufacturing facilities are of little use if the design of a product is inherently
faulty.Designers of machinery are individuals who use their talents to solve user-product problems on an on-going basis. They typically spend most of their time and effort on questions of applications and functions, usually within diminishing space requirements. That is, the designer must constantly seek
to satisfy the customer's desires with respect to adaptability to the environment and will always seek to reduce the size limitations. Other concerns do not necessarily have lower priorities but are secondary in the sense that form and function are usually fixed in the designer's mind first. This means that
designers must first cope with geometry. Appropriate layouts must confirm that the proposed device will not occupy space already allocated to other objects, that it will be able to reach or attach to other parts of the whole, and that it can be assembled.Individuals who have an engineering degree, an
associate degree, or who have completed an in-house apprenticeship in drafting and design usually design machines. Machine design is a team effort requiring a variety of talents. Some designers are quite inventive and many hold patents; others, usually engineers, have more analytical minds. A third
category of designer is artistically inclined and skilled in adding form, shape, style, and esthetics to machinery. Machine design is an art as much as a science.Creative designers, who bring machine elements together in new combinations, are able to assemble in their minds new mechanisms that as yet
do not exist. They design and redesign their machines as they walk or drive and see them in height, breadth, and depth as real objects, and they can also see them and even hear them in action. Such nonverbal thinking, which is a central concept in machine design, involves perceptions, the stock-in-
trade of the artist. Thus, design requires a challenging blend of exploratory artistry coupled directly with the application of scientific and engineering principles.Machine design in general is concerned with development of power sources and functional mechanisms. However, designers invariably specialize;
they may concentrate on such areas as design of engines or turbines or the functional portions of automobiles, machine tools, or automation equipment.Since design is the first step toward manufacturing, it is important that potential designers have some experience in manufacturing and industrial
engineering. The activities in these departments are closely related to product design. An understanding of manufacturing processes results in simpler parts, form, lower cost, and fewer in-house disagreements. Industrial engineering is a key to human engineering and design for assembly. Even time
spent in sales can be valuable for designers, because designers ultimately must satisfy customers' needs.Design is a strenuous activity because of the discrepancy that always exists between what industry would like to produce and what is currently feasible. The most successful designers are those who
have the necessary talents and qualities to perform equally well in any of the related disciplines.Philip Kosky, ... George Wise, in Exploring Engineering (Third Edition), 2013Machine design focuses on the basic principles of the following three areas:▪Mechanical behavior includes statics, dynamics,
strength of materials, vibrations, reliability, and fatigue.▪Machine elements are basic mechanical parts of machines. They include gears, bearings, fasteners, springs, seals, couplings, and so forth.▪Manufacturing processes include areas such as computerized machine control, engineering statistics,
quality control, ergonomics, and life cycle analysis.In this chapter, we explore the basic elements of these six areas of mechanical engineering.W. Brian Rowe, in Principles of Modern Grinding Technology (Second Edition), 2014Machine design has a strong effect on both accuracy and on removal rates
achievable in grinding. Some effects are described in Chapter 10. The benefits of a stiff machine include the faster achievement of size and roundness tolerances. Figure 13.10 additionally demonstrates the benefits of machine stiffness coupled with the benefits of high-precision hydrostatic bearings,
slide-ways and feed drives. The very stiff machine is seen to be better for low roundness errors and an improved working range of operating speeds. The improved range of working speeds means that higher wheel speeds and feed rates can be employed. This means that higher removal rates can be
employed.Figure 13.10. Effect of improved machine bearings and high stiffness on roundness and operating speeds. Grinding conditions: tangent angle β=8°, work-plate γ=30°, material EN30B, hardness Rc 48, dw=25.4 mm ×50 mm long, GW A60LV, ds=305 mm, CW A80RR, dc=178 mm, vs=28.7 m/s,
Ns=29.67 rev/s, coolant emulsion 2.5%, stock removal 0.254 mm on diameter by plunge feed and spark-out 8 s.One reason for the improvements shown is that the very stiff machine had a dominant natural frequency of 500 Hz compared with 78 Hz for the standard machine. Also the very stiff machine
was designed to achieve high damping so that vibration levels were reduced. The design of the machine is described in more detail in Chapter 10 and also in other references (Rowe et al., 1987a; Marinescu et al., 2007, Chapter 19).In Chapter 12, the benefits of increased wheel flexibility were argued.
