USE OF MODALS

CAN General ability or possibility Maria can speak English but she can’t speak German.

Informal request, offer, permission Can I have another cup of tea, please?
Can I help you with that bag?
You can’t use the computer now.

To make statements/ criticism sound less definite – Susan can be insensitive at times.
often used in academic/ scientific writing The novel can be described as an epic.

CAN’T To say that something is impossible He can’t be hungry. He’s just had a supper.
To make negative deductions (negative equivalent of must)

COULD General ability in the past Could you ride a bike when you were five? I couldn’t.

Possibility in the present/ future Don’t wait for him – he could be late.

Requests (more polite than can) Could you turn down the sound a bit?

Suggestions We could ask John to make some inquiries.

In questions to emphasize that we feel strongly How could you leave him alone at the station?
about something bad that happened

With comparative adjectives to express (im)possibility They could try a bit harder.
Your plan couldn’t be better.

COULD’T Negative supposition or deduction Alan couldn’t still be reading the report – I gave it to him hours ago.

BE ABLE TO-INF Ability in the present, past, and future (instead of can) Will you able to meet me tomorrow?

Ability to do an action at a particular time in the past Jim was working yesterday, so he was able to sleep late.
(NOT could)
 After may, might, would, should, want, hope, expect I might be able to help you.
We hope to be able to come.

1
MAY/ Future or general possibility The government may/ might increase the budget for this project.
MIGHT Polite requests or permission (might: very formal) May I see your ticket, please?
Might I trouble you with some questions?

might: can be used to criticize You might ask before you take my car keys.

might: to make suggestions or give advice in a polite way You might try the petrol station down the road.

In general: might is less certain than may He might do better than we expect in the test.

may: to express formal wishes or hopes (often at May the New Year bring us peace.
the beginning of a sentence)

may/ might as well: when there is nothing more There’s no one here so we may/ might as well go home.
interesting, useful, better to do or when comparing one The weather is terrible here in Spain. We might as well be
unpleasant situation to another in England. (It is terrible in England, too.)

MUST Orders, strong recommendations You must pay this fine by Friday.

Obligation imposed by the speaker, rather than I must get my hair cut. It’s such a mess.
rules/ regulations imposed by others

Certainty or positive logical assumptions/ deductions He must be in his early twenties.

You must be exhausted after the flight.

MUSTN’T Prohibition You mustn’t smoke in the auditorium.

HAVE TO/ External obligation, necessity You have to put on your seat belt now.
DON’T HAVE don’t have to = lack of necessity Jane doesn’t have to hand in the assignment.
TO
have got to: informal I’ve got to send this email right away.

NEEDN’T = don’t have to

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SHOULD/ Obligation, recommendation, or advice You should/ ought to look into the matter before it’s too late.
OUGHT TO
Probability or what we expect to happen He ought to pass the exam easily.
The plane should be landing any minute now.
I should think your idea will be a great success.

should: a polite way of introducing a suggestion Should we start without Julie?

should: annoyance “Where’s Mary?” – “How should I know?”

should: used with if, in case, for fear that 🡺 to make I’ll make extra food in case your cousins should arrive.
the action seem less likely

WILL Future certainty, predictions I’m sure they will find the missing document in time for the meeting.

Spontaneous decisions There’s someone at the door. I’ll go and see who it is.

Offers, requests, willingness to do something Don’t worry about a thing. I’ll clear the table.

won’t: used in offers/ invitations (formal) and as Won’t you have a seat, madam?
question tags to add politeness Have a seat, won’t you?

WOULD As the past form of will Everyone thought the team would win the cup.
She wouldn’t listen to anything we said.
 For past habitual actions When we lived by the sea, we’d go for long walks on the beach
every morning.

Typical polite requests (would you mind + V-ing/ would Would you mind waiting here, please?
you mind if), can be used as a polite question tag Would you mind if I waited here?
Shut the door, would you?

To stress that an action is tentative It’s doubtful that he would know the answer.

SHALL Shall I/ Shall we: used to make offers and suggestions Shall I carry that heavy box for you?

Rules, regulations, legal contracts, etc. No player shall push or kick another player.

USED TO Past habitual actions or past states that no longer exist We used to watch cartoons on Saturdays. (= would)
Did they use to have a sports car? (would isn’t possible here)

HAD BETTER Strong advice (stronger than ought to and should) You had better finish this project soon.
often implying a warning of bad consequences
(informal use)

3
BE SUPPOSED TO Similar to should – implying external obligation or what I’m supposed to start work at 9.00 a.m.
is expected to happen You are not supposed to drink and drive.

Contrast between what actually happens and what is/ Jill was supposed to have been here already. (but she isn’t)
was expected

MODAL PERFECTS

COULD HAVE Unfulfilled possibility or ability They could have called us. (but they didn’t)

Uncertainty/ guessing when we don’t know I don’t know who called. It could have been Sue.

COULDN’T HAVE Surprise or disbelief She couldn’t have left without them!
 With comparative adjectives She couldn’t have been happier when she was a child.

CAN’T HAVE Negative deduction about the past He looks happy. He can’t have heard the bad news.

NEEDN’T HAVE Actions that happened but were unnecessary They needn’t have bought a present.
N.B.: when we don’t know if an unnecessary I didn’t need to pay the bill. (We don’t know if the speaker paid
action happened, we use didn’t need to or not.)

SHOULD/ Unfulfilled expectation or advice not followed They should have got here by now.
OUGHT TO
HAVE Criticism or annoyance You oughtn’t to have spoken to her like that.

After some adjectives to express personal reactions It’s strange you should have mentioned it.

MAY/ MIGHT Uncertainty about possible past actions He may/ might have told me. I don’t remember.
HAVE
Past possibility that didn’t happen You might have fallen and broken a leg.

Annoyance about failure to do an action She might have told me you were coming.

I might have known + would: the speaker isn’t surprised I might have known she’d make an awful meal.
by an action because it was typical of the doer

MUST HAVE Logical assumption/ certainty about a past action The grass is wet. It must have rained.

WILL HAVE To look back on a past action from a point in the future By 3.00 all the work will have been done.

Certainty She’ll have heard what happened by now.

WOULD HAVE Possible events which didn’t actually happen An operation would have saved his life.

Assumption about the past One of the children offered to help. That would have been Julie.