Application of finite element analysis

techniques for predicting

crack propagation in lugs
O. Gencoz, U. G. Goranson and R. R. Merrill

The plane elastic problem corresponding to a through radial crack emanating from the internal
boundary of a symmetrical lug is considered. A pin bearing pressure distribution was developed
by utilizing photoelastic test data and differs considerably from the usually assumed uniform or
cosine pressure distributions. The stress intensity factors at the crack tip were obtained by using
recently derived quadratic isoparametric finite elements which embody the inverse square root
singularity. Fatigue crack growth tests of 17 aluminium, titanium and steel lugs were utilized to
verify stress intensity factor solutions.

NO TA TION

D Lug hole diameter Z Minimum stress factor

Do Reference lug hole diameter (25.4mm) M Material rating (MN/m 3/2)
W Lug width q Material stress ratio parameter
t Lug thickness P Slope parameter dL/dN vs Krr~
a Head distance r, 0 Cylindrical co-ordinates centred at the crack
C Edge distance tip
P Total applied load Up V Cartesian displacements
ET Modulus of elasticity in tension Txy Shearing stress component in rectangular
ES Modulus of elasticity in shear co-ordinators
P Poisson's ratio Angle from the symmetrical axis (shown in
K Stress intensity factor for opening mode Fig. 6)
L Crack length (through crack) W External work
O Stress (subscripts specify direction etc) Conversion factor
5A Crack extension Y Lug configuration factor
G Energy release rate

A calculation method for fatigue strength which takes the
shape and size of the aluminium lugs into consideration has
been derived by S.E. Larsson i . The paper mainly dealt with
lugs which were symmetric, longitudinally loaded and fitted
with non-interference pins. Larsson's empirical method has
now been expanded to include obliquely loaded symmetrical
and assymmetrical lugs so that the fatigue failure prediction
of an aluminium lug can easily be made within the accuracy
of accepted engineering tolerances.
Recently, there have been several papers published on
the fracture mechanics analysis of lugs 25" All these papers
have treated the pin bearing pressure as either being uniform
or a cosine stress distribution. However, the finite element
analysis results combined with photoelastic test data has
revealed that the normal pressure generated by the pin on
th inside of a lug does not follow the usually assumed cosine
or uniform distribution. A new pressure distribution was,
therefore, developed, and stress distributions determined for
lugs subjected to this pressure distribution with the aid of
the finite element analyses. 6
A single through-the-thickness crack, radiating from
the hole of a lug at the critical cross-section, was analysed
with isoparametric quadrilateral plate elements 7'8 for
different width/diameter ratios. It is assumed that the crack,
or cracks are at the edge of the hole in a plane perpendicular
to the loading direction. Configuration factors, (Y) are
developed for axially loaded symmetrical lugs and plotted on
charts.
A closed form solution for stress intensity, K I mode, is
not available for pin loaded lugs. However, a lug can be
isolated as a free-body circular ring 9 subjected to pin and
external boundary loads which are in equilibrium in opposite
directions. Then by employing a similar technique as
described by Reference 10, it is possible to obtain the
stress intensity factor, KI.
The K I solution was used to derive a fatigue crack
growth equation which estimates crack growth quite well.
Also, the analysis is limited to consideration of failure in
terms of the KI crack opening mode.
PHO TOELASTIC TEST RESUL TS
A photoelastic model, simulating an aluminium lug loaded
by a steel pin, was built and tested in the Boeing Structures
Laboratory. Fig. 1 shows the dimensions and parameters of
the analysed lug configuration.

0142-1123/80/030121-09 $02.00 © IPC Business Press Limited 1980 INT. J. FATIGUE July 1980 121
 The use of finite element methods in fracture mechanics
has been investigated by many authors. The stress intensity
--.t° I-- ; factors K I and K n , for Mode I and Mode II respectively, can
be calculated using either the displacements or the stresses in
the vicinity of the crack tip 11,12. The elastic state of stress

f--tw
P
in the vicinity of the crack tip can be expressed in terms of
a local polar coordinate system of r, 0 as:

Oxx=~COS-- 1 --sin
V2~r 2 2 2]

