CANG J.G. de Gijt, M.L. Broeken-Quay Walls, Second Edition-CRC Press (2013)

J.G.
de Gijt
M.L. Broeken
This new edition of the handbook of Quay Walls provides the reader
with essential knowledge for the planning, design, execution and
Editors: J.G. de Gijt & M.L. Broeken
maintenance of quay walls, as well as general information about
historical developments and lessons learned from the observation
of ports in various countries. Technical chapters are followed by a
detailed calculation of a quay wall based on a semi-probabilistic
design procedure, which applies the theory presented earlier.
Since the publication of the Dutch edition in 2003 and the English
version in 2005, considerable new experience has been obtained
by the many practitioners using the book, prompting the update of
this handbook. Moreover, the introduction of the Eurocodes in 2012
has prompted a complete revision of the Design chapter, which
is now compliant with the Eurocodes. Furthermore, additional
recommendations for using FEM-analysis in quay wall design have
been included.
Second edition
In response to ongoing discussions within the industry about
buckling criteria for steel pipe piles, a thorough research project
was carried out on steel pipe piles filled with sand and on piles
Second edition
without sand. The results of this research programme have also
been incorporated in this new version.
Finally, the section on corrosion has been updated to reflect the

latest knowledge and attention has been given to the latest global
developments in quay wall engineering.
The new edition was made possible thanks to the contributions of

numerous experts from the Netherlands and Belgium.
an informa business
QUAY WALLS
Second edition
SBRCURnet Publication 211E
SBRCURnet
MUNICIPALITY ROTTERDAM
PORT OF ROTTERDAM
This page intentionally left blank
SBRCURnet Publication 211E
Quay Walls
Second edition
SBRCURnet
Municipality Rotterdam
Port of Rotterdam
Published by CRC Press/Balkema, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
© 2014 SBRCURnet, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in the Netherlands by PrintSupport4U, Meppel.
Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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data from this publication in order to be used in articles, essays and books, provided that
the source of the quotation, and, insofar as this has been published, the name of the
author, are clearly mentioned. “© SBRCURnet Publication 211E ‘Quay Walls, Second
Edition’, 2014. SBRCURnet, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.”
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preparation of this publication. However, it can not be guaranteed that this publication is
complete and/or free of faults. The use of this publication and data from this publication
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ISBN: 978-1-138-00023-0 (Hardback)
ISBN: 978-1-315-77831-0 (eBook PDF)
Quay walls
Foreword
Since the publication of the Dutch edition in 2003 and the English version in 2005 consid-
erable new experience has been obtained by many practitioners using the book, leading to
the need to update this handbook. The introduction of the Eurocodes in 2012 was also an
important reason for a new version of this handbook, resulting in a complete revision of
the Design chapter, in order to comply with the Eurocodes. Additional recommendations
for using FEM-analysis with quay wall design have been incorporated.
Within the industry, discussions are going on about buckling criteria for steel pipe piles.
Therefore in the framework of this CUR project a thorough research project was carried
out on steel pipe piles filled with sand and piles without sand. The results of this research
programme have been incorporated in this new version.
Finally, the section about corrosion has also been updated to the latest knowledge and
attention has also been given to the latest global developments in qua wall engineering.
The review of this handbook was done under the supervision of CUR Committee C183
“Quay Walls”. This committee consists of the following members:
Dr. J.G. de Gijt, Stadsontwikkeling, Ingenieursbureau Gemeente Rotterdam/TUDelft

chairman, Editor
M.L. Broeken, Editor Stadsontwikkeling, Ingenieursbureau Gemeente Rotterdam
A.A. Roubos, Secretary Port of Rotterdam Authority
S. Azzouzi ARCADIS Nederland
Dr. K.J. Bakker WAD43/TUDelft
Prof. Ch. Bauduin N.V. BESIX S.A./KU Leuven
H.E. Brassinga Municipality Rotterdam
E.J. Broos Port of Rotterdam Authority
E. Dupont Fundex NV/SA
R.A. van der Eijk VolkerInfraDesign
A.J. van der Geest BAM Speciale Technieken
A. Groeneweg Ballast Nedam Funderingstechnieken
H.L. Jansen Fugro GeoServices
D.J. Jaspers Focks Witteveen+Bos Raadgevende Ingenieurs
J.P. Klootwijk GEKA BOUW B.V.
P.A. Kraaijeveld Volker Staal en Funderingen
A.P. Louwen Port of Rotterdam
P. Mulders ArcelorMittal Projects Europe
D.J. Peters Royal HaskoningDHV
P.J. Plooy Raadgevend Ingenieursbureau Lievense
C.N. van Schaik VolkerInfraDesign
H.J. Wolters IV-Infra
Dr. R.B.J. Brinkgreve, Plaxis
corresponding member
A. Jonker, Coordinator SBRCURnet
v
Foreword
Scientific contributions were given by Prof. A.F. van Tol, Prof. A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder
and Prof. J.K. Vrijling.
Sponsors
SBRCURnet would like to thank the organizations and companies listed below whose
support made the publication of this handbook possible:
Aannemingsbedrijf De Klerk BV
ARCADIS Nederland BV
ArcelorMittal Projects Europe
Ballast Nedam Funderingstechnieken
BAM Civiel bv
BAUER Funderingstechniek B.V.
BESIX
FCO GWW 2011/2012
Funderingstechnieken Verstraeten B.V.
FUNDEX N.V.
Gebr. De Koning B.V.
GEKA BOUW B.V.
Hakkers b.v.
N. Kraaijeveld B.V.
Groningen Seaports
Port of Rotterdam Authority
Raadgevend Ingenieursbureau Lievense
Royal HaskoningDHV
Stadsontwikkeling, Ingenieursbureau Gemeente Rotterdam
Sterk Midden Nederland B.V./Sterk Heiwerken B.V.
Van der Straaten Aannemingsmaatschappij B.V.
Van Oord Dredging & Marine Contractors bv
Volker Staal en Funderingen bv
Voorbij Funderingstechniek B.V.
Witteveen + Bos Raadgevende Ingenieurs
Zeeland Seaports
Acknowledgements
The SBRCURnet wishes to thank the CUR committee and all other persons who gave their
contribution in the publication of this handbook by generously contributing the fruits of
their expertise in the form of information and comments.
November 2013 The Board of SBRCURnet
vi
Quay walls
Samenvatting
Bij het ontwerpen van kademuren is het de kunst om de interactie tussen de verschillende
constructieonderdelen en de grond op een goede manier te schematiseren. Dit handboek
geeft een overzicht van de beschikbare kennis en ervaring op het gebied van het ontwerp,
de uitvoering en het beheer van kademuren.
In de inleidende hoofdstukken wordt de functie van kademuren in de loop van de geschiede-

nis behandeld en wordt een overzicht gegeven van de hoofdvormen. Aan de hand van
voorbeelden uit binnen- en buitenland wordt een toelichting gegeven op de diverse
constructiemogelijkheden.
De daaropvolgende hoofdstukken volgen het ontwerpproces op de voet. Omdat betrouw-

bare gegevens van wezenlijk belang zijn, wordt er ingegaan op het verzamelen en bewerken
van basisgegevens en het opstellen van het programma van eisen. De ontwerpfilosofie is
toegespitst op kades met een ontlastconstructie en dragende damwand. Voor het ontwerp
van andere constructieve vormen, gewichtsconstructies en steigerachtige constructies,
wordt verwezen naar de aangegeven literatuur. Veel aandacht is geschonken aan de semi
probabilistische ontwerpmethode in relatie tot de Eurocode.
Een belangrijk punt is het ontwerp van de elementen waaruit een kade is opgebouwd.
Deze bepalen immers in hoge mate de uiteindelijke functionaliteit van de kade. Vanuit
deze filosofie wordt de nodige aandacht besteed aan het ontwerp van de kade-elementen.
Vele voorbeelden, details en praktische raadgevingen zijn opgenomen. Het gebruik van de
verschillende materialen wordt behandeld vanuit een materiaaltechnologisch gezichtspunt.
Aandacht wordt besteed aan de maatregelen die genomen moeten worden om aantasting
of schade te voorkomen.
Hoewel het handboek in de eerste plaats gericht is op de ontwerppraktijk hebben ook

de uitvoering, de kosten en het beheer een plaats gekregen. Hier is de uitdaging vooral
toegespitst op optimalisatie en praktische benaderingen. De realisatie van een kademuur
is immers zeer kapitaalintensief en complex, of dit nu in den natte of in den droge gebeurt.
Naast kostencalculatie krijgen werkvoorbereiding, realisatie, kwaliteitszorg en oplevering
de nodige aandacht. In het hoofdstuk dat gewijd is aan het beheer en onderhoud van de
kademuur wordt een pleidooi gehouden voor een pro-actief beheer dat vooraf een aantal
kwaliteitsdoelen stelt. Daarbij worden de kademuren gemodelleerd en wordt geanalyseerd
wat de bedreigingen van deze doelen zouden kunnen zijn in de vorm van veroudering en
overbelasting.
Een apart hoofdstuk is gewijd aan ervaringen en de lessen die geleerd werden bij het ver-
leggen van grenzen of bij het bouwen van nieuwe concepten. Het bevat een veelheid aan
vii
Samenvatting
ervaringsgegevens, zowel ontwerptechnische en uitvoeringstechnische zaken, als aanwi-

jzingen voor een verantwoord gebruik van de kade. De vastgelegde ervaringen beogen niet
alleen de lezer te behoeden voor missers, maar willen tevens een stimulans zijn om creatief
te zoeken naar oplossingen voor de problemen die zich in de eigen situatie voordoen. Iedere
situatie is immers uniek en levert nieuwe uitdagingen waarvoor echte standaardoplossingen
moeilijk te vinden zijn.
Het boek zou niet compleet zijn zonder de behandeling van toekomstige ontwikkelin-
gen die ontwerp, realisatie en beheer van de kade kunnen beïnvloeden. Tenslotte zijn
een verklarende woordenlijst opgenomen met de gebruikte termen en afkortingen om de
leesbaarheid te bevorderen, en een index om de terugvindbaarheid van de verschillende
begrippen en onderwerpen te vergemakkelijken.
viii
Quay walls
Summary
The handbook on Quay Walls provides information about planning, design, execution
and maintenance of quay walls. Since the introduction in Dutch in 2003 and the English
version in 2005 much experience has been obtained by many practitioners using the book.
This experience gained by the users has led to the need to update this handbook. Another
reason for this new version of the handbook was the introduction of the Eurocodes in 2012.
Therefore the Design chapter has been completely revised to comply with the Eurocodes.
Additional recommendations have been incorporated for using FEM-analysis with quay
wall design.
Within the industry discussions are going on about buckling criteria for steel pipe piles.
Therefore a thorough research project was carried out on steel pipe piles filled with sand
and piles without sand. The results of this research programme have been incorporated in
this revised version.
The section about corrosion has also been updated to the latest knowledge.
Some attention has also been given to the latest global developments in quay wall
engineering.
This revision was made possible by contributions of experts from the Netherlands and
Belgium.
Editors: Associate Professor dr. J.G. de Gijt and M.L. Broeken, BSc.
ix
Quay walls
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
Samenvatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .VII
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Function of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Objective of this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Composition of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 2 Overview of quay wall construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 Ports as a source of prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Ports and quays past and present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 13
2.3 History of quay wall construction in Rotterdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Chapter 3 Main types of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.1 Functions and main types of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 Gravity walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Sheet pile walls with relieving platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5 Open berth quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 Examples of gravity walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7 Examples of sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.8 Examples of walls with relieving platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.9 Examples of open berth quays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 74
3.10 Examples of repair or deepening of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter 4 Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.1 Importance of investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 Survey and monitoring plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3 Topographical and hydrographic investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4 Hydraulic investigations: water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5 Hydraulic investigations: waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6 Hydraulic investigation: other wave phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 103
4.7 Hydraulic investigations: points of special interest . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 103
4.8 Hydraulic investigation: currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.9 Investigation into ice loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 106
xi
Contents
4.10 Investigation into meteorological conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

