PLC201 U Study Guide

# 1999 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
PLC201-U/1/2004-2007
97385387
3B2
CONTENTS
PREFACE v
THEME 1
THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR: AN
INTRODUCTION 1
Study Unit 1: Political behaviour and
political dynamics 3
THEME 2
THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH POLITICAL
BEHAVIOUR TAKES PLACE 13
Study Unit 2: The internal and external
environment of political
behaviour 15
Study Unit 3: The environment: political
culture and values 19
Study Unit 4: Political environment:
ideologies 31
Study Unit 5: Political environment:
political socialization 48
Study Unit 6: The environment:
political communication 62
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THEME 3
ACTORS IN POLITICS 75
Study Unit 7: Political actors: the
individual 77
Study Unit 8: Political actors:
political leaders 86
Study Unit 9: Political actors: groups
and collective identities 101
interest groups 118
political parties 129
Study Unit 12: Political actors: elites 141
the state and state
institutions 150
THEME 4
POLITICAL ACTIVITIES 161
Study Unit 14: Public opinion 162
Study Unit 15: Voting behaviour 171
THEME 5
ACADEMIC SKILLS
Study Unit 16: Comparing political
phenomenon 118
Study Unit 17: Writing a review 118
Study Unit 18: Point summaries and
outlines 118
Study Unit 19: Revision 118
Mock examination
Conclusion
iv
Read the following before you start working through this
study guide:
. Table of contents
. Preface
. Introduction
. Summary at the back of the study guide
PLC201-U/1 v
PREFACE
GETTING STARTED
Welcome to the Department of Political Sciences and Philosophy

and to Unisa. We trust that you will find the contents of this study
module on political behaviour and, in particular, on how we
participate in politics both interesting and enriching. We come into
contact with politics every day of our lives; we trust, therefore, that
this study module will equip you with the knowledge and skills
you need to make a contribution to politics. In this way, you can put
the theory you learn into practice.
We shall now provide a few tips on the approach we shall be

adopting in this study module.
POLITICS AS A SUBJECT
The focus of this study module, namely political behaviour and

participation in politics is part of the discipline Politics (often referred
to as Political Science). Political behaviour and participation are thus
studied from the perspective of a Political Scientist. It is important
to remember that when we study politics we study a particular
aspect of human life where decisions are made within a social
context and are enforced on a whole society. This includes a number
of fields of study within the discipline of politics. Some of the fields
within politics are institutions, political dynamics (of which political
behaviour and participation, but also public policy, political change and
conflict form a part), political values and philosophy, and
epistemology (the acquisition of knowledge).
In this study module, we concentrate on the behavioural aspects of

politics. Political behaviour involves the actions, reactions and
interactions in politics. The individual is the basic unit of political
behaviour, even though he or she seldom acts alone. In the course of
your studies, you will come to realise that the study of political
behaviour has points of contact with most other fields of study,
including psychology, communication, sociology, philosophy and
even the natural sciences. Note, for example, that in the case of the
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natural sciences, green politics is about people who are concerned
about the effects of pollution.
As you progress through the study module (especially if you are

taking Politics as a major subject), you will be introduced to the
various concepts, terms and phenomena relevant to political
behaviour and participation, and to important key elements relevant
to a study of politics. You will also be shown how this study
module overlaps with some other fields of study..
STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY MODULE
The study material and tuition in this study module comprise the
following:
This study guide forms the nucleus of this study modu

Books that supplement the study guide. By reading books
you will learn how to handle academic books and to assess
them critically. You will thus be given tasks based on various
books.The titles of the relevant books will be provided in a
tutorial letter. Please note that the various exercises or
activities given in this study guide are based on a number of
books. These are not necessarily prescribed or recommended
books, but they are useful and you should use them if you
have access to them (eg through your local library).
Tutorial letters containing general information about the
University, the study module, books, assessment and the
examination. Please ensure that you read all the tutorial
letters and keep them until you have completed the study
module.
Activities provided in the various study units are very
important and you should set aside enough time for them.
These activities afford you the opportunity to develop and/
or refine your academic skills. Two important skills you will
be introduced to are: comparison, and how to write reviews,
point summaries and outlines. Activities also test your
understanding of the course content, which, in turn, will
prepare you for the assignments and the examination.
Brochures such as Unisa: services and procedures which you
should study carefully in order to acquaint yourself with
library procedures, for example.
You are also advised to make use of a few good dictionaries.
PLC201-U/1 vii
POLITICAL MAPS
[A political map indicates the different political boundaries.]
The study guide makes repeated mention of geographical areas and

states. The number of states has drastically increased in the last few
years and not all atlases contain all the new states. We have thus
included a number of political maps of the world in this study guide
which indicate regions and states. Use them to orientate yourself
towards the world of politics.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

concepts A concept is the idea of the existence of something such as a
particular phenomenon and what it entails. Think, for example, of
terms the concepts ``husband'', ``wife'', ``love'' and ``hate''.
definition A term is a word or phrase (set of words) used to identify a

particular concept.
A definition is a sentence which explains what a certain concept

entails or how a specific term is used. You will be introduced to
specific concepts, terms and their definitions in any subject Ð hence
the importance of understanding what a specific concept entails and
how a specific term is used.
You will also be introduced to certain concepts and terms in this

study module. Make sure that you master them. To make it easier
for you, we have provided a list at the beginning of each theme. We
suggest that you make a list of concepts and terms at the back of the
study guide; it might also be advisable to write down their
definitions and the page numbers where you have encountered
them.
DISCUSSIONS
You are encouraged to develop your own views on politics, while

also remaining aware of others' views. We recommend, therefore,
that you discuss the content of this study module with friends and
family members and, if possible, with other students. You may also
consider establishing a study group. It is also important to read
different newspapers, which you could later swop with others. If
viii
you have access to the Internet, make use of it for there is a wealth
of information available on it.
HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLES
To explain certain facts to you, we often used hypothetical examples
(ie imaginary examples). Although these examples are often linked
to certain offices, such as that of a particular minister, bear in mind
that the example is imaginary and that we are not stating that a
certain person acted in this way. Imaginary examples are often
more helpful in explaining certain political concepts and phenom-
enon than real life examples. The latter often evoke emotions that
cloud a person's objective understanding of a situation. For this
reason, we make use of an imaginary society called Big Tree Island..
SKILLS, REVISION AND EXAMINATIONS

You are also introduced to skills that you will need to develop.
Study these whenever you are instructed to do so in the text.
We have provided revision exercises at the back of the study guide,

as well as a mock examination paper.
We trust that you will find the study module interesting and that
you will consider taking other study modules offered by the
Department.
Wishing you every success.
The presenters of the module?

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INTRODUCTION TO A STUDY OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR AND
PARTICIPATION
We indicated in the preface that the focus of this study module is

political behaviour and participation. When we study political
behaviour, we study political activities, that is, the actions,
interactions and reactions of particular actors in politics. Political
participation is one particular form of political behaviour. The
actions, reactions and interactions may lead to the establishment of
institutions and processes (a sequence of actions) that make political
participation and political activities possible, but they also affect our
political behaviour. In this introduction, we are merely going to
provide a context for the content of the different study units.
Do not be concerned if there are things that you do not understand

in this introduction. Most of what is being said will only become
clearer to you as you work through the study units. Should you still
be unsure about some of these ideas towards the end of this study
guide, please contact us. This introductionmerely tries to provide
you with a context in which we can understand political behaviour
and participation.
For purposes of this study module, the state is the political unit that
we use in order to study political behaviour and participation. The
concept ``state'' is a difficult concept to understand and the fact that
we study political behaviour in the state does not imply that we
follow a statist approach in this study module. The focus is not the
state; rather, the state provides the spatial boundaries (boundaries
that determine who exercises sovereign power over whom and
where) for an analysis of political behaviour. The state is currently
the most important political entity of humankind. We are all within
reach of the power sphere of some or other state. It is simply not
possible to escape the state and states execute rules and regulations
that affect each one of us from the cradle to the grave. The state also
has a monopoly on coercive force in the sense that only the state
may legitimately make use of violence.
The subfield of political behaviour is extensive and it is thus not

possible to pay attention to every aspect within the scope of a single
study module. The contents of the study module should, therefore,
be seen as an introduction to key political actors in politics. We also
pay attention to the how and the why of their behaviour and how
they participate in politics. The individual, for purposes of this study
module, is regarded as the basic unit of political activity, but this
does not mean that we merely look at political behaviour at the
PLC201-U/1 9
micro level. Attention is also paid to collectivities on the
intermediate level, such as groups, political parties and interest
groups. On the macro level, we pay attention to abstract
collectivities like the public when we study public opinion. On
the macro level, we also look at state institutions as political actors.
The focus in this study module is the actors and what makes them
act, interact and react, as well as how they do it. It is important to
bear in mind that political behaviour is an extremely complex
phenomenon. Though we may isolate, for analytical purposes, a
particular actor and have a look at his or her behaviour, in real life
all political actors form part of a bigger whole that is dynamic (ie it
is not static). This whole is characterised by a multitude of
interactions that shape the actions of actors, but are simultaneously
being shaped by the very actors. Culture, for example, influences
the behaviour of the individual, but the culture of a society is also
influenced by the individuals within that society. Culture is also
reflected in the political institutions of that society. Politics is part of
the social contexts in which we find ourselves. It is unfortunately
not possible within the scope of this study module to pay attention
to all the interactions that take place in politics.
It has already been indicated that the focus of this study module is
political behaviour and participation, who the actors are, what
motivates their behaviour and their participation in politics. The
state is currently the most important political entity of humankind.
Unfortunately, the concept ``state'' is one of the most difficult

concepts that political scientists have to deal with. This is especially
true of the English literature that deals with the concept. It is
important, therefore, to pay attention to the problems associated
with defining the concept, the reasons for the problems and any
related concepts.
THE CONCEPT ``STATE''
There are several reasons for the problematic nature of this concept.
One reason is the lack of attention that British and American

political scientists have paid to the state as a political entity.
Mainland European political scientists such as those in Germany
were, for example, more concerned with the state than their British
and American counterparts. The state as an entity often played
second fiddle to other fields of politics, such as political behaviour
10
and elections. An important consequence of this neglect is the
confusion resulting from the inconsistent and interchangeable use
of terms (names of concepts) associated with the state. Terms like
``state'', ``political system'', `'nation'', ``society'', ``government'',
`àdministration'' and `àuthority'' are often used inconsistently and
even interchangeably.
Another reason for the confusion often experienced when dealing

with the concept of the state, is the fact that the state is an invisible
and abstract entity; yet, it has the capacity to affect our daily lives
both negatively and positively.
The state is not like a tree, a car or a building that we can see. We
cannot see it, yet we experience it. It is an abstract concept that
becomes visible to us in the actions of those that act on behalf of the
state and may, therefore, be called agents of the state. It is like wind
that becomes visible only through its actions, for example, in the
rustling of leaves. It is thus easy to confuse the state with those that
act as its agents (such as presidents, ministers and officials). In this
sense, it is an even more difficult concept than many other abstract
concepts such as ``love'' and ``hate''. When we refer to the actions of
the agents, we are often inclined to personify the state by claiming
that the ``state did or did not do this or that'', or that ``the state must
or must not do this or that''. The state by itself cannot do anything;
only through its agents can the state become an extremely powerful
entity. Yet, the state is far more than the sum total of its agents.
Unfortunately, scholars often limit their understanding of the
concept ``state'' to these agents. The concepts ``state'', `àuthorities''
and ``government'' are thus often confused with one another.
What then are the key elements of a state? A state requires the
existence of (firstly) authorities (usually referred to as the govern-
ment) which exercise power and/or authority over (secondly) a
permanent population within (thirdly) a specific geographic area or
territory and (fourthly) the authorities should be sovereign Ð
meaning that they are the highest or final authority. The authorities
should also preferably be recognised as such by other states
forming the international community of states. Therefore, the
agents of the state usually only include the first characteristic of
the state. We will be paying attention to all of these characteristics
of the state in the following study units.
It is important to remember that the state is far more than the sum
total of either its agents or of the above characteristics. The state is
also the embodiment of a set of values (deeply held principles that
PLC201-U/1 11
guide our thinking and actions) that not only determine the
structures and the functioning of the state, but also shape the lives
of the population and their expectations within the context of the
state. In the United States, with its emphasis on individual freedom,
liberty is probably the most important value. In the former Soviet
Union (USSR), however, equality was probably the most important
value. In states governed by a religious political order, for example,
values are derived from the prescriptions of that particular religion.
You may already think how all of these will affect a person's
behaviour and participation in a political context.
In this study module, the complex entity that complies with the
above four criteria and embodies a particular set of values is called
a state. As you progress through the study units, you will probably
get a clearer picture of what we are trying to convey to you. The
focus of the first theme is mainly concept clarification. In the second
theme, we discuss the environment in which political actors find
themselves and how factors present in the environment will impact
on the behaviour and participation of political actors. The most
prominent actors in politics receive attention in theme three, namely
the individual, political leaders, groups such as interest groups and
political parties, as well as elites. State and state institutions as
political actors also receive attention. Finally, in theme 4, we
highlight some of the more important political activities, namely
public opinion and voting behaviour.
In theme 5, you will be introduced to a number of academic skills.
OTHER RELATED CONCEPTS
There are several other concepts that are of importance whenever

we deal with the state as a political entity. Some of the more
important concepts are
political system
society
community
nation
fatherland
authorities
government
administration
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Political system
The concept ``political system'' is another controversial concept
with regard to its relationship with the state.
The idea of a political system is similar to the idea of the solar

system and the digestive system, that is, a system that consists of
certain identifiable parts that are characterised by a set of
interactions among the various parts. Each part has particular
functions and a particular relationship with the other parts. For this
reason we may, for example, speak of a party system where all the
parties stand in a particular relation to one another and to society,
as well as the political institutions. Likewise, if we take all the
identifiable parts in politics, the functions they perform and their
relations with one another, we may speak of a political system. It is
by means of this political system that authoritative decisions can be
allocated to a whole society. A state will, therefore, have a political
system.
Note, however, that the often incorrect use of the term ``state'' may
result in confusion about the connection between the concepts
``state'' and ``political system''. The term ``state'' is often used as a
synonym for ``political system''. When this is the case, one will not
be able to refer to the political system of the state. Another reason
for confusion is David Easton's work on the political system. Easton
designed a framework according to which the parts, their functions
and functioning within the political system can be analysed. The
concept ``political system'' should, therefore, not be confused with
the systems theory of David Easton, nor with the structural-
functionalists' (like Almond and Powell) use of the term ``political
system''. When we use the term ``political system'', we refer mainly
to this set of identifiable parts and interactions making authoritative
functions possible. By no means should this be interpreted as a
systems approach to the study of political behaviour and
participation.
Society
The term ``society'' is also often used rather vaguely. In the context
of politics, however, it refers to humans within a particular group
context. A society is an abstract group of people that is constituted
by a particular loosely knit network of interpersonal relations,
division of roles, shared interests and values, as well as some form
of discipline within this network. As such, the state is one
manifestation of society and the state as a society may also be
composed of various sub-societies. However, society refers more to
the human component of a state The set of relations that exist
between society and state are, therefore, complex. Scholars often
differ in their understanding of the nature of this relationship. For
this reason the terms ``state'' and ``society'' should not be used
interchangeably.
Community
The term ``community'' is another vague term in the sense that it is
often used interchangeably with the term ``society''. The concept
``community'', however, is a relatively closely knit group of people
that Ð in practice Ð share a common interest, usually within a
particular geographic area.
Nation
Like the concepts ``society'' and ``community'', the concept
`'nation'' also has to do with humans within a group context. A
nation is a group that results from the psychological identification
of various members of that group with one another and who then
consciously strive for some form of political self-determination. The
population of a state may Ð but do not necessarily Ð constitute a
nation in this sense. There are many states whose populations are
not nations and likewise, there are many nations without states. If
the nation and the state coincide, it is referred to as a nation-state. It
is therefore incorrect to use the terms ``state'' and `'nation''
interchangeably, as is often the case in journalism.
Fatherland
The term ``fatherland'' refers to that geographic area or patria which
a person regards as his or her homeland. Patriotism thus refers to
the psychological identification with the fatherland. The population
of a state may share a common patriotism without sharing a
common nationalism.
Authorities
The term `àuthorities'' refers to an abstract collection of agents and
institutions in which power and authority are located within a state.
This may refer to the sum total of all such agents and institutions
within the state or to those on a particular level only, such as a local
authority.
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overnment
The terms ``state'', `àuthorities'' and ``government'' are often used
interchangeably within the English language. Most mainland
European languages, however, make a clear distinction between
these concepts. The term ``government'' is, therefore, used to refer
to those who are, in practice, responsible for the day-to-day
handling of the affairs of the state; this is usually the executive in
the narrow sense of the term, such as the South African cabinet.
Administration
The term `àdministration'' refers to those institutions and officials
who are responsible for the execution of the policies adopted within
that state.
APPROACH USED IN THIS MODULE

The content of this study module should be seen as a descriptive
analysis of the key actors involved in politics; what and how their
political behaviour are determined, the ways in which they are
involved in politics and the consequent impact on other actors and
on politics within a particular state. No formal approach and model
(eg statist, political systems and public choice) are used in this study
module. In our descriptive analysis of the various actors and their
actions, we try to introduce students to a variety of theories that try
to explain the behaviour of particular actors, as well as the
importance thereof to politics in general
To conclude:
Political behaviour and participation are complex phenomena that
are, in fact, the heartbeat of politics. Without behaviour there will
simply be no politics, not even authorities. Thomas Paine said that
government, like dress, is the badge of lost innocence. It should,
therefore be remembered that authorities come into being as a result
of certain actions, interactions and reactions among the individuals
within a particular society. Think, for example, how these resulted
in South Africa's new political dispensation. Again, remember that
this study module merely provides an introduction to political
behaviour and participation. Should you wish to acquire more
information on a particular aspect or actor, try to consult some of
the books that appear in the bibliography.
PLC201-U/1 15
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T H E M E 1
THE CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL DYNAMICS,

POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR AND POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION
OVERVIEW
A brief overview of the contents of this study module was provided in the preface and
introduction.
define and explain the concepts of political dynamics, political behaviour and
political participation
take note of how we study political behaviour
Here is a list of the key terms and concepts for this theme. Make sure that you can clarify
each one. It would be useful to write down the page number whenever you encounter one
of these terms in the text. Likewise, search the index at the back of the recommended and
additional books that you are using and then read the sections in the relevant book in
which these terms appear.
Approaches Behavio(u)ralism Case study method
Comparative method Empirical theory Frameworks
Institutions Methods Models
Most different comparison Most similar comparison Normative theory
Political behaviour Political dynamics Political processes
Political system Post-behaviouralism Surveys
System Theory Traditional approaches
Variable
PLC201-U/1 17
NOTE: Do you know/remember that in the definition, a variable is a concept with two or
more values, the definiendum is variable and the definiens is a concept with two or more
values?
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STUDY
UNIT 1
POLITICAL DYNAMICS
POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR AND
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
INTRODUCTION
In this study unit we are going to answer the question ``What is the nature of political
behaviour and what does the study thereof entail?'' To answer this question you need to
answer the following focus questions first:
FOCUS What does the concept of political dynamics entail?

QUESTIONS
What does the concept of political behaviour and political
participation entail?
How do we study political behaviour?
What approaches, frameworks, models, methods and tech-

niques are used in the study of political behaviour?
PLC201-U/1 19
1.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL DYNAMICS
ENTAIL?
Process: a series of The concept ``political dynamics'' refers to all the activities and
consecutive actions
processes that are politically relevant within a particular society that
is politically organised. In this study guide, we study these activities
in the international states as political entity. Various levels of
authority exist within a particular state. These are usually central/
national, regional/provincial and local/municipal. Politically dy-
namics may be studied on a particular level (eg regional), or it may
be studied within a particular unit (eg the Tshwane-Metropolitan
area), or it may be studied inclusive of all levels and units. It is,
however, also possible to study the political dynamics within a
particular political organisation or a political institution.
Various activities that are politically relevant take place within a

society that is politically organised Ð in this case the state.
Institution: a structure Some of these activities may establish institutions that represent
with specified roles that
perform functions in a
patterns of actions and channels in politics. Specific roles may,
society therefore, be established. It is important to note that there is a
symbiotic relationship between dynamics and institutions. This
relationship may be compared to the relationship that exists
between the anatomy and physiology within the human body.
Political dynamics
in biology, anatomy It may indeed be regarded as physiology of the state. This
refers to organs like the physiology of the state includes the actions of major actors (the
heart and lungs
anatomy of the state), a variety of processes (a series of consecutive
in biology, physiology between political institutions and political dynamics is similar to
would, eg be blood that between human anayomy and human physiology. Human
circulation
anatomy consists of certain identifiable parts (actors) that make up
the human body, while the physiology is the different processes
that take place in the body in order for the body to function, such as
digestionand blood circulation. However, the anatomy is also the
product of certain physiological processes that have taken place in
the body since conception. At the same time the anatomy provides
the framework within which the physiological processes take place.
It is important to bear in mind that the physiology at the same time
maintains the anatomy.
The features of the relationship between the anatomy and

physiology in the human body also apply to the relationship
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between political institutions and political processes in the political
system and, more specifically, in the politics of the state. As already
explained, the institutions and other structures are the result of
political dynamics. At the same time, political activities and
processes take place between these structures. Just as the
physiological processes in the human body maintain the anatomy,
the political processes are responsible for maintaining these political
structures. Therefore, the political institutions of a society are the
product of the political activities and processes in it. At the same
time, these political activities and processes maintain the political
institutions. Politics and also political studies often lose sight of the
latter aspect. Institutions that are foreign to a particular society can
therefore not simply be maintained by the particular society in the
absence of certain fundamental political processes that are essential
for such maintenance.
In the human body, a particular component of the anatomy may

also act as a particular actor in the physiology Ð such as the brain
regulating the physiological processes. In the same way, certain
political institutions in the political system may regulate the
dynamics in that system Ð the legislative institutions may, for
instance, regulate the political activities and processes by means of
legislation.
The relationship between political dynamics and political institu-

tions is therefore of a symbiotic nature. This symbiotic relationship
between the political institutions, political dynamics and inevitably
political behaviour is important, and you should bear it in mind
throughout this course.
This study module only looks at political behaviour, which includes

political participation. Other sections of the field of political
dynamics that are dealt with in other study modules include public
policy, political change and political conflict.
1.2 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPTs OF POLITICAL

BEHAVIOUR AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION ENTAIL
The term political behaviour refers to all the political activities, or

lack thereof, of individuals and groups of individuals. Examples of
political behaviour may therefore include activities such as
participation in elections and demonstrations against the govern-
ment's inability to tackle the issue of AIDS effectively. People do not
have to participate in politics in order to behave `ìn a political
PLC201-U/1 21
manner''. Political inaction and even apathy are particular
manifestations of political behaviour.
AC TIVIT Y 1.1
Read the hypothetical scenario in the following paragraphs and then

carry out the instructions that follow.
The government on Big-Tree Island, whose political system is still
largely traditional, has adopted a system of representation and
an electoral commission was established to organize the coming
elections.
The chairman of the Electoral Commission of Big-Tree Island has
requested all citizens who are eligible to vote, to register as vo-
ters. He expressed his concern over the apparent apathy (lack of
interest) among certain sections of the population, notably young
people. At the same time he expressed his gratitude to all the
people who have registered and are, indeed, nurturing a culture
of democracy.
The leaders of several groups on the island also called on their
members and supporters to register but at the same time
slammed the system of voter registration. They stressed the fact
that the population register could be used as a voters' roll in-
stead ö thereby saving valuable funds that could rather be used
for more deserving purposes.
(1) A number of people acted in a manner that is politically rel-

evant in the above scenario.Write down the names of three `àc-
tors''.
(2) Do you think that the above scenario would have been possible
if the Electoral Commission did not exist? Give one reason for
your answer.
(3) Do you think that there would have been an electoral commis-
sion if the people did not participate in politics by means of
elections?
(4) Do you think that those people who did not register acted in a
manner that is politically relevant? Give one reason for your an-
swer.
(5) Give two reasons why you think the issue of funds was raised by
some groups.
In the above scenario important actors are: the chairman of the

Electoral Commission, the individual citizens, voters, leaders of
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groups and even groups themselves. It is doubtful whether the
above scenario could have taken place had it not been for the
existence of the Electoral Commission. Those citizens who did not
register did, in fact, display a particular form of political
behaviour. They could, for example, have been unhappy with
the registration process and decided to boycott the registration
process. Depending on the circumstances in a particular state,
some groups could for example have felt that widespread
poverty exists and/or that the level of taxation is too high.
The above scenario provides an indication of how activities and

actions that are relevant to politics are usually the product of a
number of factors that have interacted and influenced the
individual. Therefore political behaviour manifests itself in a
number of different but interdependent activities, phenomena and
processes. Included in any study that wishes to understand political
behaviour are:
the conditions in the environment that affect political

behaviour, for example political culture, ideologies and the
economy (funds)
the various political actors including individuals, political
leaders, groups in general, interest groups, political parties
and elites
political institutions that are the target of, the initiator as well
as the channel of political activities
political processes without which political behaviour would
not be possible, such as political socialization and political
communication
factors that affect and determine the way we behave
politically
Bear in mind that the above distinction is analytical: in other words,

purely for academic purposes. In practice, these facets of political
behaviour cannot always be clearly separated. Each process
involves a number of actors and invariably political behaviour, as
well as factors that will affect the behaviour of actors.
Political behaviour may, therefore, be regarded as all the politically

relevant actions/inactions, interactions and reactions of political
actors within a society that is politically organised. The individual is
the basic unit of action in political behaviour, even though he or she
seldom acts alone. These actions may lead to the establishment of
political institutions and channels, as well as the creation of political
PLC201-U/1 23
roles and processes within a society. Actions may include demands
that are made on the authorities, providing support or non-support,
the expression of attitudes (opinions) and expectations, and
reactions to decisions and policies of the authorities. It should be
remembered that the institutions and authorities also act, interact
and react. It may, for example, pass legislation, execute decisions
and adjudicate these.
[political participation]
Political participation is a part of political behaviour. When,

however, we pay attention to political participation, in particular,
we look at the extent to which individuals of a society participate in
politics, how they participate and what may influence their
participation and the way in which they participate.
Political behaviour and participation are narrowly interwoven with

each other and we deal, therefore, simultaneously with them in this
study guide.
1.3 HOW DO WE STUDY POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?

an approach is a Originally the study of politics focused on the study of constitu-
particular theoretical tions, institutions (eg, legislatures, and courts) and formal processes
way of looking at things
traditional approach
(eg, legislation). This is often called the traditional approach to the
study of politics in which particular values were often advocated. A
question often asked in the traditional approach is, ``What should
the relationship between the rulers and the ruled be? Thus this
approach is usually characterized as being descriptive, historical
and philosophical.
behaviouralism Behaviouralism (often spelled behavioralism) is an approach in the

study of politics that developed as a reaction to the traditional
approach and its emphasis on norms and values that were now
regarded as being unscientific and that told us very little about how
people behave in politics, that is political behaviour, ``... behavior-
alists seek to understand how individuals behave within political
institutions, and how informal behavior contributes to policy-
empirical theory making. They are concerned mostly with empirical theory (which
normative theory deals with the observable world) rather than normative theory
(which involves value judgments) used by political philosophers or
traditional political theorists'' (Jackson & Jackson 1997:24). In the
behavioural approach human beings, instead of institutions and
processes, are regarded as the root of politics.
24
A later development in the study of politics and political behaviour
post-behaviouralism is post-behaviouralism. (often spelled post-behavioralism)
Post-behaviouralists felt that neither the traditional, nor the

behavioural approach is adequate and that the best results could
be obtained by combining these two approaches. The result of this
combination is the behavioural approach. Therefore in post-
behaviouralism both normative (values) and empirical theory are
important.
Gamble et al (1992:33) summarize the characteristics and criticism

of the above approaches as follows:
Traditional: Concerned with values; emphasis on formal

institutions and processes; little use of quantitative tech-
niques. Unscientific ... subjective.
Behavioural: Scientific approaches, computers, numbers,
statistics, charts, graphs, emphasis on what actors actually
do. Ignores values, false artificial precision, methods and
techniques become an end rather than a means.
Post-behavioural: Concern for values; uses whatever techni-
ques seem best for answering the important questions. Too
concerned with subjective values; does not help the
discipline to develop further.
1.4 WHAT APPROACHES, FRAMEWORKS, MODELS,

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES ARE USED IN THE
STUDY OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?
approach An approach determines the way we analyze whatever is the object
of our research. It determines the concepts we use and the questions
framework that we might ask in our research. A framework provides outlines
model and structures research. A model is usually a simplified or smaller
version of a complex reality that makes it easier to study that reality
(eg, a model aircraft). The terms framework and models are often
used interchangeably. However, a model provides a more formal
methods presentation of what we wish to study. Methods refer to the
technique procedures and rules that guide research. Techniques refer to the
actual ways in which we collect data or do research.
surveys Surveys are an important technique used in the study of political

behaviour and participation. In a survey a number of people are
`ìnterviewed'' (personally or by means of questionnaires) to
determine their opinions on a particular political issue, whether
PLC201-U/1 25
they will vote in an election, or which party they support, for
example. Furthermore a variety of statistical techniques are used to
interpret, for example, election data.
A variable is a concept Two methods often used are the comparative and the case studies
with more than one method. Hague et al (1998:273) define case studies as follows,
value, eg the concept of
gender has two values, ``Case-orientated research aims to provide a detailed description of
male and female. a specific topic. While still searching for significance beyond the
case, the focus is on how variables interact and evolve in a
case study
particular setting.'' See also Landman. (2000)
comparative method The comparative method also involves the study of cases Ð but of
more than one case. In the comparative method, two or more cases
are compared in order to determine what similarities and
differences exist among the cases and to look for possible
explanations for those similarities and differences. In this instance
most similar two basic designs are often used, namely a most similar
comparison in which, say, states or situations are used that are
the most similar, in the hope that possible answers could be found
for the differences that do exist among them. On the other hand, the
most different most different design tries to find answers by studying situations
that differ greatly (see Hague et al chapter 16 and Meehan 1988
chapter 13 and Landman 2000 chapters 1 and 2)
frameworks One of the frameworks often used in the study of behaviouralism is

system the political system.
In biology, a system In the study of political dynamics and political behaviour, a systems
refers, eg, to the framework is often used to discuss political dynamics in and of the
circulatory system in
which the heart and state. A system implies:
lungs would be
A complex whole consisting of a number of identifiable parts with
identifiable parts, and
of which blood a particular interaction between such parts. A simple example of a
circulation would be an system is the solar system Ð a whole consisting of the sun and a
important function.
number of other celestial bodies such as planets and comets
orbiting the sun. Other examples of a system are the digestive
system and the circulatory system Ð each consisting of a number
of organs carrying out particular functions within the whole.
In the context of politics, system refers to a whole consisting of a

number of identifiable actors, institutions, processes and activities
in a particular society making authoritative decisions for such
society. Political life is seen as a system of interdependent activities.
Each part of the system is linked to each other and this total
interaction indicates who will make decisions about what, when,
how, why and for whom.
26
There are a number of variations of and uses for the systems
framework. The best known are probably those of David Easton and
Almond and Powell. Thomas Dye (1995) also uses a systems
framework in his works on public policy. It is important to remember
that a systems framework may be used in a variety of ways for a
number of purposes. The frameworks used by Easton and Almond
and Powell are not the only possible uses of a systems framework.
To sum up:
Political behaviour is an important part of politics. In fact, it could
even be said that without political behaviour there would be no
politics.
In the study of political behaviour various frameworks, approaches,
models, methods and techniques have been developed in order to
study the way people behave politically.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1.1
This self-assessment exercise is based on this study unit.
(1) Write down the headings (without looking) of the discussion in this
study unit.
(2) Write down all the terms and concepts important to understand
this discussion.
(3) Explain each concept you have written down, in your own words.
(4) Identify the essence of the discussion under each main heading
and write it down, in each instance, in one sentence.
(5) Explain in five sentences what we study when we study political
behaviour.
(6) Explain in five sentences what the relationship is between political
behaviour and political dynamics.
(7) Explain in five sentences how political behaviour can be studied.
(8) Evaluate the discussion in this study unit by indicating what was
interesting, what was easy to understand, what was uninteresting
and what was difficult to understand. Also indicate what you feel
you would have liked to learn more about.
(9) Explain in five sentences why the study of political behaviour is
important.
PLC201-U/1 27
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1.2
This self-assessment exercise is based on Jackson and Jackson (1997). A
comparative introduction to political science.
(1) By making use of the table of contents and the index at the back
of the book, determine where in the book the topic discussed in
this study unit is discussed.
(2) Indicate what approaches to the study of politics the authors
discuss and which of them are discussed in this study unit.
(3) What, according to the authors, are the characteristics of each of
the following approaches: traditional, behavioural and post-
behavioural approaches.
(4) Summarize the authors' discussion of the systems framework in
six sentences.
(5) Summarize the authors' discussion of structural-functionalism in
six sentences.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1.3
This self-assessment exercise is based on Heywood (1997 and 20002).
Politics.
(2) What approaches to the study of politics does the author discuss
and which of them are discussed in this study unit?
(3) What, according to the author, are the characteristics of each of
the following approaches: traditional and behavioural approaches.
(4) Summarize the author's criticism of the behavioural approach in
six sentences.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1.4
This self-assessment exercise is based on Hague, Harrop and Breslin
(1998 and Hague and Harrop 2001). Comparative government and
politics.
28
(2) What methods to the study of politics do the authors discuss and
indicate which of them are discussed in this study unit.
(3) What, according to the authors, are the characteristics of each of
the following methods: comparative and case studies method.
(4) Why is the comparative method important according to the
authors?
(5) Summarize their discussion of the comparative method in 20
sentences.
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ADDITIONAL BOOKS

You may also consult these books should they be available in the
library.
Almond, G & Powell, B. 1996. Comparative politics today: a world view. Fifth edition.
New York: Harper Collins.
Dye, TR. 1995. Understanding public policy. Eighth edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Easton, D. 1979. A framework for political analysis. Second edition. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Easton, D. 1981. The political system. Third edition. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Gamble, JK (Jr), Irwin, ZT, Redenius, CM & Weber, JW. 1992. Introduction to
political science. Second edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hague, R & Harrop, M. 2001. Comparative government and politics: an
introduction. 5th edition. Houndmills: Palgrave.
Hague, R, Harrop, M & Breslin, S. 1998. Comparative government and politics: an
introduction. Fourth edition. London: MacMillan.
Heywood, A. 1997. Politics. London: Macmillan.
Jackson, RJ & Jackson, D. 1997. A comparative introduction to political science. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Landman, T. 2000. Issues and methods in comparative politics: an introduction.
London: Routledge.
Lawson, K. 1989. The human polity: an introduction to political science. Second
edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Meehan, EJ. 1988. The thinking game: a guide to effective study. Chatham, NJ:
Chatham House.
Peters, BG. 1998. Comparative politics: theory and methods. Houndmill: Macmillan.
Ranney, A. 1996. Governing: an introduction to political science. Seventh edition.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Willhoite, FH. 1988. Power and governments: an introduction to politics. Pacific
Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
PLC201-U/1 29
T H E M E 2
THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH

POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR TAKES PLACE
OVERVIEW
It should be clear from activity 1.1 of the previous study unit that political behaviour and
participation do not take place in a vacuum. In this theme we are looking for an answer to
the question ``What phenomena and processes found in the environment make political
behaviour possible?'' To answer this question you will need to explain
the role of the environment in politics and political behaviour
how political culture and values affect political behaviour
the role of ideology in political behaviour
how values and culture are obtained through the process of political socialization
why political behaviour is dependent on political communication
of these terms in the text. Likewise, search the index at the back of the recommended and
additional books that you consult and read the relevant sections in which these terms
appear.
Affective orientations Agents of political Anarchism
socialization
Apartheid Attitude Channel Christian fundumental
Civic culture Civil society Classical liberalism
Cognitive orientations Communicator Communism
30
Conservatism Conversion Customs
Culture Ecologism Environment
Evaluational orientations Fascism Feminism
Global village Horizontal communication Ideology
Individualism Information Imitation
Initiation Instruction Islamic fundamentalism
Liberalism Mass media Modern liberalism
Motivation Nationalism Nationalitarianism
Nazism Neo-liberalism Norms
Parochial political culture Peer groups Personal media
Primary groups Political communication Political culture
Political socialization Processes Propaganda
Receiver Recipient Reinforcement
Religious fundamentalism
Secondary groups Sender Socialism
Stereotypes Subject political culture Participatory political
Values Vertical communication culture
PLC201-U/1 31
STUDY
UNIT 2
THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

ENVIRONMENT OF POLITICAL
BEHAVIOUR AND PARTICIAPTION
INTRODUCTION
Political behaviour and participation does not just happen. It is shaped and initiated in a
number of ways by the environment in which it takes place. In this study unit we are going
to answer the question, ``What is the environment in which political behaviour takes
place?'' To answer this question you need to answer the following focus questions.
FOCUS
What do the concepts of internal and external environment
QUESTIONS
entail?
What aspects of the internal environment could shape political

behaviour?
What aspects of the external environment could shape political

behaviour?
32
2.1 WHAT DO THE CONCEPTS OF INTERNAL AND
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT ENTAIL?
It is important to realize that politics, political behaviour and
participation do not take place in a vacuum. They take place in a
particular environment. On the one hand, politics and political
behaviour are shaped by factors within the environment, and on the
other, they have an effect on the environment.
environment The term environment is often used to refer to the natural

environment. However, the concept of environment has a far wider
the concept of state
has geographic, meaning than merely the natural environment. In politics the concept
population, of environment includes all spheres of life that fall outside politics, yet
authoritative and have an important effect on political life. The natural environment
sovereing dimension;
(including its biological and geographical aspects) is therefore part of
examples of states are
USA and SA the environment in this sense, but the latter also includes the social
(including the cultural, religious and ideological dimensions) techno-
logical and economic spheres of life, for example.
When we study politics and when the state is the political unit that
internal environment is being studied, the internal environment includes all the natural,
social and economic factors, within the geographic boundaries of
the state, that could have an effect on the politics and political
external environment behaviour within that state. The external environment, on the other
hand includes all the natural, social, technological and economic
factors outside the state that could have an effect on the politics and
political behaviour that take place within the state. Very important
in this regard is the international system of states.
2.2 WHAT ASPECTS OF THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

COULD SHAPE POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?
The internal environment includes many factors that may influence
various aspects of political behaviour and participation. Important
are the social, economic and technological factors. In this regard the
value system(s) and ideologies that prevail within the society are
important. The cultural and value factors prevailing in society are
discussed in Study Unit 3 and the ideological factors in Study Unit 4.
The economy, the technology available as well as the degree of

industrialization will all have an effect on the needs and issues in
society and the policies of the authorities of that state Ð which, in
turn, will affect political behaviour and participation. For example,
the economy will determine the needs in that society and what
needs the authorities can tackle. For example, widespread poverty
PLC201-U/1 33
would mean that there could be a demand for houses, health
services and education.
Technological developments may also be important. Note, for

example, the role of the car in this regard. It created a need for good
roads and now also numerous campaigns to promote road safety.
Computer technology has also created a number of needs. Think,

for example, of the legislation required to regulate an employee's
right to privacy. Computer technology has also opened new ways
to participate in politics.
The natural environment may also affect political behaviour.

