NUCLEAR PHENOMENOLOGY

• Nuclear sizes: Charge and Mass distribution

• Semi-empirical mass formula: Liquid drop model
• Beta-decay phenomenology
• Fission
• Gamma decays
• Nuclear Reactions

1
 Nuclear shapes and sizes

• Found by scattering experiments

• Interpretation simplest when the projectile has no internal structure, like electrons in
which case, the relevant forces are electromagnetic; we learn about charge distribution

• First experiments done by Hofstadter and collaborators in the 1950s at SLAC

• If hadrons are used as projectiles, nuclear strong interaction also involved; we learn
about matter density; neutrons commonly used (no Coulomb effects)

2
 ut the matter
herford, with density. Neutrons
appropriate modifications are commonly
of the projectileused so that Coulomb
Rutherford
es, discuss
cts that
thesecross-section
ledtwo todiscuss
his
cases historic
in discovery
turn. of the nucleus described in Section 1.1.1.
toare absent.
interpret We
the alpha these
particle two cases
scattering in turn.
experiments In the nonrelativistic limit, bot
! "It remains to take account 2of the spatial extension of the nucleus,
istoric discovery dσ of the nucleus described (!c) (αZ
2
in) Section 1.1.1.
Charge described by
distribution: the
= charge distribution , function independent
f (r),(2.26)
subject to Rutherford
the nor- cross-se
bution
o1 take Chargeaccount
dΩ
of
malisation
the
distribution spatial
condition 4m
extension
sin
(2.23).
2 4
v 4 of
(θ/2)
To
the nucleus,
do this, for a given momentum transfer
e charge distribution "function f (r), subject
Rutherford to the nor- ! "
q = p − p ,the where and p are
p electric ofthe initial andcharge distribu-momenta dσ
final electron
"
ing
start
ition thebydetermination
(2.23).
utherford, considering
To
with do this, ofdetermination
for
appropriate the
a given momentum
modificationscharge distribu-
thetransfer
electric
of the projectile
us from respectively,
the measured wecross-sections
define the electron
formfor factor
elastic F(qelec-
2
) as for
the elastic
Fourierelec- transform of
ere within
p •andWe
mass, to interpret thep"use
the
nucleus
are from
the initial
cross-sections
charge the the
and
alpha
distribution: for measured
final
elastic cross-sections
momenta
scattering
particle scattering experiments of electrons from nuclei dΩ Rutherfo
ow defineelectron
the form
scattering. energies,
Atfactor nuclear
F(q
low electron recoil
) as energies,
the Fourier can be neglected
transform
nuclear of can be neglected
recoil
2

sbution:
historic discovery of the nucleus described# in Section 1.1.1.
hatnergy the ENuclear
• electron
remains recoil
energy canEberemains
unchanged ignored2unchanged
after
F (q ) ≡
at low 1 electron
scattering iqafter
and energies
·r/! the
e off (r) as d3used
scattering
r. by
andRutherford,
the (2.27) with ap
s to take account # of the spatial extension
Ze the nucleus,
eus
d ascan be
•a static treated
charge as ·r/a! static
iqdistribution 3 charge f (r),distribution
subject to fthe (r), with
subject to mass,
the
(2.27)charge andnormalisation to interpret t
Nucleus 1 treated as a static charge distribution
the F charge
(q ) ≡ distribution
2
e f (r)function
d r. f (r), subject to the the nor-
malisation
ion Incondition
Ze case of !
the a spherically symmetric charge
ndition!(2.23). 3To do this, for3 a given momentum thatdistribution,
led to histhe
transfer
angu- discovery
historic
a spherically lar
f (r)dintegrations
" r = Ze.
symmetric in f(2.27)
charge (r)d rmay= Ze.
distribution, be done using
theelectron (2.23)
angu- spherical polar (2.23)coordinates
where
in (2.27) may
p and to give p are the
be done using spherical
initial and final
polar #∞ coordinates
It remains to take account
momenta
we define
high energies,
thenuclear
form factor recoil
F(qcontributions
and
2
) as4πthe ! Fourierfrom
$transform
described
qr %
magnetic
ofby the charge distrib
moments
lear recoil and contributions F%from
(q ) = magnetic moments
r ρ(r) sin dr, (2.28)
stribution:
2
• To relate #∞ this to measurable quantities, we define the form factor
hant, becomebut
F (q 2
)=
important,
4π !
in this section but
r ρ(r) sin
$ in
qr
# we will
this section
Zeq
dr,confine 0ourselves
we will
(2.28) to
malisation condition (2.23). To
confine! ourselves to
giessmall
are wherecorrections
these
Zeq2 are1small that corrections
! ·r/! to a good
can, thatapproxima-
can,
where to aqgood = p approxima-
− p "
, where
is the p
momentumand p "
ar
, be neglected. F (q
where ) ≡
0ρ(r) is the e iq
radial f (r)
charge d 3
r.
distribution, q = | q |(2.27)
, and, since the mag-
Ze electron momentum p istransfer
mag-respectively, we define
nitude of the , difference between the initialthe
and form
e
The radialnext charge
step distribution,
is to relate q= the , and, since
|q |charge theunchanged
distribution f (r) onto scattering,
the mea-
to relate the charge distribution f (r) to the final mea-
electron momenta and
of ctron a spherically
momentum
dIncross-sections. p symmetric
is unchanged
In Appendix charge
onC we scattering,distribution,
derive
4p sina (θ/2).
simple the the charge
angu- distribution:
Appendix C we derive a simple q = formula (C.23) formula (C.23) (2.29)
2 2 2

ns in (2.27)
Coulomb q2 =may
scattering4p2with be2of
sin done using with
a particle
(θ/2). sphericalcharge polar
zepoint
(2.29) from coordinates
a static point
ng of a particle charge ze from a static
The final form of the experimental cross-section in this approximation is
rge
orn
of
+Ze in
theapproximation,
the
derived
experimental
Born
in
approximation,
which
#
Appendix
∞
cross-section assumes
C and
in this is
which
Zα ! 1.
given
approximation
assumes
byFor inci-
Zα ! 1. For inci-
isis related to the form factor via
F (q 2
)≡
tndix •
electrons, The experimentally
= 14π
2z given and determined
! the resulting $ %cross
qrcross-section section is Z
and Cthe and resulting
is
F (q ) = " r#ρ(r) sin bycross-section ! is
" ! "
Zeq dσ 2! 2 dr, dσ (2.28)
Z α (= In(q the) | . case of a(2.30) spherically sy
" ! " 2 2
" # ! 2 2dσ 2
2
!c) dΩ |F
dσdσ Zdσ α (0!c) dΩ
= = 4 dΩ2 dΩ4 |F (q .)4β = 2 2
| .4 2 expt .
(2.30)
(2.24)
Mott (2.24) 3
dΩ
dΩ expt 4β E sin Mott (θ/2)
0
E sin 4
(θ/2) lar integrations in (2.27) may b
 "deriving # it we have 2ignored the electron spin, and
normalisation taking this into
condition ! accoun
dσ can, (
2
ese are small corrections leads
that "
dσ
to#
to the a good
so-called
Z α !
approxima-
2
Mott cross-section
2c)
(!
2
11
f (r)d r = 3

= = (2.24)
2
. " # Z α " c)
dσ.
#
4 dσ (2.24)
is to relate the charge dΩ 4β sin (θ/2)
The Mott cross-section is given
distributionby f E
(r)
2
to the
4
2 = 4At high
mea-
.
[1 − β sin (θ/2)].2 2
(2.25
0dΩ 4β E sin dΩ (θ/2) energies, nuclear recoil and cont
4
dΩ
0
ns. In Appendix C we derive a simple formulaMott (C.23) both0 become important, but in this se
E
Hereis the
tering of total
E aisparticle energy
the total of zethe
energy
with10charge of electron,
from the θ isenergies
electron,
a static point the
θ is electron
the thesescattering
whereelectron scattering
are small correctio
tion,Prize
be neglected.
and
angle,
Bornwhere= υ/c,
and β = where
βapproximation,υ/c,which υ is the
assumes
being υ speed
Zα
the
scattering experiments.initial of
Forthe
Robert Hofstadter shared the 1961 Nobel
where is the
! 1.speed
speed of
inci-
of initial
the
the electron.
electron
The next
and
step
Note
is to
thatthethat
in Physics for his pioneering electro
initial electron. Note
relate char
= 1 and the resulting cross-section isis given in Section 8.7 of Mandl and Shaw (2010).
(2.24)
is of is#of order
" order α 2because
2 α because
112
A
it
derivation it corresponds
corresponds to theto exchange
sured the exchange
cross-sections. of a
In of a single
single
Appendix C w
photon. dσ Although Z α (this!c) formulais the cross-section
has a for Coulomb
limited for rangescattering
of of a spinless
applicability, particle
it isw
2 2
Coulomb scattering of a particle
n. Although = this formula . has a limited range
(2.24) of applicability,
of charge e from a static charge +Ze in the Born it is
Bornapproximation
approximation
usefuldΩ 4β 4 E 2 the
to 0discuss sin4 (θ/2)
general features of electron scattering. However, in
Nuclear phen
to discuss the general features of electrondent
al energy of
scattering.
electrons, z However, in
= 1 and the resulting
deriving it the
we electron,
have ignored θ is thethe electron scattering
electron spin, and taking this into " #account2
ng
leads
it the
c, where
In we
to
have In ignored
the
is the speed
υnon-relativistic
the so-called thethe
nonrelativistic
oflimit, electron
initial
both
Mott
limit,
electron.
these spin,
both
cross
(2.24)
Note
cross-section
and
that
sections11 and
go taking
(2.25)
over to this
reduce
the into account
to the
Rutherford
spin-
dσ
cross-section
=
Z
because it independent
corresponds Rutherford
to the cross-section
exchange of a single dΩ 0 4β 4 E
to the so-called Mott cross-section
2
α " # " 11#
this formula has " # range"
a dσ
limited dσ # dσ
! of applicability,
" it(!is (αZ
2 ) E
c) Here
2 2
2 is the total energy of the elec
the general features dσof electron =
dσ
scattering. = [1
However, − β sin
2in4 angle,
(θ/2)].
, β = υ/c, where (2.26)υ is (2.25)
dΩ =Mott Rutherford
dΩ dΩ 4m sin 4
(θ/2) and the spee
e ignored the electron spin, and taking this [1 β sin (2.24) (θ/2)]. (2.25)
2 v 2
into−account
0
is of order α because
2
it corresp
dΩ
as used byMott
lled Mott cross-section 11 dΩ
Rutherford, with0 appropriate modifications photon. Although of the projectile
this formula has a li
" # "charge# and mass, to interpret the alpha particle useful scattering
to discuss experiments
the general features o
10dσ dσ
Robert Hofstadter shared the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics for his pioneering electron
= that led [1 to
− his
β sin
2
historic
2
discovery of the
(θ/2)]. nucleus
(2.25) described
deriving it weinhave
Section 1.1.1.the electron
ignored
dΩ Mott experiments.
scattering dΩIt 0remains to take account of the spatial extension of the nucleus,
rtAHofstadter shared leads
fortohisthepioneering
so-called Mott cross-section
11
is giventhe
derivationdescribed by
1961
inthe Nobel Prize
charge8.7
Section in Physics
distribution
of Mandl function
and Shaw f (r),(2010).
subject to " the#electron
nor- " #
ing experiments. dσ dσ
malisation condition (2.23). To do this, for
shared the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics for his pioneering electron a given momentum transfer = [1
dΩ dΩ
rivation
ts. q = in
is given p− p" , where
Section 8.7pofand p" areand
Mandl the Shaw
initial and final electron momenta
(2010). Mott 0

respectively,
en in Section 8.7 of we define
Mandl and Shaw the form factor F(q2 ) as the Fourier transform of
(2010).
the charge distribution: 10
Robert Hofstadter shared the 1961 Nobel Pr
4
# scattering experiments.
2 1 iq·r/!
11
A derivation
3 is given in Section 8.7 of Mand
 se eadequate
+Ze
the target
particle to describe
inphysics
the Born
is assumed thetoα-particle
approximation, be heavy, scattering
whichwithassumesυ =experi-|v|Zα, p! = 1. |pFor
| andinci-the
ase of electron
electrons, scattering
z =final-state
1isand we need
the values.
resulting to matrix
take account
cross-section ofis given by
refer
ause the totarget
the assumed to be heavy, The with υ element= is | v| , p = |p| and the
nd quantum mechanics. " # values.This may be done using the gen-
mes refer to the final-state ! The
2 2 matrix element is given by
dσ
To derive M(q) == ! V (r)eiq·r/! d3 r,. be heavy, with (2.24)
because the target is (
assumed to υ = |v|, p = |p| and the
2
r the differential cross-section in Ztermsα !of
c) the scattering
s derived inprimes Chapter refer
dΩ 1. We to the
will
4β 4
final-state
neglect
E 2
sin spin
iq·r/(θ/2)
4
factors.The matrix(C.15)
! 3 values. element is given by
M(q) = V (r)e
0 d r, (C.15)
equation is (1.69), which in the present notation! is
Eq is=the p −total
p" "isenergy of the electron,
the2 momentum θ is the
transfer. V(r) electron
is the scattering
·r/! Coulomb
,ere and = where is the speed Mof (q)
the =
initial V (r)e
electron.
iq
d 3
Note r, that (C.15)
ial q = β dσ p − p 1 is pthe momentum
υ/c, υ vtransfer.
and p are V(r)
the is the and
velocity Coulomb
momentum of the projectile
"