4.11 Investigations into morphological conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 108
4.12 Investigation into nautical boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.13 Investigation into seismic impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.14 Geotechnical and geohydrological investigation: soil
investigation plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.15 Geotechnical and geohydrological investigations: desktop study,
geological maps, groundwater maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.16 Geotechnical and geohydrological investigations: site visits,
geophysical investigations and site investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 114
4.17 Geotechnical and geohydrological investigations:
laboratory tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.18 Geotechnical and geohydrological investigation:
determination of parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
presentation of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 141
4.20 Environmental investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Chapter 5 Terms of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

5.1 Terms of reference for design and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 151
5.2 Functional terms of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3 Technical terms of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.4 Detailed explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Chapter 6 Design of Quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.2 Functional design aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 200
6.3 Structural design aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.4 Design philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.5 Features of the structural design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.6 Design models and calculation methods of retaining walls . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.7 Sequence of design calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Chapter 7 Quay-elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 313

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.2 Pile foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.3 Sheet pile wall systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.4 Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
7.5 Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.6 Transitional structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.7 Berthing equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
7.8 Other berth details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
xii
Quay walls
7.9 Drainage systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

7.10 Crane tracks and rail structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
7.11 Bottom protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 357
7.12 Instrumentation for data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 361
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Chapter 8 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 367

8.1 Concrete and concrete technological aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.2 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 381
8.3 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Chapter 9 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 409
9.3 Construction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.4 Layout of the construction site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
9.5 Surveying of the construction site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.6 Environmental boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.7 Foundation and substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
9.8 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
9.9 Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 432
9.10 Fill behind the quay wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 433
9.11 Dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 437
9.12 Scour protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
9.13 Auxiliary structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
9.14 Quality control and quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
9.15 Completion and acceptance of the works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Chapter 10 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.2 Cost estimate system according to CROW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.3 Estimation of the construction costs on the basis of indices . . . .. . . . . . 459
10.4 Estimation of the engineering costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
10.5 Risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Chapter 11 Management and maintenance of Quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

11.1 From reactive to active management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.2 The quay wall as a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
11.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
11.4 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 482
11.5 Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.6 Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 487
xiii
Contents
11.7 Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

11.8 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 494
11.9 Contribution, conveyance and feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Chapter 12 Lessons from experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

12.1 You can’t make an omelette without breaking eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
12.2 Soil investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
12.3 Combined walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
12.4 Pile foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
12.5 Relieving platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
12.6 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
12.7 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
12.8 Berthing equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
12.9 Bottom protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 536
12.10 Drainage and dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
12.11 Deformations of quay structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 540
12.12 Back fill and dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 543
12.13 Earthquake zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
12.14 Working in an aggressive tropical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 546
12.15 Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
12.16 Wise use of the quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Chapter 13 Future developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
13.2 Port developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
13.3 Shipping developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
13.4 Development of logistic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 560
13.5 Development of new quay concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 560
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Chapter 14 Bibliography and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

14.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
14.2 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Annex A Glossary of terms and abbreviations used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
xiv
Quay walls
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Quay walls
Contents
1.1 Function of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Objective of this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Composition of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Quay walls
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Function of quay walls

Quay walls are earth-retaining structures at which ships can berth. They are usually
equipped with bollards to provide moorings for ships and fendering to absorb the impacts
of the vessels. Quay walls are used for the transhipment of goods by cranes or heavy
equipment that move alongside the ship. The superstructure is robustly constructed and
the quay is usually equipped with rails for cranes and with channels for the cables that
supply power to the cranes. The foundation must provide the necessary stability. The entire
structure must be able to satisfy numerous requirements imposed by soil conditions, water
levels, and the size of ships and loads, supplemented by the specific demands placed upon
it by the users, operators, Port Authorities, harbor master, linesman, pilot service and the
asset managers of the quay.
From the earliest days, quay walls have played an essential role in the transhipment of
freight. Owing to the increase in transport over water, the role of quay walls in determining
Photo 1.1 Entrance to the Port of Rotterdam [Port of Rotterdam N.V.]
5
Introduction
the future design of ports will continue to increase. The design and construction of
quays is no simple matter. The users and management of the quay also set their own
demands.
The knowledge relating to the building of quay walls largely derives from the experience of
people, who in their search for solutions to the soil mechanical problems and optimization
of design and execution, are confronted by a large number of new problems. On the basis
of this experience, they developed a feeling for the possibilities and impossibilities and
generated many creative solutions for the problems that confronted them. It is important
that this knowledge is not lost, but is passed on to a new generation of quay designers.
This book covers not only the knowledge and experience of building quay walls that has
been acquired during a long period of trial and error, especially in the port of Rotterdam,
but also includes more generally valid solutions. To this end, in order to obtain more generic
approaches the practical experience is subjected to more detailed analysis and is evaluated.
However, with time it again appears that each project is unique and this means that truly
standard solutions are difficult to find. One special issue is the way in which the quay wall,
superstructure, foundation and anchoring interact and influence each other. Attention is
also devoted to developments relating to the probabilistic design approach and Eurocode 7.
The book is primarily intended to be a book for engineers, contractors, owners, and oper-
ators, in short for all who are involved in the processes, from initiative and feasibility
studies up to and including the design, construction and service phase of a quay wall. In
this way the authors expect to contribute to the solution of the specific issues that arise
during the design and construction of quay walls. This book can also be used in educa-
tional programmes at technical and university levels or serve as a basis for further scientific
research.
Neither related structures such as jetties, fendering and dolphins, nor the general methods
used in the calculation of sheet piling and foundation elements are considered in this book.
For these, reference is made to the available literature. Subjects relating to the environment,
sustainable building and recycling of materials are only mentioned in those cases in which
they have a direct bearing on the design.
1.2 Objective of this book

The aim of this book is to record, analyze and evaluate the available knowledge and specific
experience that can play a part in the development of solutions. This will facilitate access
to international knowledge and experience and to the specific expertise of Rotterdam and
will pass this on to new generations. Moreover, the enthusiasm and feeling of designers,
managers and students for the profession will be kindled. This will stimulate the readers
to optimize design, execution and management of quays and to build on and develop their
knowledge. The expert recorded in this book provides a reference document for the transfer
of knowledge and for the continuing growth of knowledge.
6
Quay walls
Photo 1.2 The ‘Vale Italia’, one of the world’s biggest ore carriers berthing in the Mississippihaven
Rotterdam [Port of Rotterdam N.V.]
1.3 Composition of the book

The book follows the design process for quay walls, from the preliminary investigation
and formulation of the terms of reference up to and including their asset management and
maintenance. The basis is formed by Dutch knowledge and experience in the building
of quay walls, while in addition solutions and experience from other countries are also
included. Many illustrations are incorporated to guide the reader through the complex
material.
The phases of design and construction are embodied in Chapters 6 Design of quay walls,
7 Quay-elements, 8 Materials, 9 Construction and 10 Costs. The issues relating to efficient
operation and management are handled in Chapter 11 Management and maintenance.
These chapters are preceded by a number of introductory chapters including Chapter 2,

which explains how quay wall construction has always been embedded in the traditions of
trade and shipping. This chapter follows the historic development of quay wall structures
and illustrates how the problems that were encountered in the past have been overcome.
In Chapter 3, on the main forms of quay walls, the descriptions of various types of quay
structure are followed by examples from countries throughout the world.
Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the first stages of the design process. In Chapter 4 the survey
and preliminary investigations are discussed. Overviews indicate the information that is
7
Introduction
required and where this can be found, while Chapter 5 covers terms of reference for both
functional and technical requirements.
The final chapters give practical tips and realistic advice and outline possible future devel-
opments. Chapter 12 covers both national and international triumphs and failures, including
miscalculations and unexpected results and the lessons learned from these. Chapter 13, on
future developments, gives a glimpse into realistic innovative developments.
The literature consulted includes articles from journals and is listed at the end of each
chapter, while general reference works and other sources of information are listed in
Chapter 14. The annexes contain a glossary, nomenclature and index.
References
1.1 Gijt, J.G. de, Quay walls, past, present and future, Ingenieursbureau Gemeente-
werken Rotterdam 1998.
1.2 Gijt J.G. de, A History of Quay Walls, PhD 2010, TU Delft.
1.3 Parent, M.G., Ontwerp, schematisering en berekening van enkele kademuur-
constructies in Rotterdam, PAO, 1981.
8
Quay walls
Chapter 2
OVERVIEW OF QUAY WALL CONSTRUCTION

Quay walls
Contents
2.1 Ports as a source of prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Ports and quays past and present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2.1 Quay walls from ancient times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Ship development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 History of quay wall construction in Rotterdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3.1 Quays on shallow foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.2 Pile supported masonry block wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.3 Quay on layered fascine mattress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.4 Soil improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.5 Reinforced concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.6 Concrete caissons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.7 Steel sheet piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.8 Pile trestle system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.9 Vertical sand drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.10 L-wall on piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.11 Delta girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.12 Relieving platform with Larssen box piles
and MV-piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.13 Delta terminal with a deadman anchorage on piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.14 Building from the water side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.15 Quay with combined wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.15 Quay with diaphragm wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Quay walls
Chapter 2
OVERVIEW OF QUAY WALL CONSTRUCTION
2.1 Ports as a source of prosperity

Since the dawn of history people have been fascinated by the possibility of travelling on
water. In numerous myths and legends there are tales of unseaworthy ships that were drawn
on by the tempting expanses of water. Driven onwards by the desire for conquest or eco-
nomic gain, the explorers and traders sailed the world’s seas to extend their opportunities.
In places where their ships could moor villages and towns grew up. Mooring places grew
into quays and developed into ports and trading places. The numerous ports did not reflect
the influence of trade and industry on human prosperity alone; they also bore witness to the
continuously increasing understanding in the fields of technology and building materials.
In this chapter the history of quay walls is summarized on the basis of the development
of trade and shipping in a short overview of the most important West-European ports. The
last section describes the development of quay wall construction in Rotterdam and by this
means illustrates the solutions found by the builders of the quay walls for the problems that
confronted them. Examples and experiences from other countries are given in Chapters 3
and 12.
2.2 Ports and quays past and present