Drought in South Africa, for example, led to the Lesotho Highlands
project. There have also been requests for dams to stem the damage
caused by flood water, as well as a policy to get safe drinking water
to the people.
The presence of Aids has also had far-reaching consequences. Think

about the numerous demonstrations and petitions that have taken
place in South Africa and the policies that are been dealt with by
government officials and Aids activists.
2.3 THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
We are increasingly living in a global village, where whatever

happens in one part becomes a concern for the rest of the global
village.
The international movement of people creates problems like

refugees, illegal immigrants and the spread of disease. All of these
make demands on the authorities and affect the attitudes and
opinions of the population. Unemployment may, for example, be
exacerbated by the presence of illegal immigrants.
International values, like human rights, are increasingly being

formulated with the intention that they should be adhered to by all
in the international community. Note, for example, the role that the
international community played in the struggle against apartheid.
Guidelines for public policy are increasingly provided by interna-
tional agencies like the World Health Organisation, and interna-
tional trecities and conventions e.g. the Ramsar Convention on
wetlands.
International law may also influence the decisions that are taken in
34
a state for example specifications with regard to territorial waters.
This may all affect the political activities that take place in a state.
Conflicting values are also important. If the internal value system

conflicts with international values and norms, it could have a
serious effect on the internal politics of a particular state. Also note
the role of the international community on the political crisis that
exist with regard to events in the Middle East. Many demonstra-
tions to influence public opinion have for example taken place.
To sum up:
Politics is not a phenomenon that takes place in a vacuum. It is
influenced and even determined by factors in both the internal and
external environment.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 2.1
(1) Summarize in five sentences the essence of the discussion in this
study unit.
(2) Explain in 100 words the importance of the environment, when
studying political behaviour.
(3) How can scientific developments, like heart transplants, affect
political behaviour?
(4) How can factors like drought, floods and long distances affect
political behaviour? If you find it difficult to answer this question,
ask yourself what you could or would do if for example your house
was flooded by a particular river after heavy rain; or if you had very
little drinking water; or if there was no transport from your home
to the nearest shops?
PLC201-U/1 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ADDITIONAL BOOKS
library.
Prentice Hall.
Press.
Heywood, A. 1997 and 2002. Politics. London: Macmillan.
Chatham House.
36
STUDY
UNIT 3
THE ENVIRONMENT OF POLITICAL

BEHAVIOUR, POLITICAL
CULTURE AND VALUES
INTRODUCTION
The individual as the basic unit of political action is not born with political values and
culture. These are acquired within a particular social context and have a profound effect on
political behaviour within a state. In this study unit we are looking for an answer to the
question, ``What is political culture and how does it affect our political behaviour and
participation?'' To answer this question it is necessary to answer the following focus
questions.
FOCUS What does the concept of political culture entail?

QUESTIONS What is the relationship between political culture and values?
What types of political culture could be identified?
How does political culture affect our political behaviour?
3.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL CULTURE

ENTAIL?
culture The term culture usually refers to all the practices, customs, values
and norms in a society. Culture is not necessarily political by
PLC201-U/1 37
nature, but all aspects of culture are potentially politically relevant.
At this stage we are interested primarily in the political aspects of
culture.
Political culture is important ``because there is no context-free

political thinking'' (Kuklinski 2002:99).
The prevailing political values in a society constitute the political culture

of that society. Austin Ranney (1996:62) defines political culture as `à
broadly shared set of ways of thinking about politics and govern-
ment ... political culture then provides the general psychological
environment within which the political system must work''.
It is also important to note that politics per se is often the political

manifestation of societal values.
AC TIVIT Y 3.1
Read the following paragraph and then follow the instructions.

The King of Jordan, the King of Saudi-Arabia and the Prince of
Monaco are, as monarchs, powerful heads of state. Britain, Swe-
den, Norway, Spain and Japan have constitutional monarchs (that
is constitutional limitations have been placed on the powers of
the monarchs). France and Russia have abolished their monar-
chies and now have Presidents, with real political power, as heads
of state. Iran has also abolished its monarchy (the Shah) and a
cleric is now the Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran. While
Americans cherish the fact that they are a republic, Australians
(who still have the British Queen as head of state) are now consid-
ering the possibility of becoming a republic, with a president as
head of state instead.
(1) Why do you think some states have monarchs (a monarchy)

while others have presidents (a republic)?
(2) Why do you think some states abolished or wished to abolish
their monarchies?
(3) Why do you think some monarchs have remained powerful in
the states that they rule?
(4) Why do you think Americans cherish the fact that America is a
republic?
All the answers to the above have to do with what could be

regarded as the political culture of those states. The questions also
38
indicate that political culture may not necessarily remain un-
changed Ð that is why in some states the monarchies were
abolished, or why limitations were placed on the powers of some
monarchs (and why they are now constitutional monarchs). Thus
the political values, customs and attitudes of the people in those
states have, over time, undergone change.
characteristics of The following characteristics of political culture have come to light

political culture in studies of political culture:
The political culture in a particular society need not

necessarily be homogeneous (that is, the same for everyone).
In practice, it has been found that although certain common
political values do exist in a society, a number of subcultures
can usually be found. Compare the Zulu-monarchy in South
Africa, for example.
ethnicity: eg Zulus, Subcultures may be ascribed to various causes and are
Xhosas and Afrikaners usually the result of certain group formations. Some
religious: eg Christians subcultures are the result of ethnicity, religious groupings
and Muslims
and class. Subcultures may also be the result of an urban-
class: eg poor (lower) rural division and even of particular professions. Research
and rich (upper) has also found that in modern societies culture is increas-
ideology: eg socialism ingly becoming diverse and fragmented, `ìn modern multi-
and liberalism
cultural and multi-religious societies it is doubtful whether
some western states any set of values can be regarded as authoritative'' (Hey-
like Germany and Italy wood 1997:193).
democratised only after
World War II
In a particular state, there should be certain minimum
political values about which there is consensus, however,
otherwise it would be difficult for such a state to continue
existing as a state. A lack in this regard may lead to conflict
and secessionist movements e.g. cashmir.
The political institutions of a particular society should be
related to the political culture of that society in order to
maintain political stability. Colonial governments often
failed as a result of this
Political culture is also not the same in all states. Compare
e.g. the political culture of the USA and of Iran.
Political culture, like all culture, is subject to change. (see Ball
and Peters 2000: 82 ±83)
The political culture of the authorities may differ from the culture of
the people in the state. When the political culture of the authorities
is in conflict with the political culture of the people, problems may
develop in respect of legitimacy. According to Marxist theory, the
legitimacy
prevailing cultural and political values are always those of the
PLC201-U/1 39
ruling class. This should however be seen as a rather simplistic
view, not only of humankind but also of the way in which culture
develops in humankind. The political struggle in South Africa was
partly a result of the fact that the ruling class's culture tried to
dictate the values according to which the political system in South
Africa should operate. However, this attempt to dictate the political
culture in South Africa failed.
3.2 WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICAL

CULTURE AND VALUES?
It was mentioned in the previous section that values are important
values in a political culture. A value may be regarded as a deeply held
principle or something that we think highly of and which is used to
guide our thinking and actions Ð thereby setting a standard for the
actors in politics. An example of a value is freedom in democratic
political systems.
Values may have different sources and be influenced by factors
tradition such as affluence. Tradition and religion are two important sources
of values in a particular society. Tradition refers to the accepted
customs and practices that are passed on from one generation to
religion another. Religion, as a system of belief, is an important source of
values for it in fact claims that certain values have a supernatural
origin (ie, from a deity). Note the role that religions like Judaism,
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism have in certain states.
Tradition and religion set standards or norms for determining what

is right and what is wrong and what should be the desired course of
action in a society. The political philosopher, Michael Oakeshott
(1962) was of the opinion that traditional values are important for
they are familiar and engender a sense of reassurance, stability and
security (Heywood 1997:194). However, it is becoming increasingly
difficult in modern societies to determine what values can be
regarded as traditional for modern societies are characterized by a
diversity of values. According to Inglehardt (1977, 1990, 1997), this
is to a large extent a result of affluence in modern societies that are
characterized by what he calls ``postmaterial values''. According to
him (Heywood 1997:193), traditional values are often replaced by
more ``liberal'' and permissive ones.
A further important question with regard to values, is whether

there are universal values that apply to everyone under all
circumstances. The adoption of the principle of human rights by
40
the United Nations may be regarded as an attempt to establish
universal values. However, not all these values, for example
women's rights, apply in all the states that are members of the
United Nations.
3.3 WHAT TYPES OF POLITICAL CULTURE CAN BE

IDENTIFIED?
Some attempts have been made to classify political culture on the
basis of certain common features. These classifications were often
controversial and usually relied on Western criteria.
Various types of political culture are encountered. In The civic

culture, Almond and Verba (1963), distinguish three basic types of
political culture, namely
A parochial political culture. In such a political culture there

are no specialized political roles. The person at the head of
such a culture usually also has a religious, social and
economic role. A culture of this kind is largely apolitical or
depoliticized.
Subject political culture. Here there are political roles, but the
inhabitants are passive and do not themselves participate in
political activities.
A participatory political culture. This is a political culture in
which the inhabitants take part actively in political pro-
cesses.
civic culture They also identify a civic culture which, according to them, is a mix
of the above three basic types of political cultures. This is a political
culture in which there is a balance between subject and parochial
attitudes, on the one hand and a participatory political culture on
the other. According to Almond and Verba, a democracy will
flourish best in a society with a civic culture.
PLC201-U/1 41
DIAGRAM 3.1
Almond and Verba: civic culture
Parochial
culture
Participant The civic Stable

culture culture democracy
Subject
culture
Source: Hague et al 1997:60.
It is important to note that civic culture should not be confused with

civil society civil society. Civil society refers to groups and institutions in the
private sector that function between the state (public sector) and the
individual and family. Civil society is important in most Western
states but is usually prevented from developing in totalitarian
states, such as the former USSR.
3.4 HOW DOES POLITICAL CULTURE AFFECT OUR

POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?
Political culture and the attitudes it embodies have an impact on the

political behaviour of individuals and groups of individuals. The
following are indications of how political culture will affect political
behaviour.
Political culture determines our political attitudes, orienta-

tions and opinions. It will therefore also influence our
decisions to participate in politics as well as how and when
we wish to participate. Political culture provides us with
cognitive orientations (knowledge and awareness of how
things work in politics); affective orientations (feelings and
emotions about political objects); and evaluational orienta-
tions (making use of information and feelings) (Diamond
[ed] 1993:8; Ranney 1996:62).
The political culture largely determines our political ex-
pectations, that is, what we regard as politically right or
wrong. ``To study how people view their country's politics is
42
to investigate political culture (Hague et al 1997:39). For
example, if equality before the law is treasured as a political
value, we would expect and even demand to be treated fairly
by the judiciary.
Political culture also includes the political customs and
practices and even the nature of the political system. For
example, the political culture of a society determines
whether democracy, right of ownership, freedom of speech,
obedience to authority and state involvement in welfare
services will be political values in it. Basically, it would
determine what we would expect of, demand from and
tolerate in the authorities.
Political culture may also give rise to stereotypes (ie, images in
the mind whereby we are inclined to erroneously regard and
treat all members or objects in a group or class as identical,
for example all Americans are individualists). Examples of
stereotypes of Blacks, Afrikaners and the English in South
Africa are common.
Political values will influence individuals' political behav-
iour in terms of their electoral choices, the forms of political
action that they regard as legitimate, their reactions to (eg)
legislation, their willingness to become involved in issues of
general interest and so on. Political values also largely
determine the policy alternatives proposed by organizations,
such as interest groups and political parties, and the patterns
of action they pursue in trying to realize those alternatives.
In short, political culture shapes political action.
It is important to bear in mind that culture and authority
interact. `À civic culture contributes to the stability and
effectiveness of democracy, but a democracy which literally
delivers the goods engenders the supportive attitudes which
will sustain the political system in the future'' (Hague et al
1998:61).
The political culture may also influence our attitudes
towards the authorities and thereby affect the legitimacy
that a particular government may enjoy.
Even though political culture affects our political behaviour,
the reverse is also true; our political behaviour affects the
values and culture of the society in which we find ourselves.
PLC201-U/1 43
AC TIVIT Y 3.2
This activity tries to demonstrate how political culture and culture in

general can affect the way we are governed and how it may affect po-
litical behaviour in general. Read the two scenarios carefully and follow
the instructions in each instance.
(1) Mr Fig Tree is the head of state of Big-Tree Island and has real
political powers. The political system of Big-Tree Island is still
largely based on a system of traditional hereditary chiefdoms.
Mr Pine Tree was recently appointed Minister of the Constitu-
tion and was sent to study constitutions and constitutionalism
in the United States of America and other Western states that
are known for their expertise in this regard. Mr Pine Tree has
now returned and submitted a report in which he explains that
the traditional chiefdoms are now outdated in Western states
and that the issue should be addressed immediately on Big-
Tree Island. In the report, Mr Pine Tree also indicates that the
traditional system is, in fact, affecting economic growth nega-
tively.
(a) List all the possible advantages and disadvantages of
the following possible decisions in this regard. Also try
to think what could lead to each decision being taken.
ö Mr FigTree decides to abolish the system of her-
editary chiefdoms with immediate effect, without
consulting either the chiefs, or the population of
Big-Tree Island.
ö After discussions with the chiefs, Mr FigTree de-
cides to ignore the report and continue with the
system of hereditary chiefdoms, without consid-
ering the opinions and attitudes of the popula-
tion.
ö Mr FigTree decides to hold a referendum to deter-
mine how the population feel about their political
system; and he decides to discuss the outcome
of the referendum with the chiefs in order to
make a decision in this regard.
(b) Let's assume that a referendum was held on Big-Tree Is-

land and that you now have to advise Mr FigTree on the
best possible course of action. What, in your opinion,
would be the best solution if ö
ö the overwhelming majority of people on Big-Tree
Island were still in favour of the traditional sys-
tem
ö the overwhelming majority were in favour of the
abolishment of the traditional system
44
ö the population was divided on the issue of the
traditional system
(2) There are three subcultures on Big-Tree Island.The first group is

economically dominant but the smallest of the groups. In
terms of group custom, their members are allowed to marry
more than one woman. The second group is the majority on
the island, politically dominant and, in terms of group custom,
their members are allowed to marry one woman only.The third
group also constitutes a minority, but is neither politically nor
economically dominant. However, in this group women are al-
lowed to have more than one husband.
Write down the advantages and disadvantages of each of the
following possible decisions in this regard.
(a) Since group two forms a majority and is politically domi-
nant, a law allowing a man to have one wife, and a wom-
an to have one husband only, is adopted (ie, only
monogamous marriages are recognized). All people
who have either more than one wife or more than one
husband will be prosecuted.
(b) To accommodate the economically dominant group one,
a law is adopted stipulating that only monogamous
marriages will be recognized before the law. However,
members of the various groups may marry according
to what is allowed in terms of their culture, even though
not all these marriages will have legal status.
(c) A law is adopted stipulating that the members of the
various groups will be allowed to marry according to
what is permitted in terms of their culture. Furthermore,
all marriages will enjoy legal status.
(d) A law is adopted stipulating that any person may marry
as he/she pleases, irrespective of what the person's
group culture stipulates and all marriages will enjoy le-
gal status.
(3) Write down what you anticipate could be the possible reactions
to each possibility open to Pres Fig Tree, mentioned in ques-
tions (1) and (2), of:
ö the chiefs
ö individual members of the population of Big-Tree Island
ö the various groups
ö the population as a whole
ö Minister PineTree
PLC201-U/1 45
The above two scenarios provide an indication of how culture,
values and interests may overlap and may affect political
behaviour. Your own handling of the advantages and disadvan-
tages was in all likelihood influenced by your own values and
culture. However, if we study the two scenarios objectively (ie,
trying to exclude our own values) the following should be clear:
Politicians should take note of political culture, culture in

general, and particular interests. It would not be wise to
ignore either the values or the interests of significant sections
of the population.
Particular interests can become entrenched in the political
culture of that society. Note, for example, the interests of the
chiefs. Do you think that they will be happy with a decision
to abolish them?
The values in a society may often conflict with the long-term
interests of that society. This is usually a major problem that
most politicians in developing states have to deal with.
TO SUM UP:
first world: rich and It is not always easy to accommodate the culture, values and
developed, eg USA, interests of everyone in a society. This is especially true when
France and Japan
particular values dominate the political culture and when the
second world: usually
political culture is inclined to be prescriptive rather than tolerant. If
former communist
states of Eastern Christian religious values, for example, dictated and prescribed the
Europe political values on Big-Tree Island, it is likely that only mono-
third world: poor and
gamous marriages would have been allowed. Polygamous mar-
underdeveloped, eg riages (more than one) would at best have been tolerated. On the
states in Africa and other hand, if the political culture was tolerant of diverse customs
Latin-America and practices and allowed individuals to decide for themselves,
there is a possibility that the population would be allowed to marry
as they wished. Political culture will, therefore, be an important
factor in the behaviour of people in politics, but political culture
also helps to `ùnderstand the interactions among more specific
beliefs and behaviours'' (Canover & Searing, in Kuklinski ed.
2002:99).
SELF-ASSESSMENT 3.1
(1) Write down all the key concepts discussed in this study unit and
explain each concept in one sentence.
46
(2) Write all the headings used in this study unit and summarize the
essence of the discussion under each heading in five sentences in
each case.
(3) Explain the characteristics of political culture in 100 words.
(4) Explain the relationship between political culture and values in 50
words.
(5) Explain how political culture can affect political behaviour in 100
words.
(6) Evaluate the discussion in this study unit by indicating whether it
is good or bad.
(7) Write down the section(s) of this study unit that you felt was
(were) easy to understand.
(8) Write down the section(s) of this study unit that was (were)
difficult to understand.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 3.2
(1) By studying the table of contents and the index at the back of the
book, look up all the sections in which political culture and values
are discussed.
(2) Explain in five sentences why the authors regard political culture
as important in democracies.
(3) What types of political culture do the authors discuss?
(4) Name the forces that, according to the authors, shape political
culture.
(5) Explain in five sentences why the authors regard religion as an
important foundation of political culture.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 3.3
This self-assessment exercise is based on Hague, Harrop and Martin
(1998) and Hague and Harrop (2001) comparative government and
politics.
are discussed.
(2) Explain in five sentences why the authors regard political culture
to be important in democracies.
(3) Explain in five sentences why the authors regard religion as an
important foundation of political culture.
PLC201-U/1 47
SELF-ASSESSMENT 3.4
This self-assessment exercise is based on Ranney (1996). Governing an
introduction to political science.
are discussed.
(2) Explain in five sentences why the author regards political culture
(3) Summarize in ten sentences the author's discussion of political
culture.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 3.5
This self-assessment is based on Heywood (1997 and 2002). Politics.
are discussed.
(2) Explain in five sentences why the author regards political culture
(3) Summarize in ten sentences the author's discussion of political
culture.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following books were consulted. You may also consult these
books should they be available.
Almond, GA & Verba, S. 1963. The civic culture: political attitudes and democracy in
five countries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Ball, AR & Peters, BG. 2000. Modern politics and government. 6th edition.
Houndmills: Macmillan.
Cohen, JL & Arato, A. 1992. Civil society and political theory. Massachusetts: MIT.
Diamond, L (ed). 1993. Political culture and democracy in developing countries.
Boulder, Co: Rienner.
Featherstone, M. 1995. Undoing culture: globalization, postmodernism and identity.
London: Sage.
Gamble, JK (Jr); Irwin, ZT; Redenius, CM & Weber, JW. 1992. Introduction to
political science. 2nd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
48
Hague, R; Harrop, M & Breslin, S. 1998. Comparative government and politics: an
Heywood, A. 1997. Politics. London: MacMillan.
Inglehardt, R. 1977. The silent revolution: changing values and political styles amongst
Western publics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Inglehardt, R. 1990. Cultural shift in advanced industrial society. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Inglehardt, R. 1997. Modernization and postmodernization: cultural economic and
social change in 43 societies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Kuklinski, JH (ed). 2002. Thinking about political psychology. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Oakeshott, M. 1962. Rationalism in politics and other essays. London: Methuen.
PLC201-U/1 49
STUDY
UNIT 4
BEHAVIOUR: IDEOLOGIES
INTRODUCTION
Ideologies provide an important manifestation of political values that are often responsible
for the way in which many, if not all, political actors behave. In this study unit we are
going to answer the question, ``What is an ideology and how does it affect our lives?'' To
answer this question you need to answer the following focus questions.
FOCUS What does the concept of ideology entail?

QUESTIONS What are the basic structures and purposes of an ideology?
Are ideologies attractive to humans?
What are the shortcomings of ideologies?
What future is there for ideologies?
Which ideologies are currently important?
How can we compare ideologies?
4.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF IDEOLOGY ENTAIL?
To begin the explanation of the concept of ideology, emphasis will

be placed on the fact that an ideology represents a set of values
50
which we use as a guideline in the way we live. We can define the
concept of ideology thus as a theory that consists of a comprehen-
sive set of beliefs (usually the product of values) on the social,
political and economic life of human beings.
Most of us have come into contact with a variety of ideologies in the

news media and in personal conversations about politics.
AC TIVIT Y 4.1
Study the following statements carefully and then mark those that
sound familiar with C and those that sound unfamiliar with B.
(1) Individual freedom should be of primary importance in any po-
litical dispensation.
(2) Private ownership is vital if economic development is to suc-
ceed.
(3) Redistribution of wealth to the poor is an important function of
the state.
(4) Women should have the same rights as men.
(5) Every cultural nation should have a state of its own.
(6) Power should be exercised by the workers.
It does not really matter whether you have heard some of these
expressions or not, or whether you agree with them. What is
important though, is the fact that these statements are, to a large
extent, the products of particular ideologies.
You have probably also heard people speaking of liberalism,

socialism, feminism, nationalism and communism. These are all names
for particular ideologies. Statements (a) and (b) are common in
liberalism, statement (c) in socialism, statement (d) in feminism,
statement (e) in nationalism and statement (f) in communism.
Some further explanation is necessary for a proper understanding

of the concept of ideology.
The term ideology was coined (made) by the Frenchman, Antoine

Destutt de Tracy, between 1796 and 1798 (Vincent 1992:1). The term
is derived from the word, idea and it originally meant a science of
ideas. For se Tracy, ideology was the theory of theories (Vincent
1992:2). Therefore, though we may regard an ideology as a set of
PLC201-U/1 51
beliefs, not just any set of beliefs can be regarded as an ideology
(even though the term is often used in this manner).
According to Jackson and Jackson (1997:151):
Ideologies are based on the teachings of significant political

thinkers and philosophers who are searching for truth derived
from first principles through logical argument.
These then form the basis of a set of ideas and beliefs which
stipulates what is valued and subsequently provide the basis
for a particular ideology.
4.2 WHAT ARE THE BASIC STRUCTURES AND

PURPOSES OF AN IDEOLOGY?
From the statements in Activity 4.1, it should be obvious that there

are many ideologies. Ideologies may differ in their basic beliefs and
in what they value, but most show the same structures and have the
same purposes.
An ideology is, in the first instance, a theory, or as De Tracy puts it,
theory the theory of theories. A theory is an intellectual construct that
consists of a `'network'' of concepts and generalizations, that claims
to provide a systematic explanation of what is the focus of a
particular theory, such as about the purposes of politics or the
powers of government.
As the theory of theories, an ideology is a comprehensive theory that

tries to explain every aspect of our lives and subsequently regards
itself as the fundamental theory on which all other theories should
be based.
basic elements Ideologies differ in their content (that is in the explanations that
they provide) and in the values that they uphold (for example,
values like freedom, equality and private property). However, the
following basic elements in their structure and purposes may be
identified. Also see Jackson and Jackson 1997:151. An ideology Ð
claims to provide an explanation for the social, political and

economic context in which we find ourselves
claims to provide an explanation for what is right and wrong
(and why it is right or wrong) in our social, political and
economic life
claims to provide an ideal (built on particular ``truths'' and
values) which will correct everything that is wrong in our
52
social, political and economic life and help us attain the good
life, therefore ideologies attempt to bring about a good society
claims to provide a programme for reaching this ideal
usually adopts a missionary vision in order to promote the
``truths'' and values that it claims to adhere to and according
to which the ideal way of life (or the good life) may be
reached. `Èvery political ideology is to some degree a
fighting faith'' (Wilhoite 1988:60).
Thus an ideology both describes and prescribes (see Vincent 1992:16).

To a great extent, an ideology claims to represent a single ``recipe''
for social life, including the economic and political aspects.
4.3 ARE IDEOLOGIES ATTRACTIVE TO PEOPLE?
Much of the history of the twentieth century was influenced by

ideologies. The Russian revolution brought communism to, what
became known as, the Soviet Union. The former Soviet Union was
known for its adherence to and attempts to spread communism,
under the slogan of workers of the world unite. As such, it came into
conflict with what was termed the ``West'' and in which liberalism
was the dominant ideology.
Nazism, in which racial superiority and racial purity were

fundamental, was the ideology followed by Hitler and Nazi-
Germany. At present Islamic Fundamentalism, that emphasizes the
religious principles of Islam, and according to which the Islamic
Republic of Iran is ruled, is increasingly becoming important in
certain North African and Middle Eastern states. Women are also
playing an increasingly important role under the banner of
feminism. In the latter part of the twentieth century nationalism has
likewise been an important source of conflict in the former
Yugoslavia, for example.
why people follow It is unlikely that ideologies would play such an important role in
ideologies history and political behaviour, if people were not attracted to
ideologies. Why do people like to follow ideologies? The following
may play a role:
Even though ideologies are comprehensive, they often

provide simple explanations and solutions to the problems
that we encounter.
The ideals that they prescribe usually offer the hope of
PLC201-U/1 53
attaining utopia (as manifested in the good life) on earth, or
at least of improving our quality of life.
Even though certain sacrifices may be necessary on the road
to utopia, it is claimed that those sacrifices are small in
comparison to the advantages that will be obtained once we
live our lives according to particular ``truths''.
Because ideologies offer solutions to our problems and guide
political action, they often help decision makers to determine
priorities and may even help to determine the decisions they
make.
In a complex world an ideology often provides us (the
ordinary citizens) with an instant recipe of how to make
sense of the world and therefore helps us to make our
individual choices. It therefore helps us to distinguish
between what is right and what is wrong.
From the above it should be apparent that, faced with the hardships
of life, people will find something (in this instance an ideology) that
offers an instant cure to their problems attractive. It should,
however, be borne in mind that people's hardships differ in real life.
This is one of the reasons why there are several competing
ideologies that are widely followed. However, most ideologies are
intolerant of other ideologies.
4.4 WHAT ARE THE SHORTCOMINGS OF IDEOLOGIES?

It is ironic that the shortcomings of ideologies lie in the very reasons
why ideologies are attractive to people. The following are important
in this regard:
The explanations of and the solutions to our problems that

ideologies claim to provide are too simplistic. The social,
economic and political circumstances in which we find
ourselves are far more complex than ideologies would
suggest, `ìdeologies are sets of ideas that distort political
reality because they claim to explain what is, frankly,
incomprehensible'' (Heywood 1997:41)
The demands made on people and the sacrifices often
required in order to establish the desired outcome of a
particular ideology are often immense and seldom justifi-
able. People may comply with these demands in the short
term simply because they regard it to be in their interest.
54
There is not only one ideology but several and they all claim
to provide the same thing in the end Ð the improvement of
the quality of our lives. Unfortunately, this claim has
resulted in a number of conflicting explanations of and
solutions to the problems we encounter in our social,
economic and political contexts. Yet each ideology claims
to be the only ``true'' explanation and solution. This has
resulted in numerous conflicts, both in global and domestic
terms.
Even though ideologies may claim to offer us a better life, they are
usually flawed in their own simplicity and the demands they make
on people.
4.5 WHAT FUTURE IS THERE FOR IDEOLOGIES?
Due to the inherent shortcomings of ideologies, many academics

have speculated about the future of ideologies. In The end of
ideology?: On the exhaustion of political ideas in the 1950's, Daniel Bell
claims that economics has triumphed over politics. According to
him, the appeal and even the necessity of ideological debates is on
the decline. In the late 1980s Francis Fukuyama indicated that
liberalism has triumphed over all other ideologies and that this
triumph is final (Heywood 1997:61±62).
Even though some may be of the opinion that ideologies will

disappear in the end, cognisance should be taken of the fact that in
recent years religious fundamentalism and nationalism have
become more and more important. Furthermore, the fact that a
particular ideology has triumphed over others, as Fukuyama
suggests, nevertheless implies that we are still encountering a
particular ideology, that is a particular system of belief according to
which we organize our social, political and economic life.
4.6 WHICH IDEOLOGIES ARE CURRENTLY IMPORTANT?

individual versus society As pointed out, not only one but several ideologies are competing
to gain a substantial following among people and/or the ruling elite
in order to promote their ideals. Two broad categories of ideologies
can be distinguished, namely, those that emphasize the individual
and those that emphasize society.
PLC201-U/1 55
The following are the most important ideologies encountered
today:
Liberalism
Conservatism
Socialism
Communism
Nationalism
Religious fundamentalism
Feminism
Ecologism
In addition to the above ideologies, fascism, nazism and anarchism

have also played an important role in the history and politics of the
twentieth century. Likewise, apartheid as a kind of South African
version of nazism, played a major role in South African politics.
Ideologies usually differ in terms of their description and prescrip-

tion of people's social, political and economic context and on their
ideas on human nature. The different ways they view the
relationship between the individual and society are important in
all ideologies. It is important to note that in most ideologies there is
more than one school of thought. Unfortunately, we cannot pay
attention to all the variations in this discussion.
LIBERALISM
Liberalism developed in Western Europe in the nineteenth century
in an attempt to restructure an outdated political and social order.
Liberal values have become embedded in the culture and lifestyle of
what is often referred to as the West. Liberalism as an ideology
therefore enjoys widespread dominance, even more so since the
collapse of communism in the former Soviet Union and Eastern
Europe.
Liberalism has as a central value, the freedom or liberty of the

individual. The individual is regarded as more important than
society, for society is merely a collection of individuals. Human
nature is seen as positive.
Several liberal schools of thought may be identified, of which the
classical liberalism two mainstreams are classical liberalism and modern liberalism.
modern liberalism These various schools of thought do however share several
56
fundamental principles, of which the following are central to liberal
thought:
individualism It was mentioned above that individualism is an important element

of liberalism. According to liberal thought, the individual is more
real than society and the individual is, in fact, prior to society.
Society is therefore seen as a collection of individuals, ``The liberal
goal is therefore to construct a society within which individuals can
flourish and develop, each pursuing `the good' as he or she defines
it, to the best of his or her abilities'' (Heywood 1997:42).
freedom Freedom or liberty of the individual is a central value of liberalism.

Only by being free can individuals realise their potential. However,
all individuals should enjoy an equal amount of freedom and
therefore people are only free to the extent that their freedom does
not violate the freedom of others. Another element of freedom is
freedom from interference in private matters and, in particular,
freedom from interference by the state and its institutions. ``The
individual is free when left uncoerced or unrestrained. Much state
intervention, conventionally, is seen to undermine individual
initiative and offend against basic liberty'' (Vincent 1992:37). That
is also why liberals favour a free-market economy and capitalism.
reason In liberal thought, people are regarded as rational beings. Liberals

therefore believe in individuals' ability to make wise decisions for
themselves that will serve their best interests. Through using their
reason, people will solve their problems and disputes.
equality In liberalism each individual is regarded as being of equal value.
Therefore equality is an important principle in liberalism. Equality
should be seen in an abstract sense and not in materialistic terms,
however. The idea of equal opportunity and equality before the law
and in politics is important. Therefore all individuals should have
an equal chance to realise themselves. However, individuals differ
in intelligence, talent, dedication and desire to work hard. Therefore
liberals also favour the principle of merit and rewards for hard
work and talent. Inequality is therefore a product of natural
differences and the way that individuals conduct their lives.
tolerance Another fundamental principle of liberalism is the idea of tolerance.

