PROBLEM SOLVING

DEFINE PROBLEM: 1) Problem is the gap between where you are right now and where you
wish to be.
2) There is a problem when a goal is not immediately able to be achieved (e.g., Reitman, 1965;
Newell & Simon, 1972).
PROBLEM SOLVING: A mental process or a phenomenon dedicated towards solving
problems by discovering and analyzing the problem is referred to as problem-solving. It is a
process dedicated to finding not just any solution, but the best solution to resolve any problems.
There is no such thing as one best way to solve every kind of problem, since there are unique
problems depending upon the situation there are unique solutions too.
STAGES OF PROBLEM SOLVING: there are five stages involved in problem solving.
They are as follows:

1) Define the problem: what are you trying to solve? In addition to getting clear on what
the problem is, defining the problem also establishes a goal for what you want to achieve.
Input: something is wrong or something could be improved.
Output: a clear definition of the opportunity and a goal for fixing it. Fully understanding
a problem before developing possible solutions is essential. Some problems appear
simple – deciding what to eat for breakfast, what to wear to work, whether to take mass
transit or to drive – and their solutions rarely have any real impact on our lives. Other
problems are incredibly complex and have long-term consequences: choice of careers,
whom we choose to marry, or whether to pursue an advanced educational degree. The
way we think about or define a problem can result in missed opportunities, inadequate or
impermanent solutions, unnecessary costs, wasted time, and continued frustration and
stress. An instance of this is when we simplify problems by seeking single, either-or, or
short-term solutions, while neglecting long-term consequences. For example, a rushed
parent needing to serve dinner might run to the store for that night’s meal, and might
repeat that behavior multiple times per week. In seeking the short-term solution (buy
tonight’s dinner) and neglecting the longer term solution (make one large, well-planned
grocery trip in advance), he or she wastes time, gas, and effort and deals with repeated
frustration. There is usually a range of decisions and actions we can take to resolve a
problem, each of which has different short- and long-term effects that need to be
considered. Expanding the definition of a problem by providing more details can
stimulate critical thinking and result in multiple, often innovative solutions. The better
problem solvers know that asking more questions before trying to find a solution
generally brings better results.

Six components necessary to properly frame a problem:

 What is the problem?

 Why is fixing the problem important?
  When did the problem arise? When does it need to be solved?
 How did the problem happen?
 Where is the problem occurring?
 Who does the problem affect?

2. Generate alternatives: A common barrier to successful problem solving is our reliance on

previous experiences, especially those that appear similar to our current situation. According to
psychologist G. Stanley Hall, humans are largely creatures of habit, and our activities and
decisions are often automatic reflexes based upon our personal biases, stereotypes, and history.
Many scientists believe that habit is the natural consequence of evolution, a trade-off between
the brain’s enormous requirement of energy – brains account for less than 2% of a human’s body
weight, but consume up to 20% of our calorific intake – and survival. Running from the growl of
an unseen lion undoubtedly saved more of our ancestors than waiting to confirm its presence.

Unfortunately, this tendency to apply the same experience to every problem can lead to poor
decisions. As American psychologist Abraham Maslow said, “If you only have a hammer, you
see every problem as a nail.”

Except for math or fact-based questions, few problems have a single solution. The better problem
solvers employ a variety of strategies to develop multiple solutions before coming to a decision.
Since the optimum solution is usually discovered by comparing alternative results, theorizing
multiple choices and their outcomes is advantageous.