2.2.1 Quay walls from ancient times
Even in prehistoric times there was a lively trade between the peoples of Asia and the
areas surrounding the Mediterranean. The oldest known port lies in India near Lothal and
was already functioning 4000 years ago. Simultaneously with the transport of goods and
people, the knowledge and skills were spread. This contributed to the development of
higher levels of civilization amongst the peoples involved. During the last three centuries
before the birth of Christ, Alexandria was the trade centre of the ancient world. Lighthouses
were constructed to facilitate the entry of ships into this port. The beacon, built between
299–280 BC on the island of Pharos in front of the coast of Alexandria, was 110 m high
and visible from a distance of more than 20 miles. On this island the remains of heavy,
soundly constructed stone quays are still to be found.
By the first century BC, the Romans already knew how to make a type of concrete.
Chemically, this is an aluminium-compound that can become almost as hard as natural
stone. The most important constituent was a type of tuff stone with hydraulic properties
13
Overview of quay wall construction
Fig. 2.1 Phoenician galleys from a relief from Fig. 2.2 Roman ship transporting an obelisk
Nineveh ca. 800 BC [52]. from Egypt to the port of Ostia [2.24].
Fig. 2.3 The exposure of a quay wall close to Marseilles, constructed from stone blocks long before the
Christian era, shows the soundness of the contemporary structures. The darker line caused by
algae shows the original water level in the port [55].
14
Quay walls
that is found around Mount Vesuvius, close to the Bay of Naples. The coarsely ground tuff
was mixed with lime in the ratio of 2:1 and strengthened by adding rubble stone aggregate.
This could be used to form the core of an unusually strong wall. Even when this was cast
under water good hardening was obtained, something that the Romans made skilful use of
especially for the port of Ostia north of the mouth of the Tiber. Here in the first century the
Roman cement was used to construct a 372 m long, 15 to 16 m wide harbour mole and a
big quay that was 400 m long. Part of the northern mole was constructed from rectangular
blocks of lime tuff stone, up to a height of four or more layers. Iron clamps connected
these layers to each other.
Colhis
Marseilles
Pontus Euxinus
Ad
ria
tic Byzantium
Se Aegospotami
Tarsus a Hellespont
Cadiz
Malaga Tarentum
Troje Propontis
Tyrrhenian Sea
Pillars of Hercules Cagliari Corfu Athens
Utica Messina Ithaca Ephesus Tarsus
Tunis Reggio Chios Milete
Ionian Sea Corinth
Carthage Syracuse Aegean Sea
Sparta Rhodes Byblos
Knossos
Crete Cyprus Sidon
Tyre
Cyrenaica
Leptis
Alexandria
Naukratis
Eilat
Areas ruled by the Phoenicians Egypt Gulf of Aqaba
Areas ruled by the Greeks Red Sea
Fig. 2.4 Map of the areas ruled by the Phoenicians and Greeks around 500 years BC [52].
During the Middle Ages the Vikings were notorious seafarers in Western Europe. They had
fast sailing ships that were the first vessels to be equipped with a keel. Birka, in Sweden, the
biggest trade centre in the Viking world, had a port with simple quays and a few slipways
where ships could be built or repaired. In the Middle Ages most ports were troubled by
major problems. Their growth was impeded by two fundamental factors: siltation and poor
equipment. There are numerous tales about the siltation that threatened the existence of
many ports. Only the big shipping centres like the Bay of Bourgneuf in France and the
roadstead of Arnemuiden, with 23 landing stages, on the Dutch Island of Walcheren had
fewer difficulties. Antwerp was to some degree assisted by a disaster: In the beginning of
the fifteenth century Zeeland and Flanders were flooded, but the scouring water deepened
the river Honte to such an extent that Antwerp obtained a better link with the sea.
It was not only the risk of siltation that determined the prosperity of a port. Another
important factor was its equipment. Usually there were no stone quays but only wooden
15
Fig. 2.5 Map and painting of the port of Ostia

at the mouth of the Tiber, close to
Rome.
a) Outer harbour constructed by
Claudius (42 AD).
b) Inner harbour constructed by Trajan
(110 AD) [55] and [2.24].
piers and unloading quays. Barrels and vats were simply rolled on and off the vessels.
Bulk goods were transported in large sacks or bales. It is understandable that already in
the Middle Ages more efficient means of transhipping goods were being sought.
Wooden cranes operated by means of treadmills were constructed for this purpose. People,
often even children, walking within the wheel, drove these treadmills. For such heavy
cranes it was necessary to have a firm foundation and a vertical quay wall. In this way,
these cranes made an important contribution to the development of load bearing quay walls.
The more important ports of that time, such as Bristol, London, Southampton, Brugge,
Antwerp and Hamburg already possessed stone quay walls and that gave them a sizeable
16
Quay walls
Fig. 2.6 Treadmill crane of Brugge in

the Middle Ages [54] [58].
Oslo
Bergen
Stockholm Narva
Reval
Visby Novgorod
Kattegat
Gotland Riga
Copenhagen Malmö
Great Belt
Rostock Königsberg
Hull Hamburg Kiel Gdansk
Boston Lübeck
Bremen Elbe Berlin Vistula
Ipswich Ems Oder
Rhine Brunswick
Weser
London Dortmund
Brugge Most important Hanseatic Cites
Cologne
Most important business centres
Fig. 2.7 The most important Hanseatic cities [52].
advantage over other ports such as Bordeaux, Rouen and Nantes, that did not have stone
quays.
In addition to the effects of technical developments, economic cooperation also promoted

the development of trade. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, merchants from a number
17
1 Amsterdam
2 Antwerp
3 Bremen
4 Dunkirk
5 Felixstowe
6 Gent
7 Genoa
8 Harwich
9 Hamburg
10 Le Havre
11 London
16 12 Marseilles
5/8 9
13 3 13 Rotterdam
15 14 Southampton
11 17 1
14 15 Vlissingen
2
4 16 Wilhelmshaven
6 17 Zeebrugge
10
7
12
Fig. 2.8 The most important ports in western Europe [19].

500 2012
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Rotterdam
Antwerpen
Hamburg
Novorossiysk
Amsterdam
Marseille
Bremerhafen
Algeciras
Primorsk
Vale ncia
Load in million metric tons
Fig. 2.9a Freight transhipment in the ten largest seaports of EU.
of cities in Europe began to unite in a Hanse. That gave advantages to trade throughout a
large area. At the end of the fifteenth century, for example the German Hanseatic cities, with
a shipping volume of 60,000 ton, were at the summit of their power. This free cooperation
between more than 160 towns is unique in the history of the world. However in the 16th
century the significance of the Hanseatic towns declined.
Later Amsterdam wrested its way out of the influence of the Hanseatic towns. Paintings
and drawings from the Dutch Golden Age show that in the seventeenth century Amsterdam
18
Quay walls
800
2012
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ningbo &
Zhoushan
Shanghai
Singapur
Tianjin
Rotterdam
Guangzhou
Qingdao
Dalian
Tangshan
Yingkou
Load in million metric tons
Fig. 2.9b Freight transhipment in the ten largest seaports of the World.
was the centre of world shipping trade. Here the first Dutch quay walls were built; but quay
walls were also built in Middelburg, Dordrecht, Stavoren, Delft and Rotterdam to assist in
the transhipment of goods. In 1674, at the end of the third English War, the Netherlands
had to recognize that the English had taken over as rulers of the seas.
2.2.2 Ship development

2.2.2.1 Introduction
In the nineteenth century steamships slowly drove out the sailing vessels. An important
development in the twentieth century was the continual increase in tonnage and the draught
of ships continued to increase. Some ports expanded into what are now termed ‘Hubs’,
important ports to which most freight is transported. For various reasons, other ports were
unable to maintain their competitive position.
Of course, the deeper draught of ships influenced the retaining height of quay walls. The
increasing use of the ship’s own engines during mooring procedures and the associated
extra erosion in front of the quay walls is a factor that must be taken into consideration
during the design process, while loads and transhipment methods also changed. As a result,
the loads on both quay walls and terminal areas are becoming increasingly higher. These
factors combined to ensure that over the course of time the design of quay walls has evolved
from being a more or less intuitive piling up of stones into a detailed design that must be
optimized to suit each specific situation.
The dimensions of ships play a important role in determining the design of ports and
lengths of the quay walls. Over time, the dimensions, and thereby the load capacity of
ships, have increased dramatically. This affects the required depth at the quay, the length
19
of the berths, the dimensions of the turning circles for the ships and width of the port
basins. It is a challenge for the civil engineers to translate these developments into new
innovative designs. These developments can be clearly observed in the port basins of
Rotterdam. Because the draughts of ships continued to increase the port of Rotterdam had
to be repeatedly deepened and the port area moved further seawards.
Figure 2.10 shows how the increase in the dimensions of ships has led to an enormous
increase in the water depth and thus in the retaining height of the quay walls. While
in the 19th century the old harbours in the city were no more than 10.00 m deep, the
Botlek harbours that were constructed in the 1960s where dredged to a depth of NAP
− 16.00 m. For the construction of Europoort and the Maasvlakte the excavations were as
deep as NAP − 23.00 m. A 30 km long access channel was dredged outside the port in the
North Sea.
5 Ground level
NAP
water depth
Retaining
0
Maximum
Depth in relation
height
5
Harb
our b
10
ed
to NAP
15
20
25
30
35
1855 '60 '70 '80 '90 1900 '10 '20 '30 '40 '50 '60 '70 '80 '90 2000 '10
Old harbours in Harbours to Botlek area
city centre the west of Eemhaven area
the city
Europoort
Maasvlakte
Fig. 2.10 Progressive increase in water depth in the port of Rotterdam [2.13].
2.2.2.2 Tankers (liquid bulk carriers)

After the Second World War the huge increase in demand for oil led to an enormous
expansion of the tanker fleet, but the ships themselves were also larger and this again led
to increased draughts. Although in the sixties of the last century the largest tankers had
not reached 100,000 ton DWT, the tonnage of the VLCC, Very Large Crude Carrier, and
ULCC, Ultra Large Crude Carrier, has rapidly tripled. This has led to draughts of more
than 21.00 m. At present it is assumed that the biggest feasible size for ships has now been
reached and no further growth in the scale of ships is anticipated. This is partly because
increasing amounts of oil are being extracted from the North Sea, and partly because
the improved Suez Canal is increasingly used instead of the detour, with much bigger
ships, round the Cape of Good Hope. An additional reason is that there are too few ports
with sufficient depth to accommodate the largest ships. In 2010, only 12 tankers above
320,000 dwt were in service. Of this, only two “true” ULCC of around 430,000 dwt were
20
Quay walls
left in operation, the TI Europe and the TI Oceana, Pumps, loading arm installations and
pipelines are used to load and unload tankers so it is not necessary to have a fixed quay with
cranes and a roadway; tankers are usually moored at jetties. Only when there is not enough
space for a harbour basin with slopes, like the Tank terminal Europoort West (TEW) for
Shtandart TT B.V. quay walls are used for VLCC’s.
In addition to crude oil, tankers sometimes carry a range of liquid products. These product
tankers have separate tanks for the various petroleum products. To keep these various
products separate, transport, loading and unloading of product tankers requires a very
complicated pumping and pipe system on board. They are usually quite small ships, with a
tonnage between 30,000 and 40,000 DWT. The biggest product tanker has a load capacity
of 110,000 DWT. It is anticipated that in the coming years the load capacity of the most
frequently encountered product tanker will increase to around 50,000 DWT.
Chemical tankers specialize in the transport of various refined oil products such as paraffin,
diesel oil and liquid chemicals. The transport of chemicals serves a specialized market for
which relatively small amounts of the products are carried in a tanker. The development
of the chemical tanker seems to be complete. The load capacity is not expected to increase
above 47,000 tons.
Photo 2.1 The very large crude carrier ‘Sea World’ moored in the 8th Petroleumhaven, Rotterdam.
21
The transport of liquefied natural gas (LNG), and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is not
discussed here because the tankers moor at jetties not at quays.
2.2.2.3 Container vessels