)ential
is of dΩ order= α2 2 because " |Mit (qcorresponds
)| ,
2 2
to (C.14)
thenegative
exchange of a single
et is assumed 4π
to !
be
4
υυ
heavy, with υ αZ a( !
" = |v|, p = |p| and the charge; primes refer to final state values
with unit
c)
n. Although where q(r)==pV−
thisVformula has(r)
p a= islimited
−theαZ (momentum
!range
c) , of applicability,transfer.(C.16) V(r)
it is is the Coulomb
he final-state
re the velocity values. VThe(r) = C
matrix
V (r) =
element − isr given, by (C.16)
l to discusspotential theand momentum, respectively,
! take to have a unit negativescattering.
general features of electron of the pro-
However, in
C
r
convenience
r = |r||,have we
andignored
Ze isisthe charge of the target charge),
nucleus. αZ (!account
Inspection
c)
ere ng it
r = we |, and
Mr(q) = Ze V (r)ethe iq·r/electron
the !charge
d3 r, spin,
of
V theand
(r) =target
V taking
(r) this
nucleus.
(C.15) = − into
Inspection
, (C.16)
integral
to
he the
integral in (C.15)
so-called
in shows
Mott shows
(C.15) that
cross-section
that it diverges
11 at
C large r. However,
it diverges at large r. However, in r in
ce," charges "are # " #
−ctice,
p is charges
the where arealways
dσ
momentum always
r = transfer.
screened
|=r|screened
, dσ
and V(r) Ze
at
at islarge
large distancesby
thedistances
is 2the 2 charge
Coulombof the
byintervening
intervening
target nucleus. Inspection
rtter andand so wewe
Since
so will
the interpret
integrand
will interpret the
diverges,
the [1we
integral
integral assin (θ/2)].
− βreinterpret
as the integral as(2.25)
dΩ integral
of the Mott
dΩ (C.15)
in 0 shows that it diverges at large r. However, in
practice, charges!!(!"c)are always−−λr
αZ " ##
screened at large distances by intervening
V (r) = VC (r) = − limlim ,ZZαα((!!c) e λr
(C.16)!! 3 3
MM (q)(q)
Cmatter == and so we−− r will interpret the
iq
iq ·r/
·r/
ee integralddr.r. as (C.17) (C.17)
ert Hofstadter 00 Nobel Prize rin Physics for his pioneering electron
Cshared
λthe
λ→→ 1961
and Ze is the charge of the target nucleus. !Inspection
ing experiments. " #
nevaluate
(C.15) shows
isthis, that italong
diverges zat largelim r.thatHowever, α (!c)
Z in −λr
e coor-
luate
rivation this,given
Taking qtake
take in q qalong
Section
along the 8.7
M the
zthe zand
of Mandl
axis (q) axis,
axis,
=
andso Shaw
using that
sphericalin
in spherical
spherical
(2010).
− coordinates, polar
polar coor-
eiq·r/! d3 r. (C.17)
sates
s are
q · qralways
·=r =qrqrscreened
cos cos
θ.θ.The Theat angular
large
angular
C distances λ →by0 intervening
integration
integration may
may then thenbe rbedone doneand and
edswill interpret the integral as
To! evaluate
" 4π(!this, take q !∞
along
∞
the z axis, so that in spherical polar coor-
lim c)Z # lim
λr! lim
−α !
C (q) =− 4π(
Z α! c) eα!
(!c)Z sin(qr !)dr. (C.18)
//!integration
− λr
(q) = MM dinates
(q) = −− q · r = qr cose→ θ.·r/!The
iq
d3 e angular
er.−λr sin(qr
(C.17) )dr. may then be done and
(C.18)
C
0
q λ 0
λ → yields qr λ→0 0
0
!∞
e take q along
remaining the z axis,
integral may so
be that 4π(!(twice)
doneinbyspherical
parts c)Zpolar lim
coor-taking the
α!and −λr limit
maining
→r0cos integral may be
M done
(q)
θ. The angular integration
gives C
by
= −parts (twice)
may then be and
done and taking
e thesin(qr
limit/!) dr. (C.18)
5
gives q λ→0
2
4π(!c)Z α!
 λ4π( 0 gives
→!c)Z α! lim
q) = − Finally,
e−λr sin(qr /!) dr. substituting (C.19) into (C.14) gives
(C.18)
The remaining
Finally, q substitutingintegral
0 (C.19) may be done
into 4π(!c)Z α!2
(C.14) by parts
gives(twice) and taking the limit
λ→ M (q) = − The remaining
. integral may(C.19)be done by
λ→ 0 gives by parts (twice) and taking the limit " 2λq → 0 gives dσ
Integrating
0 C 2
2 p
"2

ntegral may be done by parts (twice) and dσ 2 4π(

taking !c)
2 the c)Z p
α! ,
2limit
2 = 4Z 2 2
α ( ! c) " 4,
Finally, substitutingM (q)
(C.19) = 4Z
= into
− α ( !
(C.14) gives
" 4. dΩ (C.20)
(C.19) υυ q 4π
dΩC
q υυ q
2 M C (q) = −
4π(!c)Z α! 2
which(C.19) is the general form of the differential cros
MC (q)
which is = − general
the form . ofdσ the differential cross-section.
p "2
If we neglect
Finally, substituting q (C.19) into (C.14)
2
nuclear 2gives2 recoil, we
Finally, may substitute
substituting the (C.20)
(C.19) approximat
into (C.14)
=the α (!c)
4Zapproximations
2
nuclear recoil, we may substitute " 4,
ting (C.19) into (C.14) gives dΩ υυ q
dσ p "2
v = v "
, p = p "
= mv γ,
With this, we have " 2 v ==v4Z "
,
2 2
pα = (! c)
p " 2
= mv γ,, (C.20)
(C.21) dσ
which
dσ is 2 the general
2 p dΩform of the differential υυ q" 4 cross-section. If we neglect = 4Z α (! 2 2

nuclear α (!c) we " may

= 4Zrecoil,2
, substitute together the (C.20) with the kinematic
approximations dΩ
relation for the scatt
dΩ
together with the kinematic
υυ q 4 relation for the scattering angle
which is the general form of the differential cross-section. If we neglect
eral nuclear
form of recoil,
the differential
we maycross-section.
substitute theIf" , we neglect
approximations" which is the general form of the differ
If we neglect nuclear recoil, v =
q = 2p sin(θ/2), =nuclear
v p = p mv γ, and using q =(C.22)
2p sin(θ/2),
(C.21)the a
e may substitute the approximations recoil, we may substitute
we get" with" the kinematic
together v = v " , prelation
= p" (C.20)
into = mv forγ,the to obtain
scattering angle (C.21)
into (C.20) to obtain
v = v , p = p = mv γ, (C.21) v = v "
, p2 = p
dσ relation 2 2 2
z Zforα the (!c)scattering angle
2
dσ z 2
Z 2
α 2
( ! c)
together with the kinematic
e kinematic relation for the scattering=angle q 4= 22p sin(θ/2), . = (C.23) 2 (C.22) .
dΩ 4β E sin (θ/2) 4 together with the
dΩ kinematic
4β E sin (θ/2)
4
relation
4
fo
= 2p sin(θ/2),
q(C.20) q = 2p sin(θ/2), (C.22) (C.22)
into to obtain
For z = 1 this reduces to the differential For z = 1cross-section this2 reduces(2.24) to the used in q = 2pcross
differential sin(
btaininto
Chapter(C.20)
For 2, to
z=1, we obtain
whileget in
our the
result.limitdσof
For Chapter
2 2 2
nonrelativistic
nonrelativistic (!while
z Z α2,electrons, inusing
c)electrons, the 𝐸Elimit
==𝑚𝑐 mc of
! ,nonrelativistic
2
it
dσ to zthe 2 2 2
(!c)
2 = into .
(C.20) to obtain (C.23)
dσ (
2
reduces =
Z α Rutherford . dΩ
cross-section
z reduces
2 2 4
Z 4β α 2
E ! to
sin
(C.13).
2
c)
(C.23) . the
4
Rutherford
(θ/2) cross-section (C.13).
dΩ
we get4βthe
4
sin (θ/2) dΩ
E Rutherford
2 4 =
cross-section (C.23) dσ z 2 2
Z α
4β E sin (θ/2)
4 2 4
= 4 2
For z = 1 this reduces to the differential cross-section (2.24) dΩ
reduces to the differential cross-section (2.24) used in
used 4β in E s
e in For z = 1of this
theChapter
limit reduces
2, while
nonrelativistic in to the thelimit
electrons, differential mc2 , cross-section
Eof= nonrelativistic it (2.24) used
electrons, E = in mc2 , it
Chapter
utherfordreduces 2, to
while
cross-section in
the(C.13). the limit of
Rutherford nonrelativistic
cross-section Forelectrons,
(C.13). z = 1 this E =reduces
mc2 , itto the differe
reduces to the Rutherford cross-section (C.13).Chapter 2, while in the limit 6of nonr
reduces to the Rutherford cross-section
 lativistic limit, both (2.24) and (2.25) reduce to the spin-
Rutherford The cross-section
Nuclear and particle
superimposed
final form of the experimental cross-section in this
physics
dσ
= is
approximation
dσon a rapid de
|F (q ) | . 2 2