Without tolerance, freedom will not be possible. Because individ-
uals are free to decide for themselves, it is inevitable that some may
disagree with the way other individuals lead their lives. ``Liberals
believe that toleration (that is ... the willingness of people to allow
others to think, speak and act in ways of which they disapprove) is
both a guarantee of individual liberty and a means of social
enrichment'' (Heywood 1997:42).
PLC201-U/1 57
government by consent According to liberals, authority and government should always be
based on consent. Hence the idea of liberal democracy and of
universal suffrage, elections and representation. `Ìn this sense
authority rises `from below' and is always grounded in legitimacy''
(Heywood 1997:42). In order to protect the individual against the
state, limitations are often placed on the powers of government Ð
the idea of constitutionalism. Sartori (1962) believes that democracy
is the ultimate manifestation of liberalism.
According to liberals, people are entitled to certain natural rights

and, in particular, the right to life, the right to freedom and the right
to property. These rights are always individual rights. The state is
established to safeguard these rights.
Over time the interpretation of the principles discussed above has

undergone change giving rise to the two major schools of liberal
thought, namely classical and modern liberalism.
Classical liberalism In classical liberalism (ie, the original liberal thought) emphasis
was placed on an extreme form of individual liberty, while the state
was merely regarded as a necessary evil that should only protect
modern liberalism the rights of individuals. Modern liberalism is more tolerant of state
intervention in order to address injustices that may arise from the
exercise of freedom and in particular the exercise of freedom in the
neo-liberalism economic sphere. It was now recognised that individual freedom
could be increased through state intervention in the form of welfare
programmes, for example. The accepted welfare role of govern-
ments in states that supported liberal ideology has contributed to
the problem of state `òverload'' (unmanageable demands made on
the state and government) in some of them. This, in turn, resulted in
a revision of the principles on which modern liberalism was based
and a consequent rolling back of the state. This new form of liberal
thought is often referred to as contemporary classical liberalism and
sometimes as neo-liberalism (see Heywood 1997:49).
CONSERVATISM
The basic premise in conservatism is the desire to conserve or the
preservation of the ``best'' in any social and political institution, but
with due regard for the changes that are necessitated by changing
circumstances. As such, conservatism respects tradition, established
customs and institutions for they reflect wisdom that has survived
the test of time. `Àbstract principles and systems of thought are
therefore distrusted, and instead faith is placed in experience,
history and, above all, pragmatism ... that is, by `what' works''
(Heywood 1997:45).
58
human beings are According to conservatists, human nature is imperfect. Human
imperfect beings are naturally selfish and their rationality is limited.
``Humans are not rational machines, they are a complex mesh of
emotions, thoughts and often contradictory motivations'' (Vincent
1992:68).
Even though all people are imperfect, some are more imperfect than
others. Thus inequality is unavoidable. `Ìnequality is rooted in both
natural and political circumstances. Some people are naturally
superior, both intellectually and morally ... It cannot be eradicated
by social or political means'' (Vincent 1992:69). Therefore there will
always be a divide between the masses that are more imperfect and
a small elite that is less imperfect. According to conservatism, for a
society to be healthy (ie, the ideal), it is important to respect this
distinction, ``... the masses recognize their station and its duties,
deferring instinctively to the special role that elites must play''
(Susser 1995:50). Thus authority is also unavoidable. Society is,
however, regarded as an organic whole which is more than the sum
of the individuals that make up the whole.
With regard to the economy, the more traditional schools of

thought are more sceptical towards a free-market economy, while
liberal conservatism and the New Right are more pro-market.
SOCIALISM
The era of socialism, with its roots in the industrial revolution,
developed as a reaction against the problems created by indus-
trialism and capitalism. Various stages may be identified in the
development of socialism. Originally, socialism advocated the
abolishment of capitalism and a market economy and the
replacement thereof with a society constructed on the principle of
common ownership Ð usually referred to as revolutionary
socialism and this is the branch of socialism from which commun-
ism originated. Later in its development socialism emphasised the
incorporation of the working class into a society based on
capitalism. This reformed type of socialism is usually referred to
as social democracy.
Social beings The central premise in socialism is the idea that people are social
beings. Therefore community and collectivism are regarded as
Community and
Collectivism
more important and prior to the individual. Communal ownership
of and/or control over the economic means in a society, and a
collective and equal responsibility towards each member in such
PLC201-U/1 59
social equality society (social equality) are important values in socialism. Socialists
are therefore not in favour of capitalism and the free market.
The following principles are fundamental to socialism (see Hey-

wood 1997:49±50).
social context According to socialists, human beings can only be understood
within their social context. Individuals are what they are as a result
of their societal context. Socialists therefore emphasise the fact that
human beings are social creatures, ``Socialists are inclined to
emphasise nurture over nature, and to explain individual behaviour
mainly in terms of social factors rather than innate qualities''
(Heywood 1997:49).
fraternity The term fraternity or brotherhood refers to a common bond of

cooperation and comradeship amongst the members of society.
Socialists therefore prefer collectivism to individualism.
social equality and need Equality is a central value to many socialists and, in particular, to
socialists in welfare states where need is a basis for redistribution.
But it is incorrect to maintain that all socialists stress the idea of
egalitarianism. ``Socialists do not assert that humans are, or can be,
literally equal in physical or mental abilities ... they argue that
regardless of natural differences in race, sex, abilities or class, there
are valuable morally relevant qualities which should direct us to
treat individuals equally'' (Vincent 1992:102). However, social
equality in one form or other is often seen by socialists as a
prerequisite for social stability.
class Socialism is usually associated with class politics and, in particular,

linked to the underprivileged and working class as opposed to the
more affluent middle and upper classes. However, according to
socialists, it is possible to eliminate class divisions.
common ownership The interpretation of ownership in socialist thought has many

variations. ``Some see it as an end of socialism itself, and others see it
instead as simply a means of generating broader equality''
(Heywood 1997:50). Either way, the collective role in the economy
is important Ð although the way in which this is achieved may
vary considerably. Public ownership may be advocated by some,
while in other instances public control of privately owned
enterprises may be considered sufficient. Socialism could be seen
as being critical of capitalism.
role of state The role of the state also varies considerably in socialist thought.
Because the idea of community and the collective is stressed in
socialist thought, the state and its institutions usually function as
60
agents of the community. Therefore the state will be responsible for
the control of the interests of society and of the economy. It is
however important to remember that some socialists, such as the
communists, are opposed to the state.
COMMUNISM
Extreme form of Communism is the ideology on which the political systems of the
socialism former Soviet Union and communist states in Eastern Europe, Cuba
and the People's Republic of China, were based. Karl Marx is
regarded as the father of communism and that is why it is often also
referred to as Marxism.
Communism is usually regarded as the most extreme form of

socialism. To a large extent, Marxism deals with the historical
development of society. The communist society will be the final
phase of this development and is characterised by a classless society
in which wealth will be owned by all in common ownership. In this
final communist society, the state will simply wither away.
The following may be regarded as central principles in Marxism

(see Heywood 1997:50±52):
historical materialism According to Marxists, history can be explained in terms of

economic and class factors. History is, in fact, written by economic
``laws'' in which dialectical changes are important.
dialectical change Changes take place in a dialectical fashion. Dialectical changes

imply that change is the result of the interaction of competing forces
thesis or ideas (ie, interaction between the thesis and its antithesis), which
then merges into a higher stage of development (the synthesis). In
Marxism this process is the result of class antagonisms in which
alienation, surplus value and the class struggle are important.
alienation According to Marxists, workers become alienated from the product

of their labour, from their fellow human beings and in the end from
themselves. Therefore it becomes impossible for the worker to
realise himself.
class struggle and Central to Marxist thought is the idea that private property is a
surplus value fundamental contradiction in a capitalist society. The owners of the
means of production are in conflict with the workers, who have
only their labour to sell. The quest for profit, by the owner of the
means of production (capitalist) implies that the workers will be
underpaid for their labour in order to extract surplus value from the
labourers (usually referred to as the proletariat).
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proletarian revolution According to Marx's analysis, the class struggle will inevitably
and communism result in a proletarian revolution in which the proletariat will seize
the means of production. This will give rise to the ``dictatorship of
the proletariat''. However this proletarian state will in time wither
away and the transition to a stateless communist society will be
complete.
NATIONALISM
Nationalism is based on the premise that the nation (ie, a unit of
people usually seen in ethnic and cultural terms) should be self-
determining and preferably within its own state. Nationalism
therefore regards the nation as the basic unit for political
organisation and therefore each nation should have its own state.
NATIONALITARIANISM
Nationalitarianism is the reverse of nationalism. In nationalitarian-
ism, each state should have a nation. In the absence of a nation
within a particular state, a nation should be created or built.
FASCISM
Fascism, as well as its twin nazism, constitutes a reaction to the
values and ideas expressed by liberalism in particular. It is anti-
capitalism, anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, even anti-commun-
ism and fascists have no respect for traditional elites.
no individualism In fascism there is no room for the individual, for human beings are
first members of a particular nation. The individual is subject to a
national community that is regarded as an organic whole. ``Like
detached limbs, individuals have no life apart from the political
state organism they serve'' (Susser 1995:189). The state is usually the
symbol of this `òrganism'' or national community. Therefore the
state is important in fascism, `èverything for the state; nothing
superiority against the state; nothing outside the state'' (Gentile in Heywood
1997:57). According to fascist ideology, there is also a natural
ranking of the nations of the world in the sense that some are
superior to others.
In fascism, the interests of the nation are the responsibility of the
totalitarianism state, therefore totalitarianism is an important facet of fascism.
Liberal democracies and political parties do not serve the national
interest. ``Since the state is the only foundation of the individual's
62
rights and freedoms, it therefore `limits him and determines his
manner of existence' '' (Vincent 1992:163).
anti-communism Fascism is also anti-communism for it is opposed to labour

movements and trade unions that defend the interests of one class
only; `ìt sets one class against another while simultaneously
replacing loyalty to the state with broadly internationalist sympa-
thies'' (Susser 1995:190).
irrationality The history of fascism (eg, of Italy under Mussolini) and of nazism
(Germany under Hitler), in the twentieth century was to a large
extent characterized by irrationality, mobilization of the masses and
mass mobilisation violence. ``fascism is a radical mobilizing ideology. Its free-wheeling
style does not tolerate popular passivity or bureaucratic conserva-
tism'' (Susser 1995:183).
Thus in fascism the `ìdeal life'' can only be achieved when we

surrender our own selfish interests to the interests of the state. `Ìn
accepting the will of the collective as my own, I declare my freedom
from weak-willed self indulgence and egoism. What is more, I
achieve my highest moral goal: I am both totally free and totally
submerged in the collective'' (Susser 1995:190).
NAZISM
Nazism, often referred to as national socialism, is a variation of
fascism. Nazism has all the characteristics of fascism except that in
nazism the role of race and in particular the volk, is of primary
importance. Individual freedom is also subject to the interests of the
volk. Furthermore each volk should be politically independent.
Therefore the state is the product of the existence of the nation Ð in
fascism, the nation is determined by the state.
RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM
Religious fundamentalism is today an important manifestation of
values. In religious fundamentalist politics, all aspects of personal
and social life are regarded as subject to the truths that are revealed
in religious doctrine. Therefore, ``political and social life should be
organised on the basis of what are seen as essential or original
religious principles, commonly supported by a belief in the literal
truth of sacred texts'' (Heywood 1997:60). Islamic Christian and
Jewish fundamentalism are gaining ground in some societies. The
existence of these fundamentalistic world-views is one of the causes
of conflict.
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As an ideology, Islamic fundamentalism is important for it is the
source of the social, political and even economic order of the Islamic
secular: no official link
Republic of Iran, for example. Islamic fundamentalism provides a
between government
and religion critique on the secular (worldly) nature of human existence and
political organisation. It proposes as alternative the divine values as
set out in Islam that should serve as central values for the social,
political and economic organisation of people. Islamic fundament-
alism is opposed to the separation of the religious from the social,
political and economic aspects of human existence.
Even in secular Western states, religious values of Christianity, for

example, may enter the political arena in areas such as marriage
FEMINISM
Feminism entails more than just the promotion of women's rights. It
demands a drastic restructuring of the way society is organised and
rejects the dominant position held by men in society Ð including
the arts, culture and intellectual world. Due to this dominant
position of men, our understanding of the arts, culture and even
intellectual contributions by men are seriously flawed. It is
important to bear in mind that feminist thought has fragmented
into quite a number of schools of thought, such as liberal feminism,
Marxist-socialist feminism, radical feminism, postmodern femin-
ism, Black feminism and conservative (pro-family) feminism
(Vincent 1992:180±182).
ECOLOGISM
Ecologism, or environmentalism (often referred to as green thought),
originated fairly recently. The basic premise in ecologism is that
people form part of the ecosphere and by continuing to destroy the
ecosphere they and their descendants will ultimately pay the price.
Therefore drastic changes are needed in the value system and the
political and economic order of society. As in feminism, there are
many varieties of ecologism.
APARTHEID
Apartheid is the South African version of national socialism
(Nazism), in which race, nation and state were of more importance
than the freedom of the individual. The interests of the individual
were determined by the state. For this purpose political organisa-
tion had to take cognisance of the racial (also ethnic and cultural)
differences that exist among people. For it is only within our own
cultural group that the individual will be able to realise himself.
64
ANARCHISM
Anarchist (often referred to as philosophical anarchism) thought
originated in Europe and many of the founding thinkers of
philosophical anarchism were indeed Russians, who were influ-
enced by the oppressive rule of Czarist Russia.
The term anarchism means `'no or without rule''. Anarchists are

opposed to any form of government, for government destroys
personal freedom. Therefore they are opposed to the idea that laws,
government and state are in the interest of human beings. However,
the concept anarchism should not be confused with the term anarchy
when it is used to designate a situation of disorder and chaos in the
absence of political authority.
Anarchists believe in individuals' rationality and in their ability to

manage their affairs peacefully through voluntary agreements and
cooperation. This could either be achieved through the emphasis of
the individual or through communitarianism and social solidarity
in which common ownership is an important principle.
For anarchists, the ideal life can only be accomplished if human

beings take responsibility for the management of their own affairs,
either individually or collectively.
Anarchists, therefore, promote order and not disorder or law-

lessness. Order should, however, be attained by the rationality of
the individual.
AC TIVIT Y 4.2
You have now learnt what the most important principles of liberalism,
socialism and communism are. Study each of the problems listed be-
low and in each instance indicate what option would fit which ideology.
(1) You are the Minister of Health and there is a shortage of hospi-
tals in region X, but the Department does not have sufficient
funds to build a hospital. Company A indicates that it would like
to erect a private hospital in that region. Which of the following
would be your decision if you followed (i) liberalism, (ii) social-
ism (iii) communism?
. You decide that your department would request addi-
tional money from the Department of Finance to build
a hospital. Therefore you inform Company A that they
cannot build a hospital in that region.
. You welcome the initiative by Company A and indicate
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that they can go ahead with their plans and that there
will be little interference from your department.
. You welcome the initiative but set strict requirements
with which the company will have to comply.
(2) You are the Minister of Labour and the unemployment figure is
unacceptably high. Indicate which ideology each option repre-
sents.
. You hold a meeting with the private sector and several finan-
cial institutions with the aim of creating more jobs.
. Make welfare payments to the unemployed.
. Start a new state enterprise because the state should be the
employer.
4.7 HOW TO COMPARE IDEOLOGIES
In study unit 16 we provide a simplified explanation of comparison

as a method in politics. Work through study unit 16 before you
proceed to the self-assessment for this study unit.
To sum up:
Ideologies are important manifestations of values that are followed
by humans and, as such, influence and even determine their
expectations, attitudes and priorities.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 4.1
(1) Explain the concept of ideology in 100 words.
(2) Discuss the advantages of ideologies in 100 words.
(3) Discuss the disadvantages of ideologies in 100 words.
(4) What do you think the future of ideologies will be?
(5) Mention the most important ideologies and indicate what their
basic principles are in 300 words.
(6) Discuss liberalism in 300 words.
(7) Discuss socialism in 300 words.
(8) Discuss communism in 300 words.
(9) Which ideology do you prefer, if any? Give reasons for your choice.
(10) Explain how ideologies can affect our behaviour, in 300 words.
66
SELF-ASSESSMENT 4.2
(1) Compare Liberalism with Socialism
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Heywood, A. 1997, 2002 Politics. London: Macmillan.
Sartori, G. 1962. Democratic theory. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
Susser, B. 1995. Political ideology in the modern world. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Vincent, A. 1992. Modern political ideologies. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Grove, Ca: Brooks/Cole.
PLC201-U/1 67
STUDY
UNIT 5
BEHAVIOUR: POLITICAL
SOCIALIZATION
INTRODUCTION
In the previous two study units we discussed the importance of values in politics. We
could, however, ask the question, ``How do we acquire our political values?'' The answer
to this question is through the process of political socialization.
In this study unit we are going to answer the question, ``How does political socialization
affect our political behaviour?'' To answer this question you need to answer the following
focus questions.
FOCUS
What does the concept of political socialization entail?
QUESTIONS
Who are the agents of political socialization?
What factors may influence the process of political socialization?
What is the effect of political socialization on political

behaviour?
68
5.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL
SOCIALIZATION ENTAIL?
process is a series of Broadly speaking, political socialization is the process whereby
succesive actions
people are incorporated into a political culture
a political culture is perpetuated or reproduced from one
generation to another
we acquire our political orientations, values and attitudes
and in this process internalise (make our own) certain
societal values.
A political norm is a Political socialization implies the development of political culture,

criterion for determining in other words the development of political group norms, values
or evaluating political
customs and stereotypes. At the same time it is the process whereby
action
individuals become acquainted with and incorporated into a
Customs are
established ways of political system and whereby individuals' perception and knowl-
doing things edge of politics as well as their attitude and reaction to political
A political attitude is a phenomena are determined. In short, political socialization is the
set of either positive or learning process through which members of a political system
negative views on a acquire certain political orientations and patterns of political behaviour
political phenomenon
(Ranney 1996:55).
5.2 WHO ARE THE AGENTS OF POLITICAL

SOCIALIZATION?
Political socialization does not take place in a vacuum. Many and
varied phenomena act as agents of political socialization. The
elements and institutions in the environment that shape the
attitudes and values of the individuals and groups are known as
agents of socialization. It is important to bear in mind that as Sullivan,
Rahn and Rudolph state (in Kuklinksi 2002:33) ``the development of
political thought and behaviour is an integral part of human
development ... Political behaviour and thought are, quite simply,
part and parcel of all human behaviour and thought''.
AC TIVIT Y 5.1
Write down your answers to the following questions. Remember, there

is no right or wrong answer, for the answers will reflect your own experi-
ence.
PLC201-U/1 69
(1) Which political party do you support?
(2) Which other political parties do you have knowledge of?
(3) How did you become acquainted with these particular political
parties?
(4) Did any of your family members and friends influence your atti-
tude towards these political parties?
(5) Where do you get most of your information about these politi-
cal parties from?
You may also ask these questions to some of your friends and family
members. Try do determine where most people get their information
on political parties from. Try to determine which political party is the
best known among your friends and family members.
forming, reinforcing and From your own answers and those obtained from your friends, it
changing political values should be clear that we were not born with knowledge of political
and attitudes
parties and other things political; ``people's political orientations
and behaviour patterns are learned not fixed at birth'' (Ranney
1996:58). We have obtained and are still obtaining the information
that shape our values and attitudes from somewhere or someone. New
information interacts with existing information, thereby affecting
our values and attitudes by either forming new ones, or reinforcing
and even changing existing ones. This is basically what the process
of political socialization entails.
Three principal ways in which political socialization takes place

may be distinguished: imitation, instruction and motivation. In the
imitation case of imitation as a way of political socialization, individuals
imitate the behaviour, including the values and attitudes of a
instruction person or group of people who are important to them. Instruction
in this context is not limited to formal teaching. Individuals may
find themselves in an instructive group discussion. Both imitation
motivation and instruction represent specific types of experience, but motiva-
tion or incentives are even more strongly associated with
instruction. Through a process of trial and error people discover
what behaviour corresponds most closely with their own attitudes
and opinions. Not all the effects of specific `èxposures'' are always
obvious, since any number of factors may influence their impact on
the individual.
The following agents are of particular importance in political

socialization.
groups in general
70
the family
school
peer or age groups
diverse groups
mass media
agents compete with In studying the role of these agents, it is important to note that it is
and complement one impossible to draw clear dividing lines between the different
another
agents. Reasons for this are not only that such demarcations would
compete: possible be artificial, but that in people's everyday life they are exposed to
change in attitudes any number of agents whose respective influences are mutually
complement: possible
interactive. Some of these agents may compete with one another or
reinforcement of they may complement one another in their effect on individuals.
attitudes
GROUPS IN GENERAL
The fact that people are social animals in a group context is another
major factor in their political socialization, and groups can therefore
act as major agents of political socialization. Since political
socialization is a social phenomenon, social groups play a major
role in shaping it.
Groups to which people already belong, as well as those they
intend joining, all play a role in their political socialization. Groups
can be classified in a number of ways, for instance into primary and
secondary groups. In primary groups there is constant interaction or
contact, for example in the family and with classmates. Secondary
primary groups groups are those of which a person is a member (often by chance)
secondary groups but which exert less influence, for example recreational groups and
school-going children in South Africa.
The importance of groups in political socialization lies in the fact

that individuals usually wish to be accepted by others, and thus
wish to be regarded as normal and acceptable rather than abnormal
and unacceptable. If membership of a particular group is important
to individuals, they will fear rejection by the group if they were to
express an opinion which deviated from that of the group. Thus
political socialization is largely a political training ground in which
groups as well as other agents play an important role.
FAMILY
Individuals' first introduction to the political structures, values,
expectations and norms of the society in which they find themselves
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usually takes place in the family. In addition, the family influences
their exposure to other agents, for instance the school or church that
they attend. Individuals are likely to imitate the political values of
the family to a large extent, and at the same time be introduced to
what is considered to be politically correct or incorrect.
It is through the family that children first become acquainted with

their environment. In the first years of life children are strongly
influenced by the family, particularly since they often imitate the
behaviour and attitudes of parents and siblings. People's basic
attitudes, values and stereotypes are acquired in the home. Thus the
family plays a significant role in the acquisition of political
attitudes.
The role of the family is not limited to the acquisition of certain

political attitudes. Even non-political attitudes and values may at a
family determine later stage affect political attitudes and values. Parents also play a
membership of groups role in children's initial membership of other groups. Children are,
for example, forbidden to mix with certain groups or individuals
and encouraged to join others. In this way the family actually
exercises control over the influences to which children are exposed.
Parents decide, for example, what church children will attend and
often also which school or university. In addition, the family is
membership inherited automatically a member of other groups of which the children then
`ìnherit'' membership. The household is not only a member of an
extended family, for example, but also a member of a specific ethnic
group or groups.
Besides being responsible for children's critical political ideas, the

family also ensures that these are reinforced by controlling group
membership.
However, family influence on children is of uncertain duration and

dependent on a number of factors. As the child grows up the family
increasingly begins to compete in influence with other groups of
which the child becomes a member, but other groups may
complement the role of the family.
SCHOOLS AND OTHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

The school is one of the most important groups in the young child's
life and the teacher's ideas are often regarded as right, no matter
how wrong they may be.
The school clearly plays a significant role in a child's political
72
socialization, but opinions differ as to exactly what that role is. The
role of the school is twofold:
It provides the child with information about politics and the

political system concerned.
It provides the instruments, such as the ability to read, with
which people can obtain information independently.
It is possible for a school to enhance its role in political socialization

by presenting facts about a political system selectively and through
propaganda and indoctrination. Yet at the same time, remember
that it also provides the instruments which children can use to
escape from biased instruction. In South Africa, as in other
countries, most schools are public schools and the syllabuses even
of private schools are usually controlled by the relevant department
of education. A government naturally makes sure that pupils
receive only ``positive'' instruction through the omission of facts
that present the state or government in a poor light. However, it is
important to note that public schools usually perform a service to
the community and are not necessarily controlled by the govern-
ment with the deliberate aim of political indoctrination.
separate educational In the past in South Africa official policy exerted an additional
amenities influence in that it prescribed separate educational amenities for the
different language and colour groups. The effect of this was that the
school largely reinforced what the child was taught at home,
because in such a system there is a greater likelihood of affinity
between the school and the family.
There is some doubt and difference of opinion about the effect of the
school's influence when family influence is strong but at variance
with that of the school. This casts doubt on the value of the school
as an instrument of reeducation. ``The key point about socialization
is that it is largely an uncontrolled and uncontrollable process''
(Hague et al 1998:64).
PEER OR AGE GROUPS

Peer groups are groups of people, such as schoolmates, who are
approximately the same age and share the same status, problems
and interests (ie, they have certain characteristics in common)
(Ranney 1996:60). Peer groups may also reinforce the values and
attitudes of the home and other instruments of political socializa-
tion. School friends, friends at work, other members of clubs and so
forth to which the individual belongs may all help to reinforce or
PLC201-U/1 73
alter (modify or change) existing attitudes or cultivate new ones.
The question does arise, however, whether individuals will allow
themselves to be influenced by these groups, or whether they will
associate with them in the first place if the convictions of these
groups differ substantially from their own. Be that as it may, peer
groups exhibit a high degree of homogeneity in their opinions.
DIVERSE GROUPS
Although the groups we have already mentioned are probably the
most influential in political socialization, there are various others
that may exert an influence, for example religious groups, political
parties, occupational groups (eg physicians), neighbours, income
groups and social classes.
Besides the formative role of groups in political socialization

discussed above, groups may also evoke behavioural peculiarities
in individuals. When many people are exposed to the same coercive
influence, forms of behaviour that deviate from that of the
individual in an isolated, less social milieu tend to appear. This
influence that the mass exerts on the individual sometimes gives
rise to mass hysteria and even mass mania. This is exactly why
political agitation is often effective.
MASS MEDIA
The mass media, including newspapers, radio and television,
certainly play a significant role in political socialization. Although
political communication is discussed fully in the next study unit, a
few facts should be mentioned here.
The mass media provide valuable information on a political system.

They can also propagate values and orientations that interact with
those of the individual. The effect of the mass media depends on a
number of factors.
Many newspapers adhere to a party line and the question arises

whether people in general will even read a newspaper that does not
reflect their own views. In South Africa English-language news-
papers often support parties which are largely comprised of English
speakers and Afrikaans newspapers often support the political
parties supported by Afrikaans speakers.
In democratic political systems, the role of radio and television is

probably less partisan than that of newspapers, although this
depends on the extent and type of government control over these
74
media. It is often alleged that the fact that radio and television
services in most countries are government-controlled encourages
rather than restrains bias in these media.
It should be clear from the preceding discussion that there are many
different agents and instruments of political socialization, although
it is not always clear what effect each individual agent has.
Similarly, it is not always clear in what way the elements of
socialization are transmitted by the agents of socialization.
5.3 WHAT FACTORS MAY AFFECT THE PROCESS OF

POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION?
The extent of the influence of the various agents of political

socialization depends on a number of factors. In our discussion of
these agents it was mentioned that these factors, in turn, may
sometimes be influenced by other factors. Be sure, therefore, to
study these two sections of the discussion together.
THE INDIVIDUAL
The effect on individuals is based on the fact that they are both a
biological and a psychological being with inherent as well as acquired
characteristics. Variations in personal characteristics, such as intelli-
gence and the ability to interpret the world for themselves, mean that
socialization does not affect individuals in the same way. Existing
values may also affect the way we interpret new information.
PHASES IN THE LIFE CYCLE

This factor is closely related to the previous one. There are times
when certain agents exert more influence than others. As a result
certain phases in the human life cycle can be identified. The
discernible phases are as follows:
childhood, which in turn is divided into preschool and

school-going phases
adolescence
maturity
old age
Examples of the influence of these stages on the effect of agents

include the key influence of the family during childhood, or
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psychological maladjustment during adolescence which often finds
expression in political ideas. Thus the influence of the stages in the
life cycle is associated with the psychological and physical
development of the individual. Political awareness increases as
the child grows up, while the elderly are often less interested in
politics than younger adults.
THE RELEVANT POLITICAL SYSTEM

The influence of each of the agents of political socialization will
vary greatly from one political system to another. In some political

systems, the role of the school and the mass media is emphasized at
the expense of the role of the family. This is the case in totalitarian
states. In South Africa the development of a common political
culture is still hampered by the compartmentalization of population
groups. The various population groups are still inclined to socialize
mainly with members of their own group. This also makes of the
country a fertile breeding ground for stereotypes. The result is not
stereotypes only that stereotypes develop easily, but also that the various
groups are less susceptible to the influence of socializing agents
from other groups. Thus Afrikaans-speaking whites who are
particularly attached to their heritage will, for example, probably
respond either adversely or not at all to the views of English-
language newspapers. Group solidarity, which may often be
particularly intense among minority groups in a political system,
therefore also influences political socialization.
DIVERSE FACTORS
These include an individual's educational level; family circum-
stances, such as a broken home, or one where both parents work;
economic and social circumstances; physical environment such as
climate and natural resources; and the acceptability of circum-
stances in the political system (particularly consider the South
African situation).
existing attitudes Existing attitudes count, too. People who have already taken up an
inflexible attitude towards an issue will not easily be swayed by
attitudes that differ from their own. The precise roles of the various
agents of political socialization are not always clear. We know what
is learnt in the process, but we are not always sure how and from
whom what has been learnt. These factors influence not only
political socialization, but also the role of political socialization in
the political system.
76
5.4 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
ON POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?
From a political point of view, political socialization is important in
that it determines the degree and the nature of an individual's
involvement and participation in politics. Since political socializa-
tion essentially encompasses the formation of social and political
norms, it is:
a major factor in the development of political culture as

reflected in group customs and characteristic or expected
patterns of behaviour
important because it allows for integration of newcomers
into the political process
Through political socialization these individuals, and future

leaders, develop certain political preferences, aversions and
expectations. It is therefore the process through which individuals
acquire values and norms that may affect group formation.
It may be inferred from what we have said that there is, in fact, a
connection between political socialization, political culture and
public opinion. Opinions are not innate, but learned. Political
culture is not static, but always in flux. Consequently, it is
important for the authorities to keep abreast of this. Where those
in power and institutions of authority enjoy the approval of the
citizens, government efforts at politically socializing its citizens (eg,
schools) are reinforced by the family and the various peer groups.
While the effectiveness of political reeducation by the authorities is
debatable, the government is in a position to manipulate the process
of political socialization. Those in authority should therefore be
aware of political attitudes in the community and also of the factors
and agents that influence political socialization. By utilizing specific
agents of socialization and eliminating other factors, a government
can probably succeed in politically socializing the masses. Whether
political education by governments (and other institutions) should
be approved or condemned depends ultimately on the observer's
own interests, values and ideology.
Diagram 5.1 provides a schematic presentation of the process of

political socialization.
PLC201-U/1 77
DIAGRAM 5.1
The process of political socialization
~ ~ Experience
Agents Mechanism Stages Nature of ~

Perceptual
influence
Direct imitation childhood acquiring knowledge
new values ~
family
education adolescence modifying
existing
peer groups values
and related
groups
mass media . instruction
. . reinforce-
ment of .
.
~
existing
values values Behaviour
Indirect motivation adulthood ~
~
interest ~
groups
political attitudes
parties screening
~ ~
Personality
Source: Adapted from Rush (1992:97)
To sum up:
Political socialization is a vital process that determines the
fundamental principles that will shape our values, attitudes and
political behaviour and participation.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 5.1
(1) Write down all the concepts that were discussed in this study
unit. Explain each concept in one sentence.
(2) Write down all the headings used in this study unit. Indicate in one
sentence the essence of the discussion under each heading.
(3) Discuss the role of the various agents of political socialization in
250 words.
(4) Discuss the factors that will affect the role of the agents of
political socialization in 250 words.
78
(5) Explain in 250 words how political socialization will affect our
political behaviour.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 5.2
(1) Look in the table of contents and the index at the back of the book
for the sections in which the process of political socialization is
discussed. Study each of these sections.
(2) How do the authors define the concept of political socialization?
Does their definition differ from the one in this study unit?
(3) What, according to the authors, does political socialization
comprise?
(4) How do the authors define the concept of agent of political
socialization?
(5) What agents of political socialization do the authors discuss? Do
they differ from the agents discussed in this study unit?
(6) How would you rate Jackson and Jackson's discussion on political
socialization? Give reasons for your rating.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 5.3
This self-assessment exercise is based on Ranney (1996). Governing: an
(2) How does the author define the concept of political socialization?
Does his definition differ from the one in this study unit?
(3) How, according to the author, does political socialization change
during a person's life cycle?
(4) What agents of political socialization does the author discuss?
How do they differ from those discussed in this study unit?
(5) How would you rate Ranney's discussion on political socialization?
PLC201-U/1 79
SELF-ASSESSMENT 5.4
This self-assessment exercise is based on Hague et al (1998) and Hague
and Harrop (2001). Comparative government and politics: an introduction.
(2) How do the authors define the concept of political socialization?
Does their definition differ from the one in this study unit?
(3) How, according to the authors, does political socialization change
during a person's life?
(4) What agents of political socialization do the authors discuss?
How does this differ from the discussion in this study unit?
(5) How would you rate Hague et al's discussion on political
socialization?
SELF-ASSESSMENT 5.5
This self-assessment is based on Heywood (1997 and 2002). Politics.
(2) How does the author define the concept of political socialization?
Does his definition differ from the one in this study unit?
(3) How, according to the author, does political socialization change
during the life cycle of a person?
(4) What agents of political socialization does the author discuss?
How do they differ from the ones in this study unit?
(5) How would you rate Heywood's discussion on political socializa-
tion?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gamble, JK (Jr); Irwin, ZT, Redenius, CM & Weber, JW. 1992. Introduction to
Hague R, Harrop, M & Breslin, S. 1998. Comparative government and politics: an
80
introduction. 5th edition. Houndmill: Palgrave.
University Press.
Lawson, K. 1989. The Human Polity: an introduction to political science. Second
edition. Mifflin, Boston: Houghton.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Rush, M. 1992. Politics and society: an introduction to political sociology. Hertford-
shire: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Grove, CA: Brooks Cole.
PLC201-U/1 81
STUDY
UNIT 6
BEHAVIOUR: POLITICAL
COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
Without communication, politics would simply not be possible. Political communication is

an inseparable part of politics. In this section, we are only going to pay attention to a
particular aspect of political communication. Mention has already been made in the
previous study unit of the importance of the media and communication in the process of
political socialization. In this study unit we are going to answer the question, ``How does
political communication affect our political behaviour?'' To answer this question you need
to answer the following focus questions.
FOCUS What does the concept of political communication entail?

QUESTIONS What are the elements of political communication?
What are the media of political communication?
What factors may influence the process of political communica-
tion?
What is the effect of political communication on political
behaviour and participation?
82
6.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL
COMMUNICATION ENTAIL?
Political communication is a specific form of communication and

therefore displays the same characteristics as general communica-
tion. It differs from general communication in the sense that it
entails the transfer of politically relevant information from one part of
the political system to another and between the political system and
the other systems in the particular state (see Rush 1992). Politically
relevant information includes any fact that has to do with politics,
political ideas, values, attitudes and opinions. Political communica-
tion may be in the form of the spoken and written word, but may
also include gestures, body language and even violence.
Political communication takes place both vertically and horizontally.
vertical communication Vertical communication entails communication between the author-
ities and the population. Note that communication is a two-way
two-way process process. Therefore vertical communication includes both communica-
tion from the authorities to the masses and from the masses to the
authorities. For example, a speech by a president opening parliament;
an instruction by a minister that everybody should obtain new identity
documents; a petition from the electorate to the cabinet requesting the
reinstatement of the death penalty.
Political communication is horizontal when it takes place between
horizontal individuals at the same level. Horizontal communication may
communication
include communication relating to politics between you and your
neighbour, as well as communication between individuals in
positions of authority.
A number of elements may be distinguished in the process of

political communication, namely the sender who sends a message
by means of a particular medium to a receiver who, in turn,
responds to the message.
6.2 WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL

COMMUNICATION?
The elements of communication are as follows: the sender or source

of the message; the message itself; the channel or medium whereby
it is transmitted; the recipient of the message; and the recipient's
response to or feedback on the message. An example of the
elements of political communication is a statement about govern-
ment (message) made by a minister (sender) on radio and television
PLC201-U/1 83
(medium). In such a case the recipients are the listeners and viewers
at that particular time and the feedback is their response to the
statement (see Ranney 1996:134±136).
Diagram 6.1 provides a schematic presentation of the elements of

political communication.
DIAGRAM 6.1
The elements of communication
Message
medium
~
Sender Recipient
A B
~
Feedback
medium
SENDER OR COMMUNICATOR
The sender (communicator) is the actor initiating the message. The
political communicator may be any individual, group or institution
endeavouring either to influence public policy or public opinion, or
merely to convey a message with a political content. The
communicator can, for example, be a prime minister, a government
department, an interest group, a political party or an ordinary
individual like you and your neighbour.
MESSAGE
The communicator sends, conveys or transmits a message Ð
otherwise there is no communication. This is usually in the form
of sound (speech), letters, gestures and pictures. A distinction is
usually drawn between two types of messages: propaganda and
propaganda
information. Propaganda describes messages containing distorted
facts and representations of situations aimed at inciting people in
information favour of or against certain issues. Information is often used to refer
to unbiased presentation of ``the true facts''. It is unlikely, though,
that any presentation of information can ever be totally unbiased Ð
even if not deliberately distorted.
84
CHANNEL OR MEDIUM OF TRANSMISSION
The message is conveyed from the sender to the recipient through a
communication channel or medium. The medium could be a
newspaper, radio or a messenger.
RECIPIENT OR RECEIVER
The recipients or receivers are those who receive the message and
will respond to it. Not all members of the political community will
necessarily receive a specific message. The effectiveness of the
message will depend largely on whether it has been received by the
people it was intended for, that is, whether the recipient was in fact
the designated target.
RESPONSE OR FEEDBACK
Feedback is the response to a message Ð in other words, the effect
or influence of the message on the recipients. The effect is normally
reflected in attitudes and actions resulting from the message.
Ranney (1996:135±136) specifies four kinds of responses from the
receivers that a communicator can hope for:
Initiation. The receiver has never really been aware of the

issue and starts to think about the issue and to develop views
on the issue.
Conversion. The receivers are persuaded to change their
existing ideas on a particular issue.
Reinforcement. Existing ideas are now stronger than they
were before the recipients received the message.
Activation. The recipients now become motivated to do
something about the particular issue. They may contribute
money or they may participate in a demonstration.
6.3 WHAT ARE THE MEDIA OF POLITICAL

COMMUNICATION?
There are various media that a communicator can use in order to send
a particular message to the recipient/s. These media may often be
classified in a number of ways, depending on the criteria used in such
a classification. When we use the format of the communication, the
following media may be distinguished: personal media and media
that is dependent on technology (see Ranney 1996:136±13).
PLC201-U/1 85
Personal media. These include media that imply direct
personal contact. Examples are the spoken word, body
language and gestures. That is a person is used to send the
message (think of, eg, a messenger or a number of people
demonstrating).
Mass media. These media rely on technology to take the
message to large numbers of recipients with whom the
media have no direct contact. Examples are:
Ð The written media. These include both the written
and the printed word, as well as any visual portrayals
such as pictures and photographs. Newspapers are of
particular importance in this regard. Political parties
that have access to and the sympathy of newspapers
with a large readership (circulation figures) normally
do better than those who do not have access to
newspapers. Cartoons are an often neglected medium
of written political communication in which very
subtle political messages are conveyed.
Ð Mechanical media. These include electronic apparatus
such as the telephone, radio, television, videos, films,
computers and the Internet. Computer technology has
become a very important medium of communication
and will increasingly have an effect on the way we
think about politics and political issues.*-
The choice of media will depend on:
The nature of the message. If the content is confidential, a

sender is definitely not going to broadcast it over television.
The intended recipients. If the President wants his message
to reach the whole of the population, he will probably make
use of radio instead of placing a notice in a newspaper with
only a small number of readers.
The type of recipient. Deaf people will not be able to listen to
the radio.
Geography and available technology.
The cost involved. Making use of radio and television could
be extremely costly.
86
6.4 WHAT FACTORS MAY INFLUENCE THE PROCESS OF
POLITICAL COMMUNICATION?
A number of factors will determine the success of a message and

several factors will influence the receiver's response to the message.
The sender. There are various aspects of the sender that will
influence the success of the message, such as the status of the
sender, the content of the message, the way in which the sender
conveys the message and the medium that the sender uses.
The recipient. Recipients will interpret the message in terms of
their existing frames of reference. Other factors relating to
the receiver that may influence the success of the message
include the intelligence, and perhaps physical handicaps
such as blindness. A message may either overestimate or
underestimate the ability of the receiver.
The physical environment. The physical environment is
another factor that will determine the success of a message.
Remote areas are often hard to reach. Electronic media, such
as television, have nevertheless brought about greater access
in this respect.
Political system. The nature of the political system is another
important factor. It may be impossible, for example, for one
part of the political system to communicate with another part.
Censorship and other government control measures may, for
instance, place restrictions on political communication.
Socio-economic factors. Factors like poverty and illiteracy may
affect the success of political communication. Where it is
difficult for written media, in particular, to reach the masses,
for instance in a society with a high rate of illiteracy, political
communication often takes place by means of the two-step
flow of communication, where the message first reaches
certain opinion leaders and is then relayed to the masses by
the opinion leaders.
Contemporary trends such as the following are important in
the media: commercialisation (communication is business),
fragmentation (people have choices in what they want to
listen to or read) and globalisation (we are kept up-to-date
with world events) (see Hague & 38; Harrow 2001:98±99).
PLC201-U/1 87
6.5 WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF POLITICAL
COMMUNICATION ON POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?
Political communication is an important process in politics that not
only affects our political behaviour but, in fact, that makes politics
possible.
Diagram 6.2 provides a schematic presentation of the process of

political communication.
88
DIAGRAM 6.2
The process of political communication
Sender's receiver's
self-image self-image
spontaneous feedback by receiver
Sender's selection of
personality media content
selection and
"
Sender's team structuring of receiver's
"
content effect of experi- personality
" encing content
Sender's communicator message medium " receiver
"
social (sender)
" " pressure of
environment Pressure of medium
"
message
"
Sender in
his or her
organisation receiver's receiver as
impression of member of an
Pressure of medium audience
medium
Pressure and
the communicator's impression of receiver
restrictions via receiver via the
the public public character
character of the receiver's impression of sender
media content
Source: Adapted from Rush (1992:164)
PLC201-U/1
89
Communication is, in fact, the cement that binds society together. It
has even been said that society cannot exist without communica-
tion. If society cannot exist without communication then we could
also say, no communication, no politics, for people are always
politically organized.
AC TIVIT Y 6.1
Read the following scenario and then follow the instructions.