This is not contradictory to the need for a stiff machine as explained in Chapter 12.W. Brian Rowe, in Principles of Modern Grinding Technology, 2009Machine design has a strong effect on both accuracy and removal rates achievable in grinding. Some of the effects have already been described in
Chapter 10 on “Machine developments.” The benefits of a stiff machine include the faster achievement of size and roundness tolerances. Figure 13.10 additionally demonstrates the benefits of machine stiffness coupled with the benefits of high-precision hydrostatic bearings, slide-ways, and feed drives.
The very stiff machine is seen to be better for low roundness errors and an improved working range of operating speeds. The improved range of working speeds means that higher wheel speeds and feed rates can be employed. This means that higher removal rates can be employed.Figure 13.10. Effect
of machine stiffness on roundness and operating speeds. Grinding conditions: Tangent angle β = 8°, work plate γ = 30°, material EN30B, hardness Rc 48, dw = 25.4 mm × 50 mm long, GW A60LV, ds = 305 mm, CW A80RR, dc = 178 mm, vs = 28.7 m/s, Ns = 29.67 rev/s, Coolant emulsion 2.5%, stock
removal 0.254 mm on diameter by plunge feed, spark-out 8 s.One reason for the improvements shown is that the very stiff machine had a dominant natural frequency of 500 Hz compared with 78 Hz for the standard machine. Also the very stiff machine was designed to achieve high damping so that
vibration levels were reduced. The design of the machine is described in more detail in Chapter 10 and also in other references (Rowe et al. 1987a; Marinescu et al. 2007, chapter 19).In Chapter 12, the benefits of increased wheel flexibility were argued. This is not contradictory to the need for a stiff
machine as explained in Chapter 12.Pramod Thakur Ph.D., in Advanced Mine Ventilation, 2019Machine design parameters that have an influence on the probability of a frictional ignition are as follows:1.Speed of the bit,2.Size of the bit or depth of cut,3.Angle of attack, and4.Material of construction for the
bit tip and bit block.It is generally agreed that when the bit speed is reduced below 40 ft/s, there is a significant reduction in the probability of ignition [10]. However, such low speeds may lower the coal production rate and may require deeper cuts and larger motors.A large bit with a depth of cut of at least
1.5 inch is desirable. Deeper cuts at lower speeds also tend to reduce respirable dust production. It would appear from above that there is an optimum for the combined parameters of speed of cutting and depth of cut to yield the maximum coal output per unit of energy consumed.Fig. 22.6 shows the
definition of angle of attack, θA, bit angle, θT, and angle of clearance, θC [7].Figure 22.6. Geometry of a conical bit for cutting coal.Field experiments confirmed laboratory findings that when θA is greater than 57°, the probability of ignition was substantially reduced [9]. Frictional ignition probability was also
reduced by increasing the initial clearance angle, θC, and decreasing the internal bit angle, θT, but these two parameters keep changing as the bit wears. They merely postpone the time when a worn out bit becomes very liable to cause a frictional ignition.Fig. 22.7 shows three main types of bits used by
the coal industry [10]. Radial bits, with an angle of attack of almost 90°, are the best even if they require increased horsepower to cut coal. The larger size of the radial bits and bit blocks also reduce maintenance costs for repair of broken bits and bit blocks.Figure 22.7. Typical coal cutting bits.As far as the
body of the bit is concerned, 4140 steel is the most commonly used material. It can be made stronger by switching to stainless steel of proper grades to minimize broken bits, which are very liable to cause frictional ignitions. Bit tip is generally made of tungsten carbide. Because experiments show that the
hot steel body ignites methane air mixture more easily than the carbide itself, larger carbide tip bits became popular. Even the grade of carbide was changed to optimize the design. Tungsten carbide containing 15% cobalt was strong but too soft and wore out quickly, but carbide containing 8% cobalt was
wear resistant and brittle. Sandvik made some dual property bits that had an outer body of hard carbide and an inner body of tougher carbides, but it did not reduce the frictional ignitions. Other attempts to cover normal carbide with an outer layer of ceramic (e.g., Syalon) or cubic boron nitride were also
not successful. Some ceramic material, in fact, increased the ignition frequency when cutting sandstone. The future improvements in bit design will probably result by1.incorporating polycrystalline diamond tips or2.directly depositing polycrystalline diamond on tungsten carbide tipsPolycrystalline diamonds