! derived" in Appendix C)and is given by dΩ

features are common to all dΩ
dσ (!c) (αZ
2 2 expt Mott
= ! ", ! " (2.26)
dΩ Rutherford 4m2 v 4 sin4 (θ/2)
dσ Two examples
dσ
=Striking features many of
|F (q ) | are
2 2
. minima
Striking
measured features:as
cross-sections
(2.30) those
Presence
are of sho
shown
dΩ
Rutherford, with appropriate modifications of thedΩprojectile thea number
presenceofofminima
a numberand aofrapid
well-d
mass, to interpret the alpha particle scattering
expt
superimposed on the decrease
experiments on a rapiddecrease
nuclear
Mott
ininthesize,
the as wewis
cross-section
cross-section
Two ofexamples of described
measuredinfeatures
cross-sections are shown to in Figure 2.5.
s historic discovery
Striking
the nucleus
features are the presence
Section 1.1.1.
of a number factor
are common
of and
all
with
well-defined we
elastic
angle;
minima can
data,
minima make
although
are duenotto th
all
s to take account of the spatial extension ofmany minima as those the
the nucleus, shown
formand
factortheir depth and sha
superimposed on a rapid decrease
the charge distribution function f (r), subject in the
on tothe nor- the
cross-section
thenuclear nuclear
size, as
with angle. charge
These
we show below. The distribut
minima are d
features
ondition (2.23). To doarethis,
common to allmomentum
for a given elastic data, although not all nuclei show so
factortransfer
and we can make Ex.: this plausible
Harddepends by taking
sphere charge the sim
distribution
where p and many
p are
" minima as those
the initial shown
and final and their
electron depth and sharpness
momenta
on form
we define the the nuclear
factor F(q size,
2
as the
) as show the
we Fourier nuclear
below. The of
transform
charge distribution
minima are due to theis form
represented by a hard sp ρ(r
stribution: factor and we can make this plausible by taking the simple case
ρ(r) = where
constant, r ≤ a,
the nuclear # Figure 2.5
charge distribution is represented by a hard sphere such differential
Elastic that cross-section
1
F (q ) ≡
2
e iq·r/!
f (r) d r.
3
(2.27) 450 MeV electrons = 0,from 58 Ni and
r > a,
750 MeV
Ze ρ(r) = constant, r ≤ a,
of
as aa spherically
function ofsymmetric
the scattering charge angle distribution,
= 0,
for
where the a is
angu- a aswhere
described
constant.
r >Bellicard
a,
In a inis
is
this the
a a
case,constant.
(2.31)
text.
constant
evaluation
58
Source: of In
Ni
(2.28)th
data
gi
ns in (2.27) may be2.5done
Figure
48 Elastic using spherical
differential cross-sectionspolar coordinates
as a function of the scattering angle for et al. (1967). Copyright American
ectrons from
differential 450 MeV electrons from Ni and 750 MeV electrons from Ca. The solid lines are fits F (q ) = 3[sin(b) − b cos(b)]b
Ca.
cross-sections Theas a solid
function lines of are
the fits
scattering angle for 2 −3
58 48
, 2
from 58
om Sick where
Ni and
et 58
text. Source:
al.
Ni
a is ainconstant.
750(1975)
MeV∞ electrons
as described

!
data
# et al.and
Bellicard
4π from Sick
InNithis
the text. Source:48
Ca data
$
(1967). Copyright
etqr
al. (1975)
from
%American
case,
Physical
evaluation
and 48Society,
al. (1975) and of
48from Ca. The solid lines are fits48
58
data from Sick et (2.28)
Ca data
reprinted with permission.
Ca data from
from gives
F (q )
hysical F Society,
(q 2
) = reprinted
r ρ(r)
67). Copyright American Physical Society,
with
sin permission.
F (qdr,
2
) = 3[sin(b) − cos(b)]b
(2.28)
b
reprinted with permission. where
Zeq b = qa/h̄. Thus F(q! ) will be zero at values of b for which b = tan(b).
−3
, b = qa/h̄. Thus
(2.32) F(q 2
) will be ze
where 2

In practice, as we will see below, ρ(r) is not a hard sphere, and In

0 practice,
although it as we will see below, ρ(r)
is approximately constant for much of the nuclear volume, it falls smoothly
oThus
atradial
the values oftobe
will
F(q2 )charge
will bzero
befor
zero which
zero for
atsurface.
distribution,
at the values qbSmoothing
==of|qtan(b).
b|for thewhich
, and, since
edges For
ofbthe
= aradial
the more
tan(b).
mag-chargeis approximately
realistic
distribu- constant
charge distribution withfor much of
smoother
seelectron
will see
not below,
momentum
a hard sphere,
tionρ(r) pisisturns
(2.31) not
and a hard
unchanged
the
althoughsphere,
zeros intoonminima and
it and although
scattering, modifies theiritposition, but
edges,
does not alter the argument that the minima in the cross-sections
zerostoturn zero intoatminima
are the and also modifies
surface. Smoothing their th
y constant for much of the nuclear volume, it falls smoothly
position;
the nuclear qvolume,
due=to4pthesin it
spatialfalls
(θ/2). smoothly
distribution of the nucleus. (2.29)the
The actual minima
positions and give turns
information about the sizemini
of the form tion (2.31) the zeros into
2 2 2
urface. Smoothing depths the edges
of the minimaof result
the radial charge distribu-
from a combination factor and
msedges
the of
zeros
of the the
intotheradial
experimental point-likecharge
minima amplitude.
and
cross-section distribu-
modifiesWe shalltheir
in this see below ofthat
the
position,
approximation thenucleus
is does not alter the argument that t
minima can give
but
information about the size of the nucleus.
ma
the and
ppendix Cmodifies
argument that
and is given
If onetheir
the by minima
measures position,
the in the butcross-sections
cross-section for a fixed energy are at various
due to the spatial distribution 7 of th
ial distribution
e minima of the(andnucleus.
" fromThe (2.29),actual positions andfactor can in
dσ inprinciple
the dσ cross-sections are
! " angles ! hence, at various 2
q ), the form
be extracted using (2.30)
2 and one might attempt to find the
 bout information
the size of theabout
nucleus.
the size of the nucleus.
easures If the one
cross-section
measuresforthea2 fixed energy atforvarious
cross-section a fixed energy at various
hence,angles
from (2.29), at
(andcharge various
hence, q ),
from (2.29),the form factor can 2 in
In principle, distribution can beatextracted
variousbyqtaking
), thetheform factor
inverse can
Fourier in
transform
extracted using
principle (2.30)
be and one might attempt to find the
extracted using (2.30) and one might attempt to find the
utionoffrom
the form factor:
the inverse Fourier transform
charge distribution from the inverse Fourier transform
!
Ze !
f (r) = F (q 2
) e −iq·r/! 3
dZe
q. −(2.33)
iq·r/!
(2π)
3
f (r) = F (q 2
) e d3 q. (2.33)
(2π)
3

nly has a finite range for a fixed initial electron energy, and
However,
However,
his range q 2
only
falla has
the rapidhas a range
finite
in the finite range
for for
a fixed
cross-section a fixed
initial
means initial
electron
that electron
in energy energy,
and within and
this range,
even cannot
urements withinbe this
maderange
overthe rapid fallwide
arapidly
sufficiently in the cross-section
range means that in
ofcannot be made
the cross-section decreases ⇒ measurement over a sufficiently
practice measurements cannot be made
integral in (2.33) to be evaluated accurately. Thus, even over a sufficiently wide range of
wide range
angles of angles
for the integral⇒ the above integral
in (2.33) to be cannot be evaluated
evaluated accurately
accurately. Thus, even
• Alternative: use plausible general parametrized forms (like a sum of Gaussians) for charge
distributions
• use this distribution in the Dirac/Schroedinger equation and solve it numerically to
produce an amplitude/cross-section
• fit the parameters of the charge distribution to the experimental data

8
 methods are shownwhere From
where a and
in Figurea2.6.
and this
b for
Theybarewe can
medium
for deduce
and heavy
wellmedium that
represented andthe
nuclei charge
are found
by the heavy
nuclei are found
form density
to be is approxim
to be
From this we can deduce that the charge density is approximately constant
in0nuclear
the nuclear interior and falls fairly rapidly to zero at the
f (r) = ρ in
(r)the interior and falls fairly rapidly to zero at the nuclear surface,
0
ρ
=ρch ch
(2.34)
as1(r+anticipated above. The b ρ"0chvalue of;fm. is (0.06–0.08)e
in the range
fm−3 (0
, 0
Ex. f (r) = ρch (r) = as anticipated e − , a " 1.07A
1.07AThe fm;
1/3 1/3
fm; (2.34) is 0.54
b0.54 infm. ρrange (2.35)
(2.35)
ch (r a)/b

−a)/b a " above. value of " the ch ~

1heavy
where a and b for medium and for
+forenucleimedium
medium to beto nuclei
to heavy
are found heavyandnuclei decreases andslowlydecreases slowly mass
with increasing with i
a " 1.07A fm;number.
number. b " 0.54 fm. (2.35) These values are for medium to heavy
for medium and heavy nuclei are found to be
1/3

A useful quantity
A useful is the mean
quantity nucleisquare
is the mean charge radius,charge radius,
square
!
1 3 !
a " 1.07A fm; 1/3
b " 0.54 fm. " r 2
# ≡
Ze(2.35)
r 2
f (r) 1 r. 2
d (2.36)
2
"r # ≡ r f (r) d r. 3

Ze
This can be found from the form factor as follows. Expanding the expres-
sionThis
(2.27)can
for F(q 2
) gives from the form factor as follows. Expand
be found
sion (2.27) for F(q 1
!) gives
2
"∞
1
#
i| q | r cos θ
$n
F (q2 ) = f (r) d3 r (2.37)
Ze !n! ! # $n
1 n=0 " 1 i|q|r cos θ
∞

F (q ) = 2
and after doing the angular integrations
(r)becomes
fthis d3
Ze n=0
n! !
!∞ !∞
4π 4πq 2
and after
F (q2doing
)= the
f (r)angular
r2 dr − integrations
f (r) r4 drthis
+ · · · becomes
. (2.38)
Ze 2
6Ze !
Figure 2.6 Radial charge
0
!∞ 0
distributions ρ of various
ch
!∞
From the normalisation 4π nuclei, in units of e fm−3 . The
4πq 2

F (q2 )of=f (r), we ffinally

(r) r have
dr −
thickness of the curves2 near
f (r) r4 dr +
Ze 6Ze !2
r = 0 is a measure of the
uncertainty in ρch . Source:
0 q
Adapted from2 data in Frois
0
F (q2 ) = 1 −
(1983). "r # + · · ·
2
(2.39)
6! 2
Figur
From the normalisation of f (r), we finally have distri
and thus the mean square charge radius can be found from
nucle
%
2 dF
2 (q ) %
2 q 2
9 thick
"r # = − 6F!(q ) 2= %1 −, 2 "r # + · · · (2.40)
2
2 % r=0
 4πq
ed4π by a homogeneousA useful! 2 quantity
04πq charged issphere.
the0 mean The square charge # radius, $n!∞ 2 !
(r) dr + (2.38)
∞
f r 4
1 · · · . !
− 2 r22 fFrom 4π 4πq
d3 r.the
r dr normalisation of f (r),1weFi|(q finally
|r2 cos θ have
= ! f (r) r"r2dr 2
f (r) 4
+ · · · .2 (2.38)
1(2.36) "∞
q
6Ze
quoted
2
Ze 20 as the # ≡nuclear
q 6Ze ! (r)
radius. The F relation
(q ) = ! f (r) )= d fr(r) r2 dr −
3
(2.37) 2 f (r) r
the
F (qnormalisation
0 ) = 1 − 2
Zeof f (r),
" r 2
# we
0+ · · · finally have Ze1 (2.39) n! ! Ze 6Ze !
ge radius Mean is square
R 6!= 2 charge
5
" r 2
# , radius:
so that
2
"r # the ≡ expres- r f (r) d r. q
2 n=0 3
2 0 (2.36) 0
e found from the form factor as follows. Expanding Ze F (q )=
ally have the1normalisation 2 "r # +
3 2 2
sation
for F(q of
2 f (r), we finally have
) gives and after q 2 doing the angular integrations
From − becomes
this of ·f ·(r),
· we finally have
F (qcan 2
) =be 1 −found 2
# + ··· ∞
2 "r from (2.39)6!
=uare charge 1/3 radius
q 1.21 A 2 This fm.! can be21found from
6! n the form (2.42) factor as follows. Expanding the expres-
# $ ! !∞
2
1 q"2 ∞
r cos
i|q|thus 4π square 4πqradius
2
q2 2
2
2 "rF (q#F+(q) ·=·)sion
·= 1 − f (r) 2 "r2for and
# %+ · · ·(2.39) θ the32mean
d r) =
F (q (2.39) 2 charge
f (r) r dr −
(2.37) can
f (r) r drF+(q
4 be 2 found from
· · ·) .= 1 −(2.38)
2 "r # + · · ·
(2.27) F(q ) gives
2
2
!hus the mean Ze square 6 !
2 dF n=0
charge
(q ) % % radius
! can be found
Ze from 6Ze ! 6!
2
n!
%
" r 2
# = − 6 ! , %
2 % !
0
(2.40) # the2mean square
0
dF (q )
2 %
$n % charge radius can be fou
n square
us
doing can thebe charge
found
angular radiusdq2 2can%this
from
integrations be found
From
2 dF
becomes
the
from
(q )1
normalisation
% of f" ∞ and
" r
(r),
2
#1
we =
thus
−
finally
i | 6
q !
| have
r cos θ % 32 ,
" r # = %− 6
q =0 2
2 % F∞(q ) =
! 2
,
f (r) (2.40) dq 2
d q r=0at very dF(2.37)
%
% !∞ dF (q ) ! dq provided
2 % the form factor can be measured (q )
2 %