You are a visitor to Big-Tree Island.While you are walking down the
street you notice a poster on which is written,``President Carat to
visit Big-Tree Island''. You have never heard of President Carat.
Wondering who he may be, you walk past a newspaper stall and
you notice that the headlines also make reference to President
Carat. You decide to buy a newspaper in order to get more infor-
mation on President Carat, but before you can have a look at the
newspaper, you bump into a very excited radio reporter, who tells
you that your voice is now being broadcast.The reporter asks you
how you feel about the coming visit of President Carat. Not
wishing to make a fool of yourself (for you know too little), you de-
cide to say that you don't know for you are not a citizen. At your
hotel, you begin to study the newspaper reports. You realize that
President Carat is the head of state of Golden Island, a rich state
in the region.The newspaper reports all elaborate on the econom-
ic advantages of closer ties with Golden Island. Just as you begin
to think that President Carat's visit is a good thing, another hotel
resident walks through the door and asks whether you have
watched television. You say no, and he then tells you that the
chiefs have marched to President Fig Tree's residence to protest
against President Carat's visit. Apparently the chiefs are worried
that this could be another attempt by Golden Island to try and get
control over Big-Tree Island.
(1) Two important messages are mentioned in the above scenario.
Determine what the content of each message is and write that
down.
(2) Who are the senders of these messages, what medium do they
use and who are the intended receivers?
(3) There are also a number of less important messages. Identify
them.
(4) What media of communication are being used to convey the
messages.
(5) Why did you initially have no opinion on President Carat's visit?
(6) Why did you buy a newspaper?
(7) Why were you easily influenced by the newspaper reports?
(8) Why do you think did the chiefs react differently?
90
(9) The transmission of information on President Carat's visit has
led to a number of political activities. Name them.
The above scenario provides an indication of how political

communication could affect our actions. The two important
messages are: President Carat's visit and the reaction of the chiefs.
Less important messages are conveyed between you and the radio
reporter and you and the hotel resident. The media used are:
posters, newspapers, radio, television and personal media. Initially
you had no knowledge and no pre-existing frame of reference
(except that contact between states could be economically advanta-
geous) to form an opinion. That is also why you bought a
newspaper and were so easily influenced by what was written in
the newspaper. However, the chiefs' frame of reference differed
substantially from yours. Political activities that resulted from the
information are: your actions to try and find out about President
Carat; the radio reporter's attempts to find out how the population
felt about the visit; your fellow hotel guest's discussion with you
and the chiefs' march.
Political communication is of major importance in all forms of

political behaviour. In fact, we could say that any form of political
behaviour is a particular manifestation of political communication.
The following are particularly important in this regard.
The process of political socialization, for instance, takes place

by means of political communication, which introduces
individuals to the political life in the society in which they
find themselves.
Political communication puts individuals in touch with the
prevailing political expectations, values and norms of their
society, as well as with facts and information, and the
attitudes and opinions of others, upon which they may base
their own political opinions. It is important to note that even
ordinary communication provides facts on which political
opinions may be based.
It is through the process of political communication that all
political behaviour takes place. No political communication,
no political behaviour.
The following are among the models mentioned by Hey-
wood (1997:188) that are used to explain the impact of the
mass media:
PLC201-U/1 91
Ð Pluralist model. The media promote democracy by
providing a forum for all political views and checking
government.
Ð Market model. The media merely reflect the views of its
users or audience.
Ð Elite values model. The values articulated are those of
the elite (senior or dominant persons) of the groups in
question.
Ð Dominant ideology model. The ideas propagated ensure
capitalist hegemony (dominance) and promote the
interests of major companies and the owners of the
media.
In liberal democracies, the media are increasingly becoming

important in shaping the voters' election preferences. This is
largely due to the fact that party identification is weaker and
less fixed than it was in the past. See also Bennett and
Entman 2001, part 1
In totalitarian states, the media are often used to try and
educate people in an attempt to make the population
obedient. The media are therefore often used to construct
and propagate a particular political culture. This is often the
reason why censorship is important in totalitarian states.
Therefore press freedom is often a luxury of liberal
democratic states, only.
TO SUM UP:
No communication, no politics Ð it is as simple as that. The real
effect of political communication in determining our thinking and
actions is, however, more complex.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.1
(1) Write down all the key concepts that were discussed in this study
unit and explain each concept in one sentence.
(2) Summarize the essence of the discussion under each main heading
in one sentence.
(3) Explain the elements of political communication in 100 words.
92
(4) Explain the different media that can be used in political
communication in 100 words.
(5) Explain what factors could affect the success of political
communication in 100 words.
(6) Evaluate the discussion in this study unit by writing down the
sections that you felt were easy to understand; difficult to
understand; and whether the explanations of all concepts were
clear.
(7) We are often bombarded by the media and some political
communicators with news on one particular issue. Do you
sometimes feel irritated when you open a newspaper and have to
read about issue X again and when you switch on the television you
again have to listen to news on the same topic? Could you mention
a few such issues that have indeed received too much media
coverage in your opinion?
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.2
This self-assessment exercise is based on Ranney (1996). Governing: an
(1) Using the index at the back of the book and the table of contents,
search for the section in which mass communications and the
mass media are discussed.
(2) What mass media does Ranney discuss?
(3) Summarize the essence of the role of each medium of mass
communication that the author discusses in 50 words.
(4) Discuss the factors that, according to Ranney, will affect the role
or impact of the mass media on politics and political behaviour in
200 words.
(5) Evaluate Ranney's discussion, by indicating whether in your opinion
it was easy to follow. Indicate which section was the easiest and
which was rather difficult.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 6.3
This self-assessment exercise is based on Hague et al (1998).
Comparative government and politics: an introduction.
(1) Using the index at the back of the book and the table of contents,
search for the section in which mass communications and the
mass media are discussed.
(2) What, according to the authors, is the media's impact on how
people vote in elections? How has this role changed over time?
PLC201-U/1 93
(3) Summarize what, according to the authors, is the role of the
media in liberal democracies in 50 words.
media in communist states in 50 words.
media in post-communist states in 50 words.
media in developing countries in 50 words.
(7) Make a point summary of the chapter dealing with political
communication in Comparative government and politics: an
introduction (Hague & Harrop 2001) by Hague, R and Harrop
M. Study the study unit 18 at the back of this study guide for
more information on point summaries
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Danziger, JN. 1994. Understanding the political world: a comparative introduction to
political science. Second edition. New York: Longman
Lawson, K. 1989. The human polity: an introduction to Political Science. Third
94
T H E M E 3
ACTORS IN POLITICS
OVERVIEW
We have frequently mentioned the concepts ``political behaviour'' and ``participation''. The
question is thus, the behaviour of whom or what? In this theme we are looking for an
answer to the question ``Who are responsible for the political activities that take place in
society?'' To answer this question you will need to explain
the role and importance of the individual in politics
the role and importance of political leaders
how we organize for politics (groups in politics)
the role and importance of interest groups
the role and importance of political parties
the role of elites in politics
the role of political institutions in politics
of these terms in the text. Likewise, search through the index at the back of the
recommended and additional books and read the relevant sections in which these terms
appear.
Access Apathy Apolitical
Appointment Ascription Associational interest group
Authoritarian leadership Biopolitics Boycotts
Cadre parties Catch-all parties Categoric groups
Centrist Charismatic leadership Class
PLC201-U/1 95
Cohesion Constitutional parties Democratic leadership
Demonstrations Election Electioneering
Elite Elite theory Ethnic group
Factions Gate-keeping Humans as self-determining
beings
Humans as social beings Institutional interest group Interest aggregation
Interest articulation Interest group Internationalization
Kinship Left-right Leftist
Litigation Lobbying Mass parties
Mobilization Movements Nation
Nomination Non-associational groups Non-governmental organiza-
tion (NGO)
Non-violent civil Parties of integration Parties of representation
disobedience
Petitions Policy -making Political leaders
Political party Political passivity Pressure group
Primordial instinct Promotional groups Protective groups
Race Representation Revolutionary parties
Rightist Satyagraha Self-appointment
Single-issue parties Status Strikes
Succession Territorial nationalism
STUDY
UNIT 7
POLITICAL ACTORS:
THE INDIVIDUAL
INTRODUCTION
The individual is, for the purposes of this study module, regarded as the basic unit of
political action. Individuals seldom act alone. They create and maintain groups and
institutions that form the basic infrastructure for actions and interactions. In our discussion
of the environment in which political behaviour takes place, it should also be clear that
there are certain actors involved in politics. In this study unit we are going to answer the
question, ``What is the role of the individual in politics?'' To answer this question it is
important to answer the following focus questions.
FOCUS Why is the individual a political actor?

QUESTIONS What views on human nature exist?
7.1 WHY IS THE INDIVIDUAL A POLITICAL ACTOR?
The individual is probably the most important direct political actor,

as all groups and even the state are collections of individuals. All
positions, in the state and in political institutions, such as the
positions of head of state, head of government, representatives and
PLC201-U/1 97
party leaders as well as offices in the bureaucracy, are held by
individuals. The individual leaves his or her distinctive mark on
these roles. This does not imply that the individual always acts
individually in politics, but that the individual is the basic unit of
political action and activity.
The importance of the individual as a political actor does not imply

that all individuals necessarily have to be politically active, nor that
those who are politically active have to be politically active every
moment of their lives.
political passivity Political passivity as well as passive acceptance of government

decisions represent a particular manifestation of political behaviour.
apolitical Even the behaviour of the apolitical individual (who takes no
interest in politics) is politically significant. Each passive individual
has the potential to become politically activated. In fact, many
authoritarian regimes would probably welcome passivity.
Neither is the importance of the individual as political actor limited

to informed individuals. The uninformed yet politically active
individual can often be a highly problematic actor in politics. What
is important to us is the individual's underlying characteristics that
may influence his or her role in politics. This raises the issue of
human nature human nature. Most theories on politics are based on some view of
human nature. Unfortunately, these assumptions relating to human
beings are often not clearly stated, with no attempts to verify them
empirically. Cases where human nature has been examined have
led to differing opinions.
7.2 WHAT VIEWS ON HUMAN NATURE EXIST?
In the past, the individual in political context was studied mainly in

political sociology. Biopolitics and political psychology have now
become increasingly important, and human nature has even
become a focus of philosophy. The following are the most
important views on human nature:
people as biological beings

people as self-determining beings
people as social beings
philosophical views on human nature
98
PEOPLE AS BIOLOGICAL BEINGS
biopolitics In biopolitics, the premise is that people are primarily biological
beings and that those aspects (eg culture) that distinguish them
from other living beings have developed in an evolutionary way
together with their physical characteristics. According to this view,
people remain part of the animal kingdom and may even possess
certain instincts that influence their behaviour. Furthermore,
biopolitical scientists are of the opinion that genetic factors are
important in human behaviour. They maintain, for example, that
the general acceptance that behaviour in animals is genetically
determined should apply also to humans.
Biopolitics is increasingly examining the extent to which human

biological aspects, for instance their genetic composition and
instinct, influence people's political behaviour. This is a highly
complex sphere of political science that is becoming more
important.
Two different points of view are at issue. There are those (especially
sociologists) who are of the opinion that behaviour is determined
almost exclusively by external factors, in other words environ-
mental factors, and that human genetic composition and biology
play virtually no role. In biopolitics, on the other hand, the
importance of external or environmental factors is not denied, but
the emphasis falls on the fact that people's response to their
environment will be largely determined by their inherent biological
composition. Research is increasingly relating certain deviate
conduct, such as violence, to particular genetic characteristics.
Many political as well as social scientists regard the points of

departure of biopolitics as controversial. The reason for this may
perhaps be found in the unwillingness of the humanities to accept
the animalistic and evolutionary dimension of humans, in contrast
to the general acceptance thereof in the context of natural sciences.
Teilhard de Chardin (Thorson 1970:100) explains this as follows:
Either we assume that the peculiarly human kinds of behavior

which involve consciousness and self-consciousness came into
historical development of the universe from the outside in
some special way at some particular time, or we must assume
that somehow even these characteristics grew out of the
development of the universe and were, in some sense of the
term, implicit in it from the beginning.
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He is therefore of the opinion that the sociocultural evolution of
humans cannot be separated from their biological evolution, and
that the sociocultural development of humans is inherently part of
their biological evolution.
importance of Biological explanations for human political behaviour is being

biopolitics explored in various spheres of political science. The following are
areas in which biopolitics are increasingly important.
Studies on ethnicity are increasingly examining ethnicity as a
primordial instinct in people. The fact that, in spite of
primordial instinct rational considerations to the contrary, ethnicity continues to
exist as an intense sentiment in people and this gives rise to
the question whether it forms part of human instinctive
behaviour. This does not deny that people act differently in
this regard. Although not a biopolitical scientist, Sartori
(1963) makes the interesting observation that it is not pure
coincidence that the English language does not have an
appropriate term for volk. According to him, certain groups
of people are by nature more social and others more
individualistic.
Studies on territorial nationalism, in other words the pursuit
of self-determination in an own yet historic state, are
territorial imperative increasingly examining the territorial imperative. The terri-
torial imperative refers to the fact that, as in the case of other
animals, part of the human instinct is for people to ensure
their survival by demarcating their own territories and to
protect these against invasion.
Studies are increasingly examining the extent to which

behaviour is genetically determined and influenced. A study
by Heschl (1993), for instance, found it to be possible to
determine the ideological positions of communists in the
USSR according to their physical appearance. It was found
that the more an individual's appearance differed from that
of the hardened communists, the more that individual
differed from them ideologically. The researcher asked
whether the attraction of communism to some people may
have a genetic dimension, or whether it was simply a matter
of people who look alike finding it easier to associate with
one another.
The extent to which people's behaviour is influenced by their genes

and instincts has by no means been established. As knowledge of
100
genetics increases, it is likely that these aspects of human behaviour
will become more important also to political scientists.
It should nevertheless be accepted that people possess other

instincts as well, for instance not only each in respect of his or her
own survival but also each in respect of the survival of the species.
It cannot be denied that a person's physical appearance, which is
genetically determined, influences his or her behaviour. We are
aware of complexes that develop from people's physical appear-
ance. It is alleged, for instance, that Napoleon Bonaparte's military
campaigns were an attempt to compensate for his height (he was
only 1,58 m tall). Furthermore, consider whether we would have
had something like feminism and feminist politics if some people
were not born male and others female.
PEOPLE AS SELF-DETERMINING BEINGS AS AGAINST PEOPLE AS SO-

CIAL BEINGS
These views on human beings relate to the theories on human
behaviour found in psychology and sociology. Unfortunately, space
does not allow for an in-depth discussion, and a few comments
have to suffice.
Sociologists and social psychologists such as Aronson (1972)
herding emphasize the herding aspect of human existence. Their approach
humans as social beings is that people are herd (social) beings by instinct. This view of
human existence is very old and appears in the work of the Greek
philosopher, Aristotle (ca 300 BC). Aristotle was of the opinion that
the social nature of human existence was an inseparable part of
people and that they cannot exist and continue to exist without
other people. He even maintains that society existed before the
individual, because one cannot arrive at a part of the whole unless
the whole has first been established.
The following are important with regard to theories that emphasize

the social character of human nature:
Social psychologists emphasize the extent to which the

individual strives to be part of the group as well as the
influence of the group on the individual's behaviour. This
belief in the inevitable herding characteristic of human
existence and the fact that individuals are able to realize
themselves only in group context has been embodied in a
number of theories that are of interest to the political
scientist.
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The socialist theories, including Marxist theory, are the most
important group of political theories in this respect. Elements
of this approach may also be found in modern liberalism and
in nationalism as ideology. According to these theories,
understanding of and self-realization by the human being is
possible only in a group context.
Another premise is that it is possible to change a person's
character by manipulating that person's group context.
These theories emphasize not only the social nature of
humankind, but also the role of the environment in
determining human behaviour. Marx was of the opinion,
for instance, that when the material circumstances of a
person change, the person's character will also change.
The emphasis on the group character of human beings does
not necessarily deny the ``self''. Some of these theories do
recognize the autonomy of the individual, but then in the
sense that self-realization by the individual is possible only
in group context.
humans as self- In contrast to theories that reduce people to herd animals that react
determining beings like robots to their environment and follow all changes in the group,
we find theories that emphasize people's individualistic and self-
determining nature. These theories are found mainly in psychology.
The works of Deci (1980), Deci and Ryan (1985) and De Charms
(1968) are very important in this respect.
The following are important with regard to the theories that

emphasize people's self-determining nature:
According to these theories, individuals are driven by their

inherent pursuit of self-realization. Self-realization can be
achieved only if people are self-determining. Therefore
people are by nature self-determining and can realize their
full potential only if allowed to realize themselves as
individuals.
This individualistic and self-determining nature does not
imply, however, that people are asocial beings, but they
strive to be self-determining even in a group context. This
does not mean that individuals always want to make their
own decisions. Under certain circumstances individuals may
allow others to make decisions on their behalf, without
relinquishing their self-determination, as the individuals
decide for themselves when, about what and by whom
decisions will be made for them.
102
The accepted customs of a group will naturally restrict the
individual's self-determination. Individuals may reconcile
these limitations with their own self-determination by
internalizing the customs of the group in question as their
own.
People's individualistic nature is reflected in various theories
of interest to political science. Classical liberalism empha-
sizes the individualistic nature of humankind. ``Liberals have
been, and are, formally committed to individualism. It is the
metaphysical and ontological core of liberal thought and the
basis of moral, political, economic, and cultural existence.
The individual is both more real than, and prior to, society''
(Vincent 1992:32). It is also a fundamental aspect of capitalist
theory.
PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS OF HUMAN NATURE
Some of the views on human nature discussed so far are also

relevant in political philosophy, but in this section we focus on
people as moral or amoral beings.
The following two views are of primary importance:
positive view of human Some theories view humankind mainly in a positive light.
nature People are accordingly regarded as being by nature good,
altruistic, hardworking, rational and capable of self-perfec-
tion.
negative view of human Some theories view humans in a negative light. According to
nature those theories, people are by nature inclined towards evil,
selfishness (ie, acting only in self-interest), lazy, emotional
and imperfect beings.
These views of humankind may be found either directly or

indirectly in most theories, and may be used in different
combinations, or only certain aspects of a view may be relevant.
In what are known as the public choice models of politics, people

are regarded as rational beings who act only in self-interest.
According to these models, there really is no such thing as public
interest, only self-interest. Politicians do serve public interests, but
purely because they are striving to serve their own interests in the
first place.
In Marxist theory, only the workers are seen in a positive light, as

becomes clear in the following simplified tenet of Marxism: ``from
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each according to his ability and to each according to his need''. In
other words, workers will always serve according to the full extent
of their ability and will never ask for more than they need. The
worker is romanticized as a noble being. The theory loses sight of
the fact that the worker may also strive for maximum gain (ie, his or
her needs may be unlimited) in return for minimum effort. The low
production in states with a communist system is sometimes
mockingly attributed to ``they pretend to pay us (basic need) so
we pretend to work (optimum ability?)''. In contrast, the ruling and
capitalist classes are seen in a negative light. According to Marxism
the workers are altruistic but the capitalists (those that own the
means of production) are selfish and will always take more than
belongs to them. It does not take into account the fact that it is
possible to find in both these classes those individuals with a
positive character and individuals with a negative character.
This brings us to the basic problem underlying most views of

human nature, especially in the social and political sciences, namely
the frequent use of generalizations. Unfortunately, there is as yet no
comprehensive theory of human nature, and that is one of the
reasons attempts to arrange reality according to a particular theory
often fail.
To sum up:
The individual is the basic unit of all political activity. Without the
individual, there would be no politics. Even though the individual
is the basic unit of political action, political action takes place within
a social context. Society will help shape the individual's behaviour,
but individuals shape the nature of society. In other words, the
collectivity and the individual interacts.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 7.1
unit.
(2) Explain each concept in one sentence.
(3) Write down each heading used in this study unit. Summarize the
essence of the discussion under each heading in five sentences.
(4) Discuss the various theories on human nature in 300 words.
(5) Indicate which of these theories you think explains human nature
best. Give reasons for your answer by indicating why you ``reject''
104
the other theories and why you think the theory you have chosen
explains human nature.
(6) Make a point summary of the discussion on the individual as actor
in politics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
You may also consult these books should they be available.
Aronson, E. 1972 (1960). The social animal. San Francisco: Freeman.
political science. Second edition. New York: Longman.
De Charms, R. 1968. Personal causation: the internal affective determinants of behavior.
New York: Academic Press.
Deci, EL. 1980. The psychology of selfdetermination. Lexington, MA: Lexington.
Deci, EL & Ryan, RM. 1985. Intrinsic motivation and selfdetermination in human
behaviour. New York: Plenum.
Gamble, JK (Jr); Irwin, ZT, Redenius, CM & Weber, JW. 1992. Introduction to
Heywood, A. 2002. Politics. 2nd edition. Houndmill: Palgrave.
Heschl, A. 1993. Physiognomic similarity and political cooperation: an
exploratory investigation. Politics and the Life Sciences. (February).
University Press
Lawson, K. 1989. The Human Polity: an introduction to political science. Second
Sartori, G. 1962. Democratic theory. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.
Thorson, TL. 1970. Biopolitics. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Vincent, A. 1992. Modern political ideologies. Oxford: Blackwell.
PLC201-U/1 105
STUDY
UNIT 8
POLITICAL ACTORS:
POLITICAL LEADERS
INTRODUCTION
Political leaders are a particular category of individual actors that we wish to discuss
separately. From early times individuals have taken the lead in human political
organization. Different communities developed different ways in which political leaders
had to be designated and their powers determined. Therefore in this study unit we are
going to answer the question, ``What is the role of political leaders in politics?'' To answer
this question it is necessary to answer the following focus questions:
FOCUS Why are political leaders important political actors?

QUESTIONS How do political leaders acquire and lose their positions?
What motivates political leaders?
What styles of political leadership are there?
AC TIVIT Y 8.1
Read the following and then answer the questions.
106
The following are/were political leaders in South Africa and other
states of the world. Nelson Mandela, Thabo Mbeki, Tony Leon,
Marthinus van Schalkwyk, FW de Klerk, Bantu Holomisa, Roelf
Meyer, Winnie Madikizela Mandela, Chris Hani, Margaret Thatch-
er, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, Boris Yeltsin, Robert Mugabe and
Tony Blair.
(1) Indicate your feelings about these leaders by writing behind
the name of each whether you: disliked, liked or liked him/her
very much.
(2) Explain in one sentence why you feel the way you do about each
of these leaders.
(3) Indicate which of these political leaders you would willingly
obey.
(4) Indicate which of these you would hate to obey.
(5) The concept of political legitimacy can be defined as,``the gen-
eral belief of the members of a society that the government's
powers to make and enforce rules are proper, lawful, and entitled
to obedience'' (Ranney 1996:30). Which of the above political
leaders, in your opinion, can be regarded as legitimate rulers?
(6) Discuss the legitimacy of these leaders with some of your
friends and family members. Try to determine who enjoyed the
most and who the least support among your friends and family
members.
It is important to realize that the above activity are one in which

there is no correct or incorrect answers. What is important is to
understand that political leaders not all enjoy an equal amount of
support and/or legitimacy in society.
8.1 WHY ARE POLITICAL LEADERS IMPORTANT

POLITICAL ACTORS?
In ancient times there was usually little diversification in leadership

roles. Often only a few people and, in some cases, only one person
filled the most important leadership roles in, for instance, politics,
justice and religion. Modern societies are characterized by leader-
ship roles in a wide-ranging variety of fields, accompanied by a
changed view of ideal leaders. In some of these fields, especially in
the private business sector and more specifically in respect of
management positions, there is reasonable consensus on the most
important characteristics of a leader or, more specifically, a
manager. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of leadership in
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the field of politics. There is no exact clarity as to the characteristics
of the ideal political leader. There is more clarity on the desired
characteristics of leaders in, for instance, the bureaucracy (see Lane
1995). As a result, even scientists like Alexis de Tocqueville refer to
the lack of political leaders in the United States of America (USA),
while more than enough talent was available in the private sector
(Tocqueville Vol 1: 201). He even went so far as to say that it
appeared as if people only enter public life once they have failed in
the private sector. However, it is important to bear in mind that
political leaders have important roles in society, roles that do affect
our lives and even our political behaviour.
It is important to bear in mind that when we refer to leadership in

the field of politics, we are not referring only to political leaders
such as presidents and parliamentary leaders. Political leadership
also includes leading figures who take the lead in other political
spheres, such as leaders of resistance movements, advocates for
particular interests and rights, leaders of opposition parties and
community leaders. An additional important sphere of political
leadership involves the positions of leaders in the public sector or
bureaucracy. It is also important to remember that leadership is
seldom restricted to one person. Political leaders are important for it
is impractical for individuals to participate in all aspects of politics.
The ordinary citizen seldom has the knowledge and the time for
this. The relations between political leaders and the rest of society is
thus complex
8.2 HOW DO POLITICAL LEADERS ACQUIRE AND LOSE

THEIR POSITIONS?
Acquiring positions of leadership relates to the process of political

recruitment.
Leaders can acquire their positions in the following ways.
ascription
succession
nomination
appointment
election
self-appointment
108
ASCRIPTION
Ascription means that in order to become a leader it is necessary to
comply with certain criteria laid down for leaders. Someone who
does not meet these requirements cannot become a leader. In some
cases the leader may be appointed on the basis of only ascriptive
criteria. The most important ascription is probably undisputed
hereditary succession, as in the case of some monarchies. In the
majority of cases and even in some monarchies (eg, in Swaziland),
ascription is but one input in establishing leadership. Even where
leaders are appointed by means of democratic techniques, potential
leaders usually have to meet certain requirements in order to be
considered. In South Africa, for instance, a parliamentary citizen
has to be a South African citizen (see section 47 of The Constitution of
the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996. In the USA the President
is required to be an American citizen born in the USA (ie, a natural
born citizen) at least 35 years old (McKay 1993:312). The position of
Leader in the Islamic Republic of Iran is open to persons qualified in
Islamic jurisprudence only.
Kay Lawson (1989) explains ascription, with reference to the work

by Parson and Shils, as follows: ``You belong to the pool from which
leaders are chosen if you meet the appropriate ascriptive standards,
if you do not, nothing you can do to show your ability to perform
the job will make any difference.'' In some societies such a
leadership pool may be limited to only a few individuals, while
in others it is less limited.
SUCCESSION
Although hereditary succession has been mentioned in the
discussion of ascription, some additional comments are necessary.
Succession still plays an important role in contemporary states. The
following are examples in this regard:
There are still monarchs with real political power who

inherit their positions. Note, for example, the King of Jordan,
the King of Saudi-Arabia and the Sultan of Brunei.
In constitutional monarchies, heads of state usually inherit
their positions. Examples include the kings of Norway and
Sweden, and the queens of the Netherlands, Denmark, and
Britain. Other examples are the Zulu king and the Japanese
emperor.
In Britain, 80 percent of the members of the House of Lords
inherit their positions. There has been a number of attempts
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to reform the House of Lords in an attempt to limit the
number of hereditary members.
In some cases, lineage determines only who qualifies for particular

positions of leadership and who does not. In Swaziland, as in
Jordan, the king is appointed from a number of candidates who are
eligible to become monarch on the basis of succession.
The reasons for inherited leadership are interesting. In some cases

the right of succession or heirdom is justified by the belief that the
leader is a direct descendant of a deity, as in the case of the Japanese
emperor. In other cases, this is a way of compensating an individual
as well as his descendants for exceptional service. Another
important suggestion for the basis of hereditary succession, which
corresponds with certain assumptions in biopolitics, is that
exemplary leadership qualities are passed on to the heirs. Even
emotionalism may play a role. An example is Jordanians' pledge to
support any king that is from the family of the beloved late king
Hussein.
NOMINATION
People are nominated for positions of leadership by someone who
has the powers to do so, irrespective of whether such a person
gained such powers on the basis of succession, nomination, election
or ascription. The President of the USA, for instance, is elected
indirectly by the voters, but he nominates those who will hold office
in the key positions in his administration including the position of
Vice-President. This usually implies that nomination is the task of
those who already hold certain positions of leadership. Nomina-
tions are not necessarily the task of only one person, and often
involve more than one person.
The extent to which political leaders obtain their positions by means

of nomination will depend on the type of regime and the political
culture of the state in question. In a democracy, there are fewer
leadership nominations than in an autocratic regime.
APPOINTMENT
Appointment differs from nomination in that it usually takes place
in a more structured way and under certain conditions of service.
Appointments are not necessarily made by existing leaders. More
often they are made by other persons who have been `àppointed''
110
for this purpose. Positions of leadership in the bureaucracy may be
obtained through appointment, but also by means of nomination
and even election. The vast majority of leaders in the bureaucracy
acquire their positions by means of appointment.
ELECTION
The election of a political 1eader to a particular position of
leadership implies that such person has been selected, usually from
a number of candidates, by the voting of those who are entitled to
vote.
Election of leaders is an important characteristic of a democracy, but

democratic regimes are not the only ones in which leadership
positions are acquired by means of election, just as the election of
political leaders does not guarantee a democracy. The Germans, in
``democratically'' electing Hitler had, in fact, elected a dictator.
Election may take place in various ways and by various people or
groups of people. Different combinations may also be found in this
respect. The two main ways (for the purposes of this course) are
direct election direct and indirect election. Direct election implies that a leader is
elected by those who are enfranchised to elect a person for a
particular position. An example of direct election is the election of
members of parliament by voters, or the election of the President of
France by the voting public.
indirect election Indirect election implies that a leader is elected on behalf of those
people who are enfranchised to elect such a leader. Indirect
elections take place frequently, but not necessarily, by means of
electoral colleges. An electoral college is established for the express
purpose of electing someone for a particular position of leadership.
The President of the United States of America is, in fact, elected by
an electoral college. In some instances leaders are indirectly elected
by parliament, for example. This is the situation with the election of
the president in South Africa.
It is generally assumed that the President of the USA is elected

directly by the American voters, yet he is, in fact, elected by means
of an electoral college. Because of the way the electoral college is
assembled, the election of the President of the USA is more direct
than, for instance, that of the President of South Africa. In the USA
an election is held in each state in which votes are cast for the
candidates. Each state is entitled to a predetermined number of
delegates in the electoral college that elects the American President.
The candidate who wins the election in a particular state wins all
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the votes (of the delegates) that the particular state has in the
electoral college. This more or less amounts to the voters in each
state electing their ``president'' by means of direct election. As a
result of the federal nature of the constitution of the USA, it is
necessary to have some means of electing the President for all of the
USA, and this gives rise to the eventual election by an electoral
college consisting of the delegates from all the states.
In Switzerland the executive authority consists of a committee of

seven members (Bundesrat) who are indirectly elected by the
Federal Assembly. Even the chairman and vice-chairman of the
Bundesrat are elected indirectly by the Federal Assembly.
In the Islamic Republic of Iran the President is directly elected, but

the Leader is nominated by the Council of Experts which is,
however, elected by the voters.
SELF-APPOINTMENT
Self-appointment refers to leaders assuming leadership by seizing
political leadership positions. Lawson (1989) and others regard this
as acquiring positions of leadership by force. In fact, self-
appointments are usually accompanied by force. The concept of
force, however, has wider implications and self-appointment does
not necessarily have to be accompanied by force, for sometimes
someone may simply turn a leadership vacuum to his or her own
advantage. This category includes coups d'eÂtat and revolutions. It
also includes leaders who have suspended constitutions in order to
safeguard their own positions, to get rid of opponents (eg, by
banning opposition parties) and those who proclaim themselves
life-long leaders, for instance a president for life. Military leaders
who seize political power are usually self-appointed.
It may happen that a self-appointed leader initially acquired his

position by means of election and then imposed his own measures
to maintain his position.
Other ways in which leadership is obtained may also be

manipulated in such a way that a particular person becomes the
leader. In hereditary succession, for instance, the heir may be
discredited and even eliminated, as in the case of Dingaan's murder
of Shaka. History abounds with examples of deposed kings being
replaced by new dynasties.
losing political Leadership may be terminated in various ways, the most important
leadership being through death, retirement, deposition, dismissal, impeach-
112
ment, recall and elections. These methods are self-explanatory and
will not be discussed in more detail. It is necessary to bear in mind
though that some leaders may be life-long leaders. In many states
the term of office of the heads of state and the head of government
may be limited to one or two fixed terms. Lawson (1989:307)
illustrates the life cycle of a leader as follows (adapted in accordance
with the above discussion):
DIAGRAM 8.1
The life cycle of political leaders
type of leadership
charismatic
dictatorial
representative
participative
!
acquiring of leadership loss of leadership

ascription death
succession retirement
nomination resignation
appointment deposition
election dismissal
self-appointment impeachment
recall
! elections
It is important to note that the way in which political leaders have

acquired their position will affect the interactions between the
leaders and the rest (masses). More will, for example, be expected of
leaders that have been elected.
8.3 WHAT MOTIVATES POLITICAL LEADERS?
In this section we discuss the motivation behind people aspiring to

positions of leadership. Naturally, some leaders have no real choice
in this respect, as in the case of hereditary succession. Problems may
arise when a person acquires a position of leadership without
aspiring to such position.
There are different views on what motivates people to aspire to

positions of leadership, regardless of the way in which such
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leadership may be achieved. The following are important in this
regard:
leaders are born

self-interest
self-sacrificing humanitarians
LEADERS ARE BORN

The view that leaders are born has strong biopolitical elements and
is based on the assumption that leadership traits are genetically
determined and that people are, in fact, no different from other
social or herd animals. People are therefore born either to rule or be
ruled. Thus people are motivated by their genetic make-up to
become leaders and to rule.
This approach, as mentioned, is an element in inherited positions of

leadership. However, if there is any truth in it, it would imply that
when people are born with leadership properties that motivate
them to aspire to positions of leadership, but the system makes it
impossible for them to gain access to such positions, such people
may become problematic political actors. This could have been a
factor in both the French and the Russian revolutions.
This approach is criticized on the basis that it has as point of

departure the idea that leadership is uniform, no matter what the
context is. That is, if a person possesses X, Y and Z, he will be a
good leader for X, Y and Z are what is required of a leader, no
matter what the context.
LEADERS AND SELF-INTEREST