have been used on rotary drill bits with excellent results. The life of a rotary carbide bit improved 100–200-fold when all carbide tips were covered with a very thin (1 mm) wafer of polycrystalline diamond. A suitable design for a continuous miner bit or a longwall shearer bit is yet to come, but a suggested
design is shown in Fig. 22.8. Deposition of polycrystalline diamond directly on carbide tips is feasible, but the present cost is prohibitively high.Figure 22.8. A suggested design for a polycrystalline carbide bit.SHIGERU ITOH, in Handbook of Shock Waves, 2001In machine design, for example, pumps,
water turbines, etc., liquids are usually treated as incompressible fluids. However, as is the case with all matter, liquids are compressible, and similar to gases, the compressibility of the liquid becomes very important when the fluid velocity exceeds the speed of sound. The low Mach number of a fluid is the
ratio between the fluid velocity and its speed of sound.When a pressure of 0.1 MPa is imposed on iron its volume is contracted by about 6 × 10−7. Under the same pressure water is contracted 120 to 200 times more than iron. Thus liquids are not too difficult to compress. When a pressure p2 is imposed
on a liquid having initially a specific volume v and a pressure p1, its specific volume changes as follows:Equation (3.2.1a) can be rewritten aswhere Δp = p2 − p1 and β is the modulus of the compressibility of liquid.Similar to the density and the specific volume, the compressibility also depends on the
pressure and the temperature.The compressibility for an isothermal compressing process, that is, the isothermal compressibility, isSimilarly, the compressibility for an isentropic (adiabatic and reversible) compressing process, that is, the isentropic compressibility, iswhere s is the entropy. The isothermal
compressibility can be obtained with the aid of PVT (P: pressure; V: volume; T: temperature) isobars, and the isentropic compressibility is usually obtained directly from the acoustic propagation of the liquid using the following relation:where cs is the isentropic speed of sound of the fluid and ρ0 is its initial
density. Values of βT for water as obtained from speed of sound data are shown in Fig. 3.2.4 (see Bridgeman, 1949). Values of βT for other liquids are given in Table 3.2.1.FIGURE 3.2.4. Compressibility of water for isothermal values obtained from speed of sound data (Vedam and Holton, 1968).TABLE
3.2.1. Isothermal Compressibility of Various LiquidsLiquidT[°C]P[atm]βT[GPa−1]Acetone2011.26Acetone2050000.21Ethyl alcohol2011.11Ethyl
alcohol2050000.22Ether2011.87Ether2050000.22Glycerin2010.21Glycerin2050000.12Chloroform2011.01Mercury21.910000.0388Mercury21.9100000.03Toluene2010.91Carbon dioxide2010.93Benzene2010.95Water2010.45Water2010000.36Water2050000.18Water60100000.12Methyl
alcohol2011.23Methyl alcohol2050000.21The inverse values of β, that is, K = 1/β is the bulk modulus. This parameter is also very important for understanding shock waves in liquid.W. Brian Rowe, in Principles of Modern Grinding Technology (Second Edition), 2014While basic machine design is
important, here we consider factors that limit process control and methods for improving process control. Process control is required to overcome process and machine system variability. Sources of variability and methods of control are described. Variability arises from sources such as wheel wear,
dresser wear, temperature variations and machine errors. The level of control required depends on work tolerances. For close tolerances and ultra-precision parts, more attention must be paid to precision of the control system. One of the simplest levels of control that produces immediate benefit is the
introduction of in-process gauging. Modern computer numerical control (CNC) systems make it possible to introduce intelligent control features. A framework for intelligent control and features that can be introduced such as adaptive control are described. Forms of adaptive control are introduced including
dwell control, feed-rate control and multi-plunge grinding control. The importance of time constant is described including methods for automatic time constant identification. For grinding machine systems that operate overnight without human supervision, a controller is required that can take appropriate
action to account for unexpected incidents. For systems that are only required to alert a human operator, a simpler control system is acceptable. Control systems vary between systems constrained by software provided by a proprietary CNC software system and more advanced CNC controllers that allow
intervention from external control systems. Many modern CNC systems allow intervention from gauging systems, gap elimination and touch dressing sensors as well as balance sensors and power sensors. A number of references are given to other sources of information.Ramesh Singh, in Applied