In the fifties Matson and MacLean pioneered the transport of general cargo in containers
in America. In the second half of the sixties this type of transport was also developed in
Europe. In 1966 the American shipping company Sealand, originally MacLean Trucking,
started a container service in the Netherlands. In 1967 ECT, Europe Container Terminals
started the transhipment of containers in Rotterdam in the Eemhaven (now called ECT City
Terminal). One year later 65,000 containers were handled there. In 2011 ECT reached the
first milestone of handling 100,000 containers per week. Now more than 12 million TEU
are handled each year in the port of Rotterdam.
From its introduction, container transport has had a big influence on the design of quay
walls. It is anticipated there will be a boom, especially in container ships. According to the
basic scenario, during the coming years container transhipment in Northern-Europe will
increase from 28.9 million TEU in 1999 via 32.3 million TEU in 2001 to 66.9 TEU in 2012,
or according to more conservative scenarios, to 55.7 million TEU. Initially it was thought
that container transport would be limited to transport between two highly industrialized
areas such as North America and Europe. But container transport had much more to offer.
Now more than 65 million containers are transhipped per year in Europe. In 1984 a new
container terminal (ECT Delta Terminal) was built on the Maasvlakte for ships of more
than 6,000 TEU. At present ships with a capacity of 16,000 TEU (CMA Marco Polo)
and the Maersk Mc Kinney MØller with a capacity of 18,000 TEU are in service and it is
conceivable that container ships will reach a load capacity of over 20,000 TEU (Alphaliner).
Photo 2.2 The Emma Maersk in the Europahaven Rotterdam, with 135 m long bunker barge alongside
(photo Regina Wieringa).
22
Quay walls
Table 2.1 Development of the average size of container ships.

Period in DWT Number Max. Max. Max.
years (average) TEU length beam in m draught
in m in m
1st generation End ’60 14,000 300–1,100 200 27.00 9.00
2nd generation ’70ies 30,000 800–1,700 240 30.00 10.50
3rd generation Begin ’80ies 45,000 1,700–3,000 300 32.00 11.50
4th generation Mid ’80ies 57,000 4,000–4,500 310 32.30 12.50
Post Panamax After ’90 67,000 4,300–8,000 340 39.40–45.00 13.50
6th generation End ’90ies 104,000 8,680 347 42.80 14.52
New Panamax After 2014 140,000 13,000 366 49.00 15.20
CMA Marco Polo 2012 153,000 16,000 396 54.00 16.00
Maersk Mc Kinney July 2013 165,000 18,000 400 59.00 14.50
Møller
Future After 2013 220,000 20,250 440 59.00 16.50
For a long time the development of container ships was restricted by the dimensions of
the Panama Canal. This canal is especially important for the route between the east and
west coasts of the United States. The maximum dimensions of ships that can pass through
the locks of the Panama Canal, Panamax vessels, are beam 32.30 m, length 294.10 m
and draught 12.00 m. Most ports on the east coast of the United States have a maximum
draught of around 12.50 m and are accessible to these ships. Since the nineteen-nineties
transport between the west coast of the United States and Asia has become increasingly
important, while on the east coast the demand for transport to Europe has increased. This
has permitted the development of the large Post Panamax ships.
Photo 2.3 Maersk Mc Kinney in Rotterdam. (photo Port of Rotterdam)
23
As the Panama Canal is widened (expected ready in 2014), larger vessels are able to sail
trough. New Panamax size will be 366 m (1,200 ft) in length, 49 m (160.7 ft) in width and
15.2 m (49.9 ft) in depth, capable of carrying 13,000 TEU.
2.2.2.4 Dry bulk carriers

In the non-container sector the increase in scale in recent years has largely occurred in
the dry bulk goods sector. In fact the development of the access channel to the port of
Rotterdam was determined by the deep-draught ore carriers. At present the biggest bulk
carriers are the China max class vessels operated by Vale.
These vessels, like de Vale Italia are called Very Large Ore Carriers (VLOC), and are built
in or after 2011 and have a load capacity of 400,000 DWT. The dimensions of these ships
are length 362.00 m, beam 65 m and draught 23.00 m.
2.2.2.5 Ro-Ro ships

The developments in the Ro-Ro sector also affect the design of quay walls. These ships
carry freight trucks, passenger cars, or other loads that can be driven on board. The size of
a Ro-Ro ship is given in street length on board, which is the total length of the 2.40 m wide
street. Usually only the trailer of a freight truck combination is loaded and the traction
unit is left behind. Thus the quays must be equipped in such a way that the trucks can be
driven on board and off. For this reason the first Ro-Ro ships were loaded and unloaded
via a stern ramp. Before sailing these ramps were raised into a vertical position and in port
they were lowered onto the quay. However for a stern ramp it is necessary to construct a
special facility in the port to permit vehicles to drive on and off the ship. To avoid this,
later the exit ramps were placed at an angle so they can now rest on the quay while the
ship is berthed. In this way the freight trucks can be driven on and off while other types of
cargo are being loaded or discharged over the side. If these loads are containers the ship is
called a Con-Ro ship.
A car carrier is a Ro-Ro ship designed to transport new cars. To increase the speed of
loading and unloading side ramps are also used. Because new cars are relatively light, the
car carriers have a high freeboard and not a deep draught. For this reason they are sensitive
to the effects of wind. It is also necessary to consider passenger ships or ferries onto which
passengers drive their own cars.
The biggest Ro-Ro ships have a load capacity of 58,000 DWT, but most ships carry less
than 10,000 DWT. It is anticipated that there will be a significant development in the Ro-Ro
sector and that in future bigger faster ships will be built.
2.2.2.6 Other types of ship

Other types of ship, such as conventional general cargo ships, whether or not equipped
to carry chilled or frozen foodstuffs, special ships for very heavy equipment, lash ships
(lighter aboard ship), cruise ships, LNG-carriers and high speed ships are not treated
24
Quay walls
separately here because they can usually moor anywhere. The development of high-speed
ships will possibly lead to other transhipment concepts.
Photo 2.4 Six barge push tow.
2.3 History of quay wall construction in Rotterdam

The history of quay wall construction in Rotterdam illustrates the struggles of designers
and builders to develop intelligent solutions to the problems arising from the need to con-
struct quay walls that had to support increasingly heavier loads, with greater retaining
heights on weak subsoil. That is why this port has been chosen as an example. Experience
deriving from other ports is described in Chapters 3 and 12. The lessons learned in Rotter-
dam, often the result of bitter experience, have led to considerable developments. In this
way the techniques evolved almost as quickly as the continuous adaptations, extensions
and renovations of the harbours. All these efforts eventually led to the capacity to pro-
duce cost-effective designs in which construction time, reliability and lifetime are at the
forefront.
2.3.1 Quays on shallow foundations

According to the chronicles, the oldest quays in Rotterdam date from the beginning of the
17th century. The oldest quay was in a harbour reserved for fishing boats, the Boerengat.
25
Other important harbours were the Blaakhaven, Steigerhaven and Nieuwehaven. The
ships of that time needed a water depth of around five metres, but it was impossible
to obtain a greater retaining height than 2.50 meter. For this reason the ships were moored
to a row of wooden piles at some distance from the quay where they were loaded and
unloaded.
The quays were built of masonry walls on a wooden grillage. The difficulties encountered
by the builders at that time were certainly challenging. The port areas were usually raised
by using material obtained by dredging the harbour basin. This was unconsolidated weak
clay. Angles of internal friction of 15◦ to 5◦ were not unusual and the weight-density was
not much greater than that of water: 1.04 to 1,07 kN/m3 . The results could be guessed:
the marshy subsoil was so weak that the quays gradually subsided into the weak clay and
peat layers. The raising of the ground level caused excess pore pressure and, because of
the poor permeability of the soil, it was several decades before the ground was sufficiently
consolidated to provide any bearing. Settlements of 1 to 2.5 metres were no exception at that
time and during dredging major sliding was the order of the day. Despite this quays were
constructed successfully. In this way the quay walls in the oldest harbours of Rotterdam,
the Leuvehaven, Wijnhaven and Haringvliet, came into use.
Gangway
Ship NAP
Masonry wall
Rotte level
2.50
Wooden grillage
Wooden fender pile Fig. 2.11 Quay on shallow
foundation: Leuvehaven,
anno 1604 [2.12].
2.3.2 Pile supported masonry block wall

The need to load and unload ships moored in flowing water at some distance from the
quay created problems and, moreover, this method was not very efficient. It was prefer-
able to berth directly alongside the quay, so with the next generation of quay walls
attempts were made to achieve this ideal. Sometimes decisions to build a more solid
and thus more expensive structure were taken only after serious incidents. For example
only after the quay wall lying on rubble fill along the Boompjes slid off into the Nieuwe
Maas over a length of around 70 metres on the night of 9 July 1854, was a different
method of construction chosen. The quay was replaced over a length of 300 metres by
a quay wall supported on wooden piles. It was already well known that wood quickly
rots if it is subjected to alternating wet and dry conditions. For this reason, to prevent
26
Quay walls
rotting, the wooden grillage foundation under the wall had to be placed below mean low
water level.
Fig. 2.12 Pile supported masonry block wall, Boompjes, 1854 [2.15].
2.3.3 Quay on layered fascine mattress

When, at the end of the nineteenth century, ships became bigger, the stability of the quay
walls began to present increasingly troublesome problems. The depth of the water had to
be increased to 8.50 m and this meant that a retaining height of 12 metres was needed. The
construction method using fascine mattress was created to solve this problem. The starting
point was to stabilize the slopes by piling up 50 cm thick fascine mattresses. These were
manufactured elsewhere in a construction yard. At high tide the fascine mattress was towed
to its destination and induced to sink onto the previous mattress by the addition of sand,
clay or rubble. Finally wooden piles were driven right through the entire fascine mattress
27
Fig. 2.13 Quay wall on a layered fascine mattress, Rijnhaven, 1901 [2.15].
structure. Initially only vertical piles were used, but later inclined piles were also used.
Even so it was necessary to wait for many years until the soil was sufficiently consolidated
before a quay wall constructed from large blocks could be built on top of it. Insight into the
situations was gained only after long years of trial and error. For example shortly after its
completion in 1898, the Wilhelminakade in Rotterdam, which was built on a foundation of
fascine mattresses, slipped a considerable distance forwards and two years later the same
thing happened to part of the Westerkade. Even so, only in 1913 was the last quay for
which this method was used built on the NW side of the Waalhaven.
2.3.4 Soil improvements

After the previously described setbacks, it was decided that the weak layers under the
fascine mattresses should be dredged away and replaced by a stronger material. First the
28
Quay walls
clay and peat layers were dredged to a depth of several metres under the bed of the harbour.
But when this was found to be only a half-measure the decision was taken to dredge down
to a deeper bearing stratum. The trench that was created by this action was filled with sand
up to one metre under the intended bed of the harbour and the fascine mattress was placed
Fig. 2.14a Quay built with the aid of a diving bell, Maashaven, 1906–1908 [2.22].
Fig. 2.14b Photograph of the diving bell beside the Maashaven, 1906–1908 [2.22].
29
on this sand. This method was used to build the quay walls in the Maashaven. They were
still in excellent condition in 1944 when they were destroyed during the Second World War.
When this type of quay was under construction a new technique was used. While previously
attempts had been made to construct the wooden foundations by excavating and draining
a building pit, now a diving bell was specially designed for this work. The diving bell
consisted of a large steel box as long as a quay wall section, with ballast tanks; when
inverted this floated on the water. By pumping water into the ballast tanks it was possible
to adjust the level of the diving bell to the required depth. After this the air in the bell was
compressed so that the water level was lowered and a wooden grillage foundation could be
placed on the previously driven piles. Those working on the foundation entered and left the
diving bell via an airlock. After the diving bell had been removed prefabricated concrete
blocks were placed up to a little above mean high water level, so that further masonry or
cast concrete work could be constructed above water.
2.3.5 Reinforced concrete