This view is based on the premise (point of departure) that all
individuals are inherently selfish (note again the views on human
nature) and that they seek to maximize their own interests. It is a
matter of ``power is wonderful and absolute power is absolutely
wonderful''.
Such self-interest may be both material and psychological. Positions

of leadership bring certain material rewards, and it is not surprising
that leadership and corruption often go hand in hand. Positions of
leadership also have psychological benefits. For example, leader-
ship may compensate for an inferiority complex.
Maximizing self-interest does not imply that an individual will act

only in his or her own interests and never consider the interests of
114
those who follow, however. The self-interested leader realizes very
well that serving the interests of others will eventually benefit his or
her own interests. Think of all the promises made at election time to
canvass votes.
Leadership over human beings is exercised when persons with

certain motives and purposes, in competition or conflict with
others, mobilize institutional, political, psychological and other
resources to arouse, engage and satisfy the motives of followers
(Lawson 1989:292). Lane (1995:210) explains this as follows: ``When
persons act publicly, why do we have to assume that they pursue
either their own interests (selfishness) or the interests of others
(altruism)? Why could not one be a means to the other?''
SELF-SACRIFICING HUMANITARIANS
According to this view, the aim of political leaders is to further the
interests of their followers. Their own interests are not relevant,
only those of their followers. Political leaders dedicate themselves
to a more noble moral issue.
Not one of these three views of the motivation of political leaders is

entirely wrong, but none is entirely correct either. Different political
leaders probably have different motivations, and very likely a
combination of motivations. History has shown that many of the
supposed humanitarians were inherently selfish. Although com-
munism was by and large opposed to personal wealth, communist
leaders sometimes allowed themselves luxuries and property that
their followers were denied and that often surpassed the personal
fortunes of capitalist leaders.
Positions of leadership unfortunately often provide the opportunity

to deviate from what is the expected norm, giving rise to such
expressions as, ``Wars are little more than legitimized murder''.
Killings during a war are usually justified as the pursuit of some
noble cause. Think of the massacres perpetrated by some well-
known political leaders. As regular citizens they would have been
regarded as common mass murderers and serial killers. For
example, part of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's work
was to determine which murders were politically motivated and
which were simply ``private''.
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8.4 WHAT STYLES OF LEADERSHIP ARE THERE?
Styles of leadership have a bearing on several of the main tasks of

political leaders, including the leaders' relationship with their
followers; their attitude towards their leadership role; and their
particular philosophy, ideology and view of life.
Let's look mainly at the first aspect of leaders' relationship with

their fellowers.
The relationship between the leader and those who are being led
will be influenced by the type of political system. That is why some
authoritarian leadership styles of leadership are of a more authoritarian (even dictatorial)

nature while others are of a more democratic and some of a more
manipulative nature.
Although there are leaders and communities that associate leader-

ship with the hierarchical exercise of power over followers, this
view is mostly outdated, especially when seen against the
democratic leadership background of our adherence to democracy.
charismatic leadership Charismatic leadership is leadership based on the exercise of

personal powers that inspire loyalty and obedience among the
followers. Charismatic leadership may be either authoritarian or
democratic but is frequently manipulative, because charismatic
leaders succeed in establishing credibility among their followers,
which enables them to introduce changes that may not have been
possible under other circumstances. These changes are not
necessarily in the interest of the followers.
The reasons for charismatic leadership are not yet clear. Research
has shown that personality traits of both leaders and followers, as
well as the nature of the values communicated in the messages may
be important in establishing a leadership based on charisma
(Weierter 1997:172).
Lawson (1989:297) mentions that charismatic leadership is often

followed by dictatorships. Under a dictatorship, power remains
concentrated in the hands of one person, but the authority of that
person's rule rests on the exercise of raw power, frequently
supported by the deliberate and mechanistic encouragement of a
personality cult. The easy and joyous support followers once gave
to the charismatic leader can be transmuted to the bitter burden of
enduring tyranny.
For leaders to be truly successful, it is important for them to have
116
willing followers rather than unwilling subjects (Lawson 1989:291±
292) has the following to say:
It is in the study of the relationship between the two that we

begin to understand what leadership is really all about ... it
seems clear that political leadership, like any other kind of
leadership, involves winning the trust of others.
8.5 WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS

OF POLITICAL LEADERS?
characteristics Some of the characteristics have already been referred to in the
discussion of what motivates political leaders. Scholars of politics
often claim that leadership in the private sector differs substantially
from leadership in the public sector. Lane (1995:182) mentions, for
example, ``Leadership is not radically different in public and private
organizations, but there are a number of differences in emphasis.''
The following of these differences will subsequently be discussed:
Innovation. It is often alleged that bureaucratic and political

leaders are slow to react to innovation and are inclined to
cling to established and traditional ways of doing things. In
the private sector, survival often depends on change.
Motivation. Older scholars were of the opinion that leaders in
the public sector were motivated by whatever is in the
interest of the public, while leaders in the private sector were
motivated by profit. More recent work on leadership
indicates that the motivation of leaders in both sectors is
similar, ``... the private ambitions of bureaucrats may be
employed for public purposes given a proper mechanism for
the private reward of public virtues'' (Lane 1995:182).
functions Heywood (1997:317±319) lists the following functions of political

leaders who occupy positions in the executive:
Ceremonial duties. This is usually where they act on behalf of

the state. For example visiting other states, attending
functions within the state (eg, charity) and receiving foreign
visitors.
Control of policy-making. This is usually regarded as part of
the governing function of political leaders.
Popular political leadership. To be successful, it is important
that political leaders mobilize and maintain the support of
the people.
Bureaucratic management. In this sense it is the task of political
PLC201-U/1 117
leaders to watch over the implementation of public policy. In
a democratic state this is not only the task of the ruling party
but the opposition parties may, in fact, be important
watchdogs in this regard.
Crisis response. It is political leaders who are responsible for
handling any political crisis (both internal and international)
that may arise.
To sum up:
Political leaders are regarded as indispensable to politics. They are
important political actors whose political behaviour is important to
students of politics. However, their actions may also affect the
behaviour of those who are ruled and in this way they have an
effect on political behaviour in general.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 8.1
(1) Write down all the concepts that were discussed in this study unit
and explain each of them.
(2) Write down each of the headings used in this discussion and
summarize, in one sentence, the essence of the discussion in each
instance.
(3) In 100 words, discuss whether leadership qualities should be
regarded as the same for all circumstances.
(4) In 100 words, discuss whether leaders are born or made.
(5) Which political leadership style would you prefer: authoritarian,
democratic or charismatic? Discuss the reasons for your choice in
200 words. (Note that in your discussion you will have to explain
the characteristics of each style; the advantages of the style you
chose; and the disadvantages of the styles you rejected.)
(6) Make a point summary in which you discuss the role of political
leaders as actors in politics.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 8.2
This self-assessment exercise is based on Jackson and Jackson.
(1) Search the table of contents and the index at the back of the book
118
for the sections that deal with leadership. Study all these
sections.
(2) Write down all the key aspects of leadership that the authors
discuss. Make a heading of each of these key aspects and discuss
the essence of each in five sentences.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 8.3
This self-assessment exercise is based on Heywood (1997 and 2002).
for the sections that deal with leadership. Study all these
sections.
(2) Write down all the key aspects of leadership that the author
discusses. Make a heading of each of these key aspects and
discuss the essence of each in five sentences.
(3) How does the author define the concept of leadership?
(4) Why, according to Heywood, do people become alienated from
conventional politics?
(5) How does the author feel about authoritarian leadership?
(6) How does the author define the concept of personality cult?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atwater, LE, Camobreco, JF, Dionne SD, Avolio, BJ & Lau, AN. 1997. Effects of
rewards and punishments on leader charisma and follower charisma. Leadership
Quarterly. Vol 8(2) 133±152.
Daft, RL. 1999. Leadership: theory and practice. Fortworth, Tex: Dryden Press.
political science. Second edition. New York: Longman.
Elgie, R. 1995. Political leadership in liberal democracies. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
political science. 2nd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Herman, MG & Milburn, TW (eds). 1977. A psychological examination of political
leaders. New York: The Free Press.
Heywood, A. 2002. Politics. 2nd edition. Houndmill. Palgrave.
Kuklinski, JH (ed). 2003. Thinking about political psychology. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
PLC201-U/1 119
University Press.
Lane, JE. 1995. The public sector: concepts, models and approaches. Second edition.
London: Sage.
Lane, JE. 1985. State and market: the politics of the public and the private. London:
Sage.
Jermier, JM & Kerr, S. 1997. Substitutes for leadership: their meaning and
measurement Ð contextual recollections and current observations. Leadership
Quarterly. Vol 8(2), 95±101.
Lawson, K. 1989. The human polity: an introduction to Political Science. Second
McKay, D. 1993. American politics and society. Third edition. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
Tocqueville, A de. 1959 [1835]. Democracy in America. Vol 1 & 2. Translated by
Henry Reeves and edited by Phillips Bradley. New York: Knopf.
Tosi, HL & Kiker, S. 1997. Commentary on ``substitutes for leadership''. Leadership
Quarterly. Vol 8(2), 109±112.
Weierter, SJM. 1997. Who wants to play ``follow the leader?'' A theory of charismatic
relationships based on routinized charisma and follower characteristics. Leader-
ship Quarterly. Vol 8(2) 171±193.
120
STUDY
UNIT 9
POLITICAL ACTORS: GROUPS AND

COLLECTIVE IDENTITIES
INTRODUCTION
The discussion on political actors has so far concentrated on individuals as actors. We have
analysed political behaviour on the micro level, that is, how individuals understand,
experience and participate in political life. Studying political behaviour on the macro level
implies studying the behaviour of abstract collectivities like the public, society and the
authorities. Groups fall somewhere in between and we, therefore, regard them as
functioning on the intermediate level. At the same time, they are important links between
individuals on the one hand and the public, society and authorities on the other hand. It
was, however, also mentioned that the individual does not necessarily act alone in the
political sphere. More often individuals cooperate as members of particular groups. By
associating with other individuals, more weight is added to the cause of the individual. In
this study unit we are going to answer the question, ``What is the role of groups in general
in politics and political behaviour?'' In order to answer this question it is necessary to
answer the following focus questions:
FOCUS What are the characteristics of groups?

QUESTIONS What groups are important in politics?
How do groups participate in politics?
What factors will influence the success of groups in politics?
PLC201-U/1 121
9.1 WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS?
A group usually consists of two or more members. To form a group,

the individuals usually share one or more common characteristics
or traits. The more characteristics the members share, the more
uniform will its members be.
groups of which It is important to realize that to be a member of a group does not
membership is inherited
are also referred to as imply that all members should know each other. A person may
communal groups belong to a group without being aware of that fact. The reason
being that natural groups, of which the individual happens to be a
groups whose members
have regular contact, eg member, usually occur in a society. For instance, a person may
the family, workplace are coincidentally belong to a particular race, ethnic group, gender or
often called primary even a group suffering from a particular illness. Membership is
groups
usually inherited or acquired. None of us completes an application
form prior to birth in which we indicate what our race, ethnicity
and gender should be, or what the church affiliation of our parents
should be. Similarly, illnesses, handicaps and certain events, such as
a natural disaster or war, that we share with others may
coincidentally cause us to be members of a particular group. These
categoric groups groups are usually informal and often referred to as categoric
groups. An informal group, for instance, may also consist of viewers
of a particular television programme.
On the other hand, we may deliberately form groups in terms of
shared characteristics. When a number of individuals band together
to consciously promote a particular interest, they are known as
interest groups interest groups. These groups are usually formal. Formal groups are
not necessarily organized, however. A group that meets on a
regular basis to discuss literature, for example, is a formal group,
but does not necessarily have to be formally organized.
AC TIVIT Y 9.1
Read the following scenario and then answer the questions.

One of the main sources of income on Big-Tree Island is the fish-
ing industry.The waters around the island are known for their rich
sea life. Due to the abundance of fish in the area, fishing was
never a political issue and the government never paid attention
to the activities of fishermen.
Recently, however, fishermen from Golden Island, started to use
the fishing waters of Big-Tree Island. The fishermen asked the
government to intervene. The government held discussions with
122
the government of Golden Island. A treaty was concluded be-
tween the two governments, according to which Golden Island re-
ceived a particular quota of fish in exchange for other foodstuffs
not readily available on Big-Tree Island.
This resulted in a need to protect the fishing resource against
overexploitation.The government of Big-Tree Island subsequently
also introduced a quota system for its citizens.The latter were fu-
rious about the new rules and regulations and decided to form a
group and to march to President FigTree, in order to demonstrate
their dissatisfaction.
(1) Do you think the fishermen on Big-Tree Island were politically
relevant before Golden Island started to use their fishing
waters?
(2) What kind of group did fishermen on Big-Tree Island constitute
prior to the abovementioned treaty?
(3) When and why did the fishermen become politically relevant?
(4) Which of the following would have more success?
ö an individual fisherman demonstrating in front of the
presidency
ö a group of individuals demonstrating in front of the pre-
sidency
9.2 HOW DO GROUPS PARTICIPATE IN POLITICS?

Some theories, such as those of David Truman's are based on the
assumption that politics is always conducted in terms of groups.
These theories describe and explain all significant political activities
in terms of groups, `Ìndividuals with common interests [like the
fishermen in the activity] band together formally or informally to
press their demands on government'' (Dye 1995:23). According to
them, groups compete with one another for scarce resources, and
groups inevitably make demands on other groups. According to
group theorists these group theorists, the task of the political system therefore is to
regulate group conflict by (see Dye 1995:24)
laying down rules for the struggle between groups

bringing about compromises and balancing interests
embodying compromises in legislation
enforcing compromises
There are a number of rival theories that try to explain the role of
PLC201-U/1 123
groups in politics. These theories are often influenced by ``broader
assumptions about the nature of the political process and the
distribution of power in society'' (Heywood 1997:244).
Three of the more important group theories are as follows:
Pluralism. These group theorists believe that power is widely

dispersed within society and that groups compete in order to
influence the political process. Ordinary interest groups
provide the link between the individual and the authorities.
Pluralist theories are significantly inspired by the actual
political process in the USA.
Corporatism. These theorists also stress the importance of
groups in politics but they emphasise that some groups have
a privileged position. These groups, together with govern-
ment, make the decisions. This, however, implies that not all
groups will have `ìnsider'' status.
New Right. These theorists criticise the role of interest groups
in the political process, ``government may effectively be
`captured' by consulted groups and thus be unable to resist
their demands'' (Heywood 1997:258).
disadvantages of group Groups are undoubtedly important political actors, but problems
approach arise when all politics is interpreted only in terms of groups. The
following points are important in this regard:
Firstly, this grossly underestimates the importance of the

individual in politics.
Secondly, it reduces the role of the political system and more
specifically the decision makers to the level of a computer
that simply has to respond to the input it receives.
Thirdly, it also underestimates the roles of other actors in
politics.
Methods that groups There are several methods (each manifesting itself in a particular
may use form of political behaviour) that groups use in their attempts to
make their voice heard in the political arena. These methods may be
divided into two broad categories, namely peaceful and violent
methods. The following are some of the methods (see Ranney
1996:7±19):
Lobbying: This refers to direct efforts by groups to influence

decision makers to do as the group would want them to.
Electioneering: Electioneering is an important method used by
124
political parties (a particular type of group). Though other
groups do not participate in elections, cooperation with
political parties may bring important benefits to a group.
Mobilization of public support: Groups will have a bigger
chance of success if the authorities realize that they enjoy the
support of the public on a particular issue. Therefore groups
may make use of the media and propaganda to draw
attention to their cause.
Litigation: A group may decide to go to court over a
particular issue. South Africa now has a constitutional court
and groups like ``pro-life'' (anti-abortion) have already taken
certain issues to the constitutional court (without success).
Likewise, fathers of illegitimate children have also ap-
proached the constitutional court to review their rights Ð
this was a successful application to the constitutional court.
Petitions: This is another formal attempt in which the
authorities and the government are requested by a number
of signatories to pay attention to a particular issue.
Demonstrations, picketing, strikes and boycotts: These are all
methods that are used to draw attention to a particular issue.
We are all familiar with these methods as they were widely
used during the struggle.
Nonviolent civil disobedience (satyagraha): This is a nonviolent
method developed by ``Mahatma'' Gandhi in which the
participants refuse to obey government rules, laws and
orders.
Violence: Violence is a method often resorted to when all
other methods have failed. There are serious disadvantages
to the use of violence and it remains a method that is seldom
justified.
9.3 FACTORS THAT WILL AFFECT THE SUCCESS OF

GROUPS
The role of groups as actors in politics is influenced by a wide range

of factors. Some of these are discussed below.
Organizational structure: Formally organized groups usually

play a greater role than unorganized groups. The nature of
the organizational structure is also important. Groups that
are well organized at ground level and at the same time
PLC201-U/1 125
possess a structure that offers access to influential positions
will play a greater role than groups without these.
Size: Larger groups usually have the advantage of numbers.
Size is not decisive, however, because the impact of the
group will be influenced by other factors. Smaller groups are
often more streamlined and may play a bigger role under
certain circumstances. Size also implies the nature of a
group's membership.
Cohesion: Cooperation between members can significantly
influence the role of a group. This is why large groups with
little cohesion (solidarity) between members are often less
significant than smaller groups with greater group cohesion.
Leadership: Leadership is an important factor in determining
a group's role as actor in politics. Good leadership can often
achieve more than poor leadership. (Study the section on
political leaders as actors in politics again.) Nevertheless,
competition among existing and potential leadership may
lead to factions that could become disruptive.
Status: Status is another important factor. By virtue of the
nature of their membership or for what they stand (eg, a
particular ideology), some groups have a more significant
influence than others. Status in this respect is determined by
society and will vary from place to place and will depend on
the particular circumstances. Status may often also change
from time to time.
Access: Groups with access to influential positions or decision
makers are usually more significant actors than groups that
do not have such access. The latter groups may nevertheless
become prominent but problematic actors in politics,
especially when they are denied access.
Funds: Money is needed for the activities of groups. Groups
that have a permanent organizational structure have a
particular need for funds, for instance for paying staff.
Correspondence, advertisements and so on carry financial
implications. Groups that are financially strong will accord-
ingly be able to achieve more than groups that are financially
weak.
Methods: Groups use many methods in their activities to
achieve their goals. These methods will vary considerably
from group to group and be influenced by a variety of
factors. Of particular importance is the nature of the political
opportunities available to groups. Groups that have unre-
126
strained access will use more conventional methods than
groups that do not have access. The latter will more often
turn to more unconventional methods, such as strikes and
violence. The choice of methods may furthermore be
determined by the ideological orientation of interest groups.
Groups with relatively pragmatic pro-system attitudes also
tend to use more conventional methods. Groups with strong
ideological convictions aimed at radical changes are more
inclined to less conventional methods. Other factors that
influence the choice of methods are the material, organiza-
tional and intellectual resources at the disposal of particular
interest groups. Well-organized, financially strong groups
are able to make use of more sophisticated methods. Factors
that influence the methods chosen are therefore similar to the
factors that influence the role of groups as political actors.
Interest groups and political parties are particular types of
groups. Although the methods that they employ are very
similar, some methods are used more often by one than by
the other. Certain methods may influence the status of a
group. Violence, for instance, may focus the attention on
certain issues but is seldom socially acceptable.
Type of group: Groups may be classified into different
categories according to certain similarities and differences.
Informal groups, for instance, will usually be less important
as political actors. The roles of different types of interest
groups and political parties will also vary.
The nature of the political system: Although group theories are
based on the assumption that groups are responsible for all
political activities in the political system, it should be borne
in mind that not all political systems are accessible to all
groups. It is also possible that particular types of groups may
be excluded altogether. Other aspects of the political system,
such as the form of state, form of regime and form of
government, will also influence the role of certain actors in
politics.
Membership. Quality of membership and the commitment of
the members to the goals of the group may affect the role of
the group and its success.
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9.4 WHAT GROUPS ARE IMPORTANT IN POLITICS?
Groups as such are not necessarily important actors in politics. They
only become of real importance when they become the focus of
government action, start providing input into government actions,
or respond to government actions. A variety of groups may become
important political actors. For our purposes the following groups
will be discussed in this and subsequent study units:
interest groups (Study Unit 10)

political parties (Study Unit 11)
elites (Study Unit 12)
ethnic groups (this study unit)
nations (this study unit)
class (this study unit)
ETHNIC GROUPS
Few states have ethnically homogeneous populations. Ethnic
groups are often important actors, both in ethnically homogeneous
states and in states that do not have an ethnically homogeneous
population. There are many misconceptions as to what an ethnic
group is. An ethnic group is firstly a biological group or at least a
group that believes that they form a biological group. An example
of this is the Jewish people who believe that they are all descendants
a network of kinship of Jacob. In other words, an ethnic group consists of a network of
kinship. Sometimes an ethnic group may claim that they are the
descendant of a single ancestor, but this is not necessarily the case.
In order to distinguish an ethnic group from other biological
groups, such as the family, the criterion is that an ethnic group
should be biologically self-perpetuating. In other words, the group
should not be dependent on other similar groups for its biological
survival. This does not imply that marriages outside the group
biological survival never take place. On the contrary, marriage to outsiders takes place
in most ethnic groups, but such marriages are not essential for the
biological survival of the group.
Because there is an extended network of kinship, with close contact
between members, a particular culture develops together with a
structure of authority within the group. The members also use a
language and culture particular language to communicate with one another. Language
and culture need not necessarily be peculiar to a certain group. For
instance, few Welshmen, Scots and Basques still use their, own
language. Various ethnic groups may use the same language Ð for
128
instance, English is the medium of communication of various
ethnic groups throughout the world including various non-English
groups in South Africa. Similarly, Afrikaans is a language used by
various ethnic groups in South Africa. An aspect that is exclusive to
collective memory a particular ethnic group is its collective memory in which its
history and experience are recorded and which is passed on from
one generation to the next. Each person therefore inherits member-
ship of one or more ethnic groups. The extent to which a person will
identify with the ethnic character of his or her group and the extent
to which the groups will allow him or her to associate with them
will depend on the group dynamics and the group's interaction
with the individual. Sometimes honorary membership of a
particular ethnic group may be awarded to an outsider, as in the
case of Emily Hobhouse among the Afrikaners.
race An ethnic group should be distinguished from race and nation. Race
is determined by the classification of people on the basis of certain
physical features. Race therefore does not necessarily indicate a
biological link, although there is often some overlapping. It is, in
fact, possible for people of different races to belong to one ethnic
group. The Jewish people are an example of a multiracial ethnic
group. There are usually also different ethnic groups within a
particular race. It is possible for the boundaries of a particular ethnic
group to coincide with racial lines. Amerindians in the USA belong
to a race group that differs from the other race groups in the USA.
That is not necessarily the case. There are various ethnic groups
among blacks in South Africa, such as Ndebele, Tswana, Xhosa and
Zulu.
It is important to emphasize once again that ethnic groups become

important as actors only once an individual starts acting in terms of
his or her ethnic identity and when the ethnic group starts acting on
behalf of its members. When a state has a heterogeneous
population, the possibility exists for ethnic groups to be important
political actors in the state and to contribute important input into its
political system.
There are many reasons why ethnic groups may be important

actors. A person's ethnic identity is one dimension of his or her
identity hierarchy that consists of varying priorities. The impor-
tance of a person's ethnic identity will depend on certain conditions,
for example discrimination.
importance of ethnic Ethnic groups may become important actors in politics under the
groups following circumstances:
PLC201-U/1 129
In states that have ethnically heterogeneous populations,
individuals are more aware of their ethnic identity, for the
very reason that they come into contact with individuals
with a different identity. People who frequently come into
contact with others who have a different home language will
become more aware of the fact that they differ from them in
some respects.
When the group character of an ethnic group differs
drastically from the dominant character of the state, ethnicity
will become a more important actor. For instance, in cases
where polygamous marriages are allowed by a certain ethnic
group but prohibited by the state, the ethnic group character
may be in conflict with the ``cultural'' character of the state.
Input in the political system by the ethnic group in this
respect may be expected.
Ethnic groups may therefore support value systems and
ideologies that may be in conflict with the predominant
value system of the state, and also differ from the value
systems of other ethnic groups in the state.
It is also possible that certain ethnic groups may feel
excluded from the benefits that the state offers its inhabi-
tants, but may nevertheless be included in certain disadvant-
ages. For instance, the members of a particular ethnic group
may find that they are responsible for paying tax, but are
excluded from the top positions in the country's adminis-
tration and government due to certain factors relating to
their ethnicity. The former USSR is an example in this regard.
Although there was no discrimination against individuals on
the basis of their language and culture, in practice it
happened that only individuals who were fluent in Russian
were able to secure top posts in government and adminis-
tration.
Ethnic groups often have some political structure of
authority at their disposal. It is possible for this structure
of authority to come into conflict with the structure of
authority of the state in which they find themselves. The
political leaders of various ethnic groups may also compete
with one another for positions of leadership in the state and
this may bring ethnic groups into conflict with one another.
Alternatively, the structure of authority of an ethnic group
may become an important channel through which the
individuals of a particular ethnic group may strive to protect
130
and further their interests. These interests need not necessa-
rily be peculiar to a particular ethnic group. An example is
the promotion of health services, an interest that may be
shared with other groups. Because there is a certain degree of
group solidarity among members of the ethnic group, this
characteristic is used to promote the interests of such group,
regardless of whether such interests are peculiar to the
group.
It also happens that ethnic groups organize themselves
politically within a certain state in order to protect and
promote their interests. It has been found that in ethnically
heterogeneous states, such as Belgium, ethnic groups usually
support certain political parties and even resort to forming
political parties that primarily serve their interests.
Maintaining their own group identity vis-aÁ-vis other groups
in the state is another important factor. It is not always clear
why some groups seem to strive inherently to preserve their
group identity. All we can say about such cases is that it is of
primary importance for some people and groups to maintain
their group identity. The way group identity is maintained
and preserved in such cases also varies. Some groups are
inclined to cling to the traditions of the past, as in some
Amerindian tribes especially in the Amazon region of Brazil
who strive to preserve their way of life against the onslaught
of modernization. The same is true of the Amish in the USA
and the San in Southern Africa. Other groups succeed to a
large extent in internalizing (ie, adopting) cultural aspects of
other ethnic groups that they encounter and are able to adapt
to the changed and changing circumstances of moderniza-
tion, without sacrificing their own group identity. In this
respect the Jewish people, who often adopted aspects of the
culture of other groups, intermarried and even adopted the
language of such groups, without losing their own identity,
are an example.
Individuals possess an ethnic dimension in their identity
hierarchy. For some individuals, this dimension is unim-
portant, while to others, it is very important. Some
differentiation is therefore needed in the way people are
treated with regard to their ethnic identity. It is sometimes
assumed that all individuals in a state will regard their ethnic
identity as equally important or unimportant, but not all
individuals feel the same about their ethnic identity, and
PLC201-U/1 131
particular individuals will not feel the same about their
ethnic identity under all circumstances.
assimilation
Ethnic diversity is not always seen in a positive light in all
states. Consequently, in attempting to build nations, efforts
are often made to force ethnic groups into conformity.
Because it is usually the dominant group that attempts to
assimilate others, such attempts at assimilation are seldom
successful, for they are frequently interpreted as domination
by one particular ethnic group. Attempts at assimilation
often emphasize and politicize differences rather than bring
about conformity between cultures. Today the tendency is to
regard ethnic groups as a fact and to look for ways in which
ethnic diversity may be accommodated in the state. Two
basic means of accommodation are found. Firstly, the group
character is accommodated as in the case of a consociational
democracy. Secondly, individuals are granted extended
individual rights that prohibit discrimination on the basis
of their ethnic character. The position of ethnic groups in a
state remains controversial and no final solution has been
found for problems in this respect. The problem is
compounded by the fact that the character of an ethnic
group is usually subject to change and that ethnicity is an
amorphous phenomenon. Although it has been pointed out
race
that race and ethnicity are not the same, race may be a
political actor in the same way as ethnicity.
NATIONS AS POLITICAL ACTORS

The nation is a far more complex and potentially more problematic
actor in the state. Note that the tendency among some academics
(and especially in the popular press) to equate the nation with the
state is incorrect. A nation is characterised by a sense of loyalty
among its members and towards the culture of the nation.
A nation has a homogeneous culture character and the sense of

solidarity among its members is significant. In addition, a nation is
always politically organized and strives towards some form of self-
determination. This does not necessarily mean self-determination in
an own state. A nation may also decide in a self-determining way to
organize in a particular political allegiance with other groups. The
important aspect is that the nation itself will determine the extent of
its self-determination that it is prepared to sacrifice. What is often
regarded as nationalism in states with heterogeneous populations is
132
no more than common patriotism, in other words, a love of and
loyalty towards a common fatherland.
A nation displays many similarities to an ethnic group. The

essential characteristics of a nation, however, is a spirit of solidarity
among its members and its pursuit of some form of self-
determination. A nation does not need to be either a biological or
an ethnic group. In practice, however, it would seem as if a nation
seldom stretches beyond a certain ethnic group. Just as a nation
need not necessarily be an ethnic group, an ethnic group is not
necessarily a nation. In fact, members of an ethnic group need not
even have a sense of solidarity. Ethnicity becomes relevant only
when individuals act on the basis of their group identity and when
the group starts acting on behalf of its members.
Nations are important political actors for the following reasons:
Nations in a multinational state may become problematic

actors for the very reason that a nation always strives
towards self-determination. The former USSR, Yugoslavia
and Czechoslovakia were multinational states that divided
into various independent states because the different nations
sought greater self-determination than the political systems
in these states allowed. Other states, such as Belgium
(Walloon and Fleming) and Spain (Basques and Catalo-
nians), also involve nations that demand increased self-
determination.
The insistence on self-determination may become a source of
conflict within a particular state if other members of the
population are not in favour of self-determination, or if there
are differences of opinion as to the place and role of a
particular nation in a state. Examples in this respect are
Northern Ireland and Yugoslavia.
Two different nations may also compete with each other for
sole control of a particular state. For a long time, this was the
case in Israel.
Ethnic and similar groups, such as racial and nation groups,
may therefore be important actors in the political system of a
state. ``Nationalism, as the most potent discourse of
collective identity, appears alike in projects of unity and
division. It may be an irony of history ... that western Europe
is pursuing the path of unification at the same time that
eastern European countries are being rent by nationalist
splits'' (Calhoun 1994: 308).
PLC201-U/1 133
CLASSES AS POLITICAL ACTORS
Classes are the last manifestation of groups as political actors in the
state that we will examine in this study unit. Class refers to the
different groups in a particular society that are the result of a
particular type of social stratification of such society. Both class and
social stratification
social stratification are controversial terms that may be defined in
different ways. Social stratification may be seen as the hierarchical
classification of society into certain strata or layers. Individuals
within a particular stratum possess the same characteristics and are
equal to one another, but they differ from both the upper and the
lower strata of society in characteristics. Individuals in the different
strata are in some way or another unequal to one another as regards
status. Mitchell (1977:182) defines social stratification as follows:
It is a particular kind of social differentiation and necessarily

conveys the notion of hierarchical ranking, a ranking which
produces strata into one of which all members of the society
under investigation fall and within which all are equal but
between which there are recognized and sanctioned differences
which place one higher, or lower, than another in the admitted
social order.
In the majority of states the boundaries between these strata are not
always clear, and in some states the stratification of the population
is not a major division or classification of the different individuals in
that state. In most societies people are nevertheless grouped
according to their level of education, occupation, income and even
certain customs (think of certain status symbols).
Each stratum becomes important as a group and as a political actor

when there is a pattern of relationships among the individuals in
that stratum as well as between the different strata.
There are several theories on the role of strata in a society. One

common misconception is to regard the stratification of a society as
unacceptable to the society. In history there are many examples of
stratification that were accepted by society. For instance, the Indian
caste system was acceptable to that society for thousands of years.
For a long time, the ranks known as estates (such as the Estates
General) in Europe were also acceptable.
Classes are usually associated with the stratification of modern

societies. In both the Indian caste system and the ranks system of
Europe there was virtually no possibility of social mobility, because
it was impossible for people to move from one stratum to another
134
through their own doing. Mobility was possible, but to a limited
extent, through marriage and reward for service (eg, by being
knighted).
In modern societies, classes are characterized by both upward and

downward mobility. Therefore social classes in modern society
usually have an economic basis.
Karl Marx, later Marxist authors and the neo-Marxists are probably
the best-known theorists on class. This very relationship between
class and the economy inspired Marx's exposition on the role of
classes in society. According to Marx, classes are determined by
their relationship to the means of production and the distribution of
wealth. The ruling minority have acquired their position for the
very reason that they have control over the means of production.
Members of the majority in a society possess very little and have
only their labour to sell. According to Marx, there are two basic
classes in society, namely the class that possesses the means of
production and forms the ruling class, and the working class, who
are exploited by the ruling class.
According to elite theory, it is possible for the elite to use power for
their own benefit, and also to use power for the benefit of others
and for the benefit of society as a whole. (See also the discussion in
study unit 8 in which it was asserted that political leaders often
serve the interests of others because they are of the opinion that in
so doing they can best serve their own interests.) In contrast, class
theory as set out by Marx asserts that power is used only in the
interest of the proprietorial class.
In the communist manifesto Marx sees the history of man as the

history of a class struggle. According to him, the working class will
become increasingly revolutionary, eventually establishing a
``dictatorship of the proletariat'' in a revolutionary way.
It cannot be denied that certain classes are important actors due to

the fact that as a class they share common interests. In this regard
we can think of the role played by trade unions in various states. To
a large extent, the political rights that we often take for granted,
such as the right to vote and human rights, are the result of the
insistence of the emergent classes, such as the bourgeoisie, on their
rightful place in politics. These rights did not remain limited to the
bourgeoisie, but were extended to the other classes.
Academic opinions differ when it comes to the extent to which

classes and in particular class consciousness are important in the
PLC201-U/1 135
state. There are two divergent opinions in this regard. The first
school of thought is of the opinion that class differences and the
concomitant class consciousness are gradually disappearing,
especially as a result of increasing opportunities in the industria-
lized state and the distribution of wealth. And then there are those
who feel that these aspects are, in fact, growing increasingly
stronger.
If class corresponds with other group identities, such as language

and ethnicity, it may be an important political actor in the state. The
more similarities the members of a group display, the greater the
chance of cohesion. However, if there are very few similarities
among groups in a state, the potential for divisions (cleavages) and
conflict is greater. In certain circumstances class may be a cause of
such divisions and conflict.
Academics who wish to study the role of classes as actors in politics

are faced with a number of problems. The first is the problem of
determining what classes there are, what the boundaries between
the different classes are and what criteria may be used as indicators
of class consciousness. In other words, what can be regarded as
appropriate indicators of class? For instance, income distribution
(see Lane & Ersson 1993) may be used, but then it should be borne
in mind that it is indicative only of the income of ``groups'' and not
of the presence of a class consciousness among such groups making
them aware of their intragroup commonalities and of their
intergroup differences.
Membership of trade unions, for instance, is not necessarily

indicative of a class consciousness, but may indicate the extent to
which members of the working class and even professional groups
have formed a pattern of relationships with one another and with
other groups in the state. The question is whether such patterns
should be interpreted in terms of class or of a particular interest. In
other words, are we dealing primarily with an interest group or a
particular class? If class manifests in a particular organized interest,
it can be expected that class will be an important actor in a political
system.
To sum up:
In summary, it should be clear that, in a political system, groups
may come into being on a variety of grounds and may be important
political actors. It is necessary nonetheless to guard against
136
generalization, because the position and role of particular groups as
political actors may vary from one political system to another.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 9.1
(1) Name all the concepts discussed in this study unit and explain
each concept in one sentence only.
(2) Write down the headings used in this discussion and in each
instance write down the essence discussed under each heading in
five sentences.
(3) Give ten reasons why groups are important in politics and in the
study of political behaviour.
(4) In 200 words, discuss the factors that could affect the role of
groups in politics.
(5) What methods can groups use in their political activities?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Calhoun, C (ed). 1994. Social theory and the politics of identity. Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
Gamble, JK (Jr), Irwin, Z T, Redenius, C M & Weber, J W. 1992. Introduction to
Jackson, R J & Jackson, D. 1997. A comparative introduction to political science.
Lane, J E & Ersson, S. 1993. Politics and society in Western Europe. London: Sage.
PLC201-U/1 137
STUDY
UNIT 10
POLITICAL ACTORS:
INTEREST GROUPS
INRTODUCTION
In the previous study unit mention was made of the fact that groups are important political
actors. Groups may provide channels for our own political activities, but at the same time
they are also responsible for political activities in their own right. Interest groups represent
one particular type of group. In this study unit we are going to answer the question, ``What
is the role of interest groups in political behaviour?'' To answer this question it is important
to answer the following focus questions:
FOCUS What are the characteristics of interest groups?

QUESTIONS What types of interest groups can be identified?
What are the functions of interest groups?
What factors will affect the success of interest groups?
What are the disadvantages of interest groups?
10.1 WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INTEREST

GROUPS?
The following characteristics are common among interest groups:
138
An interest group is in the first instance a group. It therefore
has all the characteristics of groups in general. It is therefore
a collection of individuals who have one or more character-
istics in common. These characteristics will then form the
basis of the interests of the group.
Not all groups are necessarily interest groups, for an interest
group is characterized by a conscious cooperation among its
members.
This cooperation usually centres on the promotion and
protection of the interests of that group. Interest groups aim
at gaining and exercising influence in order to protect and
promote their interests. In doing so they often make use of
the following channels to gain influence: parliament, leading
politicians and other influential persons, the bureaucracy,
courts, political parties (incl opposition parties) communica-
tions media, other interest groups and supranational
organizations. In trying to gain influence they may make
use of any one or combination of methods that groups in
general often make use of.
There are many interest groups that deliberately try to
protect and promote their interests without any political
implications. An interest group is therefore not necessarily
politically relevant.
Nevertheless, all interest groups are potentially politically
relevant. An interest group will be politically relevant as
soon as it becomes the focus of government action or starts
contributing input into the political system or responding to
output by the authorities. A group that meets to discuss
literature is not a political interest group as such. It is
nevertheless an interest group due to the fact that members
strive to promote their interest by recruiting new members
and ensuring that booksellers will inform them of the latest
releases. They may then find that their nonpolitical activities
are being restricted by high taxes on imported books and
censorship regulations. This means that they are affected by
authoritative decisions and are likely to respond. As part of
their nonpolitical activities, they may wish to introduce their
interest in literature to less affluent communities, but the
group may not have the necessary funds. Members conse-
quently decide to appeal to the authorities for possible
assistance, even if it is only in the form of reduced import
duties. In this way, an ordinary interest group provides
PLC201-U/1 139
input into the political system and may be regarded as a
political interest group. Many interest groups are not of a
political nature as such but may in future become of political
importance.
10.2 WHAT TYPES OF INTEREST GROUP CAN BE

IDENTIFIED?
Interest groups may be classified in terms of a variety of criteria.