Welding Engineering (Third Edition), 2020From a machine design and kinematic perspective, degrees of freedom (DOF) are often used to describe the number of axes in which a machine controls linear or rotational position, direction, velocity, and acceleration. A gantry-style machine could be
constructed with three DOF in which any point (x, y, z) can be reached within its workspace. A common six-axis robot would have six DOF and the ability to achieve any inclination (roll, pitch, yaw) at any point (x, y, z) within its workspace.Often systems for welding automation will have multiple DOF
capability; however, they are not coordinated, or their axes are not controlled together. For instance, a simple carriage on a track can travel parallel to the track (first DOF, y-axis), steer/center torch perpendicular to the track (second DOF, x-axis), and adjust torch height (third DOF, z-axis). For many
welding systems, these DOF are completely independent even if all the axes are mechanized. For example, the x-axis and y-axis could each be controlled by process-monitoring feedback or operator input. In some cases, these axes might be manually adjusted by the operator. Thus, the torch cannot
perform repeated circular or diagonal paths in the xy plane or in xyz space. Plasma tables, CNC machines, and six-axis robots differ in this aspect of coordinated motion. This is often a distinction between mechanized and robotic/automatic; however, industries often interchange the two terms.T. Coombs,
in High Temperature Superconductors (HTS) for Energy Applications, 2012There are several ways in which demagnetisation is a problem for machines based on bulk HTSs. The first and most obvious is loss of cooling. If the temperature rises above Tc then there will of course be total demagnetisation,
but even a partial temperature rise may cause some demagnetisation if the persistent currents are in excess of Jc for the new higher temperature. The design of the machine therefore has to take this into account.In addition there may be some loss of trapped field due to flux creep. This is well understood
and fortunately the rate of loss decreases with time and depending on the machine will rapidly become insignificant.Of more concern is the behaviour of the superconductor when it is subjected to a changing magnetic field. A particular manifestation of this is the so-called cross-field effect, a discussion of
which follows below.The crossed field effect is the phenomenon of magnetisation decay observed when the material is subjected to magnetic fields in a direction transverse to the original magnetisation. This could possibly result in magnets losing their magnetisation and thus becoming worthless in
applications that exploit the trapped field in HTS materials. In spite of having been investigated for more than three decades, the subject remains a very intriguing topic for which many experimental facts are still far from being understood. In particular, we need to know whether large numbers of cycles of
the crossed field lead eventually to total demagnetisation or saturation at a useful value.The behaviour can be predicted by using a method first proposed by Vanderbemden et al.98, which involves modelling the superconductor with a highly non-linear E-J constitutive law E ∝ Jn, with n being a large
number99. Such a relation can be incorporated within the numerical method introduced100,101, in which the electric field E is always assumed to be parallel to the current density J. The merit of this work is to validate of the E-J approach for modelling the results of the crossed-field experiments on bulk
HTSs. Despite its extreme simplicity, this approach will be shown to reproduce successfully many features of the collapse of magnetic moment under transverse fields. In addition to being relevant to several applications of bulk HTS magnets, such geometry will also enable the spatial distribution of the c-
axis magnetic flux on the top surface of the superconductor to be predicted before and after transverse fields are applied and to compare theoretical predictions to experimental data.Bulk melt-textured YBa2Cu3O7-x (YBCO) single domains were fabricated by a top seeded melt growth (TSMG)
technique102,103. In all crossed field experiments, the melt-textured samples were first pre-magnetised parallel to the c-axis by field cooling (FC). The c-axis field was then removed and a constant time interval (two minutes) allowed for magnetic relaxation. A series of transverse magnetic field cycles
were then applied parallel to the ab plane of the samples. A schematic illustration of the measurement configuration is shown in Fig. 4.5. A pick-up coil wound closely around the sample was used to measure the average magnetic properties along the z-axis for the sample as described above.The