Techniques to Develop Multiple Solutions to a Single Problem

During this stage, the goal is to generate as many potential solutions as possible without
considering whether they are realistic, practical, or effective. Useful techniques to break old
habits of thinking include the following:

 Analogies. Consider similar problems from your past and adapt their solutions to the
current situation. For example, a company seeking to market a new software product
might consider common industry marketing tactics – celebrity endorsements, low
introductory prices, or national advertising – to roll out the product.
 Brainstorming. This technique requires that you turn off your internal censor and
produce as many solutions to a problem as possible, no matter how far-fetched. Often
called “creative thinking” or “thinking out of the box,” exceptional solutions can result
from combining, expanding, and improving original thoughts. IDEO, an award-winning
design and development firm in Silicon Valley credited with such products as the original
Apple mouse, the Tempur-Pedic mattress, and the revolutionary PillPack, relies heavily
on brainstorming for new ideas.
 Divide and Conquer. Break down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable
problems. For example, NASA’s goal of putting a man on the moon in the 1960s was
achieved by simultaneously solving simpler engineering problems ranging from how to
stack two or more rockets on top of each other (multi-staging), to selecting and training
astronauts.
  Means-Ends Analysis. Begin with the desired outcome and work backward through the
critical steps necessary to reach your goal. For example, receiving a promotion usually
requires a positive recommendation from a superior. However, superiors usually evaluate
candidates by their record of previous successful assignments. Having the opportunity to
work on an assignment is dependent upon employees’ consistent attendance and work
habits, and so on and so forth, until arriving at the starting point of your analysis.
 Root-Cause Analysis. Rather than focusing on the problem, focus on the cause of the
problem. In the earlier oil spill example, the problem was initially thought to be the
extended time and cost of the cleanup effort. However, the root cause was the difficulty
of quickly pumping thick oil to storage facilities.
 Trial-and-Error. Where time is not a consideration and change is relatively simple to
implement, consider trying everything until you reach the optimum strategy. The lessons
learned from our mistakes are often more valuable than those learned from our successes.
As Thomas Edison said when talking about his invention of the electric light bulb, “I
have not failed. I’ve just found 10,000 ways that didn’t work.”

The time taken to develop multiple solutions should be proportional to the scale of the problem
and its impact. At the same time, trying to develop solutions for the sake of more choices is
rarely worthwhile, especially after an extended period of effort. When you are comfortable that
you have exhausted the possibilities, it is time to evaluate potential solutions.

3. Evaluate and choose: Critical thinking is the process of conceptualizing, applying,

analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to guide belief and action, according to the
Foundation for Critical Thinking. It is a learned process intended to avoid bias, distortion,
prejudice, and inconsistency, and is essential to effective problem solving. Critical thinking is
required to evaluate potential solutions to a problem and determine which would be most likely
to produce the best overall outcome.

Eliminate Obvious Ineffective Solutions Early

Some, if not many, of the alternative solutions developed previously are impractical or cannot be
implemented because they are too expensive, take too much time, require unavailable resources,
or produce uncertain results. Evaluating such obviously inappropriate choices is a waste of time
and energy and should be avoided if possible.

Conversely, your preliminary scan of possible solutions may produce additional insight and lead
to an indisputable best choice, eliminating the need for further analysis. Jeff Bezos, the founder
of Amazon.com, claims that there is always an element of serendipity – good fortune or luck – in
significant discoveries or leaps beyond conventional thinking.

Develop a Decision Matrix for Evaluation

When solving most complex problems, there is rarely a single solution that meets all of the
criteria – the best ones meet the most important criteria with minimal negative consequence or
impact on other factors. According to Mind Tools, a decision matrix is an excellent tool to
visually understand the differences between alternative solutions when there is not a clear or
single choice. Potential choices can be ranked by the degree that they meet the criteria for the
best choice.

Here are some factors that might be considered in your analysis of possible solutions:

 Efficacy. To what degree does the solution solve the problem?

 Practicality. Is the solution realistic in terms of available resources and capabilities?
 Timeliness. Will the solution meet critical deadlines or time frames?
 Expense. What will the solution cost in resources and effort?
 Risk. What are the consequences – good and bad?
 Manageability. Can the results be measured?

Each factor should be weighted on a scale of 0 to 10 for importance in the final solution, with 10
being the best ranking and 0 the worst ranking. For example, one solution might completely
solve the problem (a “10” on efficacy) while another solves most of the problem (a “7”).
Similarly, one solution might involve little or no cost (“10”) or require high expenses (a “0”).