When a interest group exerts pressure on the government while
Pressure groups trying to protect and promote its interests, we usually regard it as a
pressure group. A pressure group is therefore an interest group, but
an interest group is not necessarily a pressure group. For this
reason, some authors draw a distinction between political interest
groups and nonpolitical interest groups. This distinction is regarded
classification of as too artificial, because any interest group has the potential to
interest groups become a political interest group.
Interest groups may be classified according to the type of interest

that they represent. Examples are: agricultural organizations and
unions, trade unions, sports bodies, housewives leagues, environ-
mental groups and cultural groups.
In terms of their organizational structure, the following interest

groups are usually distinguished:
DIAGRAM 10.1
Classification of interest groups
Interest groups
unorganised organised
anomic nonassociational associational institutional
There are two basic types of interest group that are organized (see
Jackson & Jackson 1997:327±328):
associational interest Associational interest groups: These interest groups are

groups organized on a permanent basis with the explicit purpose of
articulating the interest of specific groups. Not all their
140
actions are necessarily political. Where trade unions, for
example, articulate the interests of workers strictly within the
boundaries of a particular industry and government action
or measures do not enter into the matter, their actions are not
regarded as political. If government measures are impli-
cated, such actions are regarded as political. Political parties
are particular types of associational interest groups.
promotional interest Two further subtypes of associational groups are: promo-
groups tional groups and protective groups. Promotional groups
(sometimes referred to as cause or attitude groups) have an
open membership (ie, anyone interested may join) and
usually promote a particular issue or value. Examples would
be anti-abortion groups, environmental and antinuclear
protective interest groups. Protective groups (sometimes also referred to as
groups sectional or functional groups) have a closed membership
centred on a particular interest. Probably one of the best-
known examples of a protective interest group is a trade
union.
Associational interest groups are quite common in devel-
oped state, but less common in developing (where they have
not yet gained a firm place in society) and totalitarian state
(where they are often not allowed to develop or exist).
institutional interest Institutional interest groups: Organizations formed for
groups reasons other than interest promotion, or political activity,
may from time to time undertake the promotion of their own
interests or the interests of client groups. Organizations
acting in this way as interest articulators are referred to as
institutional interest groups. The primary function of a large
multinational business and industrial organization is, for
example, industrial production and trade. Occasionally,
however, such an undertaking may act as an articulator of
its own or of general economic interests. For analytical
purposes, it is regarded as an interest organization when it
does this. Similarly, a government department (eg, a
department of agriculture) is instituted primarily to admin-
ister legislation on agricultural affairs (an executive func-
tion). Yet there are times when such a department acts as the
articulator of its own interests or those of its client group (ie,
farmers) Ð in which case that department is regarded as an
institutional structure of interest articulation. Similarly,
universities are institutions with functions that are not
politically or interest related. However, we find that at
present in South Africa, due to the many problems that
PLC201-U/1 141
universities are experiencing, they are, in fact, working to
promote and protect some of their own interests as well as
the interests of their client group Ð students.
There are also two basic types of interest groups that are
unorganized (see Jackson & Jackson 1997: 328±329).
nonassociational Nonassociational groups: Nonassociational interest groups

interest group refer to smaller groups of people, such as tribal chiefs or
other ``very important people'', who articulate the interests
of a wider group on an ad hoc (temporary from time to time)
unorganized basis. The key term here is ``lack of formal
organization''. For example, a group of academics who
circulate letters or petitions about government policy on a
``single issue'' or ad hoc basis. Nonassociational groups are
common in developing countries but less common in
developed countries. In the latter preference is usually given
to organizations that are formally organized.
anomic interest group Anomic interest groups: Anomic interest groups are also
unorganized. Their distinctive feature is that they usually
originate spontaneously in response to pressing political
events. Examples are protest marches and riots that start off
as spontaneous reactions to price increases, and police
action. Recent South African history presents many examples
of this. The political scientist must, however, find a way of
distinguishing between spontaneous riots and riots orga-
nized consciously by associational, institutional or non-
associational structures as a method of political action. Note,
for example, the protests against American action in Iraq,
during 2003.
It is also important to realize that interest groups often are not or do

not remain internal phenomena of a particular country. The
internationalization internationalization of interest groups is increasingly becoming
important. Internationalization implies that similar interest groups
from different countries organize themselves into organizations
with international membership. Examples are the World Council of
Churches (and other religious organizations) and a variety of
international sports organizations. Even trade unions, especially
under the influence of communism, often cooperate internationally.
nongovernmental Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are an important set of

organizations international interest organizations in this regard. NGOs are
international organizations (or often organizations that receive
international funding) of which the members are not countries but
142
private groups of individuals, for example the International Red
Cross (see Gamble et al 1992:444). NGO's are often involved in
charity work.
NGOs are increasingly becoming important political actors and

they are often seen as guardians who work against the abuse of
power in the state. It should be remembered that NGOs are only
accountable to their sponsors and donors, that they are seldom
organised democratically, and that they are often used as fronts for
hidden agendas.
When it comes to classifying interest groups (or any other type of

political formation) always keep in mind that no single set of
classifying principles is intrinsically better than another. Whichever
type of classification one uses must inevitably depend on the
approach being followed and the research objectives in mind.
AC TIVIT Y 10.1
Read the following scenario and then answer the questions.

The introduction of a quota system for fishing on Big-Tree Island
has caused widespread dissatisfaction on the island.The owners
of fishing trawlers have now formed the Association for Boat-Own-
ers in order to look after their interests and to approach govern-
ment on the whole issue. Fearing a reduction in the availability of
jobs, the crewmen have formed the Union of Crewmen, to look
after the interests of those who work on the trawlers and assist
those who might lose their jobs. Likewise, those working in the
harbour have formed the Harbour Workers' Union.
After holding several meetings, the three abovementioned inter-
est groups decided to draw up a petition and to hand it to Presi-
dent FigTree. One of the boat-owners is a personal friend of Pres
Fig Tree, however, and informed the latter of the widespread dis-
satisfaction on the island.
President FigTree subsequently decided to meet with representa-
tives of the three interest groups in order to try to solve the pro-
blems that the fishing industry on the island now faces.
(1) What type of interest groups are the Association for Boat-Own-
ers, Union of Crewmen and the HarbourWorkers' Union?
(2) What interests does each of them represent?
(3) What actions did they take to promote and protect their inter-
ests?
(4) Why do you think Pres FigTree decided to consult with them?
PLC201-U/1 143
(5) Do you think that these interest groups have an important role
to play in the political affairs of the island?
(6) Do you think that all their activities will be of a political nature in
future?
All three interest groups in the above scenario are associational

interest groups. However, the Union of Crewmen and the Harbour
Workers' Union are both trade unions (note that in some states
trade unions are required to register officially as trade unions). The
Association for Boat-Owners represents the interests of the boat-
owners (they would probably be capitalist in nature). The other two
interest groups represent the interests of workers (labour). To
protect and promote their interests, they firstly organized them-
selves. They held meetings where all three interests were
represented and decided to send a petition to the president.
President Fig Tree was made aware of the issue by his friend. It is
important to note that interest groups often make use of contacts to
gain and exert influence. Though people may differ in this regard, it
should be clear that the three interest groups could play a positive
role in the affairs of the island. However, not all their activities will
be of a political nature, in future.
10.3 FUNCTIONS OF INTEREST GROUPS
The role of an interest group as a direct political actor in the state is

important. An interest group performs several functions which may
be related to politics. The following are important functions of
interest groups (see Jackson & Jackson 1997: 330; Heywood
1997:259):
The main function of interest groups is to protect and
promote the interests of their member or their client groups.
This is usually done by articulating the interests of that
particular group. Structural functionalists refer to this
interest articulation function as interest articulation. It is important to note that
interest articulation is an important function in the political
sphere. Without being aware of the problems and interests of
particular groups, the authorities will not be able to act, nor
to formulate policy if necessary. For example, the plight of
unmarried fathers to have access to their children, is now
being addressed in government policy in South Africa. This
144
would not have been the case, if particular interest groups
did not articulate the interests of unmarried fathers in this
regard. They therefore bring issues that governments are not
aware of or ignore, to the attention of government.
interest aggregation A function relevant to interest articulation is interest
aggregation. This refers to the process by which the vast
variety of political views held and demands made by
individuals are converted into a smaller number of specific
views and demands which can then be promoted as the
policy preferences of the particular interest group. For
example, in the case of unmarried fathers who experience a
variety of problems it was possible for each unmarried father
to take the issue up all by himself, but by organizing it
became possible to aggregate a variety of similar interests
into more meaningful ``chunks''.
However, as in the case of all political structures, interest
groups have a multitude of functions to perform. These
include the recruitment and socialization of members and
officials in leadership positions as well as the provision of
certain material and cultural facilities (such as, in the case of
trade unions, financial compensation or food for workers on
strike, and sports facilities). Political scientists have a special
interest in those activities of interest groups that have a
bearing on such processes as public policy formulation,
legislation, and the implementation of legislation and policy.
They often act as mediators between the government and the
individual. In this way they do check government power.
They may in fact promote political participation by having
access to government.
They may also canvass support for particular issues and in
this sense may also be of help to a government in getting
policy accepted by the population. Trade-offs between
government and interest groups may be important in this
sense. Government will address a particular issue in
exchange for an interest group's support on another issue.
The more formal associational interest groups often have
expert knowledge on certain issues e.g. needs of labourers
and may therefore provide an important source of knowl-
edge to government. This expert knowledge may also be
used to increase the knowledge of the electorate in general.
PLC201-U/1 145
10.4 WHAT FACTORS WILL AFFECT THE ROLE OF
INTEREST GROUPS?
Most of the factors discussed in Study Unit 9 will affect the role of
interest groups. However, interest groups are particularly vulner-
able to the nature of the political system. Interest groups are often
not allowed to exist in totalitarian states. If they are allowed, serious
restrictions are often placed on their activities. In developing
countries, they have often not yet fully developed their range of
activities. In political systems where interest groups are allowed to
operate in the political sphere, but where political parties are weak,
interest groups may, in fact, perform many of the functions of
political parties. In South Africa, during the years of the struggle,
trade unions were often used to structure the voice of the
disenfranchised and unenfranchised.
In a state like the United States of America that is characterized by a

decentralized political system, there are often multiple access
points. Therefore the role of interest groups in the political
decision-making of the United States of America is well developed
and important.
10.5 WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF INTEREST

GROUPS?
Interest groups are often criticized for a number of reasons. The

following are important in this regard (see also Heywood 1997:259).
It is often said that interest groups that have vast resources of

money and expertise will dominate the political scene at the
expense of other, even competing, interests.
By accepting donations they make themselves vulnerable to
the interests of those who donated the money and expertise.
This way, interest groups often become front organizations
that are used for intelligence purposes and even to
destabilize a particular political system.
Interest groups are often said to be divisive for they seldom
represent general interests.
The power that they exert is not necessarily legitimate.
They are not accountable to the electorate and could, in fact,
undermine the democratic process in a democracy.
They are often involved in clandestine deals Ð even with
146
government Ð of which the public may have little knowl-
edge.
They may successfully block the implementation of public
policy and by doing so, in fact, make a state ungovernable.
To sum up:
Interest groups are undoubtedly important as political actors. They
have an important and positive role to play in the political activities
in a particular society. However, interest groups also have some
disadvantages that should be noted.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 10.1
(1) Name all the concepts discussed in this study unit and explain
each concept in one sentence only.
(2) Write down the headings used in this discussion and in each
instance write down the essence discussed under each heading in
five sentences.
(3) Discuss the various types of interest groups in 150 words.
(4) Give ten reasons why interest groups are important in politics and
the study of political behaviour.
(5) In 200 words discuss the factors that can affect the role of
interest groups in politics (also pay attention to the factors
discussed in Study Unit 9).
(6) What methods can interest groups use in their political activities?
(7) Make a point summary of the role of interest groups as political
actors.
This self-assessment exercise is based on A comparative introduction to
political science by Jackson and Jackson (1997).
of the book, determine all sections in which the authors discuss
interest groups.
(2) Make a point summary of the authors' discussion of interest
groups.
(3) Indicate the similarities and differences between the discussions
in this study guide and the discussions in the said book.
PLC201-U/1 147
The self-assessment exercise is based on Politics by Heywood (1997).
of the book, determine all sections in which the author discusses
interest groups.
(2) Make a point summary of the author's discussion of interest
groups.
(3) Indicate the similarities and differences between the discussions
in this guide and the discussions in the said book.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
library.
Prentice Hall.
Press.
Chatham House.
148
STUDY
UNIT 11
POLITICAL ACTORS: POLITICAL

PARTIES
INTRODUCTION
Reference has already been made to the fact that a political party is a particular type of
group. In this study unit we are going to answer the question, ``What is the role of political
parties in politics and political behaviour?'' To answer this question it is important to
answer the following focus questions:
FOCUS What are the characteristics of political parties?

QUESTIONS What types of political parties may be identified?
What are the functions of political parties?
What are the disadvantages of political parties?
What factors will affect the role of political parties?
11.1 WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL

PARTIES?
In Study Unit 10 we mentioned that a political party is a particular

type of associational interest group. Political parties therefore
PLC201-U/1 149
overlap with interest groups (but note that not all interest groups
are political parties) and share certain characteristics and even
functions with interest groups. Some of these characteristics are:
Political parties, like interest groups, are groups that
represent particular interests they wish to protect and
promote. Some parties may represent only a single issue
single-issue parties like, for example, a pensioner's party (often called single-
issue parties.) More often political parties represent a
catch-all parties number of interests, often called catch-all parties.
While interest groups try to protect and promote their
interests by gaining and exerting influence on the authorities,
influence versus power political parties strive to gain power in order to protect and
promote their interests. This is usually the distinguishing
characteristic of a political party. However care should be
taken not to regard any group, for example a number of
military generals, wishing to take control of power, as a
political party.
factions A political party is not the same as a faction. A faction is
usually a rather stable grouping of individuals within a
political party. In the old National Party we had the verligtes
and the verkramptes and within the ranks of the African
National Congress, the doves and the hawks.
movement Neither is a political party the same as a movement. A
movement is characterized by collective behaviour and not
by organizational unity. It may, in fact, include several
groups and even political parties that are loosely cooperating
to realize a common goal. It is therefore not a political party,
but occasionally it may lead to the establishment of a new
political party.
ideological orientation Political parties are inclined to follow a particular ideology.
Most political parties are inclined to interpret their interests
and the protection and promotion of their interests in terms
of a particular ideology. Some political parties may, in fact,
be exclusively ideological in nature. These are usually
extremist parties on both the right and the left wing. (The
right wing are usually ultraconservative in nature while the
left wing usually advocate radical change.)
Bear in mind that a political party represents interests at

decision-making level. Therefore the relationship between
those on whose behalf the political party acts or whose
interests are represented, on the one hand and the political
party on the other is of the utmost importance. Accordingly,
150
the trend among academics is to relate political parties to a
democratic form of regime, or to situations where the
electorate may elect representatives (eg, in one-party states).
In certain circumstances parties will use other methods to
obtain power. In former colonial areas nationalist move-
ments and their parties Ð often driven by the repressive
tendencies of colonial governments, made use of military
means to obtain power. Notable examples have been the
parties, and their military wings, in southern Africa during
the struggle years.
An important characteristic of a political party is that it
participates in elections. However this should not be seen as
a prerequisite for a political party. An organization does not
have to participate in elections to be regarded as a political
party. Neither does a political party have to be represented
in a legislature in order to be regarded as a political party. A
political party may, in fact, decide to boycott an election, or
may not have obtained the required votes to win a seat in a
legislature.
11.2 WHAT TYPES OF POLITICAL PARTIES CAN BE

IDENTIFIED?
Political parties can be classified in various ways. Some of the more

important classifications (depending on the criteria used) are
cadre, mass and catch-all parties

parties of representation and parties of integration
constitutional and revolutionary parties
left-wing and right-wing political parties
CADRE, MASS AND CATCH-ALL PARTIES

cadre parties A distinction is usually made between cadre parties and mass
mass parties parties. (see also jackson and jackson 1997: 314±317)
Cadre parties (also sometimes referred to as elite or caucus parties)

are created internally by members of the establishment, whereas
mass parties tend to be dominated externally by large numbers. In
cadre parties we find no formal affiliation between the voters and
the party. Membership is informal and entails no specific obliga-
tions for supporters. They try to canvass people of considerable
wealth, and the party `èlite'' take all decisions, collect funds,
PLC201-U/1 151
nominate the candidates, formulate the party programme and plan
party tactics. Here we find a sharp distinction between party and
electorate, but no fixed system for registering voters as members of
the party or for collecting regular financial contributions in the form
of membership fees paid to the party. Cadre parties are
decentralized and poorly integrated. As a rule, they are relatively
pragmatic in their approach to practical politics and their party
programme normally does not have a high ideological content.
Mass membership parties strive to register large numbers of voters

as party members. Members identify themselves very closely with
the party and demonstrate their loyalty to it. They are aware of the
party programme and principles and regularly contribute to the
finances of parties. Party membership calls for little more than the
completion of a form, a signature, a Rand or two per annum, and a
periodic demonstration of interest in the party. Unlike the activities
of the cadre party, those of the mass party cover far more than
elections. Its organization, which is usually based on a clearly
defined constitution and regulations, is more developed and
articulated than that of a cadre party. It develops its own leadership
corps which derives its prestige and power from the mass of party.
Membership of mass parties is therefore both symbolically and

substantively more important than that of cadre parties. Mass
parties are more centralized and more stably integrated as regards
general party structure. Their programme, too, usually includes a
strong ideological commitment. Mass parties therefore have clearly
defined procedures (regulations) and cherish certain expectations of
their card carrying members.
catch-all parties Catch-all parties is another category of political party that some
scholars, identify. According to these scholars, catch-all parties
developed from both mass parties and cadre parties. Catch-all
parties are dominated by their leaders, but seek to represent and
govern for a wider national interest. However, it is claimed that
their purpose is not to represent but to govern and for this purpose
they canvass for support wherever they can find it. In canvassing
for support, they still undertake to look after the interests of those
sections of the population (incl interest groups) that will support
them. So, even though they may not explicitly be formed around
particular interests, they still take care of particular interests. They
are also less ideological than a mass party (Hague et al 1997:132;
Heywood 1997: 231). Examples of modern day catch-all parties are
the Republican and the Democratic parties in the United States of
America, ``thier platforms become like large vats filled with as
152
many popular ideas and promises as possibles (Jackson and Jackson
1997:316)
PARTIES OF REPRESENTATION AND PARTIES OF INTEGRATION

The purpose of parties of representation is that they reflect the
opinions of the electorate. Politicians are therefore regarded as
``power-seeking creatures who are willing to adopt whatever
policies are likely to bring them success'' (Heywood 1997:232).
Parties of integration wish to shape opinion and to mobilize and

educate the masses.
CONSTITUTIONAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PARTIES

Constitutional parties accept the rules and constraints that provide
the legal framework in which they are allowed to operate. They
accept the existence of other parties as well as the competition
flowing from their existence. ``They recognize that they can be
voted out of power as easily as they can be voted into it'' (Heywood
1997:232). Most political parties in liberal democracies fall into this
category.
Revolutionary parties, on the other hand, do not accept the legal

framework. They are often found on the far right or the far left of
the political spectrum. They are usually anti-system, anti-constitu-
tional and have the overthrow of the existing political order as their
aim.
LEFTIST, CENTRIST AND RIGHTIST PARTIES

A very popular, though controversial, classification of political
parties is parties on the left and parties on the right. Traditionally,
parties on the right are political parties that are conservative in
nature and wish to preserve the traditional way of doing things.
Parties on the left are then those parties that advocate change and
are opposed to what is regarded as the traditional order. In most
instances nationalist and conservative parties are regarded as
rightist, while socialist and communists are seen as leftist. This
classification also gives rise to a third category, namely centrist
political parties. Centrist parties are usually pragmatic in nature Ð
that is, they are neither for nor against change. Liberal parties are
usually relatively centrist.
This classification is, to a large extent, controversial, for even a right
PLC201-U/1 153
wing party may have within its rank a left and a right faction thus
making it rather difficult to classify all political parties on a left-
right scale. More often it will be a political party's opposition or
support for socialism and communism that will determine whether
it is left or right.
11.3 WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES?
Political parties are important actors in politics and indispensable to

a democracy. However, political parties may also exist in non-
democratic political systems and even in totalitarian states. The
functions of political parties will therefore be influenced by the
circumstances within the political system. The following are
important functions of political parties: (see Jackson and Jackson
1997:319±320)
Representation. This is often regarded as the most important

function of political parties and, in fact, the reason for their
existence. Political parties seek representation in the ``halls of
power'' and in doing so canvass for votes among the
electorate. They then claim to represent those who voted for
them Ð often referred to as the constituency of the political
party. The constituency consists of the party members,
loyalists and supporters.
Interest articulation and aggregation. Political parties channel
certain interests and concerns over a particular issue. In the
process they voice (articulate) particular interests, but may
also group interests into manageable chunks (aggregation).
A related function is the gate-keeping function where trivial
matters fail to go through and priority is often given to more
important or serious interests and/or issues.
Recruitment of political leaders. In order to obtain representa-
tion in the ``halls of power'' it is important that political
parties select and recruit suitable people who could take up
the necessary positions. In doing so, political parties are
often responsible for providing a state with its political
leaders. If a party becomes a ruling party, it will largely
control the appointment of people to a number of public
positions. They therefore provide important training to
politicians and future political leaders.
Political socialization. As already discussed, political parties
are important agents of political socialization. Their effect on
154
individuals' values and attitudes would probably reinforce
existing attitudes, values and opinions. It is doubtful
whether people would join a party if they differed in their
basic values.
Political communication. Political parties may also act as
media of communication where they transmit political
messages between the senders and the communicators.
Governing and policy-making. The aim of political parties is to
gain access to power in order to govern and/or influence
policy. It is important to note that even if a political party is
not the ruling party or one of the ruling parties, as opposition
party it may still have an important say in the governing and
policy-making processes.
Political mobilization. In their daily activities political parties
may be an important agent of political education and of the
mobilization of public support for particular programmes.
Electioneering and structuring of the vote. Political parties are
responsible for election campaigns and structuring (order or
manage) the multitude of ideas and opinions that could be
expressed by the electorate.
Appeasing the masses. In nondemocratic and even in
totalitarian political systems, political parties are often used
to provide an outlet for the masses, even though the parties
may have very little influence on the process of government.
Political change. Political parties are seen as the leaders who
could bring about change within society Ð even revolu-
tionary change (as was the case with the Communist Party in
Russia during the 1917 Russian Revolution).
11.4 WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF POLITICAL

PARTIES?
Though political parties have an extremely important role to play in
politics there are also certain disadvantages to the role and position
of political parties.
Political parties may make it possible for radicals to obtain

unwarranted influence in the affairs of the state. This is why
many states have a threshold in the sense that a political
party must obtain a certain percentage of the votes in an
election before it may have any representation in parliament.
Nevertheless, antisystem and revolutionary parties often
PLC201-U/1 155
manage to play an important role in society, if not in the
governing process.
By structuring various ideas and interests (some of which
may indeed be conflicting), political parties may be divisive
of society. This is one of the reasons many states allow only
one party to operate. However, the bigger the party, the
greater the chance of divisive factions within the party.
Due to the fact that a political party may seek to rule at all
cost, it often acts as a destructive opposition instead of a
constructive opposition party. This may in fact cause the
governing process and political debate about policy issues to
become dysfunctional.
Political parties often become elitist and lose contact with the
masses they claim to represent or try to represent.
When political parties become elitist they actually destroy
democracy and their rule can then be regarded as partocracy
(rule by a political party). and even oligarchical in nature.
11.5 WHAT FACTORS WILL AFFECT THE ROLE OF

POLITICAL PARTIES?
party on the ground Various factors may, in fact, influence the role of political parties in
party bureaucracy
society and in the governing process. Most of the factors discussed
party in office
in Study Unit 9 are applicable to political parties. The fact that
political parties are dependent on voter support for their success
makes political parties vulnerable. Therefore their relations with the
people are very important party on the ground. However, this is
only one dimension of political party organization. Most parties
have seats in a legislature, either as a ruling party or as minority
and/or opposition party (party in office). This will make additional
demands on the party that may even conflict with the party's
position on the ground. Furthermore each party will also have a
central bureaucracy that has an important role in the party (party
bureaucracy). There are therefore three dimensions to a party's
organizational structure, namely the party on the ground (members
and supporters); the party in office (parliamentarians); and the
party in central office (party bureaucracy). A political party's
success will depend on its ability to balance the demands of each of
these dimensions (see Katz & Mair 1994).
156
AC TIVIT Y 11.1
Study the following scenario and answer the questions.

On Big-Tree Island there is widespread dissatisfaction over the
fishing industry. The three interest groups, namely the Associa-
tion for Boat-Owners, Union of Crewmen and the Harbour Workers
Union have decided that more drastic action is needed.They have
been encouraged by the news that President FigTree plans to hold
elections on the island. Meanwhile, the labourers in the agricultur-
al industry have taken notice of the events in the fishing industry
and have decided to organize themselves into the Agricultural La-
bourers Union. Noticing the threat to the interests, the employers
in this sector organized themselves into the Agricultural Employ -
ers Association.
The three trade unions decided to work together and formed the
Labour Party that will in future represent the interests of the em-
ployees in the fishing and agricultural industries. Likewise the two
employers groups decided to form the Liberal Party.
(1) Why do you think the interest groups decided to form political
parties?
(2) What are the advantages of having organized themselves into
political parties?
(3) Do you think that this is an indication of major changes in the
Island's political system?
The interest groups decided to form a political party in order to

promote their interests in the halls of power. This would not have
been possible, however, had President Fig Tree decided not to
introduce a system of representation. However, had he decided not
to do so, the relevant groups could still have formed a political
party that would probably have tried to bring about democratic
changes on the island. Political parties in nondemocratic systems
are often formed for the purpose of introducing democratic reforms.
Also note South Africa's own history in this regard. The advantage
is that they may now bring their interests and problems to the
attention of those who formulate policy. All of this could be
regarded as major changes on the island.
To sum up:
Political parties are important political actors, not only in
democracies but even in totalitarian states. Parties have many
PLC201-U/1 157
important functions in society. However, note should also be taken
of the disadvantages of political parties.
unit. Explain each concept in not more than two sentences.
(2) Write down each of the headings used in this discussion.
Summarize the discussion under each heading in five sentences.
(3) Discuss the characteristics of political parties in 100 words.
(4) Discuss the functions of political parties in 200 words.
(5) Which function of political parties do you regard as the most
important? Give reasons for your answer ± also indicate why you
regard the other functions as less important.
(6) Discuss the disadvantages of political parties in 100 words.
(7) Discuss the factors that will affect the role of political parties.
Pay attention to the factors that were discussed in Study Unit 9
as well.
(8) Mention five similarities between interest groups and political
parties.
(9) Do political parties make use of the same methods as interest
groups? What is the method most often used by political parties?
(10) Compare interest groups with political parties as actors in
politics.
(11) Provide an outline for a discussion in which you discuss the
role of groups in politics.
This self-assessment exercise is based on Jackson and Jackson (1997).
for the sections in which political parties are discussed. Study
each of these sections.
(2) How do the authors define the concept of political party? Explain
how their definition differs from our explanation of the concept of
political party.
(3) What types of political parties do the authors discuss?
(4) What are the importance of factions and movements according to
the authors?
(5) What functions of political parties do the authors discuss? How
does it differ from the discussion in this study unit?
158
(6) How does the role of political parties differ between a democratic
and authoritarian state according to the authors?
(7) Is there a future for political parties?
This self-assessment exercise is based on the book by Heywood (1997).
Politics.
Search the table of contents and the index at the back of the book for the
sections in which political parties are discussed. Study each of these
sections.
(1) How does the author define the concept of political party? Explain
how his definition differs from our explanation of the concept of
political party.
(2) What types of political parties does the author discuss?
(3) What is the importance of factions and movements according to
the author?
(4) What functions of political parties does the author discuss? How
(5) How, according to the author, does the role of political parties
differ between a democratic and authoritarian state?
This self-assessment exercise is based on Ranney (1996). Governing an
(1) How does the author define the concept of political party?
(3) What, according to the author, is the importance of factions and
movements?
PLC201-U/1 159
This self-assessment exercise is based on the contents of the book by
Hague et al 1998. Comparative government and politics.
(1) How does the author define the concept of political party?
(3) What, according to the author, is the importance of factions and
movements?
do they differ from the discussion in this study unit?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
library.
Ball, AR & Peters, BG. 2000. Modern politics and government. Houndmill:
Macmillan.
introduction.5th edition. Houndmills: Palgrave.
Hague, R, Harrop, M & Breslin, S. 1998. Comparative Government and Politics: an
Heywood, A. 2002. Politics. 2nd edition. Houndmills: Palgrave.
Katz, R & Mair, P (eds). 1994. How parties organize: change and adaptation in party
organization in Western democracies. London: Sage.
160
STUDY
UNIT 12
POLITICAL ACTORS: ELITES
INTRODUCTION
In some of the previous study units we have occasionally referred to those who rule and
those who are ruled Ð note for example Study Unit 8 that deals with political leadership.
This relationship between those who rule and those who are ruled is the focus of a number
of theories in politics. In this study unit we are therefore going to answer the question,
``What is the role of the elite in politics?'' To answer this question it is important to answer
the following focus questions.
FOCUS What does the concept of elite entail?

QUESTIONS What are the fundamental premises of elite theory?
What approaches are there in elite theory?
Why is elite theory important in a study of political behaviour?
12.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF ELITE ENTAIL?
The term, elite apparently first appeared in the English language in

1823 and was used to refer to superior social groups. It came into
regular use in social and political writings in the second quarter of
the twentieth century (Bottomore 1993:1).
PLC201-U/1 161
Nowadays the concept of elite may be defined as a particular
minority or category of individuals in a society who are in some
respects considered to be superior and exert influence on or have
power over some of the other segments in that society. In brief, an
elite may be regarded as those who set the pace in a society (see
Mitchell 1977:64). It is important to notice the group nature of an
elite. Very simplistically, an elite is the group of persons who rule
those who are ruled.
The group nature may be either informal or formal. Often the elite is
a categoric group that is perceived by academics and researchers in
an attempt to understand the exercise of power within a society. On
the other hand, they may constitute a formally organized group
(displaying a certain amount of group cohesion) of people that has
as its main purpose the control of power within a society. Examples
in this regard would be the Communist Party that ruled in the
former Soviet Union, as well as the Afrikaner Broederbond during
the apartheid years in South Africa.
12.2 WHAT ARE THE FUNDAMENTAL PREMISES OF ELITE

THEORY?
Elite theory is concerned mainly with the distribution and exercise

of power within a particular society. For the purposes of this
discussion, within a particular state. There are some major
differences of opinion in elite theory, but some of the basic premises
may be summarized as follows (see Dye 1995:25±27 and Rush
1992:59±66):
A society is always divided into a minority (elite) that

possesses power and a majority (masses) that is ruled by the
elite. Gaetano Mosca [1896] (see Rush 1992), one of the
exponents of elite theory, expressed this as follows, `Ìn all
societies Ð from societies that are very meagerly developed
and have barely attained the dawnings of civilization, down
to the most advanced societies Ð two classes of people
appear Ð a class that rules and a class that is ruled.''
Mosca regards the elite as consisting of two strata Ð an
upper and a lower stratum. The upper stratum consists of a
small group of political decision makers, while the lower
stratum consists of those who perform lesser leadership
functions, such as political activists and opinion leaders.
Vilfredo Pareto also identifies two types of elites, namely a
162
ruling (governing) elite holding positions of leadership in
society, and a nonruling elite whose members do hold
positions of leadership in society but do not influence
decision making.
According to elite theory, this division of society into an elite
that makes decisions for the masses is inevitable. It is the
result of certain inherent characteristics among members of
the elite and of the masses respectively (individual abilities
and instincts), but also a result of the importance of and
necessity for organizational structures to perform certain
functions in society and the positions held by certain
individuals in such organizational structures.
The minority that rules is not representative of the masses.
The elite is usually drawn disproportionately from the upper
socioeconomic strata of society, although not necessarily
exclusively from such strata.
Elite theory may therefore be regarded as criticism against
democratic theory which asserts that the common citizen
makes or at least influences political decisions. But elite
theory is also a criticism against Marxist theory which asserts
that the working class is able to effectively deal with all
matters of the society.
The conception that the elite possesses a particular group
cohesion or solidarity is implicit in most elite theory (hence
our interest in the elite in our studies of groups in political
behaviour). Vilfredo Pareto differs from other elite theorists
in this respect. He is of the opinion that the elite does not act
as a particular group but is made up of individuals who act
as individuals. For our purposes such an elite would then
form a categoric group because they coincidentally share
particular characteristics that are of interest to us.
Group solidarity, even in categoric groups, stems in part
from the fact that the ruling elite has a large degree of
consensus on the basic values of the system and the
preservation of the system. Such consensus may also be
ascribed partly to the group solidarity that already exists.
Consensus is to a large extent reflected by the prevailing
ideology. For example, in some states it may be liberalism, in
others communism or Islamic fundamentalism.
The movement of the members of the nonelite into elite
positions should take place gradually and uninterruptedly in
order to prevent revolutions. Only those nonelite who have
PLC201-U/1 163
accepted the basic elite consensus will be allowed into ruling
circles.
Public policy does not reflect the wishes of the masses but
those of the elite, although such wishes are not necessarily
contrary to the wishes of the masses.
The elite influences the masses more than the masses
influence the elite. The division between masses and elite
may be ascribed to the fact that the masses often display
apathy and ignorance. On the other hand, a society needs
individuals who are to perform certain specialized functions.
Thus technology and expertise may also breed elitism.
Diagram 12.1 provides a schematic presentation of the position of

the elite in society.
DIAGRAM 12.1
The position of the elite in society
elite
masses
12.3 WHAT APPROACHES ARE THERE IN ELITE THEORY?
There are different approaches in elite theory. These approaches

differ mainly in respect of the composition of the elite, the reasons
why the elite exists, and the way in which members of the elite are
recruited. The different approaches may be divided into four main
groups (see Rush 1992):
organizational approach
psychological approach
economic approach
institutional approach
164
ORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH
Major exponents of this approach are Gaetano Mosca and Robert
Michels. According to this approach, the position of the elite is the
result of their organizational nature and abilities. As a result of the
organized nature and abilities of the elite and the unorganized
nature and inability of the masses, the elite succeed in ruling the
masses.
Michels' iron law of oligarchy is of particular importance.

According to him, organization in reality means oligarchy. He
referred in particular to the inevitable oligarchic tendency of
democracy as a result of the dominance exercised by a small
minority within party context. The essence of Michels' theory may
be summarized as follows (see Faure & Kriek 1984:77±96).
Democracy means the influence of the masses. Influence of the

masses implies organization. Only by means of organization can
solidarity between individuals with common interests be achieved.
Organization makes leadership essential because large numbers of
members cannot all gain access to decision-making. Consequently
decision-making powers are conferred upon a limited number of
leaders. Leadership implies the subservience of those who are being
led because persons in positions of leadership gain control of the
machinery of the organization through which they can then gain
control over the ordinary members of the organization to the
disadvantage of their opponents. Subservience leads to oligarchy
because positions of leadership enable leaders to use their positions
for their own benefit.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH

As mentioned, Vilfredo Pareto distinguishes between what he calls
the ruling elite, in other words those who influence decisions
directly or indirectly, and the nonruling elite, or those who do hold
positions of leadership in society but do not influence decisions.
According to him, individuals use ideologies and values in an
attempt to justify their actions. Such values lead to certain thought
orientations.
As far as the ruling elite is concerned, he distinguishes between two

personality types in thought orientation, namely the ``foxes'' and
the ``lions''. The foxes are concerned with ideas and imagination
(instincts of combination). The lions emphasize permanence,
stability and order (persistence of aggregates). According to him,
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the ideal type of elite is a combination of foxes and lions, but
unfortunately the ideal is seldom achieved in practice. As a result,
the different ruling elites usually alternate, but in every case the fall
of the elite is the result of their own inherent weaknesses, ``... `foxes'
become over-manipulative or compromise once too often; `lions'
become too self-important and unacceptably ruthless ...'' (Rush
1992:641). Rush (1992:64) summarizes the differences between the
foxes and the lions as follows:
Class 1 Class 2
Instincts of combination Persistence of aggregates

Foxes Lions
Intelligent Strong willpower
Imaginative Reliable
Manipulating Possess integrity
Persevering Ruthless
Consensual Confrontational
Compromising Inflexible
Patient Impatient
Ideal = political fixer, Ideal = determined
wheeler-dealer charismatic leader
THE ECONOMIC APPROACH
James Burnham is a major exponent of this approach. He agrees

with Marx that those who have power are also involved with
control over the means of production.
Whereas initially the power was in the hands of those who owned
the capital, the power in advanced industrial societies belongs to
those who possess management and technical expertise. The masses
are therefore subordinate to the management elite and society is
increasingly centralized and subject to bureaucratic control (see
Rush 1992).
THE INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH

A major exponent in this regard is C Wright Mills, although he was
concerned mainly with the situation in the USA.
For Mills, the elite was first and foremost a power elite. Power refers
to the ability to impose your will even in the face of opposition.
three levels of power Mills (1956:21) distinguishes three levels of power.
166
At the forefront in the USA is an elite whose power probably
exceeds that of any other small group of people in history,
excluding the Soviet elite.
The middle levels find themselves in a checkmate position
and cannot bring together the lower and the upper levels of
power.
The lower end consists of a mass society which is politically
fragmented and is becoming increasingly powerless.
According to Mills the elite does not consist merely of those who
have the most, but of those who hold certain positions in
institutions: For such institutions are the necessary bases of power,
wealth, and prestige, and at the same time, the chief means of
exercising power, of acquiring and retaining wealth, and of cashing
in the higher claims for prestige (Mills 1956:91).
According to Mills, the prevailing circumstances determine who
will form the elite, but the elite is not singular. He regards the elite
threefold elite as threefold, since national power is seated in the economic,
political and military institutions: `Òther institutions seem off to the
side of modern history, and, on occasion, duly subordinated to
these'' (Mills 1956:61). Within each of these institutional ranks of
power there is a hierarchy of power. For instance, the fruit stall at
the roadside does not have nearly as much power as the
multimillion-dollar fruit corporation. No lieutenant has as much
power as the head of staff, and no deputy sheriff has as much
power as the President of the USA (Mills 1956:181).
12.4 WHY ARE ELITE THEORY IMPORTANT IN A STUDY OF

POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?
Elite theory demonstrates to us certain categories of behaviour

within society that is, on the one hand, reflected in the exercise of
power, but on the other may also affect the political behaviour of
the population of a state. The following is important in this regard:
The apparent ability of members of the elite, having acquired

positions of power, to maintain such positions and dig
themselves in and finally to utilize such positions to their
advantage.
Therefore, elite theory may provide us with considerable
insight into the careers of political leaders and the way in
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which new leaders are recruited to their positions. (It cannot
be disputed that political leaders often come from the upper
socioeconomic strata of society.) It should also be taken into
account that there are individuals within the upper socio-
economic strata who are not political leaders and also do not
influence political decisions.
Another manifestation of the elite that may be important is
the rise of a counter-elite that strives to gain control of power
in a state. A counter-elite usually appears in divided societies
where positions of leadership cannot easily be filled by
members of competing elite groups. It may be an economic
class elite, or the elite of competing races and ethnic groups.
Competing elites can often become problematic actors in a
state, hence the tendency among existing elite to co-opt
possible competition.
According to elite theory the masses are ill-informed, passive
and apathetic. Consequently, ``mass sentiments are more
often manipulated by elites, rather than elite values being
influenced by the sentiments of masses; and for the most
part, communication between elites and masses flows
downward'' (Dye 1995:27).
To sum up:
Elite theory has as point of departure that in most political systems
it is the elite that dominate the political scene. It is claimed that this
is even the case in democracies.
This self-assessment exercise is based on the contents of this study
unit.
(1) Explain the concept of elite in 50 words.
(2) Explain the various theories about the role of the elite in 300
words.
(3) Consult the study unit on the individual as actor again and
especially the theories based on the assumption that the
individual is driven by self-interest. Try to find certain similarities
between the views of humans in elite theory and the views of
human nature that have been discussed. Discuss these
similarities in 100 words.
(4) Explain how you feel about the basic principles of elite theory in 150
words.
168
BIBLIOGRAPHY
library.
Bottomore, T. 1993 [1964]. Elites and society. Second edition. New York:
Routledge.
Domhoff, GW & Dye, TR (eds). 1987. Power elites and organizations. Newbury
Park, Ca: Sage.
Dye, TR. 2000.
Prentice Hall.
Hague, R & Harrop, M. 2001. A comparative introduction to political science: an
Hague, R, Harrop, M & Breslin, S.1998. Comparative government and politics: an
Mills, CW. 1956. The power elite. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mitchell, GD. 1977 [1968]. A dictionary of sociology. London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul.
Ranney, A. 1996. Governing: an introduction to political science. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
PLC201-U/1 169
STUDY
UNIT 13
POLITICAL ACTORS: STATE

INSTITUTIONS
INTRODUCTION
The close relationship between political institutions and political dynamics was mentioned
in Study Unit 1. In this study unit we are going to answer the question, ``What is the role of
the state and state institutions in political behaviour?'' To answer this question it is
important to answer the following focus questions.
FOCUS What does the concept of institution entail?