Fy(q to 2 )obtain
2 % 2
" r 4π
# = − the
6 ! 2
2 distribution
4πq %2 , of Zeq2 =0
4 neutrons(2.40) in 2 n! q
2
! "r # = − 6!
2 2 % ,
tor
F (q can
) %
= be , measured
f (r) r dr − at%
dq 6Zeprovided
2 very (2.40)
f (r) small
r small
dr + ·values
· values
· . F of
(2.38)
(q 2
n=0)q= .1 For
− " r 2
# + · · · dq
(2.39)
2 %
% 22Ze1/2 !22=0 the form factor can be measured at very small values of q
2
dq2 the
take the 6!of q =0
=0presence of neutrons into account
2
ded q form factor can be measured at very small values q . For
q 2
uclei, "r # and 0
is after
givendoing approximately
medium
0
the angular
and by
heavy
12
integrations this becomes
of qnuclei,
. Forprovided rradius
# the is given
form approximately
factor can be measured byat very s
2 1/2 12
mum and can
factor
normalisation
heavy be
of f
nuclei,
measured
(r), we
"r2at
finally
and
#1/2very
have
isthus
given
small thevalues
mean square
approximately 2 charge
by"12 can be found from
ured
vy at2 very
nuclei, "r2 #1/2
1/2
small values
is given of q . For by12
approximately
2
medium and %heavy nuclei, "r # is given approxim
2 1/2

=e.g. 0.94 fm. (2.41) dF ! (q ) %

2 %
"of
rFor# medium
ven approximately A
by
and
1/3
12
q2heavy
!55fm.
∞ 2 21/2 ∞
2 = (2.41) 0.94 fm. 2 1/2 (2.40)1/3
2 =nuclei , ,
2 1/2 1/3
0.94
"r #2+ · · · 4π
= " r6 !# A
2 (2.39) 4πq dq
1/3 2
ange data, the "compilation
r # for
A ≤ A ≤ "
209
r # − % ,
(q ) = 1 −
F1/2 2 2
"r # = 0.94 A fm.
fm. )
!F2 (q = f (r) r dr f (r) r dr + · · · . (2.38) 4
"r 2 # = 0.94 A61/3 −
(2.41) q =0 2

pproximated
4heAmeanfm.
nucleus1/3
issquare by
oftencharge a radius
homogeneous
approximated The by
provided
Ze
(2.41)
nucleus
a thecharged
is often
homogeneous
form sphere.
factor charged
can
6Ze
approximatedThe
beThe
! 2
sphere.
nucleus
measured by a homogeneous
isThe
at often
very approximated
small values of q charged
by2
. aFor spher
homogeneou
can be found from
en
es R approximated
is of
then thisquoted by a homogeneous
sphere isasthen theradius
nuclear
quoted
medium
%
charged
Ras
and
0
ofradius.
the
this
heavy sphere.
The
nuclear
sphere
nuclei, The
"relation
radius.
2 1/2
isThe
ris#radius
then
0
relation
quoted
R of
given as theofisnuclear
this sphere
approximately then
by quoted
12
radius.as theThe r
nuclea
aphere The
homogeneous
is thennucleus
quoted isasoften
charged dF approximated
sphere.
the(qnuclear
) % The
2
radius. to
The be uniformly
relation charged sphere radius R, giving
suare
to the mean
charge From square
=2
−the
"r # radius charge
of
R
2 2 % radius
6! normalisation
is % =
2 this 5 ,to
5 2 is R = "r #, so
2 r the
" # ,ofso
2
f
mean
5
(r),
that we
2
3 square
(2.40) ofthat
this to
2 finally
1/2 charge
the
have mean square
radius is R 2 charge
= 5
" r 2radius is R = "
, so that 3
#(2.41)
2 5