4. Implement decision: Once you have made the decision about the best solution to your
problem, it is time to take action. Recognize that implementation may not go smoothly,
especially if the solution depends on the cooperation of other people. Virtually every decision
requires a change in the status quo and, as Niccolo Machiavelli wrote in 1532, there is “nothing
more difficult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to
take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things.” The tendency of people to resist
change is so prevalent that change management consultants regularly earn six- and seven-figure
annual incomes. While it is important to implement a solution to critical problems as quickly as
possible, it is also prudent to recognize the obstacles that are likely to appear and develop a
corresponding strategy to overcome resistance. Here are some common obstructions to change in
a business environment.

 Moving Too Fast. Rather than resisting directly, people are more likely to seek delay by
asking for more information, considering other alternatives, or pleading a lack of
resources.
 Implementation Takes Too Long. The solution is too little, too late.
 Unaffordable. Cost is too high or will detract from other important investments.
 Understaffed. Your people are too busy or lack the training to implement the solution.
 Customers Will Not Like It. You will lose market share to competitors, customer
complaints will rise, or customer service will suffer.
 Negative Consequences Are Unknown. What if the solution does not work or causes us
to lose business?
 The Solution Will Not Work. The analysis of the problem is faulty, was too hasty, or
failed to consider necessary elements.

5. Control decision: if you have diligently followed the steps to better problem solving to this
point, have confidence that your work is complete and you have arrived at the best solution.
Much of the resistance you encounter is likely due to fear and lack of information, rather than a
genuine objection to the proposed solution.

By communicating your process, you can convert the naysayers and fence-sitters to your way of
thinking. Be transparent and non-defensive, recognizing that their fears and objections are
natural and are likely to arise in most situations involving change.

If a group has been involved in the process to arrive at the optimum solution, identify key allies
who can help convince others that the solution is sound, based upon all the information available.
Having sponsors or “champions” to assist in convincing others is always a good strategy when
implementing a difficult or controversial change.

HABIT AND SET IN PROBLEM SOLVING:

1. HABIT: Problem Solving and Mental Set: Sometimes we use a particular

strategy/technique to solve a problem but we may or may not succeed in our effort to
solve the problem. This creates a set to approach future problems that are encountered by
a person. The set continues even if the problem is different. Despite this, we use the same
strategy/ technique whenever we come across the same problem and again fail to reach
the solution. Such phenomenon in problem solving is called mental set. A mental set is a
tendency on the part of an individual to respond to a new problem in the same manner
that he or she has used earlier to solve a problem. Previous success with a particular rule
produces a kind of mental rigidity/fixedness/set, which hinders the process of generating
new ideas to solve a new problem. A mental set inhibits or affects the quality of our
mental activities. However, in solving our real life problems we often rely on past
learning and experience with similar or related problem.

2. FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS: The concept of Functional Fixedness developed during

the period of Gestalt psychology. Functional Fixedness occurs when a person is not able
to see innovative ways of using an item or concept. For example, paper clips are not just
useful for binding paper together. They may also be used to pick locks or even create
jewelry. Objects are not “fixed” in their functions, but people sometimes get stuck in a
fixed mindset and have trouble developing innovative ways of using the objects.
Functional Fixedness can hinder one’s ability to solve problems. Solutions to problems
are not always clear. It is often necessary to think “outside of the box”.
Functional Fixedness prevents people from coming up with new ways of using familiar
objects so that they can solve problems that may come up. Children are not as fixed
when it comes to using items in new ways especially those 5 years and younger. Children
tend to become more functionally fixed as they age because they are constantly being
corrected by adults. For example, kids are taught that the wall is not a canvas for art.
They now see the wall as having one function. Research has also shown that people from
less technology savvy cultures and study abroad students are less fixed in how they view
an item's functions.  
There is no way to completely eliminate Functional Fixedness. However, it can be somewhat
combated by practicing creative thinking. Creative thinking allows one to see outside of the
categories that they have created. 

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