QUESTIONS What are the general trends in the role of the state?
What factors may restrict the role of the state?
What are the general trends in the role of state institutions?
13.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF INSTITUTION ENTAIL?
An institution is usually regarded as an established structure with

well specified roles that performs important functions in a society.
Just like interest groups, institutions may be entirely or partly
political or even apolitical. However, as in the case of interest
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groups, all institutions may become politically relevant. Some are,
by their very nature, political, while others are created explicitly to
perform certain governmental functions. In this study unit we are
going to pay attention to these.
It is important to note the abstract nature of some institutions.

Something like a marriage is also regarded as an institution.
However, in this study unit we are going to focus only on those
formal institutions that have a formal organizational structure.
The institutions we are going to study in this regard are the state,
public institutions and, in particular, the bureaucracy.
13.2 WHAT ARE THE GENERAL TRENDS IN THE ROLE OF

THE STATE?
THE STATE
The state is a complex concept and should not be confused with
government, nation or the institutions of the state. The state is also
visible only through the actions of government and other state
institutions. Therefore the state may easily be confused with the
government and state institutions.
The state differs from other institutions in that it possesses

sovereignty and the actions of other institutions, including private
institutions, are subordinate to those of the state.
It is important for the purposes of the discussion which follows that

you understand the abstract dimension of the state and will not
confuse the state with the government of a state, or a nation.
descriptive role of the The role of the state may be viewed in both a descriptive and a
state prescriptive context. If we look at the state in a descriptive context,
prescriptive role of the
state
we describe the state as it manifests in practice, in other words the
state and its role as we observe it. In a prescriptive context we look
at how the state should be and what its role should be. In literature
on the role of the state, it is often viewed in both contexts and in
some cases there is little differentiation between the appearance of
the state and its role on the one hand, and the particular author's
view of how the state should be and what its role should be on the
other.
It is obvious that throughout history the state has undergone many

changes in practice. In the same way, conceptions as to how the
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state should look and what its role should be have also changed.
States naturally differ from one another in respect of time and place.
Nevertheless, certain general trends may be highlighted:
the minimal state versus the maximal state

the public sphere versus the private sphere
expansion of the public sphere
MINIMAL VERSUS MAXIMAL STATE

minimal state The minimal state and the maximal state represent two extremes on
the scale indicating what the role of the state is and what it should
be.
According to the classic liberal tradition (note the role of ideology in

this regard), the state had to perform a minimum of functions and
the responsibilities of the state were confined mainly to maintaining
peace and security. The state had no economic and virtually no
social role. The powers of the state were also restricted by the idea
of the constitutional state. Moreover, a distinction was drawn
between the public and the private spheres, and the state was
expected to respect the private sphere. Classical liberalism later
gave way to modern liberalism, which envisaged a bigger role for
the state.
The ideas of the classic liberalists were later revived by a number of

authors. Modern proponents of the minimal state include Herbert
Spencer, Auberon Herbert and Robert Nozick. These authors
advocate individualism and are of the opinion that individuals
can achieve maximum self-realization only when they are exposed
to as few constraints as possible.
pluralists The group theorists and pluralists also view the state largely in a
minimal sense. Whereas the abovementioned liberalist view of the
state is largely prescriptive, the pluralists' view is more descriptive,
although there are some prescriptive elements. As with liberalism,
there are those who envisage a more important role for the state.
Some pluralist authors see the task of the state mainly as that of
referee in the competition between groups to safeguard and further
their interests. According to this view, political decisions represent
the equilibrium that has been reached in the group struggle. Dye
(1995:24) says the following: ``Policy makers are viewed as
constantly responding to group pressures Ð bargaining, negotiat-
ing, and compromising among competing demands of influential
groups.''
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According to this view, the state and the government of the state are
reduced to a computer that has been programmed to process the
demands of groups. According to the most extreme position in
pluralism, the state has no specific role other than to act as referee
between groups.
corporatism Corporatism may be regarded as a variation of pluralism, but it sees

the state as having a definite role. It in fact sees the group as
mediator between the state and the individual.
In contrast to the idea of a minimal state, we find the concept of a
maximal state comprehensive and maximal state which not only protects the life
of the individual but in fact gives meaning to the individual's
existence. The state is therefore also responsible for the individual's
social and economic life. These premises are usually associated with
socialist theory (again note the role of ideology).
Even Marx, who is associated with the idea of a maximal state, was
vague as to exactly what the state is and what its role is. He sees the
state, prior to the transition to a proletarian political dispensation,
as an instrument in the hands of the ruling class to be used for their
benefit. With the advent of the dictatorship of the proletariat the
role of the state would disappear and whither away. The meaning
that Marx assigns to the term ``state'' is not exactly clear from his
works. The question is whether it is possible, for instance, for
society to function without some form of administration. Once this
question has been answered, the next question is whether it is
possible for human beings to exist in complex modern life other
than in an associated context or whether it is possible to exist in an
associated context without some form of government. Strong
criticism has been levelled at Marx in this respect. Rush (1992:41±
42) says: ``The concept of the state leaves Marxists with a problem,
not of explaining its role and nature prior to a proletarian
revolution, but after. It is not sufficient to explain away the state
by terms like `dictatorship of the proletariat', `dictatorship of the
Party', `state of the whole people', or `the administration of things';
complex modern societies require administrative structures.''
It is likely that this realization has led contemporary Marxists to

rediscover the state and take a new look at it. The Marxists do point
out that it is possible for a state to be misused in order to serve
certain interests. Unfortunately, this realization is not always seen
as applicable also to the Marxist state. Just as the ruling class prior
to the proletarian revolution succeeded in misusing the state in their
own interests, the party apparatchiks and bureaucrats succeeded in
misusing the state to their own benefit. Rush (1992:41±42)
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summarizes this as follows: `Ìt is perhaps, the argument that the
state is not neutral that is the most important contribution of
Marxism to the debate on the role and nature of the state. Social and
political institutions do not operate in a vacuum; they themselves
reflect particular values, but they can also be put to different
purposes by different groups who from time to time control them.''
PUBLIC SPHERE VERSUS PRIVATE SPHERE

Here we may also have referred to the public sector versus the
private sector, but there is a tendency to associate the private sector
with economic issues outside the public sector. When we examine
the relationship between the public sphere and the private sphere,
we are, in fact, dealing with the authority of the public sector, in
other words, the state and its institutions and bureaucracy, over the
activities of the individual and private groups. In some sense this
will stem from views on the minimal and maximal states.
A number of problems usually arise in the relationship between the

public sphere and the private sphere. The following are important
in this regard.
You will find that virtually every aspect of your life is

regulated by some law or another. Excessive regulation is
not only a problem of totalitarian states, but is also a very
real problem in states with a democratic regime.
What extent of individual freedom is permissible? In other
words, to what extent may the state intrude upon the private
lives of the population? This is a complex question. May and
should the state, for instance, interfere in a person's religious
life? A number of states in the world have a state religion, for
instance, in some Scandinavian states, the Lutheran faith is
the official religion and taxes are even levied for the church.
In the former USSR, religion was prohibited and only under
exceptional circumstances would someone who belonged to
a church have been granted permission to become a member
of the Communist Party.
What degree of control does the state have over the resources
in such state? This brings us to the issue of private
ownership. Is the population, for example, entitled to own
land and other property? In most First World states (Western
states and Japan) private ownership is taken for granted, but
not so in all Second World (former communist states in
former Eastern Europe) and Third World states (developing
states).
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Which goods and services should be provided by the public
sector? Sometimes it is easier for the state to provide certain
goods and services, such as security, than it would be for
individual members of the population. This makes it very
tempting to provide goods and services on a public basis
even when this is not necessary, and in so doing restrict the
freedom of the individual. There was a time in the Chinese
People's Republic when people were not allowed to prepare
their own food. It is probably desirable for the public sector
to provide primary health services. The question is whether
the public sector should have the authority to prevent a
medical practitioner from entering private practice and in
this way provide medical services outside the public sector.
Or should the role of the state in this respect simply be to
look after the mutual interests of the doctor and the patient?
Many socialist states have prevented medical practitioners
from entering private practice and in so doing also denied
patients the right to decide which doctor they wanted to use.
The provision of goods and services by the public sector
requires funds. The question is to what extent the state is
entitled to tax its population in order to provide such goods
and services.
The final issue is the extent to which the public sector itself
should be allowed to participate in the economy. In socialist
and communist states (again note the role of ideology), the
view is that the state should participate as much as possible
in the economy. In communist states, for instance, this is
reflected in the fact that all means of production are in the
hands of the state and that members of the population are
the employees of the state. The state is therefore the only
employer. In socialist states the state is an important actor in
the economy, but is not the only such actor. Socialist states
vary greatly in this respect. In what are known as capitalist
states, on the other hand, the role of the state in the economy
is of less importance.
The following concepts are relevant to this debate on the private

sphere versus the public sphere (see also Lane 1993:16):
public private
public ownership private ownership
authority exchange
hierarchy competition
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planning laissez faire
demand economy market economy
socialism capitalism
budget allocation market mechanism
Thus, to a large extent, the dominant ideology will determine the

relationship between the private and the public spheres. This will
have an important effect on behavioural patterns within that state.
People who adhere to socialism will, for example, require greater
service delivery by the state, but this will not be the case with
followers of liberalism.
13.3 WHAT FACTORS MAY RESTRICT THE ROLE OF THE

STATE?
In practice, a number of trends restrict the role of the state as

political actor. The following are important:
Global village. The integration of the different world commu-

nities into a global village. States no longer exist in isolation
from one another. There is an increasing realization that
whatever one state does or fails to do has implications for
other states. In addition, it is increasingly being realized that
cooperation may be to the benefit of all. States are
consequently inclined to cooperate in various fields. In this
respect, we can look at cooperation in the United Nations
and in some of its agencies, such as the World Health
Organization.
International organizations. These umbrella bodies restrict the
state's sovereignty and possible role as actor. Note, for
instance, the international ban on whaling and the trade in
ivory and rhinoceros horn. Another example is the pressure
that was brought to bear on South Africa by international
communities over its former apartheid policy.
Transnationals and multinationals. The establishment of
transnational institutions such as multinational corporations
and international sporting bodies. These institutions also
place constraints on the state's autonomy and role as
political actor. South Africa found, for instance, that it could
not prescribe to international sporting bodies, but that they
were able to prescribe to South Africa. The same applied to
multinational corporations.
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Empowerment of the individual. Although it is still accepted
that individuals act through groups, the individual members
of the population have never before possessed as much
potential power as in the modern state. As a result of
extended education, improved prosperity and greater
opportunities, individuals are becoming increasingly inde-
pendent and therefore less inclined to accept interference in
what they regard as their own affairs. Therefore civil society
is strengthened.
The above is merely an indication of the problems relating to the

role of the state. In practice it is found that these issues are treated in
different ways in different states, and that there are many different
opinions as to either what the role of the state is, or to what the role
of the state should be.
13.4 WHAT ARE THE GENERAL TRENDS IN THE ROLE OF

STATE INSTITUTIONS?
We have pointed out that the state can be regarded as an institution

but at the same time differs from other political institutions.
Institutionalism is an approach that views politics from an
institutional perspective. This approach has experienced a revival
in the past two decades after it had initially been regarded as too
limiting, which may be attributed to the fact that earlier institutional
studies described particular institutions mainly by examining their
structures and their organisation and functions. The relationship
between political institutions, on the one hand, and political
activities and processes, such as the content of public policy on
the other, were rarely studied. Dye (1995:19±21) explains as follows:
Political activities generally center around particular govern-

ment institutions ± Congress, the presidency, courts, bureau-
cracies, states, municipalities ... The relationship between
public policy and government institution is very close. Strictly
speaking a policy does not become a policy until it is adopted,
implemented, and enforced by some government institution.
For this reason, legislation, execution and adjudication are
important actions of the legislative, executive and judicial
institutions.
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Institutions are important for the following reasons:
They represent established patterns of actions and channels

in politics. Political parties, the courts, state departments and
the state presidency are examples of political institutions
with rules and regulations that may influence political
activities and public policy.
At the same time, political institutions provide an interlinked
network within and according to which political activities
and processes take place.
As indicated in the case of the state, neo-institutionalism is of
the opinion that political institutions are not neutral towards
the activities that flow through them. Institutions may, for
instance, develop their own inherent interests that may have
a significant influence on politics.
One important aspect to be taken into account when it comes
to institutions is the general misconception that a change in
institutions will also bring about a change in political
processes. According to Dye (1995), both structure and
policy are the result of certain socioeconomic forces.
Challenges in institutions do not necessarily imply changes
in policy if the socioeconomic circumstances remain un-
changed.
The role of the bureaucracy as political actor relates to the
role of institutions. Bureaucracy usually refers to the
personnel attached to certain institutions. The bureaucracy
is an important actor because policies often originate in the
bureaucracy and are usually applied and adjudicated by the
bureaucracy. As such, the bureaucracy develops certain
interests that influence its actions. The air force, for instance,
may develop a particular interest, as do the officials who
grant liquor licences and enforce censorship. If liquor
licences were to be abolished, a number of officials would
become unemployed, and therefore they may be expected to
insist even more strongly on the regulation of the liquor
trade because this represents an interest of theirs. In the
bureaucracy, there is a variety of experts in various fields,
each with his or her own interests. Where politicians in
particular have to depend on the expertise of the bureau-
cracy, it becomes clear that the bureaucracy will deliver an
important input into political decisions.
Because the bureaucracy finds itself close to the decision
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makers, it may often be used by individuals and groups as
an access channel to decision makers.
Lane (1993:166) sets out the following points of departure which he

calls the institutional paradigm:
Broadly conceived, institutions are the humanly created

constraints on the interaction between individuals ... They are
the rules and norms resulting in formal or informal rights and
obligations which facilitate exchange by allowing people to
form stable and fairly reliable expectations about the actions of
others.
Although it cannot be denied that institutions are important

political actors, we should guard against seeing the institutions as
the most important or even the only set of political actors. To a large
extent, institutions provide the visible framework of political
processes, but it should be borne in mind that there are numerous
other less visible processes in politics. In addition, institutions are
not static and are constantly subject to change. It often happens that
a new pattern is created as a result of deviations from the accepted
patterns.
To sum up:
The role of the state and state institutions is important for the
following reasons:
They set the rules that will determine or guide the activities
of the other actors in that state.
They provide the channels through which activities may be
guided in order to obtain a particular outcome.
They may be the target of political action.
They may develop interests of their own which may affect
their behaviour, but that may also have consequences for the
other actors.
(1) Write down all the concepts discussed in this study unit and
explain the meaning of each in five sentences.
(2) Write down all the headings used in this study unit and in each
instance explain the essence of the discussion in 50 words.
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(3) Explain the importance of the state and state institutions to
political behaviour in 300 words.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Prentice Hall.
Lane, JE. 1995 (1993). The public sector. London: Sage.
Paul.
180
T H E M E 4
POLITICAL ACTIVITIES
OVERVIEW
We have discussed many actors of politics and processes that facilitate their political
behaviour. From the discussions it should follow that there are numerous ways in which
we can act in a political manner. In this theme we are looking for an answer to the
question, ``How do we participate in politics?'' To answer this question it is important to
answer the following questions first:
What is the role of public opinion as a form of political participation?
What determines a person's voting behaviour?
There are a number of different ways to participate (eg conflict), but we are going to
concentrate on the above. Here is a list of key terms and concepts for this theme. Make sure
that you can clarify each one. It would be useful to write down the page number whenever
you encounter one of these terms in the text. Likewise, search the index at the back of the
recommended and additional books that you use and then read the sections in which these
terms appear.
Election Opinion Party affiliation
Party identification Plebiscite Public opinion
Referendum Representative Voter volatility
Voting behaviour
STUDY
UNIT 14
PUBLIC OPINION
INTRODUCTION
To air your opinion about a political issue is to participate in politics in a particular

manner. Public opinion is a manifestation of political behaviour that is the product of all
the processes and actors that we have discussed so far. At the same time public opinion
may also be an important determinant of various other forms of political behaviour. In this
study unit we are going to answer the question, ``What is the role of public opinion in
political behaviour?'' To answer this question it is important to answer the following focus
questions.
FOCUS What does the concept of public opinion entail?

QUESTIONS What are the characteristics of public opinion?
What factors determine public opinion?
Why is public opinion important?
14.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF PUBLIC OPINION

ENTAIL?
To explain the meaning of the concept of public opinion, we will

have to look at the terms, `òpinion'' and ``public''.
182
opinion An opinion may be seen as the expression of an attitude. It is
usually said that an opinion is the verbalization of an attitude, but
this is not necessarily the case. Opinions may exist without
necessarily being verbalized. An opinion is not necessarily based
on facts and the holder of an opinion is not necessarily convinced of
its truth (see Lawson 1989:211).
attitudes Attitudes usually form the basis of opinions, but are not identical to
opinions. Opinions are often based on emotions. Furthermore,
opinions need not be based on facts. This is where we draw a
distinction between informed and uninformed opinions. Both
informed and uninformed opinions are of interest to us as well as
to the politicians.
public The meaning of public in the term ``public opinion'' is frequently

confusing. The term ``public opinion'' creates the impression of
referring to the public in general and that public opinion is therefore
the sum of the opinions of the public at large. This would imply that
all individuals in a particular state have opinions on all matters or
issues within such state. The contrary is usually true. When it comes
to a particular issue, there are invariably some individuals who do
not have opinions on the particular subject. In any public opinion
poll, there are always a number of don't knows and uncertain's.
There are furthermore any number of issues about which

individuals may have opinions. It is consequently not always
possible for all people to have opinions about absolutely every-
thing.
It would therefore be more accurate to speak of publics, that is more

than one public. In a particular society and in the state, one would
in fact find various public opinions, each focused on a particular
issue.
Different individuals may be involved in different issues, but it is

also possible that the same individuals may be involved in various
issues. Diagram 14.1 illustrates membership of various publics.
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DIAGRAM 14.1
Membership of various publics
A B
abortion D euthanasia
G
E F
death
penalty
A = opinions only on abortion

B = opinions only on euthanasia
C = opinions only on the death penalty
D = opinions on both abortion and euthanasia
E = opinions on both abortion and the death penalty
F = opinions on both euthanasia and the death penalty
G = opinions on abortion, euthanasia and the death penalty
Each public is comprised of individuals who are involved in a

particular issue and have opinions on such issue. Even if these
individuals all have opinions on the same issue, it does not imply
that the opinions of those who are members of that public are
necessarily the same. This is clearly illustrated in the definition
formulated by Truman (1966:220): ``Public opinion consists of the
opinions of the aggregate of individuals making up the public
under discussion. It does not include all the opinions held by such a
set of individuals, but only those relevant to the issue or situation
that defines them as public. Public opinion, it follows, is strictly
speaking specific to a particular set of conditions.'' Austin Ranney
(1996:115) summarizes the nature of public opinion as follows: `Ìt
[public opinion] is specific to particular political situations and
issues and is not a body of ideas on all issues held by all the
members of the community known as the public. Each issue
produces its particular combination of opinion groups, always
including one that expresses no opinion whatever.''
size The size of each public will vary according to the issue in question
and the number of individuals involved. It is possible to have an
issue in which the vast majority of the population of the state are
involved. It is likely that all South Africans have opinions on the
184
mass opinion new South Africa. In instances like these, we usually refer to mass
opinion. There will nevertheless also be certain issues in which only
a few people will be involved. An issue relating to the demolition of
an unknown historical building in a remote place will probably
demand the attention of only a few individuals.
membership Membership of a particular public does not remain unchanged.

Depending on the particular issue, new members will continually
join, while some existing members may lose interest and decide to
focus their attention on a different issue. In this way, the size of a
particular public may vary, and such changes may take place very
rapidly.
14.2 WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC

OPINION?
Public opinion usually displays a number of characteristics that are

of importance for our purposes. The following are important in this
regard:
Preference and intensity. Preference and intensity are often

regarded as two dimensions of public opinion. Preference
indicates whether a person is for or against something.
Intensity indicates how strongly people feel about their
preferences. For example, in determining preference in
respect of the death penalty, we would establish whether
people are for or against the death penalty. In determining
the intensity, we would establish how strongly people are for
or against it. Intensity is usually established by means of
scales, where a person has to indicate whether he or she is
very strongly opposed, strongly opposed, opposed to, in
favour of, strongly in favour of or very strongly in favour of
a particular issue. Sometimes a numeric scale is used.
Direction. Direction gives an indication of where public
opinion stands at a given point in time. That is, are they in
favour of or opposed to the issue concerned?
Stability and change. Stability and change relate to member-
ship and the size of a public as discussed above. That is,
some opinions do not necessarily stay the same, in fact they
may often be fast changing. Opinions on some questions
seem to zig and zag overnight, while opinions on other
questions change very slowly. Research has found that the
longer people hold a particular opinion, the less they will
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change that opinion. New opinions are usually subject to
frequent changes. Similarly, where an issue is new and few
people have strong opinions on it, public opinion will also be
inclined to fluctuate.
Latency. Successful political leaders are able to sense latent
opinions. Latency refers to the potential membership of a
particular public and the preference and intensity of the
opinions held by the members of that public. Politicians are
often uncertain and even unaware of the possible reactions
that the public may display with regard to a particular issue.
Latency is therefore a problematic characteristic of public
opinion. We can, therefore, not ``know public opinion
definitively, via either surveys or other forms of evidence,
which are at least as problematic and subject to framing''
(Bennett & Entman 2001:205).
14.3 WHAT FACTORS DETERMINE PUBLIC OPINION?

political communication The two major determinants of public opinion are political
political socialization communication and political socialization. According to Rush
(1992), public opinion relates to the relationship between the
variables of knowledge, values and attitudes.
Knowledge is regarded as information on phenomena and usually

includes facts. It also includes knowledge of other opinions and
even what is believed to be fact. Values in this context include what
the individual considers to be important in respect of certain issues,
for instance freedom, free market, liberalism and socialism, and
may frequently be related to ideology. Attitude is an individual's
disposition towards a particular policy proposal and so forth.
Two other key factors that are relevant are individuals' personality
and their experience. It is not always clear exactly how individual
opinions are formed. Individuals' response to a particular issue will
depend on whether the issue has come to their attention, whether
they are interested in the issue, and the information that they have
on the issue, or think that they have (see Rush 1992).
An individual's socialization will be a major factor in the formation

of opinions. Individuals acquire their basic attitudes and values and
gain information on which to base opinions through the process of
political socialization.
Political communication is the process whereby the individual
186
comes into contact with values, attitudes and information. This is
also the process whereby individuals are introduced to a particular
issue or subject and may be exposed to other opinions, attitudes
and information upon which they may base their opinion.
Individuals' group affiliation is another important determinant of

opinions and of public opinion (see Gamble 1992). Groups may also
be a source of values, attitudes, opinions and information.
Factors that influence The following are some of the factors that may play a role in rapid
membership changes in membership.
One may encounter psychological reactions such as mass

hysteria, for instance the public's reaction to the murder of a
prominent person.
Changes may be brought about by the phenomenon called
riding the bandwagon, where individuals become convinced
that it is appropriate to have an opinion on a particular issue
(that it is the `ìn thing'').
A specific opinion on a particular subject may be regarded as
being politically correct.
Opinion leaders often play a very important role in these
reactions. Consequently, opinions of this kind are not always
rational and may largely be influenced by emotions.
Opinions that flare up in this way may also wane again as
suddenly, causing the public's membership to fluctuate.
New communication technologies do not seem to increase
the volatility of public opinion. `Àmerican public opinion, at
least as regards presidential politics, is no more volatile now
than in the past'' (Bennett & Entman 2001:253).
14.4 WHY IS PUBLIC OPINION IMPORTANT?
The importance of public opinion centres on the question of

whether public opinion makes any difference to human political
organization. Do decision makers, for instance, take public opinion
into account?
AC TIVIT Y
Study the following scenario and answer the questions.

President Fig Tree of Big-Tree Island studied Minister Pine Tree's
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submission that recommends that the system of chiefdoms
should be abolished with immediate effect. President Fig tree
still remembers the unhappiness over the fishing treaty con-
cluded with Golden Island. He is quite certain that the chiefs
would be opposed to the abolition of the traditional system but
he is unsure how the rest of the population might react.
You are a political scientist and President Fig Tree requests your
advice on what the opinions of the population of Big-Tree Island
would be.
(1) Would you advise President Fig Tree to consider the people's
opinions? Give a reason for your answer.
(2) What factors do you think would influence the people's opinions
in this regard?
(3) Would you think that an opinion poll (that is, interviewing a re-
presentative number of people on the island) could give an in-
dication of the people's opinions?
(4) Do you think that ignoring the people's opinions would have
serious consequences for President Fig Tree? Give reasons for
your answer.
President Fig Tree has already learnt that it is not advisable to

ignore the people's opinions. Whether the people will be in favour
of the abolition of the traditional system will depend on factors like
values, culture and information that could help assess the
advantages and disadvantages of such a decision. Group influence
will in all likelihood be important.
It is important to note that although some academics are still

inclined to regard public opinion as relating only to opinions that
are of importance to the authorities, the fact is that public opinion is
significant not only to the government sector but also increasingly
to the private sector. A private undertaking will not easily act
contrary to public opinion because this may lead to consumer
resistance.
For our purposes, however, the relationship between the public

sector and public opinion is of particular importance. Public
opinion may be found in all states. Its importance, its role in the
political system and the impact that it will have on the authorities
and political behaviour will nevertheless vary from one state to the
next.
In theory, public opinion plays a big role in states with a democratic

regime. The extent to which this is the case in practice is,
188
unfortunately, not clear. Elections may be regarded as a particular
expression of the opinions of the voting public. We can therefore
expect that in a state with a democratic regime, the authorities will
heed public opinion.
In totalitarian states, such as the former USSR, the authorities are

less vulnerable to public opinion, but in the long run ignoring
public opinion may nevertheless pose a serious threat to the
government. Even in a democracy, denying the opinions of a
minority may hold serious long-term implications for the stability
of a particular state.
To sum up:
Public opinion is an important way of participating in politics. At
the same time this type of behaviour has serious implications for the
authorities in the state. Unfortunately, opinions are not always
based on facts and may even at times display emotions instead of
knowledge. This could have serious implications for the authorities.
(1) Explain the concept public opinion in 150 words.
(2) Explain the characteristics of public opinion in 300 words.
(3) Discuss the factors that will affect opinions in 150 words.
(4) Why is public opinion an important form of political behaviour?
Explain in 100 words.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bennett, WL & Entman, RM. 2001. Mediated politics: communication in the
future of democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Prentice Hall.
introduction.5th edition. Houndmills: Palgrave.
Heywood, A. 2002. Politics. 2nd edition. Houndmills: Palgrave.
PLC201-U/1 189
Kuklinski, JH (ed). 2002. Thinking about political psychology. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Lane, JE. 1995 [1993]. The public sector. London: Sage.
Paul.
Truman, DB. 1966. The governmental process: political interests and public order. New
York: Knopf.
190
STUDY
UNIT 15
VOTING BEHAVIOUR
INTRODUCTION
Voting is one way of participating in politics and a way in which we may indicate our
support or disapproval for something. Voting behaviour is not restricted to a democracy,
but is of vital importance in a democracy. In this study unit we are going to answer the
question, ``What is the nature and importance of voting behaviour in politics?'' To answer
this question you will have to answer the following focus questions.
FOCUS What does the concept of voting entail?

QUESTIONS When and how do people vote?
What factors will influence a person's voting behaviour?
15.1 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPT OF VOTING ENTAIL?
Though a vote may take on a number of forms, the essential

characteristic of voting is that it is a way in which we can indicate
our preferences among a number of possibilities. It could be an
open ballot in which we raise our hands or a secret ballot as during
an election. It is a mechanism that is used to determine a number of
things in politics, for example, who the representatives, or the
president will be or what the policy will be on a particular issue.
PLC201-U/1 191
It is important to notice that the best-known or traditional
application of voting is to elect representatives for a legislature, or
to vote, for example, for the President of the United States of
America. It is important to realize though that the members of
parliament would vote on a particular bill, for example, and
likewise the members of the executive would make use of the vote
to make decisions. Thus, voting behaviour may include issues like
``How do the members of parliament vote?'' ``Will the political
party determine how its members will vote or will the members be
allowed to vote according to their conscience?''
However, though there are other important applications of voting,

the focus of this discussion is on the way the electorate will vote.
15.2 WHEN AND HOW WILL PEOPLE VOTE?
Voting is an important mechanism for participation in politics. In

democratic states voting by the electorate is an important form of
political behaviour. The following are examples of opportunities for
voting in a democracy.
Elections for representatives. This is the most important form of

voting in a democracy. Elections are usually held at regular
intervals to determine the representatives of the electorate.
Elections are then also a mechanism to get rid of unwanted
representatives and/or political parties.
Electing political leaders. In a number of states the head of
state and/or the head of government will be elected directly
by the voters or the electorate.
Electing an electoral college. In the United States of America
elections are held to determine the composition of the
electoral college that will elect the president, for example.
Referendum. This is an important mechanism used in some
states to give the electorate a direct say in the policy-making
process. In Switzerland all legislation has to be ratified in a
referendum. The outcome of a referendum is binding on the
authorities. We have also had a number of referenda in the
history of South Africa.
Plebiscite. This is similar to a referendum, except that it is not
binding. It is often used to determine how the people feel
about a particular issue.
192
If we look at the electorate, it is important to realize that elections
often take place in states that are not democratic. To a large extent,
in a nondemocratic state, an election is often nothing more than an
opinion poll that is used to gauge public opinion, or to enhance the
legitimacy of the government.
15.3 WHAT FACTORS WILL INFLUENCE A PERSON'S

VOTING BEHAVIOUR?
For whom we vote in an election is an important manifestation of

political behaviour. However, whether we vote at all is also an
important form of political behaviour. In some states low voter
turnout is an important form of political behaviour, for which there
is as yet no definitive explanation. On average voter turnout in the
USA is extremely low (less than 50 percent).
minorities Nonvoting could be an indication of indifference and apathy or

could also signify a boycott action or serious dissatisfaction with the
whole political system. Research shows that people from minorities
are less inclined to vote. `Ìn Western democracies, individuals from
the upper socio-economic classes who strongly identify with one of
the major parties, professional people, and those with many years
of education are much more likely to be active participants in the
political system. On the other hand, those individuals from poverty-
stricken backgrounds who are alienated from the political system,
the working class, and people with little schooling are far less likely
to vote or to engage in other forms of political activity'' (Gamble
1992:113).
VOTER TURNOUT
Voting and nonvoting are far more complex phenomena than the
above quotation would suggest, however. To a large extent, the
``rules of the game'', that is the type of electoral system, the nature
of the political parties, political culture, legitimacy of the system
and the effect of voter participation (does it make a difference), will
all have an important role to play. It is important to note that voting
is compulsory in some states. We will not debate whether this is a
good idea or not. You may, however, discuss this with your family
and friends. In a democracy we should bear mind, however, that it
should also be a right not to vote.
The nature of the The electoral system will determine the rules according to which
electoral system we will elect our representatives. Two basic varieties may be
PLC201-U/1 193
identified, namely, the one-member-per constituency (traditional or
first-past-the post system) and the system of proportional repre-
sentation.
traditional system The traditional system is characterized by the underrepresentation

of minorities and minority parties; but for the supporters of the
winning party, contact with the representative is technically
encouraged. It is possible that if voters are of the opinion that their
votes will not make a difference (either for a majority party or for a
minority party), they will not participate in an election.
proportional In proportional representation a party's number of seats will be

representation relative to the number of votes that party received during an
election. It therefore encourages minority representation but
discourages contact between the electorate and the representatives.
In the United States of America the traditional system is used but is

also characterized by low voter turnout. On the other hand, in most
West-European states, the system of proportional representation is
used with a higher voter turnout than in the USA. For example, the
voter turnout for elections for the House of Representatives was
only 33 percent in 1990 (McKay 1993:111).
nature of the political Due to their integrated nature, mass parties are more inclined to
parties increase voter turnout. The absence of parties that represent the
interests of certain categories of people, like the poor and the
workers, will also negatively affect voter turnout. This is one of the
factors involved in low voter turnout in the United States of
America.
political culture The nature of the political culture will also have an effect on
whether the electorate will participate in elections or not. Parochial
cultures do not encourage widespread voter participation, unless
instructed to do so by the traditional leaders. On the other hand,
affluent societies are also increasingly experiencing a decline in
voter turnout. It could probably be that in both instances the
electorate may feel that participating will not make a difference.
legitimacy The legitimacy of the political system is an important factor

determining voter turnout. If the system is not regarded as
legitimate, few people will vote in elections. In South Africa during
the apartheid years, voter turnout in elections for the homeland
governments was very low for these governments enjoyed very
little legitimacy.
does it make a If there is a general feeling that your vote will not really make a
difference difference to who rules or how they rule, nor to your circumstances,
the chances are that you will be less inclined to go to the polls.
194
WHO WILL VOTE FOR WHOM?
This is also a topic that has been widely researched but is still not
properly understood. Certain factors are known to have an
influence but there are still many unanswered questions.
party affiliation Party affiliation remains an important influence on voter beha-

viour. It is still not clear exactly what forces will shape a person's
party identification and affiliation. Identity is important in this
regard. It is important to realize that each of us has an identity
hierarchy. For example, you could be South African, English
speaking, male, a factory worker, poor and a Muslim. The
importance of each identity dimension may vary from time to
time, depending on the circumstances. Likewise, the hierarchy will
also vary among individuals. People's identity may therefore
determine or influence their party identification and affiliation. It
is unlikely, for example, that a Muslim will vote for a Christian
party.
Interests is another important factor that could determine party

identification and affiliation.
AC TIVIT Y 15.1
Read the following scenario and answer the questions.

President FigTree has decided to hold elections for a representa-
tive council on Big-Tree Island. The Union for Crewmen and the
Harbour Workers' Union has, as indicated, decided to cooperate
with the newly formed Agricultural Labour Union (representing
the interests of labourers working in agriculture) and to form a po-
litical party, the Labour Party. The other parties that have regis-
tered for the election are the Liberal Party (representing the boat-
owners and agricultural employers, but the party is also in favour
of women's rights and phasing out of the chiefdoms) and the Con-
servative Party that is in favour of the traditional chiefdoms on the
island.
(1) Mr Palm Tree is an agricultural employer and opposed to the
system of traditional chiefdoms. Which party do you think will
he vote for?
(2) Mr Mangrove is a member of the Agricultural Labour Union and
opposed to the system of traditional chiefdoms. Which party
will he probably vote for?
(3) Mr Coconut is a member of the Union for Crewmen but in favour
PLC201-U/1 195
of the system of traditional chiefdoms. For whom is he likely to
vote?
(4) Ms Olive Tree's father is a boat-owner and she is concerned
about the lack of opportunities available for women on the is-
land. For whom is she likely to vote?
It is important to note that certainty is not necessarily guaranteed.