an square charge radius isdqR = "3r #, so that

as the nuclear radius. The relation q =0
3
2
2 "r # = 0.94 A fm. 1/3
3

us is R 2
= 5
" r 2
# , so
and that
R = 1.21 A 1/3
fm. (2.42) R = 1.21 A1/3 fm.
of q . For q Rby = 1.21 A fm.
2 1/3
he form factor3can be measured
R=
R= 1.21AA fm.
1.21 1/3
fm.1/3 The nucleus
at very smallis values
often approximated
2
a homogeneous charged sphere. The
(2.42)(2.42)2
nd1/3heavy nuclei, "r2 #1/2 is given radius R of this
approximately F (q 12 ) = 1 −
sphere
by
2
2 "r as
is then quoted #+ the· ·nuclear
· (2.39)
radius. The relation
A fm. of this(2.42)
to the mean square charge 6 !
2.2.2
radiusMatter
is R2distribution
= 53 "r2 #, so that
Matter distribution
tribution and "r # = 0.94 A fm.
2 1/2 1/3
(2.41)
thus the 2.2.2
mean Matter distribution
square charge radius can
Electrons be
fm. found
A1/3cannot be used from
directly to(2.42)
obtain the distr
tion
rons cannot be used directly to obtain the
R=
distribution
1.21
ofnucleus.
neutrons in
us
beisused
often approximated
directly by
to obtain a homogeneous
the distribution charged sphere. The
of neutrons inthe % toWe could, however, take the presence of
ucleus. We could,
f this sphere however,
is then quoted Electrons
as thetake the
nuclear cannot
presence be used
radius. Theofrelation
neutronsdirectly
dF (qinto
2
) obtain
%account the distribution of neut
sed
ould, directly
however, to
takeobtain the
the presence
the distribution
of neutrons
Rnucleus. We
into of neutrons
account
= − 6!however,
# could, in % (2.40)
2 take the , presence of neutrons into a
2 2
the mean
btain thesquare charge radius
distribution is2.2.2
of neutrons
2
"r2 #, "so
= Matter
3 in
5
rdistribution
that
however, take the presence of neutrons into dq
account % 2 comes from a fit to a range of data,
The constant 12 10 e.g. the co
he presence of neutrons into account
Electrons cannot be used directly to obtain the distribution of neutrons in
1/3
q =0
given in Barrett and Jackson (1977).
 Although
ρnuclear ! 0.17 nucleons/fmThese
3
. the relations (2.42)
(2.43) results
are important
and (2.44) are valid for the vast
that will be used extensively later in t
ity of nuclei,
andthere are some very interesting exceptions. These a
tive nuclear matter radius chapter
for medium elsewhere
and heavy in this book.
so-called halo nuclei,
Although the relations which (2.42) have spatialand (2.44) extents
are valid far for larger the vast thanma ex
Matter distribution
Rnuclear ! 1.2 A1/3 tions.
fm. ity(The nucleus
of nuclei, there ofare
by
(2.44) Lisomementioned
multiplying
11
very (r)at by the
ρchinteresting A/Z.end Then of one
exceptions. Section finds
These 2.1.3
anare alm
a nucleus.)
so-calledWe halowillnuclei,density
return which in have
to the
thisnuclear interior
briefly extents
spatial in Section for larger
far all nuclei
10.2.2. thanbecaus expec
nt results that will be used tions. extensively later in this
with ofbyincreasing Anuclei
To taken
probe (The thenucleus
matter Li mentioned
density
ch (r) by of ρρis compensated
at the end of
experimentally, byan the
Section toincrease
2.1.3
afinds
hadron isaninsa
11
Presence by multiplying by multiplying A/Z. Then
(r) by one
A/Z. finds Then almost
one identic
an
book. of neutrons into account ρmultiplying
multiplying
ere in• this ch (r) by
ch by A/Z. Then
leading one finds
a anucleus.) We
density will
in A.the The
return interior
nuclear
density tointhis nuclear
briefly
interior density
in
forThen Section
all nuclei isprojectile.
given
10.2.2.
because bythe Atdecre
almost
lations (2.42) and (2.44)cally
identical nuclear
are valid neutron
theby
density;
for or proton,
multiplying
decrease
vast major- ρchin
in has
density (r)tothe
bybenuclear
the
with used
nuclear
A/Z.
increasing interior
as the
interior
one for
for
finds
A compensated allannuclei
all nuclei
almost beca
hig
bec
ide
To probe
with the matter
increasing with
with A density
is
increasing
increasing of
compensated nuclei
A
A is
is experimentally,
by the
compensated
compensated increase by
by ina
the
the hadron,
A/Z with
increase
increase tyi
are some very interesting
by increase in gies,
A/Z where
exceptions. elastic
These
density scattering
are inthe the nuclearis only a
interior small
ρ for part
all! of
nuclei
0.17 thebecausetotal
nucleons/fm inter
the 3
. d
cally a neutron
A. The or proton,
interior A.
A. The has
nuclear to be
density used is as
given the byprojectile. At high en
Ainterior nuclear
nuclear density isisIn
given by
nuclear
i, which have spatial extents far larger behaves
the nucleus than
withexpecta-
increasing
more Thelike interior
isan compensated
absorbing density
by the increase
sphere. giventhis by
in A/Z th
case, w
of Li mentioned at the endgies,
11 where2.1.3
of Section A.
elastic
is scattering
such
The Likewise,
interior the
nuclear
is only a
effective
density
small part
nuclear of the
matter total interacti
radiusmech for3
• The present dent
accepted particle
value of of momentum
nuclear density pis will have
ρnuclear ! an 0.17is given!by
associated
nucleons/fm 0.17 quantum
3
.nucleons/fm
return to this briefly in Section the10.2.2.
nucleus behaves nucleimore is like an absorbingρnuclear
ρ sphere. In this case, the in
nuclear ! 0.17 nucleons/fm
wavedent
atter density of nuclei experimentally, of wavelength
particle of medium
aLikewise,
hadron, λ
momentum
typi-
the =effective
h/pp and will an
willnuclear
have suffer
! 0.17
matter diffraction-like
associatednucleons/fm
radius quantum
1.2for
3
medium effects
mechan
fm. af
Effective nuclear matter radius (for and
Likewise, heavy
the ρ nuclei)
effective
nuclear is R
nuclear ! matter A .
1/3
radius
proton, has to be used asoptics. the wave Toofthe
projectile. At extent
nuclei is that
high
wavelength ener- λ = we
Likewise, h/pare thedealing
and effective
will sufferat high
nuclear
nuclear
energies
diffraction-like matterpurely radiusw
effects, as
nuclei is
scattering is onlydensity
• Matter a smallnuclear
partoptics.
probed of the ToaLikewise,
total
using
strong interaction,
hadron,
the extentThese
interaction the
nuclei
typically
thatareeffective
isaimportant
(i.e.
we neutron Rnuclear
areneglecting
dealing or results matter
aatproton
nuclear ! 1.2 the
high 1/3 radius for medium
Athat fm.will purely
relatively
energies be weak usedwith ext
Co
s more like an absorbing sphere. In this case, nucleithe inci-
ischapter R ! 1.2 A 1/3
fm.
nuclear strong
interaction in the interaction
case of a and (i.e.elsewhere
proton neglecting
for in the
example),thisRrelatively
book. the ! 1.2 weakA Coulo
1/3
fm.
1/3 nucleus can b
nuclear
mentum p will have an associated quantum These mechanical
are caseimportant results Rthat will be
1.2
nuclear
used fm.extensively latr
• At high energies,
λ = h/p and will sufferresented
the interaction
interaction in
by chapter
diffraction-like
is
a effects,mostly
the
blackand disk
as
inelastic
Although
These of a
of radius
inelsewhere
proton
are with
the the
relations
for
important
R and nucleus
example), !(2.42)
results
the
nuclear behaving
A
the
thatand
differential nucleus
willlike
(2.44) an
be are
canused
cross-secti vali
be e
absorbing sphere These are in this
important book. results that will be used
nt that we are dealing high resented
at have energies by a black
a Fraunhofer-like
purely
These with
Although
ity
are
disk
chapter
the of radius
of nuclei,
diffraction
important
the andthere
relations
R and
elsewhere
form,
results
(2.42)
arethe
i.e.
that
and indifferential
some this
will
(2.44)
verybook.
be are used
cross-section
interesting
valid extensively
for
excep
the va
w
have a Fraunhofer-like chapter
so-called diffractionandnuclei,
halo elsewhere
form, i.e. in this
which have book.
spatial extents far
raction• (i.e.
The neglecting the relatively
incident particle weak
will suffer Coulomb
diffraction-like
itychapter
of nuclei, andthere Although
effects
elsewhereare the
(𝜆
in
some = relations
this ℎ/𝑝),
very book. as (2.42)
in
interesting optics; and (2.44)
exceptions. are
Thes v
ase of a proton for example), the nucleus can be tions.
rep- Although
(The nucleus!
the relations
of 11
Li " (2.42)
mentioned and at (2.44)
the endare of v
nucleus can be representedso-called by a Although
blackhalo ity
disk of
of
the nuclei,
dσ
radius
nuclei, relations
which there
!
R;there (qR)are
differential
J (2.42)
" 2some
2
and very
cross-section
(2.44) interesting
are will
valid
largerfor exc
th
disk of radius R and the differential cross-sectionawill ity of
nucleus.) dσ
nuclei,
We ∝ will Jhave
1 (qR)
1 return
spatial
are some
to,
extents
this very
briefly
far
interesting
in Section
than ex
have aform,
Fraunhofer-like ity of
diffraction
tions. form:
(Thenuclei,so-called
nucleus there ofhalo
areLi nuclei,
∝ some
mentioned which
very at have
, interesting
the end spatial
of extents
exceptions.
Section (2.fT
2.1
dΩ qR
11
ike diffraction i.e. tions. (The so-called dΩ halo qR
nuclei, which
To probe the matter density of nuclei experimen
nucleus ofbriefly
Li mentioned have spatial extents
extentsat farthe end
11
a so-called
nucleus.) halo
We will return
nuclei, whichto this have spatial in Section 10.2.2. larger
! "2 tions.
cally (The
a matter
neutron nucleus of 11
Li mentioned at the end
dσ J1 (qR) where qR !
where
where qRpRθ To for
pRθ
tions.
! for
for
probe
(The asmall
nucleus.)
small
small
the θ𝜃θ and
nucleus and
ofWe Jor
JLi
density
11 proton,
will
is
is return
aa
of
the hastoto
first-order
first-order
nuclei
first-order
mentioned at be
this used
briefly
Bessel
Bessel
experimentally,
the end asin the
function.
function
of a pro
Sectio
functio
had
Section
∝ ,
qR largelarge qR,cally a
(2.45)
neutrona nucleus.)
gies, where
To probe
orwill
proton,We
elastic
the
1
1
haswill return
scattering
matter
tothis
be used toas
is
density this
only abriefly
ofSection
the nuclei in
smallexperim
projectile. Secti
part Atofh
dΩ qR, a nucleus.) We return
#
# the $to
$ briefly in 10.2.2.
thecallyToa scattering
nucleus probe
behaves
neutron or matter
more
proton,%% density
likehasanπto &of
& nuclei
absorbing
be used experim
sphere.
as thein
gies, To
where
[J
elastic
probe
r small θ and J1 is a first-order Bessel function.dent
For the
(qR)]
2
2 !matter 2
2 is
densityonly
sin 2 a
of small
nuclei
2 qR −
part of the
experimentally,
π total ap
(2.
cally a! neutron likeor proton, has to ,be, an
aused as case
the
1 (qR)]
a[Jneutron sin qR
1 particle
gies, where ofelastic
momentum scattering p used
will have
is4sphere.
only associated
small
the nucleus
cally behaves or more
proton,
πqR an
has absorbing
to be − as the In 11thispart
projectile.
# $ % & wave
dent particle gies,
of of
the where
nucleus
momentum πqR
elastic
wavelength
behaves
p willλscattering
=
more
haveh/pan and
like isan4only
will a quantum
absorbing
associated small
suffer part
diffrac
spher m
 1 (qR)] !
where qR ! pRθ for small θ and J1 is a first-order Bessel function.[JFor sin
large qR,
πqR
where qR ! pRθ for#small$ θ and % J1 πis& a first-order Bessel function. For
2
Forlarge
large qR, [J1 (qR)] ! sin2 #qRwhich
− $ has zeros
, having at(2.46)
zeros intervals
at intervals ∆θ = π/pR.
2
physics πqR 4 % & 2
pretation 2is borneπout by experiment, an
[J (qR)] sin qRthis ,differential (2.46)
2
which has zeros at intervals ∆θ1 = π/pR. The ! Figure
plausibility 2.7
of − inter-
Elastic
Figure
πqR 2.7. The data
4 show a succession of r
pretation is borne out by experiment, an example Fig.:cross-sections
Elastic
of whichdifferentialfor cross-section
is shown 52
in MeV for 52 MeV
as suggested
deuterons by (2.46).
onplausibility
54
Figure which
2.7. Thehas datazerosshow aatsuccession
intervals of roughly
∆θ = To equally
deuterons
π/pR. spaced
The on minima
Fe. Source: of thisthe
inter-
as suggested by (2.46). go further
Hintenberger requires
et al. solving
(1968). equat
pretation is borne out by experiment, more an example ofthan
problematical whichin is shown
the electron in ca
To go further requires solving the equations of motion,
Copyright but this
(1968) is far
Elsevier,
Figure 2.7. than
more problematical The in datathe showelectron a succession
caselikely
because of roughly
to be absorbed
hadrons are equally
more spaced
as they passminima
through
as suggested by (2.46). reprinted with permission.
likely to be absorbed as they pass through the nucleus and
potential the effective
is far less well known. However,
potential isTofargoless further
well known.requires solving
However, thethe equations
analogy with opticsof motion,
can but this isoptical
far
l
be pursued
be pursued further in the so-called
morefurther in the so-called
problematical thanoptical
in themodel. The essential
electron case idea in hadrons are more
because
this model is that a hadron incident on a nucleus may be elastically ascat-
this model is that hadron incidentabove, on a n
likely to be absorbed as they pass tered through
or the nucleus and theofeffective
tered or it may cause a variety of different reactions. As it
in may cause a variety
the discussion different
potential is far less well known. However, the analogy with opticslanguag can
above, Hadrons
beincident
if the are
pursued more
particle likely to
further
is represented abe
by in absorbed
the
wave, as theyoptical
thenso-called
in classical pass through
model. theThenucleus;
essential ideaogous in t
language it may be scattered or it may be absorbed. In optics this is anal-
effective
ogous to this
the potential
model
refraction notofwell
is that
and absorption aa known
hadron
light wave by a incident
medium of on a nucleus may be elasticallycomple scat-
complex refractive index, and just as the imaginary part of the refractive
index takestered
account oforthe it mayofcause
absorption a variety
the light wave, of different reactions. As in the discussion
so in the nuclear index t
The analogy with optics can be pushed further with the so-called Optical Model:
case the imaginary part of a complex potential describing the interaction
absorption accounted for by the imaginary part of a complex potential; the model
takes account of all the inelastic reactions. It is an essential feature of the case th
model that the properties of nuclei are mainly determined by their size,
is phenomenological—values of parameters of the optical potentials found by
as this implies that the same form of potential can account for the inter-
action of particles of different energies with different nuclei. Apart from
takes a
optimizing the fit to experimental data
the theoretical basis provided by analogy with classical optics, the model model
is essentially phenomenological, in that the values of the parameters of
the optical potentials are found by optimising the fit to the experimental
data. This type of semi-phenomenological approach is common in both
as this
nuclear and particle physics.
In practice, the Schrödinger equation is solved using a parameterised
action
12
complex potential, where the real part is a sum of the Coulomb potential
Represent scattering in terms of a complex potential: 𝑈 𝑟 = 𝑉 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝑊(𝑟)
V and W are selected to give the potential its proper radial dependence; real part
responsible for elastic scattering, imaginary part responsible for absorption.

Consider a square-well form for U(r)

𝑈 𝑟 = −𝑉" − 𝑖 𝑊" for r < R and 0 for r > R

# !"# !% &'($') *$
Let the outgoing wave have the form with 𝑘 = =𝑘$ + 𝑖 𝑘)
$ ℏ%

which means the radial probability density ~𝑒 ,!-!$ ; the wave is therefore exponentially
attenuated as it passes through the nucleus

If the absorption is relatively weak, 𝑊" small compared to 𝐸 + 𝑉" we can use the
the binomial theorem to write k as

!% &'($ ) *$ !% .
𝑘≅ ℏ%
+ ! ℏ% (&'($)

13
 The usual shell-model potential has a depth 𝑉" of about 40 MeV and taking E=10 MeV
(a typical value), we can estimate 𝑊" by insisting that the distance d over which the
intensity is attenuated by 𝑒 ,. is of the order of nuclear radius, 3 fm:

1 1
𝑑= = ℏ! (𝐸 + 𝑉" )/2𝑚 This gives a 𝑊" ~11 MeV
2𝑘) 𝑊"

Procedure for applying Optical Model:

&
• Choose a form for the potential: Square-well with width 𝑅 ≅ 1.2 𝐴 ; or a more detailed
'
,($
form 𝑉 𝑟 = ; constants 𝑉" , R and 𝑎 adjusted by fitting with data; W(r) at low
.'# (#)*)/-
energies has a different form: exclusion principle forbids the participation of the tightly
bound nucleons in the interior, only the valence nucleons at the surface participate,
𝑊(𝑟) ∝ 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑟

At higher energies, when inner core nucleons can also participate, W(r) looks like V(r)

14
15
• A spin-orbit term also included in modern optical potentials; peaked near the surface,
because the spin-density of the inner nucleons vanishes
• For a chosen potential, the Schroedinger equation can be solved and one can get
scattering amplitudes, which can then used to compare calculated cross-sections with
experiment
• The optical41model fits to
6 NUCLEAR scattering data are often very impressive:
REACTIONS

58N i

40 80 120 160 40 80 120 160

ecrn Ocm

Figure 11.18 Optical-model fits to differential cross sections (at left, shown as a
ratio to the Rutherford cross section) and polarizations, for 10-MeV protons
scattered elastically from various targets. The solid lines are the fits to the data
using the best set of optical-model parameters. From F. D. Becchetti, Jr., and G. W.
Greenlees, Phys. Rev. 182, 1190 (1969).
16
• Optical model useful only to discuss average behavior in scattering
For example, does not say where the absorbed particles actually go!