At the beginning of the twentieth century the first new materials came into use. These
were able to withstand the changes between wet and dry conditions. The wooden grillage
foundation was replaced by concrete, while concrete piles replaced the wooden piles. In
1905 reinforced concrete was used for the first time for the restoration of the quay wall on
the east side of the Spoorweghaven. This had slipped a considerable distance forward, at
one point even up to 1.75 m. It was assumed that the foremost piles were broken and had
thus become unusable. Therefore a solution was chosen in which the front of the wall was
moved 3.00 m forwards and supported on a foundation of wooden piles. The pile caps and
beams were placed on the new piles at low tide. Next box-shaped structures of reinforced
concrete were made in a construction dock. The draught was no more than one metre.
At high tide the boxes were towed out of the dock and placed on the new piles and the
old foundation, after which further construction was carried out.
Reinforced concrete Shed

4.25
9.0
3.00
NAP
Rotte level
6.50
Existing
wooden pile
New
wooden pile
Fig. 2.15 The introduction of reinforced concrete: Renovation of the Spoorweghaven, 1905 [2.22].
30
Quay walls
2.3.6 Concrete caissons

The system of floating quay walls at the Spoorweghaven gave rise to the idea of going
one step further and constructing caissons that could replace pile foundations by a shallow
foundation. In 1906 such a solution was chosen for the quays of the St-Jobshaven. Large
hollow concrete elements were constructed in a floating dry dock that was owned by the
Public Works Department of Rotterdam. While these caissons were being made ground
improvements were in progress on the site of the future quay wall. The weak layers were
replaced by sand and then leveled by means of dredging. Next the caissons were floated
into position and accurately sunk onto the flat, subsoil that had sufficient bearing capacity.
Finally the caissons were filled with sand and the area behind them was finished with
backfill. Actually this caisson structure was the first prefabricated quay wall. Later caissons
were no longer built in dry docks, but in batches of eight in ‘de Hei’ construction dock on
the site of the present Werkhaven. At this location the sand layer was not that deep thus
less dredging was required. The structure is considered to be a gravity wall in which the
Fig. 2.16 Construction with caissons, IJsselhaven, 1913 [2.15].
31
horizontal load on the quay is transferred to the subsoil by the caisson, so comprehensive
ground improvement is necessary.
18.00
1.60
3.35
2.00
NAP 0.35
4.80
6:1
Sand
11:1
10:1
10.65
11.65
3.25
11.40
18.00
Fig. 2.17 Caisson quay wall, IJsselhaven, 1913 [2.14].
Interest in caisson walls survived for a very long time because they are robust and, when
the subsoil is good, are relatively inexpensive. Moreover, despite the increasing weight of
the cranes, it was still possible to work with a crane track that was laid on the quay. That
is why this method of construction is still often used. The biggest caisson project was the
4.230 metre long quay wall in the Merwehavens that was built between 1930 and 1932.
In Rotterdam caisson walls were built until 1960, for instance in the Waalhaven. One of
these constructed for the handling of ores had a retaining height of 15 m, the maximum
live load of the crane was 4,500 kN, and the surcharge behind the wall 150 kN/m2 . Another
caisson wall lies on the south side of Pier 2 in the Waalhaven (Fig. 2.18). This caisson
wall, built in 1959–60, has a lighter structure and was intended for general cargo. The
retaining height is 14 m and the live load is 25 kN/m2 . After some time, other types of
structure superseded this type because the need to improve the weak subsoil in the port of
Rotterdam area made the use of the caisson wall rather expensive.
3.35
1.20
NAP
0.3 3.8 4.8 3.8 0.3
Sand
12.65
13.65
15.0
Soil improvement
18.65
Fig. 2.18 Caisson quay wall, Waalhaven [2.14].
32
Quay walls
2.3.7 Steel sheet piles

The relatively high cost of soil improvements when caissons are used prompted the design-
ers to look for alternative options. The use of steel sheet piles brought about a major change.
This new material for the port construction industry was first used in the Dokhaven in 1927
(Fig. 2.19). The soil was no longer retained by stone but instead by a relatively thin steel
wall. The development of sheet piling made an important contribution to the decline of
the caisson in the face of new structures. The steel sheet piles also brought about a second
important revolution in hydraulic engineering; from that time on it was easier and cheaper
to use a dry building pit with a drainage system.
Cross-section anchoring
Cross-section
sheet pile wall
with ladder
Fig. 2.19 Anchored steel sheet pile wall Dokhaven, 1927.
2.3.8 Pile trestle system

During the repair work after the Second World War it was recognized that the material
properties of concrete and steel offered a range of possibilities that could be more profitably
used. This led to a design in which the horizontal load of the soil was taken up by a pile
trestle system of tension piles. The superstructure supporting the crane beam rests on
the sheet-pile wall and on the pile foundation. To limit the weight of the quay wall the
superstructure was hollow. In 1963 the quay of the St. Laurenshaven, with a retaining
height of 18 metres, was built in this way.
2.3.9 Vertical sand drains

An important development in soil improvement is the reduction of excess water pressures
with the aid of vertical sand drainage. By this means the construction time can be greatly
33
Fig. 2.20 St. Laurenshaven, 1963 [2.15].
reduced. Moreover, the vertical sand drains, and later also other types of vertical drainage,
were considerably cheaper than other methods of soil improvement. Between 1963 and
1965 nine kilometres of quay wall were built in this way in the Eemhaven area. In the
projected port area vertical sand drains were introduced, thus reducing the consolidation
time of the soil to 1.5 or 2 years. During this period, settlements of one to two metres
were observed. After the consolidation period the harbour was dredged to a depth of
NAP − 6.65 m, with slope gradient of 1:2.25. Immediately after dredging, the steel sheet
piles of the front sheet piling were driven by a floating pile driver. This combined wall
consisted of Peiner-Krupp-profile PSp 60L in high-grade steel and KS II in steel 37. Next
concrete 380 × 450 mm tension and bearing piles were driven. The bearing piles had tips
34
Quay walls
that were strengthened on one side up to 450 × 550 mm. After the tops of the piles had
been burned off to NAP, a floating crane was used to mount a prefabricated concrete beam
on each Peiner-pile, the other end of which rested on a previously cast concrete blinding.
On this a fourteen metre wide concrete floor was cast. The hinged support on the sheet
pile wall was formed by a cast iron saddle that was placed on the front flange of the PSp
piles. Thus the superstructure has statically determinated bearing. In this way no extra
moments are created when the soil in front of the quay settles a little while it is being
dredged and back fill and live load are introduced. Moreover, there is a reduction of the
moment in the sheet piling. Finally it should be noted that there is a hollow space under
this floor, which implies that the soil pressure only begins at NAP − 4.00 m. The water
in this area is in open contact with the harbour water via split shaped openings in the
Krupp-profile.
14.55 2nd fill, sand

1st fill, harbour silt
3.35
NAP
Combined wall
6.65
Peat and clay
11.65
Concrete
pile
18.00/19.00
Compact sand layer Sand drains c.t.c. 3.0/4.0m
Fig. 2.21 Sand drainage behind the quay wall, 3rd Eemhaven, Princes Beatrixhaven, 1963–1965 [2.1].
2.3.10 L-wall on piles

In order to conform to increasingly higher demands, new inventive solutions had to be
found. While in the fifties the hoisting capacity of general cargo cranes was only 50 kN
and the necessary berth length was 175 m, in the succeeding years quays had to bear
container cranes of 400 kN and a berth length of 250 m was considered normal. In the
seventies the construction of the L-wall gained ground. The L-wall on piles is primarily
used for walls constructed in dry building pits and is a more or less statically determinated
structure. The horizontal part functions as a relieving platform. The front is supported by
the combined bearing and retaining sheet pile structure and the back by a pile trestle. The
weight of the ground on the relieving platform leads to a big reduction of the load on the
sheet piling.
Because the relieving platform is cast at ground level, the costs can be kept relatively low.
The superstructure is supported by the front flange of the sheet piling by means of a hinged
35
14.50
2.8
3.50
NAP
0.50
6:1
Combined wall
11.65
3:1
3:1
3:1
Concrete pile
17.50/19.20
25.00 24.50/25.40
25.40
Fig. 2.22 Quay wall Quick Dispatch, 1979 [2.13].
saddle. The vertical part of the superstructure at the waterside is usually constructed as an
open cylinder. The rear wall of the cylinder is situated under the waterside crane gantry so
there is maximum distribution of the wheel loads. The deck serves as an access area and
provides room for bollards, cable trenches and other facilities. The fendering is attached
to the front of the wall.
2.3.11 Delta girder

The ore quay wall for the EECV on the Caland-canal had to be made suitable for a water
depth of 23.90 m. Here too, the relieving platform was constructed as a hollow compart-
ment. The triangular shape of the girder gives the structure a good capacity to absorb
extreme mooring forces and local overloading. The unequal loading can be distributed
over a considerable length when no expansion joints are used in the floor and the rear
beam. The delta beam is supported by a bearing combined wall on the waterside and by a
pile row on the landside.
2.3.12 Relieving platform with Larssen box piles and MV-piles

The decision to make the basin accessible to ore ships with draughts up to 24 m resulted
in the retaining height being increased to 26.50 m for the extension of the ore quay for the
ore transhipment company EKOM (now EMO) on the Mississippi-harbour. The low-level
relieving platform is constructed at NAP − 6.00 m. This limits the length of the sheet piles
and the associated pile-driving problems. Moreover the structure has a greater resilience
when subjected to events such as collisions by ships. The sheet piling was optimized by
the introduction of the combined wall consisting of load bearing Larssen box piles with
threefold Larssen sheet piles as intermediate piles. Experience had indicated that a very
dense pile layout works as a second sheet pile screen. To prevent this it is necessary to
36
Quay walls
51.50
17.25
5.50
NAP Unbonded composite

prestressed cable 2.00
6.00 5.65
3.10 Anchor wall
Combined wall
6.5:1
4.5:1
23.90 Bored pile
29.50
38.00/39.50 32.00/38.50
Fig. 2.23 Delta beam EECV, 1982 [2.15].
Fig. 2.24 Quay wall for the EKOM (now EMO), Mississippihaven, 1982 [2.15].
37
find a piling system that is as flexible and open as possible. After extensive experiments
had been carried out with tension piles on the Maasvlakte the new ‘Rotterdam version’ of
the Müller Verfahren pile (MV-pile) developed in Germany, was introduced. This MV-pile
consists of a grout covered steel H-profile with a thickened lower end that ensures that the
pile is completely encased in grout and thus it can take up very high tensile forces.
2.3.13 Delta terminal with a deadman anchorage on piles