influence of a large number of transverse field sweeps on the remnant induction is examined in Fig. 4.12. It shows that successive cycles cause the magnetic induction to decrease by smaller and smaller amounts, as illustrated by the log-log plot of the data. The striking feature of Fig. 4.12 is that the
induction Bz does not appear to saturate, even after a large number of field sweeps. Indeed, the Bz vs. cycle number N curves can be fitted using a power law Bz ~ N–α, with the exponent α being an increasing function of the transverse field amplitude Hmax. Although the study shows that the continuous
application of a transverse field leads to a monotonic decay of the trapped magnetic field in superconductors, it does not indicate that the superconducting bulk will completely lose the magnetisation and lose the potential to be used in rotating machines. In a rotating machine the superconductor will see a
rotating field and the effect of this is much more benign, as can be seen in Fig. 4.13.4.12. Log-log plot of the measured and modelled magnetic induction at the end of each transverse field cycle for three different transverse field sweep amplitudes Hmax, where Hp is the field required to fully penetrate the
sample and B0 is the original trapped field.4.13. Measured remained magnetic moment at the end of each rotation cycle for several amplitudes of magnetic field ranging from 0.125 Hp to 2 Hp (where Hp is the field required to fully penetrate the sample). The magnetic moment is normalised with respect to
its initial value m0.According to the results presented above, the demagnetisation effect in the superconductor can be minimised by optimising the design of the machines, especially in rotating applications. Even in the situation of a superconductor being exposed to a pure transverse field, the
demagnetisation problem would not be catastrophic either. If the power-law decay behaviour holds true, after N~ 5 × 106 cycles, which would correspond to the application of a 60 Hz AC field for one day, the magnetic induction should reach ~ 68% of its initial value B0. A cycle time of more than 422
years would be needed to reach 50% of B0. Therefore, bulk superconducting materials have the potential to be an alternative magnetic excitation in electrical devices to produce magnetic field in an order of 5–10 times higher than those of conventional permanent magnets. Successful application of
superconducting materials in the electrical power system will open a new era in the field of power generation.A practical machine design therefore has to consider not only conventional electromagnets and cryogenics; it has to provide a way of first developing and then maintaining the field in the machine.
There are four known methods of trapping magnetic fields in superconductors:•Field cooling. Cool the superconductor in a magnetic field and then turn the field off. This will lead to a trapped magnetic field approximately equal to the applied magnetic field.•Zero field cooling. Cool the superconductor, apply
a magnetic field and then remove it. This will lead to a maximum trapped magnetic field of half the applied field or less.•Pulse field cooling. Cool the superconductor and then rapidly apply a magnetic field. This is generally done using a coil and a capacitor bank that rapidly charges the coil. The first pulse
will magnetise the superconductor partly and then subsequent pulses will reinforce the trapped magnetic field, increasing it a small and diminishing amount each time.•Flux pumping. There are two types of flux pumping. The first, described in Klundert et al.104, is shown in Fig. 4.14 105 and is used to
charge a superconducting coil. It involves a system of superconducting switches (S1 and S2) together with a superconducting storage coil (L). Two superconducting circuits are used. Breaking one of the circuits by opening a superconducting switch (S1) allows flux to be brought inside the circuit. The first
switch (S1) is then closed and a second switch (S2) opens allowing flux to enter the coil.4.14. The basic circuit illustrating the flux pump principle105.•The second type is for magnetising bulk superconductors. It involves passing a magnetic wave over the surface of a superconductor78,79. The
superconductor reacts to the changing magnetic field, becoming magnetised in the process. This can then be repeated and the superconductor is gradually magnetised. This is the only process that magnetises the superconductor so that the final trapped field is greater than the original trapped field. The
system is described in more detail below.Flux pumping uses the change in permeability of a magnetic material with temperature to produce a magnetic wave. Local disturbances in the permeability of the magnetic material produce local changes in the magnetic flux density. If you take a circular puck of