Fig. 1 Lug configuration data: D = 50.8 mm, W = 81.3 m m , t =

6.21 m m , a = 15.24 mm, C = 15.24 mm, P = 97.79 kg

Uyy = ~
K,
cos -
o 3:]
+ s i n - sin
Vzlrr 2 2
(:1)
0 0

KI 0 0 38
Txy = ~ s i n -- c o s -- c o s --
x/2~r 2 2 2

i +~cos-2 1-sin-2sin~-

Fig. 2 Isochromatic photographs; (a) dark-field fringes; (b) light-

field fringes

The model was machined from a sheet of 6.21 m m

thick PSM-1, a transparent polycarbonate material especially
annealed for use in photoelastic analysis. The model was
loaded with pins which represented the stiffness ratios of
steel-aluminium (3:1). Polaroid type 55 positive-negative
film was used to photograph the dark field and light field
fringe orders (isochromatics) using 546 nm collimated light.
The modulus of elasticity (ET) in tension, was 2503 mPa
and (Es) in shear, was 910 MPa. Poisson's ratio (v) was 0.38.
The optical response for the model was 1.06 MPa/fringe order
at 546 nm. The dark and light field fringe order photographs
of the model are shown in Fig. 2.
Plots of the fringe order value relative to location
around the inner and outer boundaries of the model are
shown in Fig. 3 in polar form. The principal stress difference
o e - o r along any one continuous fringe is a constant and is
equal to 1.06 xn MPa. At a free boundary, the radial stress
Or is equal to zero; therefore, the photoelastic value is pro-
portional to the circumferential stress, oe, component.
Fig. 3 Fringe order plot (-- represents Inner Boundary)
ANAL YTICAL PROCEDURE
Finite element analysis methods
1, Isoparametric quadrilateral element
A plane eight noded isoparametric quadrilateral element (as ~ { (-i,i)4r~3(i,i)
shown in Fig. 4) was used as the basic building block in the
analysis procedure.
The derivation of this finite element has been discussed
8 ~ Conformol ii ~ 12(1,-0
I 5 mopping (-I,-I) 5
extensively by I. Ergatoudis eta/. 7 Use of isoparametric
quadrilateral elements improves the accuracy and provides a
better structural representation. Fig. 4 Isoparametric quadrilateral element

122 I N T . J. F A T I G U E July 1980

 The plane stress state of displacement in the vicinity
of the crack tip can be expressed as:

U = -- COS - - - + sin 2
Es +v

+ KsIi In~0 E s 211 2+v+c°s2~]

(2)
v =-- sin -- - cos 2
Es 1 +v croc,,,p [_ ,/4 _L 3,/4
V" "3~ vl
+- cos - - + sin2
Es +v Fig. 5 Eight-nodeisoparametric quadrilateral element with mid-
side nodes at quarter points at one corner
Therefore, the states of stress or displacements in the
vicinity of the crack tip can be determined by using a finite by:
element program, then the stress intensity factors can be
16w
c o m p u t e d by the use of Equations (1) and (2). However, it a - (5)
is essential to know the size of finite region around the 28A
crack tip in which the foregoing equations are valid. 12 where w is the external work.
The determination of 8 w can be accomplished by two
2. Quarter-point singularity element successive finite element computer runs for a crack extension
6A. Therefore, the stress intensity factor KLcan easily be
This finite element is used as a special crack tip finite element obtained without getting concerned with~c~ack tip stresses.
surrounding the crack tip. These special finite elements incor- The main concern in such an analysis is the m~ze of the model
porate the well-known inverse square root singularity for an and finite element mesh.
elastic crack.11 The available special crack tip elements
reported in the literature are: elements where crack tip Finite element mode/and loads
singularity is embedded by means of imposed displacement The finite element model used to analyse the lug stress
pattern13,16; elements based hybrid stress model 13,18 end distributions and stress intensity factors is shown in Fig. 6.
elements based on hybrid displacement mode] 19,2°. It consisted of 892 nodes and 272 plate elements. At the
R.S. Barsoum 21 has reported in his paper a development of inner boundary of the lug, the nodes were loaded by radial
an element that when the mid-side nodes of an eight node loads generated by the pin bearing pressure. The total load
isopararnetric quadrilateral element are placed at the quarter per element was calculated by the following equation:
points, the Jacobian of the co-ordinate transformation ~2
becomes singular at the point closer to the quarter point. 8
The e]ernent is shown in Fig. 5. Vr = 2 at . f Ord~ (6)
The stress intensity factors KI and KII were calculated ¢,
from crack tip displacements. Solving for K I and KII from
Equation (2) gives Equations (5) 8 (shown below)* where Or = bearing pressure inside of the lug.
However, since the elements are isoparametric and each
side consists of three nodes, the constituent nodal forces
Crack energy rate concept
Rxi are as follows:
The energy release rate (G) is related to stress intensity factor
Corner Nodes Pr/6
K I in plane stress as follows:
Mid-Node 4Pr/6
K[ 2 = G E (4)
The reaction forces, where the model is supported, have to
For a structure in a state of plane stress containing a crack, be interpreted the same as above to obtain the true reaction
the energy principle for a virtual crack extension 6A is given distribution along the support line.