In 1983 the construction of the ECT Delta Terminal for the transhipment of containers at
the Europahaven was started. The water depth is 15.50 m and the retaining height 19.00 m.
This design is a sequel to the design of the EECV Delta girder. With an eye to costs and
resilience, it was decided that a low-level relieving platform should be built. The design
consists of a delta-shaped hollow box girder with a double function. The girder takes up
the forces deriving from ships that act directly on the quay wall, and from the cranes and
traffic and also functions as a relieving structure for the sheet pile wall. The sheet pile
wall is at a slope of 4.5:1 and has both soil retaining and bearing functions. The concrete
bearing piles are at inclinations of 4:1 and 5:1 and, with the sheet pile wall, they form
the foundation of the quay wall. An anchorage composed of a deadman anchorage and
unbonded composite prestressed cables ensures the horizontal stability of the quay wall.
The anchor wall is constructed in such a way that it can also serve as the landside crane
Fig. 2.25 ECT Delta terminal in the Europahaven, 1983 [2.15].
38
Quay walls
track for the container crane. However, this type of concrete structure is complicated, thus
expensive and is therefore no longer built.
2.3.14 Building from the water side

The first phase of the Amazonehaven quay could not be constructed from the landside.
Therefore it was necessary to make a design that could be constructed from the waterside.
Together with a number of other boundary conditions, this led to the construction of an
alternative structure with a lighter superstructure and a heavier sheet pile wall than been
used previously. Tubular piles of ∅ 1620 mm, with a wall thickness of 20 mm were used
instead of the customary tubular piles of ∅ 1016 mm, with a wall thickness of 13 mm.
Triple sheet piles were installed in the spaces between the tubular piles. The combined
wall is anchored by a 1:1 inclined MV-pile. The concrete superstructure is supported on
the landside by a concrete Vibro-pile that was cast in situ. No pile foundation was needed
under the rear crane track as the soil at this site was firmly compacted. A load up to
8,000 kN per crane leg is possible. At the Euromax terminal even loads up to 12,300 kN
per crane leg are possible.
8.5 35.0
4.00
NAP
former slope
Rear crane track on
compacted soil
Combi-wall MV pile with
grout sheath
7:1
1:
Vibro 1 Holocene sand
17.00 pile
0.5/4.0 m thick clay layer
22.00 Pleistocene sand
25.00/32.00
26.00/30.00
31.00/32.00
Fig. 2.26 Marine quay wall, Amazonehaven, 1993 [2.16].
2.3.15 Quay with combined wall

Summarizing, it can be observed that over time the basic design of quay walls has evolved
into the quay with a combined wall. These have been used in Rotterdam since 1986.
The basic principle was developed as a result of the analysis of experience. Many aspects
were considered, including reliability, multi-functionality, resistance to corrosion, lifetime,
installation, construction time and maintenance, vulnerability to collisions, scouring by
ships’ propellers and, not to be forgotten, the costs.
The basic structure consists of a concrete superstructure that rests on a pile foundation
consisting of bearing and tension piles and an inclined sheet pile wall of open steel tubular
piles with intermediate sheet piles; the combined wall. The relieving platform is deeply
39
positioned. The steel tension piles with a grout sheath are of the MV type and are driven at
an angle of about 45◦ . The necessary anchor force is much reduced because both sheet piles
and foundation piles are driven at an angle. A secondary advantage of the inclined position
of the pile wall is the reduction in the earth pressure on the sheet piles. The connection
between combined wall and superstructure consists of an eccentric hinge with a steel
saddle, thus reducing the bending moments in the wall. When the quay is in operation it is
necessary to take into account scour, sounding inaccuracies and dredging tolerances. For
this reason the design depth is greater than the nautical guaranteed depth that is specified
in the contract for the quay. The retaining height is the distance between the construction
depth and ground surface. This basic design must be adapted to local conditions and the
specific requirements of the client.
Concrete
superstructure
NAP
Relieving platform
Retaining height
Hinge
support Bearing pile
Combi-wall
Contract depth
Tension pile
Construction depth
Fig. 2.27 Quay wall with
Inclined pile
combined wall [16].
2.3.16 Quay with diaphragm wall

The quay wall in the Yangtze-harbour consists of diaphragm wall of 1.2 metres thickness
with a L-shaped relieving floor. The relieving floor is founded on two rows of Vibro piles.
The horizontal force is transferred via a MV-pile with a length of nearly 60 metres.
3.25 15.25
+5.00
Drainage
2.00 1.50
Concrete
hinge
Vibro
Diaphragm piles
wall
3:1
3:1
17.50
1:
1
MV-pile
24.50/28.50
33.00/34.00
Fig. 2.28 Quay wall with
35.50/39.50 diaphragm wall.
40
Quay walls
References
2.1 Bokhoven, W., De ontwikkeling van de kademuurbouw in het Rotterdamse

havengebied, havencongres Antwerpen, 1964.
2.2 Parent, M.G., Moderne kademuren in Rotterdam, Cement 1990 nr. 4 p. 91 ff.
2.3 Horst, H. van der and J.G. de Gijt, ing. P.J.M. Heijndijk, Rotterdam volgt de
ontwikkelingen van de scheepvaart op de voet, Land en Water 1991 nr. 3 p. 54 ff.
2.4 Dries, J.P.M., Een nieuwe kijk op kademuren, Weg en Water 1984 nr. 2 p. 30 ff.
2.5 Maris, B., Performance of a concrete block quay on silty sand deposit, International
Harbour Congress 1996 no 6, p. 6.
2.6 Tuijtel, T., Container Terminal Maasvlakte (I), 1984. Cement 6.
2.7 Parent, M.G. and H.L. Sijberden, Container Terminal Maasvlakte (II) en (III), 1984.
Cement 7 en 8.
2.8 Filarski, R., PAO cursus binnenscheepvaart en havens ‘Binnenvaart in historisch
perspectief ’, TU Delft, 1999.
2.9 Roth, S. and H.H. Sass, Quay walls for deep water. 10th International Harbour
Congress, Antwerpen, 1992.
2.10 Ocean shipping consultants, Groeiprognoses, 1999.
2.11 RWS, directie Zuid-Holland, Trends Scheepsafmetingen 2020, Lloyd’s Register
Management Services, 1998.
2.12 Franx, C., De ontwikkeling van de kademuurbouw in Rotterdam, De Ingenieur van
22 en 29 maart 1957.
2.13 Gijt, J.G. de, Kademuren, verleden, heden en toekomst, Ingenieursbureau
Gemeentewerken Rotterdam, 1999.
2.14 Parent, M. G., Application of prefabricated elements in quay wall structures in the
port of Rotterdam, PIANC, Bulletin 1986.
2.15 Kademuren in Rotterdam, nog steeds in ontwikkeling, Cement 1983 nr. 1.
2.16 Horssen, W. van, kade voor terminals ‘Delta 2000-8’ wordt in het water gebouwd,
Port of Rotterdam magazine 93/6 Kadebouw, 1993.
2.17 Bokhoven, W., Quay wall construction in soft soil at Rotterdam harbour,
International Navigation Congress Stockholm, 1965.
2.18 Hirs, J.A., Quay walls for trans-shipping, 1972.
2.19 Huisman, Pieter, WaarvanAkte, Internationale verdragen nopens de Rijn, TU Delft,
2001.
2.20 Loomeijer, Frits R., Een eeuw Nederlandse binnenvaart, ISBN 90 330 1378 9/CIP,
Schuttevaer, 1988.
2.21 Terlouw, D. and R.W. van der Weijde, Beheer en onderhoud van kademuren
en havenmeubilair in de haven van Rotterdam, PT Civiele Techniek 1983,
nr. 10.
2.22 Ysselsteyn, A. van, De kaaimuurbouw te Rotterdam, De Ingenieur, 20 juli 1907,
nr. 29.
2.23 Repin, I., De Wolga slepers, 1870–1873, State Russian Museum St. Petersburg.
2.24 Galleria delle Carte Geografiche, Musei Vaticani Rome, Wall maps painted
between 1580 and 1583 following drawings by Pater Ignizio Danti.
41
2.25 Technische beschrijving van eenige werken in verband staande met de haven,
Rotterdam, 1909.
2.26 Gijt J.G. de, A History of Quay Walls PhD 2010 TU Delft.
2.27 Alphaliner, 2011, conceptual design and main parameters of an ultra-large twin
engine container ship.
2.28 PIANC report 115-2012 Criteria for the (un)loading of container vessels.
42
Quay walls
Chapter 3
MAIN TYPES OF QUAY WALLS

Quay walls
Contents
3.1 Functions and main types of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.1.1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.2 Main types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2 Gravity walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.2.1 Block wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2.2 L-wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.3 Caisson wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2.4 Cellular wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2.5 Reinforced earth wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3 Sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.3.1 Sheet Pile systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3.2 Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4 Sheet pile walls with relieving platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3.4.1 High relieving platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4.2 Low relieving platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5 Open berth quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

3.5.1 Open berth quay over a slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.2 Open berth quay over a slope with retaining wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 Examples of gravity walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

3.6.1 Prefabricated L-wall, Athens, Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.6.2 Cellular wall, Zeebrugge, Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.6.3 Block wall, Rijeka, Croatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.6.4 L-wall, Deurganckdok, Antwerp, Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.6.5 Block wall San Pedro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.6.6 Reinforced earth quay, Swansea, United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.6.7 Caisson wall, Damman, Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.7 Examples of sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

3.7.1 Diaphragm wall, Le Havre, France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.7.2 Sheet pile wall with an integrated superstructure, Hamburg,
Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7.3 Anchored combined wall, Mauritius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7.4 Combined wall, Hamburg, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.7.5 Cofferdam, Ras Al Ghar, Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Main types of quay walls
3.8 Examples of walls with relieving platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.8.1 High relieving platform, Gent, Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.8.2 High relieving platform, Bremen, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.8.3 Deep relieving platform Maasvlakte, Rotterdam, Netherlands . . . . . . 73
3.9 Examples of open berth quays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3.9.1 Open berth quay, Buenos Aires, Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.9.2 Open berth quay, United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.9.3 Open berth quay with a retaining wall, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.10 Examples of repair or deepening of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.10.1 Renovation of harbour areas, London, United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.10.2 Deepening of water at the existing container quays in
Rotterdam, Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.10.3 Jet grouting technique for harbour repairs in Antwerp . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.10.4 Sheet piles for harbour repair in Hamburg, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.10.5 Adaptation of existing quay walls in Gdansk, Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.10.6 Renovation of quay walls in Naples, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.10.7 Renovation of a quay wall, Goa, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
46
Quay walls
Chapter 3
MAIN TYPES OF QUAY WALLS
3.1 Functions and main types of quay walls

3.1.1 Functions
Characteristic of quay walls is that ships can berth alongside. This is space saving compared
to situations where there is a slope. Cranes, trucks and trains can get close to the ship and
it is comparatively easy to handle the freight. In order to ensure that the handling of
the freight occurs as quickly as possible, the design takes into consideration current and
possible developments. These include:
• Demands arising from local conditions

• Demands of the future user
• Nautical demands
• Anticipated developments in navigation and the dimensions of ships
• Anticipated developments in transhipment and freight storage
The requirements that the quay wall must satisfy will vary according to the users. For ships,
there must be sufficient draught for the biggest vessels to berth. For the handling of freight,
it is also essential to have a storage area that is big enough and that has sufficient bearing
capacity to provide for future transhipment, storage and transport. Naturally, the quay wall
must also be well designed and constructed for an acceptable price/quality relationship.
The area must be sufficiently elevated to remain dry at high tide and, from the management
point of view, it is important that the quay should have a low maintenance requirement
and a long lifetime. In addition to this, the local conditions such as water levels, tidal
influences, soil characteristics of the ground and the climatic conditions of every place in
the world are different, so it is clear that a great deal of experience, ingenuity and creativity
must go into the making of an optimum design.
In addition to providing berthing facilities for ships, the quay walls must:
• Retain soil for the area behind the quay