• Although interactions between nucleons of the target and projectile are

so complicated that representing them by a single potential is itself a significant
approximation, the optical model is successful in accounting for the scattering
data and leads to some understanding of the interactions of the nuclei

17
 Figure 2.9 Binding energy
ding energies per LECTURE
nucleon as12a function of
inding energy Figure 2.9 Bindingmass
energy
number A for stable
ehe
2.9case of electrons in atoms, the forces thatnuclei.
bind
drop nucleons
model in
Binding energy
ucleon asSemi-empirical mass formula: theofliquid
as a function of per nucleon as a function
and long-lived
a function of
ribute
r A for to the totalmass
stable
number A for stable
mass of an
number atom
A for M(Z, A) and in terms of
stable
ofnuclei.
d the proton
nuclei. Mp ,Figure
neutron
and Mnnuclei.
, and
2.9 Binding
long-lived electron me ,
energy
ong-lived
• The forces that bind nucleons
per nucleon contribute
as a function Theatom
of to the total mass of the mass deficit is define
M(Z,A):
mass number A for stable
M (Z, A)and
The
< Z(MThep +
mass m
mass
long-lived e) +
deficit Theas
NisMdefined
deficit
nuclei. n . defined
is mass
as deficit
(2.47)is defined as∆M (Z, A)

• The mass deficit is defined as:∆M (Z,(Z, (Z, A)−−and −p∆Mc is

) −called
N Mnthe ∆M (Z, A) ≡2M (Z, A) − Z
e) − N M
∆M The (Z,A)
≡ ≡Mmass
A)A) M deficit Z(M
Z(M p + m
meas
is defined n
A commonly used qua
• The binding energy and
B = − ∆Mc 2
;is called
binding and
the
energy − ∆Mc
binding
per
2
nucleon is called
energy
B/A. B. the commonly
This
more binding
is shown energy
sche
used
ticle physics
and −∆Mc is called the binding
2
A commonlyenergy
∆M B.
(Z,
used A) ≡
quantity M (Z,
of A) −Z
interest
A commonly
A commonly usedused quantityofofinterest
quantity interest
or longis the
is thelived.
binding
bindingThis energy
show
energy
peaks
B/A. This is at 8.7 MeV
shown for A ≈
schematically56 intha
(Iron) Fig
B/A. This is shown schematically
and ∆Mc 2 in
is Figure
mass
called 2.9 binding
number
the for of
nuclei
about
energy 56
B/A. This is shown schematically or
−
andlong
then
in
lived.
falls
Figure
of This
slowly
2.9
shows for
thatnuclei
B/A th
pe
or long lived. This shows A that B/A
commonly peaks
Excluding
used at avery
quantity value
light
of of nuc
8.7
interest
or long lived. This shows that B/A ofpeaks at a(close
valueto of 8.
mass number of aboutmass 56
B/A.
number
(close
lies to
betweeniron)
Thistois iron) andabout
7-9
shownand and
9 MeV
MeV,
56
thereafter
over
except
schematically a
forwideiron
falls
light v
ra
infalls
Fig
massExcluding
number veryof about 56 (close
Excluding
light nuclei, very light thereafter
nuclei, the binding
or longthe
nuclei
binding
lived. discuss
This energy
shows per
a modelthatnucleon
that
B/Apro is
pe
Excluding
and 9 MeV veryoverlight nuclei,
a wideand 9the
range ofbinding
MeV over
the energy
a wide
periodic perIn
range ofnucleon
the next
peri
mass number of about table. 56 (close the
to iron
and discuss
9 MeV aovermodel a wide discussofaan
that range
provides model
the that provides
periodic
explanation table.
for the an
In explan
the
shape nex
of
The semi-empirical
Excluding very massnuclei,
light formula can
the explain
binding
discuss a model that provides the shape
and 9 MeV this 2.3.2
anofexplanation
over curve Semi-empirical
a wide range for the shape
of the
m
perio
gy discuss
2.3.2 a modelApart
Semi-empirical that provides
from
massthe anlightest
formulaexplan
on of 2.3.2 Semi-empirical mass formula
ble the binding energy data
2.3.2Apart Semi-empirical mass
Apart formula
from the lightest elements andfrom the lightest
formula elements
a fewcontaining
special veryandsta
just a
Fig.: Binding
The mass deficit isenergy
defined as for stable and long-lived nuclei
the
2.3.2binding energy
Semi-empirical data of
mass Figure
18
formula 2.9 c
the binding energy data of Figure 2.9 masscan formula
be approximated
(SEMF), b
 Semi-empirical mass formula first written down by Weizsaecker in 1935; called
semi-empirical, because it contains inputs from both theory and experiment

Arises from two properties: 1. interior mass densities of nuclei approximately equal
2. total binding energies approximately proportional to their masses
a tightly packed assembly of Figure 11.14 A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus
each Analogy
interior with a classical
sphere is in model of a liquid:
interacts 1. interior
with fewer other densities
nucleons arethansame and
one in the
thers. 2. heats of vaporisation are interior
proportional
of the to their masses,
nucleus and henceif surface effects
its binding are ignored
energy
is less. The larger the nucleus, the smaller the
But the nucleus is a quantum system; this
proportion analogy cannot
of nucleons be taken too far
at the surface.

Assume energy associated with each nucleon-nucleon bond has energy U; this is –ve
but written as +ve, because binding energy (b. e.) is considered a positive quantity for
pheresconvenience
in contact with it (Fig. 11.13). Hence each interior nucleon in a
1
binding energy of (12)( !!U) or 6 U. If all A nucleons in a nucleus were
Each nucleon has a b.e.
2 of U/2. If nucleons are spheres of same size packed together,

he total
eachbinding energy
one of them of the nucleus
is surrounded would be spheres; hence each interior
by 12 neighbouring
nucleon has a b.e. of 6 U. If all the A nucleons are in the interior, the total b.e. of the
nucleus would be Ev " 6 AU (11.8)

) is often written simply as 19

 1.8)
oits is, often
interior,
A2!3 written
the
reducing simply
the total
total as energy
binding
binding energy
by of the nucleus would be

rgy Es " #a2 A2!3 EvFig.

" In
a1aAtightly packed
" assembly
6 AU of identical(11.9)
E (11.10) spheres, each interior
sphere is in contact v with 12 others
surface
Ed! isthecalled theenergy
volumeofenergy a nucleus. of aItnucleus
is most and significant
is directly proportional to A.
uation
greater
of course, (11.8)
fractionsome is often
of their
nucleons nucleons written
are are the
on on simply
the surface.
surface as
of Be-every nucleus and there-
tend to evolve toward configurations of minimum po-
wer than 12 neighbors (Fig. 11.14). The number of such nucleons depends
ward configurations of maximum binding energy. Hence
ceFigure
area ofIn the nucleus in as question. AA nucleus ofthe radius
of a nucleus R has an area of
lume
same
2 2!3 This
identical energy
11.13 a tightly
volume
surface-tension
spheres, each
packed assembly
energy
interioreffectsis
sphere is
of
simply
in a Figure 11.14
written
liquid
interacts drop,
with as:
fewer and
otherE v in"
nucleon at the surface
nucleons a
than 1 Ain the
one Nuclear Structure
Ruld A . Hence the number of nucleons
0 be spherical, since a sphere has the least surface area
contact with 12 others. interior ofSince
the with
nucleus there
fewer
and hence its thanare
binding the Z(Z
energy !
maximum 1)!2
num- pairs of proto
s is proportional to A2!3, reducing is less. The
the larger Since
the
total nucleus,
at binding
there
the smaller are Z
the
energy by(Z ! 1)!2 pairs of proto
What about the nucleons on the surface? proportion of nucleons the surface.

in a volume energy
e energy E! is called the of a nucleus and is directly Nuclear Structure
proportion
ween
here each are Z(Z pair of
!protons
1)!2 pairs nucleus
of protons, also contributes
Nuclear Structure Z(Z "
Actually,
rgyhas 12Surface
energy. The of
coulomb course,
energy: energy some E
Es it"(Fig.of
c#a nucleons
a nucleus
2 A Hence each
are
(∵ interior
2!3Sinceisthere on
./2
𝑅~𝐴 nucleon
the work
are Z(Z) !the surface
1)!2 pairs ofof
in a(Important(11.10)
for every
light
protons, "1)1) Stru
nucleus
Z (Z
nuclei)
Nuclear and
gether
other spheres
nucleusZhas protons
in contact with
a bindingfrom energy infinity
of (12)( U)into
11.13).
a spherical aggregate EcE" cof"! !VV" "
re have fewer than 12 1
neighbors
or 6 U.
(Fig.
If all A nucleons
11.14).
in a nucleus2were
The number such nucleons d
! " 2
ince there the aretotalZ(Z !energy
1)!2of"the
!!

Z(Z
2
pairs
1) of protons, Z(Z " 1)e 1 2
! r "an
2
re inZ(Z
its interior,
! 1)!2 pairsbinding
of protons, nucleus would be Z(Z " 1) Z(Z " 1)e 1
epotential
energy There
the surface
energy
E sSince area
ofEac "
isarecalled
Z(Z-1)/2 pair
the!
there of
of protons
pairs
surface
arethe of protons, r apart
V
energy
nucleus "coulomb
!ofis
!!a equal
in question.
to It is
energy
nucleus. E!most
"! significant
Ac nucleus of radius V " !!! (11.11) !
ZE 2
(Z ! 1)!2 pairs
" 6 AU
of8"#protons,
0 (11.8)r 2av 2 8"#R0
has av
er 2nuclei since 2 2a2!3 greater fraction of their nucleons are on the surface. Be-
! "
v

" 4"R AeZ(Z ". Hence Z(Z

the " " 1)
Z(Znumber Z(Z
1of nucleons " 1)ewith 1 fewer thanofthe maximum
!
1)e2where
" (1!r) is the value 1!r averag
"REquation 0 1)
al systems V "Ec# always
(11.8) "!is !
often ;
tend
written E to
c "
V "
simply !
evolve
as !!! where
toward V " (1!r)
! !!
configurations
! is
av of the ! is
minimum
(11.11)value
the value
po-of
of 1!r average
(11.11)
! ! " ofenergy
where (1!r) 2
Z (Z
2!3 " 1) av is av
the value "of 1!r
Z (Ztotal averaged
1)ebinding over all proton pairs
1 protons
ry,(1!r)
of bondsis the is
4"# 0proportional
r2
value of 1!r 2
to
averaged
8"# A !
Ec " uniformly , reducing
overr
uniformly 8"#
avall proton
V" the pairs.
distributed
!!!0 r If
av the
throughout a by
radius R,arenucleu
av(11
av 0
nuclei tend toward configurations of
uniformly maximum binding
distributed
distributed energy.
throughout Hence
a nucleus
throughout a (1!r)
nucleu is
mly Volume energy
distributed throughout E "a A
a nucleus of 2 radius (11.9)
R,1!3(1!r) 8"# r av
av is0and proportional to 1!R
v 1 1!3
ould exhibit the same surface-tension and and
hence
effects hence
to a1!A
as liquid to 1!A
, sodrop,
that
1!3 , so
in that
the
v is
where
nce Thethe
to averaged
value
(1!r)
1!A
energy E is1!3 ofisover
called, 1!r
sothe
the all proton
averaged
value
volume
that energy of pairs;
ofover
1!r
a nucleusfor
all
and uniform
proton
averaged
and hence
is directly distribution
pairs.
over If all
to
proportionalthe
1!A
to of protons
protons
A.proton , are inside
so
pairs. that the nucleus
If the protonsof are
ther
rface effects !

energy
radius
it
av should
R, some
be spherical,
isisarethe since aE sphere
"nucleus
#a has the
2!3
andAthere- least surface
allto./2 area
stributed
niformly throughout
Actually, where
of course,
distributed anucleons
(1!r) nucleus
throughout
av proportional
of radius
value
on the R,ofto
surfaceof
a nucleus s1/R
(1!r)
1!r
every
Coulomb and
av
of hence
is proportional
averaged 2depends
radius
energy to
R,1/𝐴
over (1!r) Eso
1!R
protonisthat
"
pairs.
Z(Z "If1)the proton
proportional
!a ! to 1!R
volume.
1!A
fore have fewer
1!3 than 12 neighbors
, souniformly
that distributed
(Fig. 11.14). The number of such nucleons avc 3 1!3
on the surface 1!3
area of the nucleus in question.throughout a nucleus
A nucleus of radius R has an areaofof radius R, (1!r)av isA proportional to
fewerCoulomb energy
nd
ric hence
4"R 2 Coulomb
repulsion 2to
" 4"R and
0A
2!31!A
Energy:
.between
Hence the ,number
so
each that pair
of 1!3
nucleonsof Z(Z
protons
with
"
in
than the
1)
a nucleus
maximum num- also contributes Ec " !a
mb energy hence to 1!A E ," so!athat ! (11.12)
he negative
ber
easing energy
of bonds is proportional
its binding to E
energy. A s ,is
2!3
called
reducing
The coulomb
Z(Z the
c the total The surface
3binding
" 1)Coulomb coulomb
Aenergy
energy energy
1!3 byenergy
E cenergy
of of isa because
is negative
a nucleus nucleus.
the work It from
it arises isE most
"
20 !asigt
an effect
ergy Ec " !a3 ! stability. (11.12) c 3
r done
the lighter
to bring nuclei
togethersince Z protons a 2!3greater
1!3 Z(Z
fraction
from infinity " 1)
intoofa spherical
their nucleonsaggregateare on the surfa
ith reality.
binding energy
Eb Eb ofa2 a nucleus ought
Z (Z ! 1) to be the sum of its volume, surface, Z (Z " 1)
Total!
b energies:A binding
" a1 ! energy
!
A 1!3 ! from
a3 !
A
the
4!3 liquid-drop
E b " E model
# E s
alone
(11.14)
# E c "will
a1
be
A ! a2A2!3
! a3 !
A1!3
!