[ 2 ~ \ I/2 v - 1
+ sin2 ~ ) -vsin-- --+cos 2
2 l+v
KI =
COS2 _ + sin2 ( ~ _ + + sin2 _ sin2 U - -2 _ COS 2 8 --2 + COS2
2 +v i 2 l+v l+v
(3)
- + sin 2
E, 7 ] [u sin 1 +--v COS 2
21
--VCOS-- - -
+p
Kn=
o[(2
~in 2 - - - +sin 2 ---+sin 2
2 l+v +v 2 +p +v

INT. J. FATIGUE July 1980 123

 Or = - os~- 14(n-1)(n-8)c°sn~
lrDt n ,9

n=S,7 5(4 - n ) h cosn (9)

Fig. 7 shows the lug pin bearing stress distribution calculated

by Equation (9). The stress distribution at the inner and
I outer boundaries, obtained from the finite element solution,
compare well with the photoelastic test results, as shown in
Fig. 8.
The trigonometric series in Equation (9) converges
rapidly and requires few terms to obtain the correct pressure
on the inner lug surface. Bearing stresses for any given angle
of ~ can be programmed in hand calculators with program-
ming capability using Equation (9).
The resulting internal stress distribution at several
angles of ~ are plotted in Fig. 9.
Further photoelastic testing is planned to verify the
validity of this distribution in the presence of cracks.

FRACTURE MECHANICS ANAL YSIS

Stress intensity factor calculations of rings were included in
this investigation due to their structural similarity with the
lugs and available analytical data for validation of finite
element solutions. Through-the-thickness single tip crack
stress intensities were subsequently derived for lugs with
three different width-to-diameter ratios.

Fig. 6
[[llillll
Lug mathematical model
Ring fracture mechanics analysis
Stress intensity factor solutions for radial cracks emanating
from the internal boundary in a circular ring have been
solved by Bowie and Freese 1°. Uniform external pressure
was assumed at the outer boundary of the circular ring.
Normalized stress intensity factors are shown in Fig. 10.
An appropriate portion of finite element model
(Fig. 6) was utilized for the ring finite element fracture-
STRESS DISTRIBUTION mechanics analysis. The loads were applied radially at the
The accepted practice is to represent the radial pin-bearing outer boundary according to Equation (6). The opening
pressure acting on the lug hole inner boundary described by mode stress-intensity factor (KI) values obtained from finite
the following expressions: element solutions 6 are shown in Fig. 10. The agreement
between the finite element analysis and the analytical solu-
tion by Bowie and Freese is excellent and well within
Or = cos @ for - -~<~<- (7) engineering tolerances.
~Dt 2 2

or
Lug fracture mechanics analysis
P
or - (8) Three width-to-diameter ratios (1.6, 2.13 and 3.20) were
Dt analysed to obtain the opening mode, K], stress intensity
where ~ is measured from the symmetrical axis as shown in
Fig. 6.
Finite element models of lugs, for calculation of inter-
nal stress distributions and stress intensity factors, were
initially loaded using the distribution as described by Equa-
tions (7) and (8). Resulting boundary stresses based on this
approach did not agree with stresses obtained from the photo-
elastic tests. Further investigation revealed deflection incom-
patibility between the lug and the pin. Therefore, a study
was conducted to determine the pressure distribution satis-
fying deflection compatibility criteria and matching photo-
elastic test boundary stress distribution data. The following
trigonometric series were derived after several iterative steps: Fig. 7 Gencoz distribution on lug pin

