GRAVITATION

Class-XI

SOUMALYA MALLICK
 Gravitation
Newton’s Laws of Universal Constant
The force of attraction between any two material particles is directly proportional to the
product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. It acts along the line joining the two particles.
Suppose two particles of masses m1 and m2 are situated at a distance r apart. If the force of
attraction acting between them is F, then according to Newton’s Law of Gravitation, we
have,

Hence, G is a ‘universal constant’ whose value is 6.67 x 10 -11 Nm2kg-2

Acceleration due to Gravity
The acceleration due to gravity is the rate of increase of velocity of a body falling freely
towards earth.
Expression for Acceleration due to Gravity (g) in terms of Gravitational Constant

… (I)
The acceleration due to gravity g in the body arises due to the force F. According to
Newton’s 2nd law of motion, we have,

... (II)
From equation (I) and (II) we get,

Computation of Mass and Density of Earth

We may compute the mass and density of earth from Newton’s Law of Gravitation. From
the relation g=GMe/Re2 obtained, the mass of the earth Me is given by

… (I)

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Substituting the known values g=9.80 ms-2, Re=6.37 x 106 m and G=6.67 x 10-11 m3kg-1s-2, we
get,

(approx.)
Similarly, the average density of the earth may also be calculated. Earth is a sphere of radius
Re. If ρ be the average density, then its mass is given by,

Substituting the value of Me in eq. (I), we get,

Or,
Substituting the known value of g, Re, G, we get,

(approx.)

Variation in the Value of Acceleration due to Gravity

a. Effect of Altitude
Let O be the centre of the earth, Re the radius and Me be the
mass. If the body of mass m be situated at the surface of the
Earth, then according to Newton’s Law of Gravitation, the

gravitational force acting upon the body will be .

This is the weight mg of the body, i.e.,

… (I)
where, g is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth.
Let the body m be raised to a height h above the surface of the earth. If the acceleration due
to gravity at this height be g then,

… (II)
Dividing eq. (II) by (I), we get,

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Or, … (III)

If however, the height h is negligible compared to the radius R e of the earth, then eq. (III) can
be written by binomial theorem, as

b. Effect of Depth
Let a body of mass m be situated at a depth h below the earth’s surface. Its distance from
the centre O of the earth is (Re - h). Let a sphere be considered with O as centre and (Re - h)
as radius. A body P is situated at the surface of the inner solid sphere and lies inside the
outer spherical shell. The gravitational force of attraction on a body inside the spherical shell
is always zero. Therefore, the body P experiences gravitational attraction only due to the
inner solid sphere. The mass of this sphere is,

where ρ is the mean density of the earth. Therefore, according to Newton’s law of
gravitation, the force of attraction on the body P (due to the inner solid sphere) is-

This force must be equal to the weight of the body mg’, where g’ is the acceleration due to
gravity at a depth h below the surface of the earth. Thus,

… (I)
Similarly for a body at the surface of the earth (h=0) where acceleration due to gravity is g,
then

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 … (II)
Dividing eq. (I) by (II), we get,

Or,

The further we go below the surface of the earth, the acceleration due to gravity goes on
decreasing and becomes zero at the centre of the earth (where h=Re)
Variation in the Value of Acceleration due to Gravity- Graphical Representation

Derivation of the Expression for Variation of g with Latitude

Let O be the centre and Re the radius of
the earth rotating about its axis NS with
the angular velocity ω. Let body of mass m
be placed on the surface of the earth at a
point P having latitude λ. As the earth
rotates, the body at P describes a circle
whose centre is C and radius is PC, where

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The centripetal force acting on the body at P is m(Re cos λ)ω2, and is directed towards the
centre O of the circle and mg (directed along PO) is the weight of the body. Due to the
resultant of these two forces the net force on the body P may be mg’.

Now,

(as r=R cos λ)

Or,

Or, … (I)
At the equator, λ=0, cos λ= cos 0= 1; thus, by eq. (I)

2 2  3.14
  7.27 10 5
Substituting Re=6.37 x 10 m and ω= T
6 24  60  60 s-1, we get,

We see that g’, the observed acceleration due to gravity at the equator of the earth is less
than g (the expected value if the earth were not rotating) by 0.034/9.8 or 0.35%. The effect
diminishes as we go to higher latitudes and vanishes at the poles.
At the poles, λ=90°, hence cos λ=0. Thus by eq. (II), g’=g
Gravitational Field
Gravitational Field Strength- The force experienced by a unit mass places at a point in a
gravitational field is called the ‘gravitational field strength’ or intensity of gravitational field
at that point.