ms of Eq. (11.14) is plotted in Fig. 11.15 versus A, together with their

e coefficients were chosen to binding !A curve
make the Ebenergy 2!3resembleZ(Z " 1)
as closely
E " E! # The
Es #perEnucleon
c " a1A !a A !a ! per nucleon is therefore (11.13)
empiricalb binding energy curve of2 Fig. 11.12. 3The fact
A 1!3that
curve can be made to agree so well with the empirical one means that
tween a nucleus and a liquid drop has at least some validity.Eb Z (Z ! 1)
a2
andper
g energy thenucleon
b.e. perisnucleon is therefore
therefore ! " a1 ! ! ! a3 !
A A1!3 A4!3
15 Eb a2 Z(Z ! 1)
! Each
"Volume
a1 ! !
ofenergy
the ! a3 ! (11.14)
A A1!3terms of Eq. A4!3(11.14) is plotted in Fig. 11.15 versus A, togethe
10 sum Eb!A. The coefficients were chosen to make the Eb!A curve resemb
Total energy
terms of Eq. (11.14) possible
as is plottedthe in empirical
Fig. 11.15binding
versus A,energy perwith
together nucleon
their curve of Fig. 11.12. T
Eb /A, MeV

5
The coefficients werethe chosen
theoretical curvethecan
to make be curve
Eb!A made resemble
to agree so well with the empirical one
as closely
he empirical
0 bindingtheenergy
analogy perbetween
nucleon acurve
nucleus and11.12.
of Fig. a liquid
Thedrop has at least some validit
fact that
cal curve can be made to agree so well with the empirical one means that
between–5a nucleus
Surface and a liquid
Coulomb energy drop has at least some validity.
energy
–10 15
50 100 150 200 250 Volume energy
A
15
10
binding energy per nucleon is the sum of theVolume energy
volume, surface, and coulomb energies.
Total energy
10
, MeV

5 21
Total energy
 two effects that do not fit into th
terms of a model that provides fo
Corrections to the formula from quantum mechanical (energy level) effects:
tion how these apparently very d
effects occurs when the neutrons
Effects due to asymmetry in no. of protons and neutrons that higher energy levels have to
equal.
A study of distribution of stable and radioactive isotopes reveals that
Let us suppose that the uppe
stable nuclei have Z= A/2. There should be a term to take into account
exclusion thisprinciple
symmetrylimits
effectto tw
Fig. 11.16. In order to produce
1
! ! (N " Z) # 4 neutrons w
ing A,strictly
This term is more important for light nuclei (for which Z=A/2 is more 2 observed)
than heavy nuclei, where a rapid increase in the Coulomb repulsionin which
requires N # Z. The new ne
additional
neutrons for stability. 2! # 4!!2 than those of the pr
new neutrons, each must be r
needed is
𝐸F ∝ (𝑁 − 𝑍) G and also 𝐸F ∝ 1/𝐴

!E " (number o

Asymmetry energy: 𝑁−𝑍 !

(𝐴 − 2𝑍)!
!
1
𝐸3 = −𝑎4 = −𝑎4 " ! (N !
𝐴 𝐴 2

(because
Because N " A ! Z, )(N ! Z)2 "

22
d-odd nuclei
with A ashave
A both
!3!4
unpaired
. Hence
ven and even-odd nuclei, A as Aprotons
with negative
and
!3!4
and neutrons
. Hence
for odd-odd nuclei, and
and have
seemsrelatively
to vary
energies.
as The pairing energy Ep is positive for even-even nuclei, 0 for
A!3!4. Hence
nd even-odd nuclei, and negative for odd-odd a5 nuclei, and seems a5 to vary
Pairing energy Ep ! (!, 0) !
Pairing energy 3!4 Ep ! (!, 0) !3!4
(11.17)
!3!4
. Hence A A
a5
g energyEven-even nuclei are most stable,
Ep ! (!, while
0) ! odd-odd
3!4 nuclei are the least (have lower b.e.)
(11.17)
The final expression for
Thethefinal
bindingA energyforof the
expression a nucleus
bindingofenergy
atomic
of number
a nucleusZ of
andato
mass number A, whichmass
was number aA,5 which
first obtained by C. +F.for
was voneven-even
first nuclei
Weizsäcker
obtained in F
by C. 1935, is
. von Weizsäcker
gy Pairing energy: E ! (!, 0) ! (11.17)
e final expression for the pbinding energy
A 3!4
of a 0
nucleusfor odd-even
of atomicand even-odd
number Z and
number A, which was first obtained by C. F.2!3 - for
Z(Zodd-odd
" 1) innuclei
von Weizsäcker 1935, isZ(Z " 1)
2!3
Eb " a1A " a2A " aE3b ! A " a2A " a3 !
" a11!3
Semiempirical Semiempirical A A1!3
expression for the binding
binding-energy energy of a nucleus
binding-energy 2
of atomic number
2
Z and
2Z) " 1)
(A " Z(Z a5 (A " 2Z) a5
er A, which
Final
formula was first
expression: Eb "obtained
A " a2by
a1formula A"2!3
aC.
4" F
!!.
a von
3 ! Weizsäcker
(!, "
0) !a 4 in
!! 1935, is
(!, 0) ! (11.18)
mpirical A A 1!3
A 3!4
A A3!4

g-energy
(A " 2Z)2 Z (Z "a1) 5
la A
A set
set of
ofcoefficients
coefficientswhich
that
" gives
Aa4gives
set
!! of
2!3aacoefficients
good
good fit
fit
(!,with
with
0)the
that!thedata
gives aare:
datagood
is as fit with the data
follows: is as follow
(11.18)
E "a A"a A "a ! A 3!4
A1!3A
b 1 2 3
cal
rgy a1 " 14.1 MeV 2a2 a"1" MeV a3a2""0.595
14.1MeV
13.0 13.0 MeV a3 " 0.595
of coefficients that gives a (A "fit2Z)
good with the data ais5 as follows:
a4" 4 !!
" a19.0 MeV a5(!,
a"4" 0) !
19.0
33.5 MeV
MeV
3!4 a5 " 33.5 MeV (11.18)
A A 23
a1 "sets
Other 14.1
of MeV
coefficients "sets
a2have
Other 13.0of MeV
also coefficients " 0.595
a3have
been proposed. MeV(11.18)
also been
Equation proposed. Equation
agrees better(1
fficients athat
with givesMeV
observed
" 19.0 goodwith
abinding afit observed
with
energies
" 33.5 the
thanbinding
MeVdata energies
does isEq. thanwhich
as (11.13),
follows: does Eq. (11.13),
suggests thatwhich
the
4 5
liquid-drop
liquid-drop model, though a good model, though a good
approximation, approximation,
is not the last wordis on
notthe
the
subject. subject.
sets "coefficients
a1 of 2 " 13.0
14.1 MeV haveaalso been MeV 3 " 0.595
proposed. aEquation MeV agrees better
(11.18)
 Nuclear phenomenology 63

Figure 2.11 Fit to the binding energy data (shown as green circles) for odd-A and even-

Fit to the b.e. data using the SEMF. The enhancements are due to “shell structure”
A nuclei using the SEMF with the coefficients given in the text. The predictions (shown
as blue circles) do not lie on smooth curves because Z is not always a smooth function
of A.

depend a little on the range of A fitted. One commonly used set is, in
units of MeV/c2 :15

aυ = 15.56, as = 17.23, ac = 0.697, aa = 93.14, ap = 12. (2.57)

The fit to the binding energy data for A > 20 using these coefficients in the
SEMF is shown in Figure 2.11. Overall the fit to the data is remarkably
good for such a simple formula, but is not exact of course. For example,
there are a small number of regions where the binding energy curves 24
show enhancements that are not reproduced. These enhancements are
ample 11.6 mass of the zinc isotope
The atomic 64
30 Zn
is 63.929 u. Compare its binding energy with the
Example
atomic
Example
mass11.6
predictionofofthe
Eq.zinc 11.6 64 Zn is 63.929 u. Compare its binding energy with the
(11.18).
isotope
a1 " 14.1 30 MeV a2 " 13.0 MeV a3 " 0.595 MeV
diction of Eq. (11.18). 64
Ex.mass
he atomic 1. The
Solution atomic
of the mass 30ofZnthe
zinc isotope zinc isotope
The atomic mass of the zinc isotope 30 Zn isis 63.929
is 63.929 63.929u.u.Compare
64
u. Compare itsits
b.e.binding
with theenergy wit
its binding energy with the
Compare
rediction of Eq. (11.18).
prediction
ution prediction of ofathe"
4 64
Eq. 19.0formula.
mass
(11.18). MeV a5 " 33.5 MeV
The binding energy of Zn is, from Eq. (11.7),
30
olution
energy of 64
binding Solution 30 Zn is, from Eq. (11.7),
Other
E " sets of coefficients
[(30)(1.007825
he bindingb energy of 64 have alsou) been
u) # (34)(1.008665
30 Zn is, from Eq. (11.7),
" 63.929 proposed.
u](931.49 Equation
MeV/u) ! 559.1(11.18)
MeV agrees be
with
Eb " [(30)(1.007825
The observed
binding binding
u) # (34)(1.008665
energy 64 energies
ofenergy
u) " 63.929 than does
u](931.49 Eq.
MeV/u) (11.13),
! 559.1 MeVwhich suggests that
The
Eb " semiempirical
[(30)(1.007825 u) # binding
(34)(1.008665 30 Zn u) is, fromusing
formula,
" 63.929 Eq. (11.7),
the coefficients
u](931.49 MeV/u) ! 559.1 in the
MeVtext, gives
From
semiempirical the
liquid-drop semiempirical
binding model,
energy b.e.
though
formula, formula,
using using
athegood the coefficients
approximation,
coefficients in the text, given:
is not the last word on
gives
he semiempirical binding energy formula, using the coefficients in the text, gives MeV)(30)(29)
subject. Eb "E[(30)(1.007825 u) # (34)(1.008665 2!3u) "(0.595
63.929 u](931.49 MeV/u) ! 559.1 Me
b ! (14.1 MeV)(64) " (13.0 MeV)(64) " !!!
(0.595
2!3 (0.595 MeV)(30)(29)
MeV)(30)(29) (64)1!3
EEb b!!(14.1
(14.1 MeV)(64) "(13.0
MeV)(64) "binding (13.0MeV)(64)
MeV)(64) " !!!
2!3 " !!!
The semiempirical (19.0 MeV)(16)
energy formula, using
33.5 MeV (64) (64)
1!3 the1!3 coefficients in the text, gives

" !! # !! ! 561.7 MeV

(19.0 MeV)(16) 64 33.5
(19.0 MeV)(16) 33.5
MeV MeV (64)3!4
" !! ##!!
" !! !! 3!43!4! 561.7
! 561.7MeVMeV (0.595 MeV)(30)(29)
Example E64 11.6
64
b ! (14.1 (64)
MeV)(64)
(64) " (13.0 MeV)(64) 2!3
" !!!
The plus sign is used for the last term 64
because 64 30 Zn is an even-even nucleus.(64) The1!3difference
he plussign
signisisused
used for
for the
the last term because 30 Zn
64 is an even-even
plus Plus
between
The sign
the
atomic is used
observed
mass for
last
and
of the
term last
calculated
the zinc term
because Zn 64
30 as
binding
isotope isenergies
Zn is anis nucleus.
an even-even even-even
The difference
less nucleus.
63.929 than 0.5nucleus.
The difference
percent.
etween the observed and calculated binding (19.0 energies
MeV)(16) is less than33.5
30 MeV Compare
0.5 percent. u. its binding energy with
ween theprediction
observed and of Eq.calculated" !!
(11.18). binding energies is less # !! than 0.5 percent. ! 561.7 MeV
3!4
64 (64)
The difference between the two energies is less than 0.5%
Solution
The plus sign is used for the last term because 64 30 Zn is an even-even nucleus. The diffe
between
The theenergy
binding of 64
observed 30and
Zn calculated
is, from Eq.binding
(11.7),energies is less than 0.5 percent.