124 INT. J. FATIGUE July 1980

 ~.P~ Inner Outer boundories
o o Photoelasfictest
/ ', " X ---~-- L" "--""--'~ Cc~sidoez
(~:r~ibubu~°'¢~

°%°°°°°°°/
, "" i - , / ~. _...o--~'--~'-~o

bz
"°,,_ o o ° \°o
0
o°/°o
0
o;; o-"--

ol ; \ ..+o X , ..... / o~..- ,__

I " 180° 270° 360°

_,!/ '"-..............

Fig. 8 Analysis of circumferential stresses in an attachment lug

factors for a single tip through-the-thickness crack at the

critical cross-section radiating from the hole of the lug. The
finite element model shown in Fig. 6 was utilized and finite
element fracture mechanics analysis was accomplished with
the aid of the ATLAS system. 6 The model was supported
along the baseline. Uniform stress distribution obtained at
the baseline confirmed that the end support was sufficiently
far away from the lug hole. The crack surface was simulated AI ~ L=Crack length
by unzipping coupled nodes along the line of crack extension.

5.C W/D2.=0

Z
3.0

I 2.0
- -

o
Reference 10
Finite elementanalysis

1.0

I I I I
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 [0
L/C
Fig. 9 Circumferential stresses Fig. 10 Stress intensity factor (K I) calibration for a cracked ring

INT. J. F A T I G U E July 1980 125

 Special quarter node elements 9 were placed at the vicinity 4,C ~P
of the crack tip (Fig. 11).
Bearing loads were calculated using Equations (6) and
(9) and applied to the nodes at the inside of the lug.
The Boeing finite element program calculated the
opening mode stress intensity factor, K I , using Equation (5).
Upon completion of the displacement solution in finite
element analysis, the stress intensities were obtained by 3.C
fitting a straight line through the calculated points and
extrapolating to the crack tip. When a lug is subjected to
axial external load, the maximum stress location (~ = -+ 90 °)
will not only deflect laterally but will also experience a slight
rotation. In order to take this phenomena into account, the
procedure described above was repeated along the lower
crack boundary (or 0 = - 70 nodes. The analysis showed
that stress intensity factor estimation by these means gave
good results.
The crack tip stress intensity factor is treated as a
function of two dimensionless parameters. These indepen-
dent variables are: L/C, the crack length :edge distance
ratio; and W/D, the specimen width:hole diameter ratio. W/O
10
The results obtained from finite element solutions o 1.60
a 2.13
are conveniently presented in the following standard form: O 3.20
o 1.60 (from energy release
rate anolysis)
0 2.37(Reference 3)

where ON = nominal stress at net cross section ~ L ' ' ' ! ' i 19 J
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 6 0.7 0 8 0 1.0
The configuration factor is presented in graphical form L/C
in Fig. 12 for W/D ratios of 1.6, 2.13, and 3.2. Fig. 12 Comparison of configuration factors w i t h those obtained
by o t h e r methods (using o N = P/2Ct, K I = ON~fnL-~)
The configuration factor for L/C approaching zero was
determined by using the 'free edge' correction factor of 1.12
and the circumferential stress at the edge of the hole obtained The finite element method is especially suitable for this
from finite element solutions given by Bowie and Freese. 10 evaluation as all the bearing stresses at the inner boundary
A literature survey did not reveal any closed-form exact of the hole are represented by forces, Prj at the discrete
solution for obtaining the stress intensity factor, K, for a nodes j; if 8 rjrepresents the corresponding displacements
cracked lug. However, some investigators obtained, KI, stress and, in the absence of volume forces:
intensity factor solutions by employing finite element fracture
analysis techniques2, 22. Stress intensity factors for cracks w = _EPrj . 8rj (12)
radiating from lug holes have been developed 3 by using ]
Bueckner's weight function approach for various stress distri- The quantity 8w is calculated by finite difference of the
butions surrounding the lug hole. results of the two calculations corresponding to the two
The results obtained from Reference 3 are plotted on
crack lengths L and L + 6 L.
Fig. 12. Their location relative to those from the present
analysis suggests that the configuration factors Y obtained l~j Prj~)rj(L+6L) ~j PrjSrj(L)
by the two methods agree well.
C = (13)
2 thL
Calculation of the crack energy rate
It is necessary to calculate the quantity: Comparison of crack energy rate results with
isoparame tric element results
1 ~w 1 bw
G- - for a crack length of L (11) The lug with a width/diameter ratio of 1.6 was analysed. The
2 8A 2 t6L configuration factor, Y, was computed for several L/C values
and plotted on Fig. 12. The difference between two curves
is small and can be attributed to the finite element modeling.
Therefore, it may be safely assumed that the present results
can be used with a high degree of confidence.