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The gravitational force acting on a mass m placed at a point distant r from a mass M is given

by . Hence the intensity of gravitational field at this point will be

. The intensity of gravitational field is a vector quantity.

Gravitational Potential
The work done in bringing a unit mass from infinity to a point in the gravitational field is
called the ‘gravitational potential’ at that point.
Gravitational Potential due to a Point Mass

Suppose a point mass M is situated at a point O. Let A be a point in the gravitational field of
mass M distant r from O at which gravitational potential is to be determined. For this, let a
unit mass be placed at point A. Then the gravitational force acting on it due to M is given by
M
F G
r2
and it acts towards O. Now, suppose the unit mass moves against this force from A to B
through a small distance dr.

Then, work done against gravitation would be

M
dW  F  dr  G  dr
r2
Therefore, the work done in taking the unit mass from A to infinity will be
 
M  1 GM
W   G 2  dr  GM   
r
r  r r r

Hence, the work done when the unit mass moves from infinity to A will be . This
will be the gravitational potential at V at a distance r from the mass M, i.e.,

Gravitational Potential Energy

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The work obtained in bringing a body from infinity to a point is the gravitational potential of
the body at that point. The gravitational potential energy at infinity is assumed to be zero,
because work is obtained (not done) in bringing the body from infinity into a gravitational
field; the gravitational potential energy is always negative.
Thus, if a particle of mass m be at a distance r from a gravitational mass m, its potential
energy is given by

Let Re be the radius of the earth and h the height of a satellite above the earth’s surface.
Then the distance of the satellite from the centre of the earth is r=R e+h.
Substituting this value of r in the above equation, we get,

… (I)
If the acceleration due to gravity on the earth’s surface is g, then,

or,
Substituting the value of GMe in eq. (I), we get,

… (II)
Eq. (I) and (II) give the speed of revolution of the satellite in its orbit. It is evident from these
equations that the speed of a satellite depends only upon its height above the earth’s
surface. Greater the height (h) of the satellite above the earth, smaller is the speed of the
satellite. Because the speed of the satellite doesn’t depend on its mass, two satellites of
different masses revolving in the same orbit around the earth have the same speed.
If the satellite is orbiting very close to the earth’s surface, (h<<R e), then h is negligible
compared to Re. Then, putting h=0 in eq. (I) and (II), we get,

… (III)

… (IV)

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Substituting g=9.8 ms-2 and Re=6.37 x 106 m in eq. (IV), we get,

Thus, the speed of a satellite very close to earth’s surface is nearly 8 kms -1.
Period of Revolution
Let T be the time of one revolution of a satellite. Then,

Substituting the value of vo from eq. (I), we get,

Or,
Again, G Me=g Re2

… (VI)
If the earth is supposed to be a sphere of mean density ρ, then the mass of the earth is
given by

Substituting the value in eq. (V), we get,

… (VII)
Eq. (V), (VI), and (VII) give the period of revolution of a satellite at a height h above the
surface of the earth. It is evident from these equations that the period of revolution of a
satellite depends only upon the height of the satellite above the earth; greater the height of
the satellite above the earth, greater is the period of revolution. That is why, the moon,
which is at a height of 38,000 km above the earth, completes one revolution around the
earth in abut 27 days, while an artificial satellite revolving near the earth’s surface
completes 10 to 20 revolutions in a day.

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If the satellite id orbiting very close to the earth’s surface, (h<<R e), then substituting h=0 in
eq. (V), (VI), and (VII), we get,

… (VIII)

… (IX)

… (X)
Substituting the values of Re and g in eq. (IX), we get,

Thus a satellite revolving very close to earth’s surface has a period of revolution about 84
minutes and its speed is nearly 8 km s-1.