However, if we analyse the interests and identities of the persons in
the above scenario it is possible to predict that: Mr Palm Tree will in
all likelihood vote for the Liberal Party; Mr Mangrove will probably
vote for the Labour Party; Mr Coconut will have to choose between
the Labour Party and the Conservative Party Ð depending on what
is most important to him; Ms Olive Tree will probably vote for the
Liberal Party.
attitudes towards Where party identification is not very strong, people may be
candidates influenced by their attitude towards the candidates of a particular
political party. For example, in the case of Mr Coconut, he could be
influenced by the political leadership and candidates of the two
parties that he would be considering. Say, for example, he does not
like the leader of the Labour Party, he may then decide to vote for
the Conservative Party.
attitudes concerning This is also demonstrated in the scenario above. Several issues were
the issue mentioned, namely the issue of labour (two sides both employees
and employers), the system of traditional chiefdoms and the rights
of women.
There are numerous other factors that could determine how a

person will vote in an election. Some of these may not be in the
spirit of the idea of voting. For example, a person may be
intimidated to vote in a particular manner. Group influence may
play an important role Ð that is one possible explanation why
regional concentrations of support for political parties is often
important.
voter volatility In the past most Western political systems were characterized by
stable party identification and loyalty. However, a more recent
phenomenon is voter volatility where people do not identify with
particular political parties and may change their party preference
rapidly. This is particularly true of younger voters. `À vote is no
longer an expression of a lifelong commitment, rather it is a piece of
business like any other. The elector asks of the government, `what
have you done for me ...?'' (see Hague et al 1998:106±108). The role
196
of the mass media and their influence on the image of the various
political leaders are increasingly becoming important in shaping
people's voting behaviour.
To sum up:
Voting behaviour during elections is important in any study of
political behaviour. However, there are still many uncertainties
with regard to how and why people decide to vote for a particular
political party.
(1) Explain the concept of voting behaviour in 50 words.
(2) Explain the factors that could affect our voting behaviour in 300
words.
(3) Indicate for which party you will vote (if you plan to vote) during
the next election. Give the reasons for your choice. Also indicate
why you do not wish to vote for the other political parties that will
participate in the elections.
(4) Why do you think voting behaviour is important in any study of
political behaviour?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lane, JE. 1995 [1993]. The public sector. London: Sage.
Paul.
Ranney, A. 1996. Governing: an introduction to political science. Seventh Edition.
PLC201-U/1 197
198
T H E M E 5
ACTORS IN POLITICS
OVERVIEW
An important aspect academic study is to develop those skills that enable us to acquire
knowledge and to increase our understanding of a particular field of study.
The skills that will be discussed in this theme include
how to compare
how to write a review
point summaries and outlines
revision
PLC201-U/1 199
STUDY
UNIT 16
COMPARING POLITICAL PHENOMENON
INTRODUCTION
Comparison is an important method used in Political Sciences to obtain knowledge. By

comparing phenomenon in terms of identifiable criteria, we are able to increase our
knowledge of the world around us. The purpose of this study unit is to introduce you to
comparison as a method in Political Science. Please note, however, that, this is only an
elementary introduction.
FOCUS Why is comparison important?

QUESTIONS How do we compare?
16.1 WHY IS COMPARISON IMPORTANT?
Comparison is often used in political study in order to determine

differences and/or similarities between, political phenomena, for
example. In this study module, we concentrate mainly on the
comparison of political phenomena, such as the different groups in
politics and some of theories and ideologies in order to describe their
characteristics and to distinguish one phenomenon from the other.
Comparison, in advanced studies, entails more than a mere

description or discussion of that which is being compared. Political
200
systems may for example, also be compared in order to determine
the causes of certain political events. The explanation of the
differences between foxes and lions on page ?? is an example of a
comparison that is descriptive and provides an analysis of a
particular phenomenon. The example on page compares the
concepts used with reference to the private and the public domains.
Comparison as a method is, therefore, used in order to describe

political phenomena. By comparing phenomena, we may also
identify new concepts in politics, such as Vilfrede Pareto's
identification of foxes and lions. Comparison also makes classifica-
tion possible by grouping phenomena in terms of shared
characteristics, that is, for example by classifying certain groups
into political parties and interest groups. The natural sciences
probably offer more familiar examples of classification. Trees may,
for example, be classified as deciduous or nondeciduous. Compar-
ison may also help us to test hypotheses (in laymen's terms,
possible solutions or answers to a problem). Explanation and
prediction may also follow from the information and under-
standing that we obtain whenever we compare political phenom-
ena.
16.2 HOW CAN WE COMPARE?
In order to compare two or more phenomena, we have to determine

the criteria on which the comparison will be based. If we want to
compare humans, for example, we may make use of a criterion such
as gender (with the two categories of male and female). In the
example of the foxes and the lions, these criteria are not spelled out,
but each comparison was made in terms of a particular criterion.
The distinction between manipulating and possess integrity, for
example, would be based on the criterion how they manage to get
others to act as they (elite) wish.
An example of a criterion that could be used when comparing

interest groups and political parties, is group nature. Political parties
and interest groups share the characteristic that they are both
particular types of groups. Organisational structure is another
criterion. Political parties are always formally organised, but
interest groups may either be organised or unorganised, that is,
they are not necessarily formally organised.
You will now have to make a thorough study of the contents of
study unit 9 (general characteristics, methods and factors that will
PLC201-U/1 201
affect groups on pp ///////), study unit 10 (pp //////) and
study unit 11 (pp //////).
Using the criteria provided in the table below, determine the

similarities and differences between interest groups and political
parties as actors in politics.
Criterion Interest groups Political parties
Group nature group group
Organisational structure either organised or unor- always organised

ganised
Purpose promote and protect in- promote and protect in-

terests by gaining and terests by gaining and
exercising influence exercising power
Functions
Methods
Factors affecting success
Complete the table and try to name other criteria that may be used to
compare interest groups with political parties.
Assessment criteria
The assessment criteria in this exercise are as follows:

(1) You should be able to determine criteria that can be used in the
comparison of two or more phenomena.
(2) You should be able to apply those criteria in order to compare
phenomena.
(3) You should be able to describe the differences and similarities
between the phenomena that are being compared.
By making use of a table similar to the one in assignment 16.1, compare
the ideology of liberalism with the ideology of socialism.
In order to compare the ideologies, liberalism and socialism, you will have
202
to make a thorough study of the contents of study unit 4
(pp ///////). You may use the following criteria for purposes of
comparison: fundamental characteristics, views on human nature,
society, economy, politics and the role of the state. You may also
make use of any other criteria that you can identify. The marginal
notes provide some indication of the criteria that can be used.
Assessment criteria
The assessment criteria for this assignment are similar to those for
assignment 16.1
To sum up:
Comparison is an important, method, not only in the social sciences
but also in the natural sciences. We can classify phenomena (ie
determine what it is) by making use of certain criteria. When we
encounter an animal, we may for example we are able to determine
whether it is a cat, a dog, a horse, another animal, or something we
do not know based on our automatic use of certain criteria. When
we encounter an animal that is unfamiliar, we may decide to
classify it more formally according to a species. We thus use
classification daily. It is important that you compare political
phenomena or politically relevant phenomena when you encounter
them.
PLC201-U/1 203
STUDY
UNIT 17
WRITING A REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
The writing of a review is an important skill that all educated people should acquire. By
learning how to write a review, you will be able to develop a number of other skills, such
as, critical reading and thinking, determining the essence of the what and how of a book or
an article, as well as how to analyse and evaluate the contents thereof.
The purpose of this study unit is to develop the skill of critical reading, that is, how to
evaluate the purpose, standard, usefulness and applicability of that which you are reading.
This will be accomplished by reviewing one of the books mentioned below.
17.1 HOW TO WRITE A REVIEW
Writing a review is an important skill that is not too difficult to

acquire. Note, however, that in this review you will have to
evaluate the suitability of a particular book as a prescribed book for
the of module PLC201±U study module. You should, therefore,
always determine what is expected of you when you are asked to
write a review. A review is provided later in this discussion that aims to
introduce people to a new publication.
It is important to realise that writing a review does not mean giving

a mere summary of the contents of a book; neither is it merely a
series of negative criticisms.
204
In order to write a review, you need to conform to the following
steps:
Step 1
Begin by providing the following information: Author/s and their
initials, date of publication, title (either underlined or in italics),
edition (only if not the first edition), place of publication, publisher,
and price of the book (if not available it should be stated as such).
Note that information on the author and even on the title of the
book may be provided (it may be a well-known author and/or
book Ð editions may provide an indication). Often the price of the
book may also be discussed. Is it good value for money or is it too
expensive?
Assessment criteria for step 1

Have you provided all the necessary particulars of the book
you have selected? Have you stated them correctly and in
the correct order?
Step 2
In order to determine the suitability of the book, it is important to
know what is being discussed in the PLC201±U study guide. Make
a list of all the themes and topics discussed in each of the study
units. Include in your review the themes and topics that an
appropriate prescribed book would cover.

You should be able to determine what the focus of the study
module is and what key topics are discussed.
You should be able to convey this in writing.
Step 3
By making use of the table of contents, as well as the index at the
back of the book, determine which of these themes and topics are
discussed in the book you are reviewing. Write a paragraph in
which you mention the topics that are discussed and those that are
not. You may also mention any other topic in the book that is not
discussed in the study guide.
If a particular topic does not appear in the book, but is discussed in
PLC201-U/1 205
detail in the study guide, you may mention this fact. However, if
this is not the case, any topic that is not in the book may affect the
suitability of a particular book as a prescribed book for this
particular study module.

You should be able to determine what the focus of a book is
and what key topics are dealt with.
You should be able to determine the differences and
similarities between the content of the study module and
of the book.
You should be able to convey all of this in writing.
Step 4
Having determined to what extent the book deals with the same
topics as the study guide, you will have to evaluate the standard of
discussion in the book.
Firstly, begin by determining whether each concept is properly

defined and/or explained in the book. Do the definitions and
explanations correspond with those in the study guide. An
important aspect is whether additional information is provided in
the book. If the discussions in the book provide mainly a
duplication of what is being discussed in the study guide, then
the suitability of the book as a prescribed book, must be questioned.
It is not necessary to discuss each topic individually. You may make

general remarks in this regard, but they should be substantiated by
making use of one or more examples. Areas in the book that are of
exceptional quality or of a poor standard should also be mentioned.

You should be able to determine the standard of a discussion
in a book.
You should be able to convey this in writing.
You should be able to substantiate your opinion by referring
to appropriate sections in the study guide and the book.
You should be able to provide the necessary references.
Note that this is a difficult part of a review and that it really is a case
of practice makes perfect. The more knowledge and experience you
acquire, the easier it will become. Note, however, that it is also
important to learn how to provide the necessary references in your
206
work. There are various reasons why it is important to provide
references. Consult the study guide for examples of references.
Step 5
Next you will have to pay attention to the more technical aspects of
the book, that is, whether it is user-friendly or not. Pay attention to
the language Ð consider whether it is suitable for second-language
users. The outline of discussions, including headings and subhead-
ings, is also important. Likewise, a comprehensive table of contents,
an index and a glossary may add to its value as a potential
prescribed book.

You should be able to determine the quality of the more
technical aspects of the book.
You should be able to give an informed and substantiated
opinion in this regard.
Step 6
Having done all of the above, you will have to make a verdict on
the suitability of the book as a prescribed book for this particular
study module. You may say something about the price (if
available). If you are aware that it is used as a prescribed book at
other institutions you may mention this fact.

You should be able to come to a conclusion with regard to
your evaluation of the book and its suitability as a prescribed
book.
Step 7
Draft two versions of this review Ð one of between 500 and 700
words, and one of between 1 000 to 1 500 words.

You should be able to comply with any specifications with
regard to the length. The purpose of these instructions is to
teach you how to comply with specified lengths and to learn
how to determine what facts and detail are important and
essential.
The following book review that was published in Politeia, Vol 19 (3),
PLC201-U/1 207
provides an indication of what is expected in a review. Note,
however, that you will not be allowed to use this particular review for
examination purposes. You will, therefore, have to write your own
review on another book. This example illustrates that being able to
write a review is an important academic skill.
Ball, RA & Peters, BG. 2000. Modern politics and government. 6th edition.
London: Macmillan (322 pp. Index. Price:£13.99 [Paperback]).
The mere fact that this is the sixth edition of Modern politics and
government is an indication of the status and value of this book. The
first edition appeared almost thirty years ago in 1971 and was
authored by Alan R Ball. Another four editions by Alan R Ball
appeared at regular intervals of between five and six years. This
edition (the sixth) was co-authored by B Guy Peters, who is well-
known for his works on American public policy and comparative
politics. Previous revised editions were all characterised by the fact
that they were updated with the latest developments both in the
study of politics and the real world context of politics.
The latest edition has also been substantially revised, largely to

accommodate the vast changes in the political world, as well as
changes in the study of politics that have taken place in recent
years. There are even references to the impeachment of President
Clinton. However, the basic purpose of the book remains the same.
As in the first edition, the purpose, `ìs to provide a wide-ranging
introduction to politics, and to the study of politics'' (Ball &
Peters 2000:xi).
The content of the book is divided into four parts, namely the
nature of politics, parties, pressure groups and representation,
structures of government, and political change. A detailed table of
contents and index make the book extremely user-friendly Ð a
bonus for students. Thirteen tables containing political data, as well
as numerous practical examples, serve to illustrate the link between
theory and practice.
The focus of part one is the what and the how of the study of politics.
The concept ``politics'' is briefly explained, as well as the
importance of politics as `òne of the oldest activities of humanity''
(Ball & Peters 2000:3). The importance and role of power and
authority, as well as the cultural context of politics form part of the
focus of part one. Approaches to the study of politics, as well as
some of the important historic developments in this regard, are
briefly discussed. There is also an introduction to the importance of
the classification and comparison of political phenomena. This
208
includes a brief, but easy to understand, explanation of the aims,
problems and systems of classification in the study of politics.
The content and discussion of part one are focused. However, it is a

pity that political communication did not receive more explicit
attention. Unfortunately, the importance of political communication
is often underestimated in introductory texts. It should be borne in
mind that politics is not possible without communication.
The emphasis of part two is on political parties, pressure groups

and representation. These then provide the ``mechanisms of
channeling and aggregating demands, and providing an institu-
tional basis for relating the people to their government'' (Bell &
Peters 2000:95). This section provides a thorough discussion of what
is, in this regard, relevant at the introductory level of politics. The
wisdom of discussing political parties first, and then pressure
groups may be questioned. The reasons for the order of the
discussion are obvious. In the discussion on pressure groups,
attention is paid to the interaction between pressure groups and
political parties; it is for this reason that an understanding of
political parties is important prior to the discussion of pressure
groups. The advantages of progressing from the more basic and
ordinary groups to the more complex groups like political parties,
should not be underestimated.
Part three of the book deals with the structures of government Ð a

vital section in any introductory text. The discussion focuses on the
legislative, executive (including the bureaucracy) and the judicial
authority. The role of the military as an important structure of
government, especially in political systems that are not stable
democracies, is an important topic in this section. Where necessary,
brief historic overviews are provided and ample use is made of
practical examples. The examples are interesting and thought
provoking.
Part four, provides a brief, but necessary, overview of political

change in general. It is worth noting that several variations of
political change, as well as the distinction between evolutionary
and revolutionary change, are briefly discussed. Within the context
of the importance attached to democracy in world politics, more
explicit attention could, however, have been paid to the concept of
democratisation.
Ample notes and references are provided at the end of each chapter.
However, an alphabetical list (at the back of the book) of all the
sources consulted, would have made the book more user-friendly.
PLC201-U/1 209
Modern politics and government is a good book and one that should
be seriously considered as a textbook. There is, in fact, very little in
the book that can be criticised. It is always difficult to determine,
within the limitations of length and scope of an introductory text,
what should be included and what not. The recommendations
made in this regard should be seriously considered by the authors.
The authors should also consider paying more attention to
ideologies, because ideologies do not get the attention they deserve.
Even though there is a section on ideologies, more attention could
have been paid to the content of the current dominant ideologies.
The language used and the layout of the book are sophisticated. The
book is thus suitable for the discerning reader/student who would
like to know more about politics.
17.2 ASSIGNMENTS
SELF-ASSESSMENT ASSIGNMENT 17.1

Make sure that you have carefully studied the instructions and example
above. now write the following review:
Write a review on the suitability of any ONE of the following books as a
prescribed book for PLC201±U:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Heywood, A. 1997. Politics. 2nd edition. London: Macmillan. (This is a

recommended book and may be ordered from the library.)
Ranney, A. 1996. Governing: an introduction to political science. 7th edition (or
earlier editions). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. (This is a
recommended book and may be ordered from the library.)
Jackson, RJ & Jackson, D. 1997. A comparative introduction to political science.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. (This is an additional book and will
not necessarily be available in the library.)
Hague, R, Harrop, M & Breslin, S. 1998. Comparative government and politics:
an introduction. 5th edition. London: Macmillan. (This is an additional book
and will not necessarily be available in the library.)
210
SELF-ASSESSMENT ASSIGNMENT 17.2
After you have written the review as requested above, write the following
review.
Write a review in which you evaluate the suitability of the content
of the study guide (PLC201±U) for a course in political dynamics.
This review will differ slightly from the review above, because you now have
to determine to what extent the contents of the PLC201±U study module
cover that which is normally discussed in political dynamics.
You will need to follow the next seven steps when evaluating the content of
this course.
Step 1
You should provide the necessary information on the study guide.
What is important in this regard is to provide the name of the
course and to state what the purpose of the course is. Does it claim
to provide a detailed study or merely an introduction to political
dynamics (or whatever the focus of the module is)? Is it supposed to
discuss the whole field or only a section of political dynamics?
In order to determine the focus and objectives of the content of the

study module, it is important to look at the content of the
introduction and the content of theme one.
On reading the introduction and the contents of theme 1, you will

realise that the focus of the study guide is political behaviour and
participation. Thus, the whole scope of political dynamics is not
dealt with. This is an important fact that you should mention. Other
aspects of political dynamics (eg public policy, political develop-
ment and political conflict) are the foci of other study units.

You should assess yourself on your ability to provide all the
necessary particulars of the study guide and in the correct
order.
Check reference techniques at the back of this study guide.
You should also be able to determine the focus of a particular
book, in this case a study guide. Study pages one to five
thoroughly and scan the content of the rest of the study
guide.
PLC201-U/1 211
Step 2
You should now determine what is normally included in a study of
political dynamics. For this purpose, you will also have to look at
what is being discussed in other books dealing with political
dynamics. As indicated in step 1 other important phenomena in
political dynamics include public policy, political development and
political conflict.
You may indicate whether the choice of what is being offered in this
study module is a sound one. (Remember that the discussions may
become extremely superficial if too much is included in the study
module.)

You should be able to determine what the focus of political
dynamics as a subsection of politics is, what key topics are
usually discussed in political dynamics, and you should be
able to convey this in writing.
Step 3
After having determined what political dynamics is all about, you
should state what should, be in the study guide and what should be
left out. Remember that you will have to justify your decision in this
regard.

You should be able to determine what the focus of political
dynamics entails and what topics need to be included in such
a study. You should, however, bear in mind that some very
important aspects of political dynamics are being dealt with
in other study guides.
You should be able to determine the differences and
similarities between the content of the study module and
that which is normally discussed in a study of political
dynamics.
You should be able to convey all of this in writing. It may be
of help to study any of the books listed in assignment 17.1, as
well as the discussion on the concept of political dynamics on
pp ///// of the study guide.
212
Step 4
It is now time to evaluate the quality of the discussions in the study
guide. Is the focus and the purpose of the study guide clearly
stated? You should consult some of the recommended books in
order to determine whether the standard of the discussions
included in the study guide are of the necessary standard. How
do the definitions and explanations compare with those in the
books that have been consulted?

You should be able to determine the standard of a discussion
in any book and you should be able to convey this in writing.
You should be able to substantiate your opinion in this
regard by referring to appropriate sections in the study guide
and the study module, and you should be able to provide the
necessary references.
Again, this is a difficult part of a review and it is really a case of
practice makes perfect. The more knowledge and experience you
acquire the easier it will become. Note, however, that it is also
important to learn how to provide the necessary references in your
work. There are various reasons why it is important to provide
references.
Step 5
Next, you should determine whether the study guide is user-
friendly or not. Is the language clear and easy to read? Are there
enough examples, exercises, references and mention of books that
can be consulted for further reading on a particular topic?

You should be able to determine the quality of the more
technical aspects of the study guide and you should be able
to express an informed and substantiated opinion in this
regard.
Step 6
You should cast a verdict on the suitability of the study guide for a
course in political dynamics. Again, you will have to stress the real
focus of the study guide and make mention of what could perhaps
have been included or excluded. The standard of the discussions
PLC201-U/1 213
should also be used to justify your decision on the suitability of the
study guide.

You should be able to come to a conclusion with regard to
your evaluation of the study guide and you should be able to
substantiate your decision with regard to the suitability of
the study guide for a study in political dynamics.
Step 7
Compile two versions of your review. One should be between 500
and 700 words and the other between 1 000 and 1 500 words.

You should be able to comply with any specifications with
regard to the length. The purpose of these instructions is to
develop the skill to comply with specified lengths and to
learn how to determine what facts and detail are important
and essential. Remember that in the examinations you will
not have enough time to write everything you know. You
thus have to learn how to plan your writing.
To sum up:
Writing a review is an important skill that you should develop.
Note, however, that more advanced reviews of academic books also
require an evaluation of the content in terms of theoretical
principles. This is, however, not required at this level. We suggest
that you consult the reviews at the back of the Journal Politeia
214
STUDY
UNIT 18
POINT SUMMARIES AND OUTLINES
INTRODUCTION
Point summaries and outlines are skills that students are usually familiar with. Students
are sometimes uncertain about what is expected of them. For this reason, we provide a
brief discussion on each of these skills. Please note that this discussion does not contain
everything that can be said on these skills.
18.1 POINT SUMMARIES
Point summaries and outlines are similar in many ways. Point

summaries concentrate on the essential facts in a discussion. Short
sentences that are usually numbered or bulleted () are used. They
provide organised summaries of the key facts of a discussion.
An example of a point summary is as follows:
VOTING BEHAVIOUR
Voting behaviour is an important aspect of political
behaviour.
Voting is the way in which we can indicate our preferences.
Voting may take on a number of forms, namely
Ð show of hands
PLC201-U/1 215
Ð secret ballot
Voting is used to elect
Ð representatives
Ð political leaders
Ð electoral colleges (eg USA)
People may also vote in referenda and a plebiscite.
There are a number of factors that will affect voting

behaviour.
Voter turnout may be affected by
Ð the electoral system
Ð the nature of political parties
Ð the political culture
Ð the legitimacy of the political system
Ð perceptions about the value of voting
Choice of candidates/issues may be influenced by
Ð party affiliation
Ð attitudes towards candidates and issues
Ð socialisation and geography
There are still many uncertainties about voting behaviour.
The above is an example of a point summary.
18.2 OUTLINES FOR DISCUSSION
As already indicated, outlines for discussions are similar to point

summaries except that we also include the formal headings and
subheadings.
Using the same topic, the following is an example of an outline of a

discussion dealing with voting behaviour.
216
VOTING BEHAVIOUR
1 INTRODUCTION
Background: importance of voting as a form of political behaviour.-
What: the uses of voting and the factors that will affect it.
How: descriptive analysis of uses and factors that will affect it.
2 CONCEPT OF VOTING
Voting is a way of indicating our preferences.
Voting may take on a number of forms, namely
Ð show of hands
Ð secret ballot
3 USES OF VOTING
Voting is used to elect
representatives
Ð political leaders
Ð electoral colleges (eg USA)
People may also vote in referenda and a plebiscite.
4 FACTORS THAT MAY AFFECT VOTING BEHAVIOUR

There are a number of factors that will affect voter turnout and
choice in voting behaviour.
4.1 Factors affecting voter turnout include

Ð the electoral system
Ð the nature of political parties
Ð the political culture
Ð the legitimacy of the political system
Ð perceptions about the value of voting
4.2 Factors affecting the choice of a voter include

Ð party affiliation
Ð attitudes towards candidates and issues
Ð socialisation and geography
PLC201-U/1 217
5 CONCLUSION
Voting behaviour is an important part of political behaviour.
There are still many uncertainties about voting behaviour.
To sum up:
Academic study also involves the acquisition of skills. Point
summaries and outlines are two important skills in this regard.
Apart from the practical use of these two skills, it also teaches a
student to determine the essence of a discussion in a structured
manner.
218
STUDY
UNIT 19
REVISION
INTRODUCTION
Revision should form an important part of your studies. The self-assessment exercises and
assignments that are provided in the study guide already provide a useful form of
revision. This study unit offers you the opportunity to test your skills and knowledge of
the entire study module.
Try to answer the questions without constantly referring to your study guide. Should you
encounter difficulties, you are welcome to consult the relevant sections. After you have
done the revision exercises, compare your answers with the contents of the relevant
sections in the study guide.
You should only start reviewing your knowledge and skills after you have worked
through the study guide. Revision exercises take the form of questions.
QUESTION 1
Discuss in no more than 100 words what the focus of this study
guide is and what themes and topics are discussed.
QUESTION 2
Discuss in no more than 100 words how the content of this study
guide differs from a study that focuses on political dynamics as a
whole.
PLC201-U/1 219
Assessment criteria
You must be able to identify what the focus of a discussion
is, how that focus is dealt with in the discussion, and
whether you are able to explain that clearly in writing.
QUESTION 3
Definitions usually consists of two parts, definiendum and definiens.
Explain this statement by making use of an appropriate example.
See pp ///// of the study guide in this regard.
Assessment criteria
You should be able to understand the construction of a
definition.
QUESTION 4
Without consulting the study guide, write down as many of the key
concepts and terms dealt with in the study guide as you can
remember.
Assessment criteria
You should demonstrate an understanding of what a study
of political behaviour and participation entails.
QUESTION 5
Turn to the lists of key concepts and terms provided under each
theme in the study guide (pp////////). Select any number
between one and five (eg 3). Now select the third concept in the list
(institutions) and explain that concept in your own words.
Thereafter, try to explain every fifth concept. When you have
finished with the list for theme one, page to the next list until you
have gone through all the lists. You may repeat this exercise by
beginning with a different number. Remember that you explanation
should be more comprehensive than a mere definition.
Assessment criteria
You should demonstrate an understanding of the key
concepts involved in a study of political behaviour and
participation.
220
QUESTION 6
Name and explain briefly the various approaches in a study of
QUESTION 7
Explain how the following differ: approach, framework, model,
methods and technique.
The answers to questions 6 and 7 appear in study unit 1.
QUESTIONS 8^18
These questions are based on the content of theme 2. You will have
to study pp /////. Assessment criteria
You should demonstrate an understanding of the environ-

ment or context in which political behaviour and participa-
tion take place.
You should also be able to explain how our political
behaviour and participation are affected by the environment
and what processes are involved in this regard.
You should be able to answer this question in writing.
QUESTION 8
Provide an outline for a discussion or a point summary of the
following topic: Discuss the role of political culture and values in human
You are required to indicate what headings, subheadings and key

points (facts) are necessary for a discussion of the topic.
QUESTION 9
Name the characteristics of political culture.
QUESTION 10
Name and briefly explain the various types of political culture that
are discussed in the study guide.
QUESTION 11
Briefly explain how political culture affects our political behaviour.
PLC201-U/1 221
QUESTION 12
Briefly explain what the limitations of ideologies are.
QUESTION 13
Why do you think ideologies are important in politics?
QUESTION 14
Compare the characteristics of liberalism with the characteristics of
socialism. Refer to study unit 16 in this regard.
QUESTION 15
Name and briefly explain four other ideologies.
QUESTION 16
Briefly discuss the way we acquire our political values and the
agents that may play a role in our acquisition of political values.
QUESTION 17
Provide a framework or outline for an answer that will deal with
the importance of political communication in politics and the way
we behave in a political context.
QUESTION 18
Discuss briefly the factors that will affect the political communica-
tion process.
QUESTIONS 19^28
These questions are based on the content of theme 3. In order to
answer these questions, you will have to study pp ///////// of
the study guide.
Assessment criteria
You should demonstrate an understanding of the various
actors that are involved in politics, how and why they are
active in politics and what factors will affect their role as
political actors.
222
You should be able to put this in writing and thus show an
understanding of the various theories involved.
QUESTION 19
Name all the political actors that are discussed in the study guide
and explain, in one sentence, why each is an important political
actor.
QUESTION 20
Name and explain briefly the various views on human nature (see
pp////////).
QUESTION 21
political leaders as important actors in politics.
QUESTION 22
What, in your opinion, motivates political leaders? Note that you
will have to pay attention to the various theories on the motivation
of political leaders and you will have to give reasons for your
answer.
QUESTION 23
Provide a framework for an answer that will deal with the
importance of groups as political actors. Note that you will have
to pay attention to the content of study units 9, 10, 11 and 12. (Hint:
pay attention to the various headings in these study units.)
QUESTION 24
Name and discuss the various methods that groups use in order to
participate in politics.
QUESTION 25
Name and discuss the factors that will affect the role and success of
a group in politics.
PLC201-U/1 223
QUESTION 26
Compare the role of interest groups in politics to that of political
parties. You may tabulate your answer if you wish.
QUESTION 27
Briefly explain the fundamental premises of elite theory.
QUESTION 28
Name and briefly explain the theories that try to explain the role of
elites as political actors.
QUESTION 29
This question deals with the content of study unit 13
(pp///////////).
Assessment criteria
You should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the
place and role of the state and state institutions in politics,
that is, how the political role of one state differs from that of
another state.
QUESTIONS 30^32
These questions are based on the content of theme 4 ( pp ////////).
Assessment criteria
You should demonstrate an understanding of those political
activities of political actors that are discussed in the study
guide.
QUESTION 30
the importance of public opinion and political behaviour
QUESTION 31
Briefly explain why political socialisation and political communica-
tion are important determinants of public opinion.
224
QUESTION 32
Name and briefly explain what factors will influence a person's
voting behaviour.
PLC201-U/1 225
UNDERSTANDING POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR AND
PARTICIPATION
Duration: 2 hours 100 marks
EXAMINERS:
First: Dr S Botha Prof PAH Labuschagne

Dr DJ Kotze Ms SL Kant
Second: Prof AM Faure
This paper consists of 2 pages
Answer ALL sections, but read the instructions carefully. Each

section counts 25 marks.
It is in your own interest to write neatly and legibly.
You have 30 minutes for each section. Make proper use of your
time.
SECTION A
1 Explain all of the following concepts.
(a) political socialisation
(b) public opinion
(c) political parties
(d) political culture
(e) post-behaviouralism (25)
SECTION B
Answer all the questions in this section.
2 Name the approaches in elite theory. (4)

3 Name and briefly discuss the most important media of
political communication. (10)
4 Explain how political leaders acquire and lose their
positions, as well as what the functions of political leaders
are. (11)
SECTION C
Answer ONE of the following two options.
5 Option (a): Compare socialism with liberalism. Pay attention
226
to their description and prescription of people's social,
political and economic contexts and on their ideas on human
nature. (25)
Option (b): Provide a framework for an answer in which you will

discuss the role and importance of interest groups in politics. (25)
SECTION D
Answer ONE of the following two options.
6 Option (a): Write a review on any book of your choice

(excluding the book by Ball) that deals with the content of
this course. You may also review the study guide. (25)
Option (b): Discuss the factors that will influence a person's voting
behaviour. Make use of examples in your discussion. (25)
PLC201-U/1 227
IN CONCLUSION
By now you should have worked through the study guide and we
trust that you found it interesting, informative and easy to
understand. Please do not hesitate to contact us if you are still
unsure about any section of the work,
A brief overview of the content of this study guide is provided in

this section.
In the introduction and study unit 1, some of the more problematic

concepts were briefly discussed in an attempt to clarify their use in
this module. Note again, that various authors may use these
concepts differently and that you should always determine how a
concept is used by a particular author.
The first aspect of political behaviour that we discussed was the

setting of political behaviour, that is, the environment or context in
which political behaviour takes place and those factors in the
environment that will affect the what and the how of political
behaviour.
As indicated, the focus of the study module is political behaviour

and participation. In this regard, we have provided a descriptive
and, on occasion, a comparative analysis of the role of various
political actors, the factors that will shape their behaviour and the
nature of their participation in politics. We discussed the
importance of values as embodied in political culture and ideology,
as well as how these may be mirrored by the political institutions
and the behaviour of political actors.
The importance of political socialisation and political communica-

tion was discussed. In all these discussions the individual was
regarded as the basic unit of political action, interaction and
reaction.
Subsequently, attention was paid to the various actors in politics,

that is, how and why they participate in politics. The discussions on
the actors started with the individual as the basic unit of political
action. Political leaders were the second set of political actors that
received attention. Political leaders provide the bridge between the
individual and collectivities in politics. These were followed by
discussions on groups (collectivities) as political actors. Attention
was paid to the nature of groups, different types of groups, the
methods used by groups and the factors that will affect their
political role. Some of the groups and collectivities that were singled
228
out were interest groups, political parties, elites, ethnic groups,
nations and class. Again, a descriptive analysis was provided of
their behaviour and participation in politics.
The state and state institutions also received attention. Attention

was paid to the debates on the minimal and maximal state; the
public domain versus the private domain; and the growth of the
public domain.
Lastly, particular activities of political actors and the political

significance of these activities received attention. The focus was
mainly on public opinion and voting behaviour.
In addition to all of the above, instruction was also provided on a

number of important skills that students need to develop. These
were the use of comparison as a method, writing reviews,
compiling point summaries and writing outlines for discussions.
To assist students, we have provided a section dealing with revision

of the work, as well as providing a mock examination. Remember,
you will need to make optimal use of the time you have available
during the examination. There is no reason why you should leave
an examination before the time has expired.
At this stage it is important to realise that this study module merely

provides an introduction to political behaviour and participation.
Political behaviour is a complex phenomenon that is shaped by a
multitude of factors and manifests itself in many different ways.
We trust that you have enjoyed this study module and we wish you
every success with the examinations and the rest of your studies``.
PLC201-U/1 229

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# 1999 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

PLC201-U/1/2004 -2007 iii

Welcome to the Department of Political Sciences and Philosophy

We shall now provide a few tips on the approach we shall be

The focus of this study module, namely political behaviour and

In this study module, we concentrate on the behavioural aspects of

As you progress through the study module (especially if you are

STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY MODULE

 This study guide forms the nucleus of this study modu

[A political map indicates the different political boundaries.]

The study guide makes repeated mention of geographical areas and

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

definition A term is a word or phrase (set of words) used to identify a

A definition is a sentence which explains what a certain concept

You will also be introduced to certain concepts and terms in this

You are encouraged to develop your own views on politics, while

SKILLS, REVISION AND EXAMINATIONS

We have provided revision exercises at the back of the study guide,

Wishing you every success.

The presenters of the module?

We indicated in the preface that the focus of this study module is

Do not be concerned if there are things that you do not understand

The subfield of political behaviour is extensive and it is thus not

Unfortunately, the concept ``state'' is one of the most difficult

THE CONCEPT ``STATE''

One reason is the lack of attention that British and American

Another reason for the confusion often experienced when dealing

In theme 5, you will be introduced to a number of academic skills.

OTHER RELATED CONCEPTS

There are several other concepts that are of importance whenever

The idea of a political system is similar to the idea of the solar

APPROACH USED IN THIS MODULE

THE CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL DYNAMICS,

FOCUS What does the concept of political dynamics entail?

How do we study political behaviour?

What approaches, frameworks, models, methods and tech-

Various activities that are politically relevant take place within a

The features of the relationship between the anatomy and

In the human body, a particular component of the anatomy may

The relationship between political dynamics and political institu-

This study module only looks at political behaviour, which includes

1.2 WHAT DOES THE CONCEPTs OF POLITICAL

The term political behaviour refers to all the political activities, or

Read the hypothetical scenario in the following paragraphs and then

(1) A number of people acted in a manner that is politically rel-

In the above scenario important actors are: the chairman of the

The above scenario provides an indication of how activities and

 the conditions in the environment that affect political

Bear in mind that the above distinction is analytical: in other words,

Political behaviour may, therefore, be regarded as all the politically

Political participation is a part of political behaviour. When,

Political behaviour and participation are narrowly interwoven with

1.3 HOW DO WE STUDY POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR?

behaviouralism Behaviouralism (often spelled behavioralism) is an approach in the

Post-behaviouralists felt that neither the traditional, nor the

Gamble et al (1992:33) summarize the characteristics and criticism

 Traditional: Concerned with values; emphasis on formal

1.4 WHAT APPROACHES, FRAMEWORKS, MODELS,

surveys Surveys are an important technique used in the study of political

frameworks One of the frameworks often used in the study of behaviouralism is

This study guide forms the nucleus of this study modu

the conditions in the environment that affect political

Traditional: Concerned with values; emphasis on formal

The political culture in a particular society need not

A parochial political culture. In such a political culture there

Political culture determines our political attitudes, orienta-

Politicians should take note of political culture, culture in

Ideologies are based on the teachings of significant political

claims to provide an explanation for the social, political and

Even though ideologies are comprehensive, they often

The explanations of and the solutions to our problems that