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICA T/ON

Experiments
CL- of
symmetry Eleven lugs were made of 7075-T7351 aluminium alloy plate,
3 lugs were made of 4340M vacuum melt steel, BMS 7 - 2 6
Fig. 11 Node arrangements at the vicinity o f crack tip Class I, (with an ultimate tensile strength of 1 8 9 6 - 2 0 6 8 MPa)

126 INT. J. F A T I G U E July 1980

and 3 lugs were made of Ti-6A1-6V-2Sn alloy. The apparatus
used is shown in Fig. 13, with details of the specimen under
test in Figs. 14 and 15.
Crack growth tests were performed on all 17 lugs.
The tests were conducted at room temperature and humidity.
A through-the-thickness notch was made using an electrical-
discharge machine prior to testing. Wire gauges were
installed on each side of'the lugs to monitor crack growth.
The tests were conducted using sinusoidal loading with a
stress ratio of 0.06.

Calculation of crack growth

There are many equations that have been proposed for the
prediction of fatigue crack growth based on best fits to

Fig. 1 5 Crack wire gauge in position

empirical data. The following relationship 25 for crack growth

rate and stress intensity has been used below:

Fig. 13 Apparatus used in experiments d L _ a 10-4(Kmax Z/M)P (14)

dN

where, Kmax = (O)max k / ~ Y Ys YD

The value of Y is taken from Fig. 12, Ys = 0.858/(L/C) "212
YD = (Do~D) "486 and a = 25.4 mm. Z = (1 - R) q where
R = Omin/Omax.
The experimental and theoretical values are compared
in Fig. 16; details of the specimens are given in Table 2. They
are approximately on the line of the first diagonal, which
indicates a good agreement.
A good agreement between the present theory and the
test results reported in Reference 24 was also obtained and
shown on Fig. 16. Reference 24 reported the existence of an
anomaly in the case of small cracks. The solution offered
in this paper provides the necessary correction for the small
crack (ie when L/C>~ 0.05).
Reference 24 labels cracks starting from a saw cut as
artificial cracks. If a crack nucleated in a lug due to fretting
corrosion inside the hole, then it has been labelled as a
natural crack.
The material crack growth parameters used to correlate
analytical work with test results were obtained from compact
tension test specimens and are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Material crack growth parameters

Aluminium Titanium Steel

M 28.1 61.7 73.0

p 2.94 3.47 32.64
q 0.6 0.6 0.8
Fig. 14 Lug specimen in test machine

INT. J. FATIGUE July 1980 127

 Artifici01 Noturalcrock A CKNOWL EDGEMENTS
B~ I Ill The authors are indebted to several specialists from the
Stress Analysis Research, Damage Tolerance/Durability
E IO Technology and Structural Test Laboratory Staffs for
_J
Z //// (~-Equolion14
making this paper possible through their technical contri-
i butions. The work of the following is greatly acknowledged:
Mr R.L. Dreisbach and F.P. Gray for their guidance in finite
~s
o
element analysis methods, Mr B.H. Nakagawa for assisting
with the crack growth data reduction and Mr J.N. Schneider
for performing the experiments.

I I
10 20 30 REFERENCES
N (cycles x 103)
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A UTHORS
The authors are with The Boeing Commercial Airplane
Company, Seattle, Washington, 98124, USA. Inquiries
should be directed to O. Gencoz, in the frrstinstance.
INT. J. F A T I G U E J u l y 1 9 8 0 129