• Provide bearing capacity to carry loads imposed by the transhipment of freight and
the cranes and freight storage facilities
• Possibly also serve as a water retaining wall for the areas lying behind it during periods
with high water
47
3.1.2 Main types

To fulfil the varied functions of quay walls, over the years a large number of different
construction methods have arisen in various countries. There are four basic types:
• Gravity walls: With this type of structure the retaining function is obtained by the
own weight of the structure, sometimes including the weight of the soil lying above
it. Examples of this type of structure include the block wall, the L-wall, the caisson
wall, the cellular wall, and the reinforced earth construction.
• Sheet pile walls: A sheet pile wall obtains its soil retaining function from the soil
pressure, combined with the anchoring system, and from the resistance of the wall
against the bending moments and transverse forces. Examples include anchored sheet
piles, combined walls, diaphragm walls and cofferdam.
• Structures with relieving platforms: In fact this is also a sheet pile wall. With this
type of structure the forces on the underlying retaining wall and the tensile forces in
the foundation are greatly reduced by the relieving platform. A distinction is made
between structures with a high relieving platform and those with a deep relieving
platform.
• Open berth quays: These are a jetty-like structures consisting of a deck on piles that
extends over a slope.
The choice of quay wall depends on a large number of local conditions such as the com-
position of the subsoil, the relation between the cost of materials and wages and forecasts
of freight and shipping requirements. In the following sections, the main types will be
described first. A description of examples of various types follows.
3.2 Gravity walls

As the name indicates, the soil retaining function of the gravity wall is derived from the
self-weight of the wall that is so heavy that sufficient resistance to shearing is generated
in the soil and it cannot tilt or slide.
Gravity constructions are mainly suitable in the following cases:
• When the subsoil is not suitable for a sheet pile wall because it consists of rock or very
firm sand
• When the subsoil has sufficient bearing capacity
Gravity walls often consist of prefabricated elements. These structures all have natural
foundations. This means that the subsoil must have sufficient bearing capacity or that the
bearing layer does not lie too far below the level of the bottom of the harbour and that
extensive soil improvement is not necessary. Prefabricated gravity walls can be attractive
for the construction of long quays when the high one-off costs of the building of a construc-
tion dock, the formwork, the transport and the placing of the elements can be depreciated
over a large number of elements. If the construction is executed from the water side, it
48
Quay walls
must be ascertained that no silt has been deposited before the elements are placed. It is
necessary to ensure that a layer of silt, which is appropriately termed ‘banana peel’, does
not function as a slip plane. Furthermore excess pore pressure behind the structure and
bed erosion at the toe may also endanger the stability of the structure.
The superstructure is equipped with facilities for berthing ships, such as bollards. Usu-
ally rubber or wooden fenders are installed on the quay to protect both ships and quay
from damage. It is also often necessary to protect the bed of the harbour in front of the
soil retaining structure against erosion caused by the propellers of ships using the quay.
Drainage is necessary to remove water resulting from precipitation and to prevent excess
pore pressure behind the structure.
The choice of the type of structure depends on the local structure of the subsoil and also on
the relation between the costs of materials and labour. If the subsoil is very hard the weight
and robustness of block walls makes them most suitable. Moreover, their construction
is not labour intensive, making them suitable for situations in which labour is a critical
factor. Where the cost of building materials is high, L-walls or the caissons are competitive
options. The cellular wall is primarily chosen when a dry building pit can be used. The
last type in this group, the reinforced earth structure is only considered for low retaining
heights and small loads.
3.2.1 Block wall

The simplest type of gravity wall is the block wall, which consists of blocks of concrete
or natural stone piled on top of each other. The blocks are placed from the water side on a
foundation consisting of a layer of gravel or crushed stone. After placing, the blocks are
covered by a reinforced concrete cap that is cast in situ. The great weight of the blocks
makes this type of structure appropriate for very hard, good bearing subsoil. Block walls
require relatively little labour but do require much building material. Retaining heights
exceeding 20 metres can be achieved.
Concrete cast
on site
Rubble fill
blocks
Fig. 3.1 Principle of a block wall [40].
Block walls are characterised by wide horizontal and vertical joints. These give good
drainages so that water overpressure behind the walls is limited. However, this means that
49
in order to prevent the leakage of soil it is necessary to have a good filter structure behind
the walls. This filter structure consists of a sufficiently thick filling of rock fill material
with a good filter structure.
3.2.2 L-wall
L-walls owe their stability to the weight of the concrete structure, plus the weight of
the earth that rests on them. The weight of the mass of soil on the floor slab helps to
build up the shear stresses in the subsoil and ensures a favourable opposing moment in
relation to horizontal soil pressure. This construction method is interesting if the bearing
capacity of the subsoil is not sufficient for a block wall or if the aim is to save on material
costs of a block wall. L-walls can be constructed in a dry building pit or from the water
side. In the first case, a very large building pit is needed with an extensive dewatering
system. In the second case, the structural elements are prefabricated and placed from the
water side. The large prefabricated L-walls are built elsewhere. These can be placed on a
gravel bed on the site by heavy lifting equipment. The one-off costs for the building pit,
transport and construction are high, so prefabrication is only interesting for long quays.
The relatively slim construction is specific to L-walls. To ensure that washing out of sand
is prevented extra care must be taken to ensure that there are no gaps at links between the
sections.
Concrete cast
on site
Prefabricated
L-elements
Rubble fill
Fig. 3.2 Principle of an L-wall [44].
3.2.3 Caisson wall

Caissons are large hollow cellular concrete elements. They are built in a construction dock,
on a floating pontoon or on a Synchro-lift. From this they are floated to the site of the quay
where they are then sunk onto the firm subsoil. This implies that first any weak layers
under the foundation must be removed and replaced by good bearing material. Next, the
caissons are filled with soil or other material to provide sufficient mass to withstand the
horizontal soil pressures. As the top of the caissons is usually above high water level, after
filling, the superstructure of the quay can be completed above water.
The caisson is economical in material use, but is labour intensive. Prefabricated caissons
are primarily used for major harbour projects of a repetitive character. To construct the
50
Quay walls
caissons and to prepare them for transport it is necessary to have a construction dock,
pontoon or slipway of considerable dimensions. Moreover, there must also be a waterway
over which they can be transported to the site and a large enough water area for the
manoeuvres when placing the caissons.
Superstructure
concrete cast in situ
Concrete
prefabricated
element
(caissons)
Fill
material
Fig. 3.3 Principle of a caisson
wall [53].
3.2.4 Cellular wall

Cellular walls are constructed by driving straight web profiles to form cylindrical or par-
tially cylindrical cells that are linked to each other. Usually cellular walls rest on the
bottom of the harbour or extend only very little below this level and for this reason they
are included with the gravity walls. The cells are constructed on land or in water and later
filled with sand or other material, thus the cellular wall consists of soil enclosed by steel
rings in which only tensile stress occurs. Relatively little material is required for this type
of wall and the earthworks required are limited. However, because the walls are relatively
thin they are vulnerable to damage when collisions occur. If damage causes loss of the cell
contents instability may result. Attention must also be paid to the possibility of corrosion,
especially in aggressive environments.
(a)
Straight web profile
Top view cellular wall
Fig. 3.4a Principle of a cellular wall [49].
51
(b)
1- Placing of the cell 2- Sand fill with the aid of dredgers
3- H-profile driven and sand backfill 4- Quay completed and in use
Fig. 3.4b Principle of a cellular wall [49].
3.2.5 Reinforced earth wall

Tension elements such as steel strips, steel rods and polymer reinforcements such as geogrid
and geotextiles are inserted into the ground. The primary mechanism of stress transfer
between the reinforcement and soil is the friction between the contact surfaces of tension
elements and soil. When geogrids are used extra resistance is created by soil particles
enclosed in the openings in the grid. With steel strips the resistance can be increased by
adding rolled transverse ribs.
The horizontal tension elements are linked to vertical revetment panels that usually consist
of prefabricated concrete elements. During the back filling process the facing panels
and the strips are placed in layers until the desired height is reached. In reinforced earth
structures, the sealing of the joints is a critical factor.
Reinforced Rear of
soil mass soil mass
Facing
panels Reinforcement
Fig. 3.5 Principle of a

reinforced earth
wall [11].
3.3 Sheet pile walls

Sheet pile wall structures derive their soil retaining function and stability from the fixation
capacity of the soil, possibly in combinations with anchors. These wall structures are used
52
Quay walls
in places where the subsoil has poor bearing capacity and is easily penetrable. Sheet pile
walls consist of vertical elements that are driven deep into the subsoil. The sheet pile
wall may possibly be anchored. The sheet piles are connected to each other by means of
interlocks. The vertical elements are joined together at the top by the superstructure, which
is equipped with facilities for berthing and mooring ships, such as bollards. Usually rubber
or wooden fenders are added to protect both quay and ship in the event of collisions during
berthing. Often it is also necessary to protect the bed of the harbour against erosion caused
by propeller action when ships are berthing. Drainage is necessary to dispose of rainwater
and to restrict the excess pore pressure behind the structure. For economic reasons sheet
pile walls are the most frequently used type of quay wall in the Netherlands. The most
important requirement is that the ground can be easily penetrated.
There are various wall systems, which may be combined with an anchor system. In fact,
all types of wall structure can be anchored. Cofferdams are also considered to be sheet pile
structures because they consist of two sheet pile walls placed one behind the other. There
are also various anchoring systems. The choice depends on the loads that occur and other
environmental factors.
Freestanding sheet pile walls

If a sheet pile wall is not anchored, the sheet piles act like a beam to transfer soil pressure
to the subsoil. The sheet pile wall behaves as a cantilevered beam that is elastically fixed
in the ground. On the base, the supporting pressure that is necessary for the equilibrium is
mobilised by the passive earth pressure. A capping beam is placed on the upper side of the
sheet piles. Freestanding sheet pile walls are usually used for smaller wooden concrete or
steel structures. Wooden or concrete sheet piles are linked by a tongue and groove system.
Steel sheet piles are connected by means of a thumb and finger system or interlocks. For
higher retaining heights, some kind of anchoring system is always necessary.
1/3 L
L
Sheet pile
2/3 L
wall
Fig. 3.6 Principle of a freestanding sheet pile wall [9].
Anchored sheet pile walls

For higher retaining heights, it soon becomes necessary to anchor the upper side to bear
the horizontal forces. In principle, the anchored wall behaves as a girder on two supports:
on the underside the soil and on the upper side the anchor. The support on the underside
in the soil can be totally free or entirely or partly fixed (Chapter 6).
53
Various systems are in use for both the wall construction and the anchors and these are
explained in the following sections.
1/2 L
1/2 L
Sheet pile Sheet pile Grout
Anchor
wall wall anchor
wall
L
L
1/2 L
1/2 L
Fig. 3.7 Principle of an anchored sheet pile wall [53].
3.3.1 Sheet pile systems

The main types are single sheet piling, combined sheet piling, diaphragm walls and fixed
cofferdams.
Single sheet piling