Calculation of the Mass of the Earth

We calculate the mass of the earth by knowing the period of revolution T of an earth’s
satellite. From eq. (V), we get,

Calculation of height of satellite above the earth’s surface

Squaring both sides of eq. (VI), we get:

Or,

Or,

Or,

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The earth being spherical, behaves for all external points as if its mass M e (say) were
concentrated at its centre. Therefore, a mass m near earth’s surface maybe considered at a
distance Re (earth’s radius) from Me. Therefore, the potential energy of m due to the earth is
given by

If the body is at a height h above the earth’ surface, then its potential energy is

Orbital Speed and Period of Revolution of Satellites

Orbital Speed- When a satellite (such as the moon) revolves in a circular orbit around the
earth, a centripetal force acts upon the satellite. This force is the gravitational force exerted
by the earth on the satellite.
In the figure, a mass m is revolving
around the earth with a speed v o in a
circular orbit of radius r. The
centripetal force of the satellite is
mvo2/r.
Let Me be the mass of the earth. The
gravitational force exerted by the
earth on the satellite then is GM em/r2
where G is the gravitational constant.
As the gravitational force provides the required centripetal force, we have,

where is the work done by the gravitational force on the particle as it moves from
infinity to a distance r.

If F be the gravitational force acting on the particle when it is at a distance r from the
gravitational mass, then

But,

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Gravitational Potential Energy of a Body on Earth’s Surface
The gravitational potential energy of a mass m in the gravitational field of mass M at a
distance r from it is given by:

The earth being spherical behaves for all external points as if its mass M e (say) were
concentrated at its centre. Therefore, the mass m near earth’s surface maybe considered to
be at a distance Re (earth’s radius) from Me. Therefore, the potential energy of m due to
earth will be

Geostationary Satellites (Artificial)

If the height of an artificial satellite above earth’s
surface be such that its period of revolution is exactly
equal to the period of revolution (24 hours) of the
axial motion of the earth, then the satellite would
appear stationary over a point on the earth’s
equator; it would be synchronous with earth’s spin.
Such a satellite is known as a ‘geostationary satellite’
or a ‘geosynchronous satellite’. It is used to reflect TV
signals and telecast TV programs from one part of
the world to another.
Calculating the Height of a Geostationary Satellite

where Re is the radius of the earth. From this, we get:

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Or,
Substituting the values of T=24h=24 x 60 x 60= 86400 s, R e, and g, we get:

This is the orbital radius of a geostationary satellite. The height of the satellite above the
earth’s surface is

The orbiting speed of the geostationary satellite is given by

Energy of a Satellite- Concept of Binding Energy

A satellite revolving around the earth has potential energy as well as kinetic energy. It has
potential energy because it remains in the gravitational field of the earth and kinetic energy
because it is in motion.
It is known that the gravitational potential of a body of mass m places on the surface of the

earth is where Me is mass of the earth and Re the radius of the earth (assuming
that gravitational potential energy of a body at infinity is zero). If a satellite is revolving
around the earth in a circular orbit close to the surface of the earth, then the radius of its
orbit can be taken as R e. Therefore, if m be the mass of the satellite then its gravitational
potential energy is given by:

… (I)
If the orbital speed of the satellite be vo, then the kinetic energy is given by

… (II)
The satellite gets the necessary centripetal force from the gravitational force, i.e..

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Substituting this value mvo2 in eq.(I) we get,

… (III)

the total energy of the satellite is given by:

Or, … (IV)
Binding Energy
The energy required for a satellite to leave its orbit around the earth and escape to infinity is
called the ‘binding energy’.

The total energy if a satellite revolving close to the earth is . Therefore, in

order to escape, the satellite would require an amount of energy so that the
total energy E becomes zero. Thus,

Escape Energy and Escape Velocity

If we project a body upward and after reaching a certain height, the body returns due to
gravitational attraction of the earth. If we go on increasing the initial velocity of the body,
then it returns after reaching greater and greater height. Ultimately, at a certain velocity of
projection, the body will go out of the gravitational field of the earth and never return. The
initial velocity of the body is called ‘escape velocity’. The kinetic energy given to the body to
project it with the escape velocity is called ‘escape energy’.

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The gravitational potential of a body of mass m place din the earth’s surface is given by:

where Me is the mass and Re the radius of the earth. Therefore, in order to take a body from
the earth’s surface to infinity, the work required is GM em/Re. It is evident that if we throw a
body of mass m with such a velocity that its kinetic energy is the above value, then it will go
outside the gravitational field of the earth in space. Hence,

The velocity given to the body is the escape velocity. Let it be v e. Then the kinetic energy of

the body will be . Therefore,

Or,

Or, … (I)
Thus, we see that the escape velocity is independent of the mass of the body. If g is the
acceleration due to gravity on earth, then

Or,
Substituting this value of GMe in eq. (I), we get,

We can use eq. (I) or (II) to calculate the escape velocity for the earth:

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