some ferromagnetic material and heat it on its rim then the heat will diffuse into the centre of the puck as a ‘thermal wave’. Since the permeability of the puck is changing with temperature there will also be an associated ‘magnetic wave’. We can predict what this waveform will look like by considering
Gauss’s Law:According to Gauss’s Law, since the divergence of B is zero the magnetic wave will have a peak in its centre and a trough in front and behind of it. This can be easily seen in Fig. 4.15, showing a disc positioned above a superconductor.4.15. Field profile for a ferromagnetic disc heated at its
perimeter and positioned above a superconductor. Note that the superconductor has been field-cooled.Regions in the left and right hand halves of the disc have been given high permeability to signify the change in permeability due to temperature and the whole assembly has been placed in a uniform
magnetic field. To the left and right of the regions of high permeability the flux lines are widely spaced and in the material itself they are bunched together. This leads to a flux profile along the top of the superconductor as is shown in Fig. 4.15(b). In the figure we have plotted the magnitude of ∆By, defined
as the change in magnetic flux density due to the change in permeability of the magnetic circuit. Thus there may be a background field of, for example, 1 T and increasing the permeability locally raises it to 1.1 T. In this case then ∆By would be 0.1 T. This is done because the superconductor responds to
changes in flux density.Note this waveform has both positive and negative ∆By and this according to the equation system will induce currents in both the positive and the negative z direction.A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.16. This arrangement, which was created using the modelling environment
Comsol, can be used to progressively magnetise a superconductor until it is fully penetrated.4.16. Overall arrangement. Magnetic field is provided by a pair of coils marked A via a magnetic circuit B to a superconductor C. The whole arrangement is regulated by a permeable region D.Roy Elliott BSc, PhD,
in Cast Iron Technology, 1988The centrifugal casting of irons, particularly of the spheroidal graphite types is still a relatively recent development in the history of the iron casting industry. The first recorded patent was issued to Anthony Ekhardt, an Englishman, in 1809. During the next 100 years
development was slow and erratic. The first significant growth in this process occurred during the first World War with the horizontal casting of pipe. Known as the horizontal axis centrifugal process, pipe sections are produced by pouring iron, usually at one end only, into a mould which is spinning at a
rate that will produce a G force of 70 or more on the inside diameter of the finished tube. During pouring metal distributes itself uniformly along the length of the mould. Control of pouring parameters is crucial to avoid variations in wall thickness and fractures.The mode of operation depends on the type of
mould, method of mould preparation and the availability of molten iron. The basic mould consists of a metal shell or die with a lining and removable end plates to retain the metal in the mould during casting. Different die lining methods have been developed. Commonly, propriety coatings consisting of a
silicon base with a binder such as bentonite are sprayed on to a preheated die or spun in place on a cold die and then oven dried.The most suitable machine design and equipment depends on the cycle time of the various operations. The more important basic elements are:1.mould preparation time, i.e.
the elapsed time between extracting one pipe and pouring the next casting in the same die;2.pour cycle, i.e. the time to get the mould up to operating speed, pour, solidify and stop the rotation;3.extraction time, i.e. the time to remove the casting from the mould;4.time to clean the mould;5.the number of
dies available;6.availability of iron;7.the number of pouring stations or machines.In many respects the art of centrifugal casting is a new and rapidly developing process. It has matured in some areas, for example in the mass production of iron pipe. Generally, the type of product that lends itself to
centrifugal production has one or more of the following characteristics:1.it will be essentially round with a hole in the centre;2.the shape and size of the part will not be readily available by other manufacturing methods;3.the quality and reliability of the part will be superior to that of a competitive product
and4.the cost of production will be competitive with other processes. design of machine elements mcq. design of machine elements 2. design of machine elements mcq pdf. design of machine elements vb bhandari. design of machine elements ppt. design of machine elements notes. design of machine
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