Eb " [(30)(1.007825 u) # (34)(1.008665 u) " 63.929 u](931.49 MeV/u) ! 559.1 MeV

The semiempirical binding energy formula, using the coefficients in the text, gives
25
(0.595 MeV)(30)(29)
 Isobars are nuclides that have the same mass number A. Derive a formula for the a
A ! 25.
on Solution number of the most stable isobar of a given A and use it to find the most stable iso
Solution
A ! 25.
Ex. 2: Isobars are nuclides that have the same mass number A. Derive a formula for the
theTovalue
find of
atomic the Z value
number ofof
for which
Solution theZ most
for
the which
binding
stable the
isobar binding
energy for aE energy Eb use
is a Amaximum,
bgiven and is aitmaximum,
towhich
find the which correspo
corresponds
most to
To find the value of Z for which the
!dZ binding energy E is a maximum, which cor
b!dZ ! 0 for Z. From Eq. (11.18) we have
of Z for
maximumwhich
stable
um stability, the
isobar
we must binding
stability,
of A=25.we energy
must
solve dEwe E
solve b is
dE a
b maximum,
! 0 for which
Z. From corresponds
b
Eq. (11.18) to we have
maximum To stability,
we must solve dEb!dZ ! 0 for of
find the value Z.must for solve
ZFrom Eq. dE
which the b!dZ
(11.18) !we0energy
binding for Z.EFrom
have Eq. (11.18) we have
b is a maximum, which correspo
maximum stability, dEb!dZ ! 4a
dEb a3b we
dE
dE
musta3 solve4a
a 4
0 for Z. From Eq. (11.18) we have
4
dEWeb set a! ! "! ! !
(2Z
4a " "
b ! 1)
1!3 # (2Z! 3 " 1)
(A #" !
2Z) (A4a
! 0"4 (A
2Z) ! 0
! ! "!
3
dZ (2Z " A
1) dZ
1!3
# ! ! 4
dE
(A ! "
Ab" 2Z)1!3! aA
! (2Z
3 0
" 1) #
A 4a4 ! " 2Z) ! 0
dZ A1!3 AdZ ! ! "! A 1!3 (2Z " 1) #
A
! (A " 2Z) ! 0
"1!3 a A dZ "1!3 A # 4a A0.595A"1!3 #
"1!3 76# 76
a 3 A # 4a
3 4 a3 A "1!3 40.595A
# 4a # 76 0.595A "1!3
"1!3
a3 A Z ! # !!!4a4"1!3 !!!
Z ! Z !0.595A !!!
"1!3
! !!!
"1!3#"1 !4
764a"1!3 !!! ! !!! "1!3
2a A "1!3"1 # 3 A8a A#
a"1!3 4 "11.19A 0.595A
"1!3 "1# 152A # 76"1
Z ! !!! "1!3 2a A
3 "1 !# !!!
8a
3Z !A !!!
4 2a"1!3
3 A 1.19A
"1!3# 8a"1
4
4A "1
#! 152A
!!!1.19A "1!3
"1!3 # 152A
"1
"1
2a3 A # 8a4A 1.19A2a3 A # 152A # 8a4A 1.19A # 152A
! 25Forthis !
A formula
For25A For
this
!gives
25
A
formula
! Z!
this
25
gives
11.7,
formula
this formula from!
Zgives 11.7,
givesZwhich
Z
from
!!11.7, we which
11.7, conclude
from
from
we that
which
which
conclude
we ! 12
Zconclude
weconclude that should
that Z
!!12
Zthat !should
be
Z12 the
12 sh
should
rmula gives Z ! 11.7, from which we conclude that Z ! 12 should be the 25
atomic
number For A=25,
number
ofatomic we
the atomic
most getstable
of
number Z=11.7.
the
number most
of of We
isobar
the most
the conclude
stableof stable
most ! Z=12
Aisobar
stable25. of
isobar is
A the
This
isobar ! answer.
25. !This
ofnuclide
of
25 A! This
25.is
25. 12nuclide,
25
nuclide
This
This Mg, which
nuclide
nuclide Mg,
is is1225 is25 which
12 in
isMg,
12 Mg,fact
which is i
whic
is
the most stable isobar of A ! 25. This nuclide 25isobars, is 12 Mg,25Nawhich
25 25 25is 25
in25fact
the only
y stable isAin
the stable
!fact25the
only
the A ! stable
only
isobar.
stable
only 25
stable
The
A! isobar.
AA=25
other
25
!
25 The
isobar.
isobars,
isobar.
25 other
isobar. The
TheThe
25 11 Na
other
other isobars
andisobars,
isobars,
11
13 Al,25
11and
11are
Na
Na and
both
andand
13 Al,
13 are
Al,
13 Al, both
radioactive.
are are radioactive
bothboth radioa
radioactive.
! 25 isobar. The other isobars, 11 Na and 13 Al, are both radioactive.
are both radioactive

11.6 SHELL MODEL

11.6 11.6
SHELL
MODEL SHELL
SHELL
MODEL MODELMODEL
Magic numbers in the nucleus
Magic
MagicinnumbersMagicthenumbers
numbers
in in theinnucleus
nucleus the nucleus
umbers the nucleus
The basic assumption of the liquid-drop model is that each nucleon in a nu
The The basicof assumption
interacts
theonly with ofliquid-drop
theits themodel
nearestliquid-drop
neighbors, model
that like athatis that
molecule
eachineach a nucleon
ina liquid. in
At athe
asic ofbasic
assumption
ption assumption
the liquid-drop
extreme, the
of
liquid-drop
model is
hypothesis that
that each
each
model
isnucleon
nucleon
isin
each nucleon
interactsa nucleus
chiefly
nucleon
with a 26
in
nucleus
general
nu
force
interacts only with its nearest neighbors, like a molecule in a liquid. At
interacts
withonly with itsneighbors,
nearest neighbors,
ts only
ith its nearest its nearest
neighbors, like a molecule alike
like ainmoleculea molecule
liquid. in
Atathe in aAtliquid.
liquid.
other At the
the other
 Nuclear Stability Specific
Nuclear phenomenology 65 N and Z values are magic
numbers

Prediction of super heavy nuclei

at N=184; could be produced
in collisions of heavy radioactive
nuclei

Exotics in the outer regions of the

landscape: halo nuclei (loosely bound
neutrons around a central core),
highly non-spherical nuclei, of
interest in astrophysics (supernovas)

Nucleosynthesis in stars by fusion

stops after Iron is formed; heavier
The nuclear landscape: the Segre plot
Figure 2.13 The distribution of nuclei. The green squares are the stable nuclei occurring
in nature. Known, but unstable, nuclei lie within the blue area, and other predicted
nuclei produced via rp, r, s process
nuclei (usually very unstable) lie within the outer yellow area. See text for details.
Specific values shown for N and Z are the magic numbers, mentioned below. Source:
Bazin (2012), reprinted and adapted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd:
copyright 2012.

states. A version is shown in Figure 2.13. Stable nuclei are shown as green
squares and lie on a trajectory starting just below the line Z = N, but
deviating more from it with increasing values of N. Unstable nuclei with
27
Problems
Problems 2

2.1 Show that mass measurements in an ideal

2.1 ideal Penning
Penning trap
trap have
have maximum
maximum
precision when the observation time is about
about 2.9 2.9 times
times the
the nuclide
nuclide half-life.
half-life.
2.2
2.2 Electrons with momentum 330 MeV/c are are elastically
elastically scattered
scattered through
through an an
angle of 100 by a nucleus of 56 Fe. If the charge
charge distribution
distribution on on the
the nucleus
nucleus
is that of a uniform hard sphere, and assuming
assuming the the Born
Born approximation
approximation
is valid, by what factor would you expect expect the the Mott
Mott cross-section
cross-section to to be
be
reduced?
2.3
2.3 Show explicitly that (2.39) follows from (2.37).
(2.37).
2.4
2.4 A beam of electrons with energies of 250 MeV MeV is is scattered
scattered through
through an anangle
angle
of 1000 by a heavy nucleus. It is found thatthat the
the differential
differential cross-section
cross-section isis
65% of that expected from scattering from from aa point
point nucleus.
nucleus. Estimate
Estimate the the
root mean square radius of the nucleus.
2.5
2.5 Show that the q2 dependence of the form form factor
factor corresponding
corresponding to to the
the
exp(−r/a)/r, where
charge distribution ρ(r) = ρ0 exp(−r/a)/r, where ρρ00 and
and aa are
are constants,
constants,
is of the form [(a2 q2 /h̄2 ) + 1]−1 .
2.6
2.6 A sample of 1 g of a radioactive isotope of of atomic
atomic massmass 208
208 decays
decays viavia ββ
emission, and 75 counts are recorded in aa 24 24 hour
hour period.
period. IfIf the
the detector
detector
efficiency is 10%, estimate the mean life of of the
the isotope.
isotope.
86Rn decay by α emission to 84
Nuclei of 212 84Po
Po with
with aa mean
mean life
life of
of 23.9
23.9min.
min.
208
208
2.7
2.7
The 84 Po nuclei in turn decay, also by α-emission,
208
208
α-emission, to to the
the stable
stable isotope
isotope
82Pb with a mean life of 2.9 yr. If initially
initially the
the source
source is
is pure
pure 86 86Rn,
Rn, how
how
204
204 212
212
82
long will it take for the rate of α emission
emission in in the
the final
final decay
decay to to reach
reach aa
 2.6 A sample of 1 g of a radioactive isotope of atomic mass 208 decays via β
emission, and 75 counts are recorded in a 24 hour period. If the detector
efficiency is 10%, estimate the mean life of the isotope.
2.7 Nuclei of 212
86Rn decay by α emission to 84Po with a mean life of 23.9 min.
208

The 20884Po nuclei in turn decay, also by α-emission, to the stable isotope
82Pb with a mean life of 2.9 yr. If initially the source is pure 86Rn, how
204 212

long will it take for the rate of α emission in the final decay to reach a
maximum?
2.8 Natural lanthanum has an atomic weight of 138.91 and contains
0.09% of the isotope 138 57La. The latter has two decay modes:
57La → 58Ce + e + ν̄e (β − decay) and 57La + e → 56Ba + νe
138 138 − 138 − 138 ∗

(electron capture) followed by the electromagnetic decay of the excited

56Ba → 56Ba + γ (radiative decay). There are 7.8 × 10 β parti-
state 138 ∗ 138 2

cles emitted per second per kilogram of natural lanthanum and there are
50 photons emitted per 100 β − particles. Estimate the mean lifetime of
57La.
138

2.9 Show that the electrostatic self-energy of a uniformly charged sphere of

charge Ze and radius 1.2A1/3 fm is of the form aZ 2 /A1/3 and find the value
of the constant a. Compare your result to the corresponding term in the
semi-empirical mass formula.
2.10 Use the SEMF to estimate the energy released in the spontaneous fission
reaction

92U 35 Br + 57La + 3n.

235 145
→ 87

2.11 The most stable nucleus with A = 111 is 48Cd

111
(see Figure 2.15). By what
percentage would the fine structure constant α have to change if the most
stable nucleus with A = 111 were to be 11147Ag? Assume that altering α