The single sheet pile wall can be made of wood, concrete or steel. Wooden sheet piles are
only used for small structures. Treated softwoods and tropical hardwoods are used most
commonly. Certification that the wood originates from a sustainable source is usually
required.
Prefabricated concrete sheet piles are supplied either flat or as U-profiles. The flat sheet
piles are suitable for small soil retaining structures and are driven by means of the vibration
method. U-sections have a greater moment of resistance than the flat piles and can thus be
used for higher retaining heights.
100/300
20/50
1000
Wood
350/600
500/1200
150/200
Concrete flat profile Concrete U-profile
400/750 400/500 400/750

150/250
10
400/1000
/2
300/500
10 0
/20 10/15
Steel U-profile Steel H-profile Steel Z-profile
Fig. 3.8 Principle of a single wall made of wood, concrete or steel sheet piles.
54
Quay walls
Steel piles are supplied as single, double and triple sheet piles, with U, H, or Z sections.
The sheet piles are connected to each other by interlocks. To obtain double or triple sheet
piles these are joined by means of punching or by intermittent welding. Steel sheet piling
is suitable for quay walls with a high retaining height and heavy loads. If even heavier
structures are needed these can be constructed from various types of combined walls.
Combined walls
For quay walls with high retaining height that must bear considerable loads, heavy struc-
tures that may consist of various types of combined walls are needed. Over time, these have
developed from linked sheet piles to the present day most commonly used combined walls.
Figure 3.9 shows a number of examples of combined walls. A combined wall consists of
heavy primary elements that are deeply embedded in the subsoil at a set distance from each
other. The primary elements transfer the forces to the subsoil and anchoring system. A seal
composed of standard steel sheet piles that are welded to each other is installed between
the primary elements. These intermediate sheet piles may be shorter than the primary
elements because the soil pressure is transferred to the primary elements by arch action.
H-profile
Land side Land side
Double
H-profile Double or triple
sheet pile Box pile
sheet pile
Land side Land side
Double
Double
sheet pile Double or triple
H-profile Tubular
sheet pile
pile
Fig. 3.9 Various horizontal cross-sections for combined walls. At the top a high modulus wall. Bottom
right, a combined wall [3.13].
Combined walls have been used in the Netherlands since the 1980s. With this system, the
primary elements are round, open, high quality steel tubular piles. Tubular piles are more
desirable from the point of view of both construction and economics than box piles. It
became possible to use these piles when interlocks could be welded onto tubular piles.
Another option is to compose the primary elements from tubular pile sections that have
been welded together, with a wall thickness that is adapted to the distribution of moments.
This construction system is economically attractive. The open tubular piles can be relatively
easily vibrated or driven through firm sand layers. The dimension of intermediate piles is
55
determined not only by the loads, but also by the forces generated during vibration or pile
driving process.
Diaphragm walls
A diaphragm wall is a reinforced concrete wall that is made in situ. This construction
method was developed in France and Italy. A deep narrow trench is excavated in the position
where the quay wall is to be constructed. To prevent the collapse of the wall of the trench
during the excavation process it is filled with a supporting bentonite slurry. Bentonite is a
natural clay-like material with plastic and watertight properties and a greater density than
water. The stability of the trench walls derives on the supporting pressure of the bentonite
slurry and on the arch working in the soil and the formation of a hard, impermeable layer of
bentonite on the trench wall on the contact surface between the soil and supporting fluid.
When sufficient depth has been reached, reinforcing material and concrete are introduced
into the trench. While the concrete is being cast, the bentonite slurry is pumped out and
treated before further use. The thickness of the walls varies between 0.50 m and 2.00 m; the
width of the panels varies from 2.50 m to 7.20 m. The panels are usually flat, but T-sections
are sometimes used. The superstructure is constructed in a building pit.
The wall has high bearing capacity and is stiff so the deformations are minimal. However,
one disadvantage is that the width of the panels is limited and this can give rise to problems
with the sealing of the joints between the panels. Another important consideration is the
need for good covering of the reinforcement. In other countries, much experience has been
gained in the construction of these walls some of which may even extend to a depth of 120
metres.
0.5 / 2.0 2.5 / 7.5
Guide beam Flat profile
3.5m
1 3 2 5 4
3.5m
0.8
T-profile
Overlap
Fig. 3.10 Principle of a diaphragm wall [40].
Cofferdam wall
A cofferdam wall consists of two sheet pile walls, with soil filling the space between the
two walls, which transfer the horizontal and vertical loads to the subsoil. The front and rear
walls are often connected by one or more anchor. The cofferdam derives its soil retaining
function from the shear resistance and the weight of the soil in between the walls. The walls
56
Quay walls
are so close to each other that the active zone of the front wall and the passive zone of the
rear wall overlap. For this reason the rear wall cannot be considered a normal anchoring
wall. It is assumed that the walls with the soil between them work as a single entity.
B ≈ 0.7H to 1.5H
Anchor
H
retaining
height Fill material
Pile driving depth Front wall Rear wall

0.5/1.0H
Fig. 3.11 Principle of a cofferdam.
3.3.2 Anchorages
The anchorage functions as an upper support point for the sheet piling. It consists of an
anchor tie rod with a deadman anchorage on the end that together transfer the anchor force
to the soil behind the sheet piling. The designer may also choose from a series of options,
the main ones being horizontal anchoring, anchors with a grout body and tension piles.
Horizontal anchorage
Conventional horizontal anchors consist of a deadman anchorage that is connected to the
sheet piling by a tie rod with an anchor head. The deadman anchorage may consist of
vertical anchor walls that are positioned behind the sheet piling. In rocky conditions rock
bolts can be used, while where the rocks are soft an anchor trestle can be used. With this
construction method, the horizontal load of the earth is taken up by an anchor trestle or pile
trestle system consisting of inclined tension and bearing piles. Tie rods can take the form
of bars (bar anchors) or cables (cable anchors). Horizontal screw anchors are also included
in this group, although these do not have a big anchor wall. The restraint is provided by
the threaded rod that is inserted into the soil horizontally.
Like horizontal screw anchors, conventional horizontal anchors are made in situ. The
anchoring body must be placed so far away that the active soil pressure on the sheet piling
and the passive soil pressure in front of the anchor wall do not influence each other. If
the retaining height is high, it is necessary to have plenty of room behind the walls during
construction and it is usually necessary to move a large volume of soil.
• Bar anchor
A bar anchor is a traditional anchor with a bar and anchor block. The required passive
soil pressure is supplied by a vertical anchor wall, the deadman, made of wood,
57
concrete or steel or by a pile trestle. The tension member links the anchor block to the
sheet piling. Anchor walls, such as sheet piles are driven to the desired depth.
• Cable anchor
With this type of anchor, the tension member is usually a high quality steel cable.
Typically, the deadman anchorage is connected to the relieving platform or sheet
piling by unbonded prestressed composite tensioned cables. To limit deformation of
the quay wall during dredging at the front of the quay the prestressing of the tendons
must be phased.
• Screw anchor
Screw anchors consist of a threaded steel rod welded onto an anchor bar. The anchors
are screwed into the desired position with an auger drill.
Horizontal anchors are a very economical solution, but are vulnerable to deformation
due to cyclic (over)loading behind the anchor screen. If this phenomenon happens the
quay wall will gradually deform towards the seaside. This should obviously be avoided.
Therefore the use of anchor screens on break-bulk terminals and bulk terminals is not
recommended and forbidden in Rotterdam.
Sheet pile Screw anchor

wall Anchor wall
Tubular pile
Pile trestle
Massive Unbonded composite
prestressed cable
Fig. 3.12 Horizontal anchorage.
Anchorages with a grout body

There are also anchorages that consist of cement grout elements that are made in situ, such
as grout anchors and screw injection anchors.
• Grout anchor
These are prestressed anchorages consisting of an anchor head and a tendon, part of
which is bonded to the ground by grout that has been injected under pressure. These
bars are provided with a trapezium screw thread throughout their entire length. Grout
anchors must be pre-tensioned because otherwise the deformation of the sheet piling
would be too great. The high quality steel should be protected against corrosion. The
tensile capacity is derived from the friction between the soil and the grout body.
• Screw injection anchors
These anchors are made with a hollow stem auger with a perforated tube that is a few
metres long. During drilling, a grout mixture is forced through the perforations in the
tube and injected into the soil, thus forming a layer with high strength capabilities.
58
Quay walls
The diameter of the anchor body is thus more or less the same as that of the thread of
the auger.
Steel tube with Helical

Anchoring length
screw blade on the point
Coupling Grout
Sheet pile Screw injection anchor
wall sleeve
Reinforcement bar or
unbonded composite Anchoring length
prestressed cable Sacrificial
point
Screw injection-/ Grout

grout anchor Steel tube to Grout anchor
withdraw
Fig. 3.13 Anchorages with grout bodies.
Tension piles
Finally, sheet piling can be anchored by tension piles that may form part of a pile trestle
system. Closed piles, open steel tubular piles, steel H-piles and MV-piles can be used. For
all these types, the tensile force is supplied by shaft friction.
• Closed or soil displacement pile

These are concrete piles and driven, drilled or screwed tubular steel piles with a closed
foot. The tensile force is supplied by the wall friction.
Cross sections:
Tension Tension Concrete Tubular pile

pile pile pile
Grout
Sheet pile wall

Pile trestle H-pile MV-pile
Pile points:
Open foot Closed foot Pointed Extended foot Tip of MV-pile

tubular pile tubular pile H-pile foot H-pile (bakjes)
Fig. 3.14 Tension piles.
59
• H-piles
The tensile force is supplied by friction between the soil and steel pile.
• Open tubular steel piles
During the pile driving process the displaced soil is compressed. With deep penetration
in solid layers, a plug is formed in the pile. For these piles, the tensile force derives
from the friction along the inner and outer walls of the pile.
• MV-piles (Müller Verfahren)
Since 1984, this type of pile has often been used in quay designs on the Maasvlakte.
The piles are formed by introducing a layer of grout round the steel H-pile during the
driving process with the aid of a foot plate or tray welded onto the point of the pile
3.4 Sheet pile walls with relieving platforms

In this type of quay wall the horizontal load on the front wall is considerably reduced by
the presence of a relieving platform. The structure consists of bearing and earth-retaining
sheet piling on the water side and a foundation system of tension and bearing piles on the
land side. The relieving structure creates a horizontal link between the sheet piling and
the tension and bearing piles. The relieving platform can be installed at various heights.
In some cases an anchorage is used. The superstructure is finished in a similar way to that
used for the previously described types of structure.
This method of construction is mainly used in the following cases:
• High retaining heights

• Heavy loads on the site
• High demands in relation to allowable deformations, a fixed crane track
• Without a relieving platform it would not be possible to construct the sheet piling with
the available equipment or it is no longer economically interesting
In the port of Rotterdam this method of construction has been chosen many times when
high retaining heights and heavy loads were involved.
3.4.1 High relieving platform

With this method of construction, the horizontal load of the soil is transferred by a pile
trestle system with tension and bearing piles, or batter piles under the superstructures.
The high relieving platform usually lies above low water level, so in a tidal area it can be
constructed over a slope at low tide. Often prefabricated elements are used. The sheet piling
can be constructed as a combined wall or diaphragm wall. This bears the front crane track
and the front wall on which the fendering is mounted. The superstructure is extended to
the rear by means of a relieving platform and transfers the horizontal forces to the tension
and bearing piles. Depending on the distance between the legs of the crane, the rear crane
track may be included in the quay structure, or be provided with a separate foundation.
60
Quay walls
Relieving platform
Combi-wall Tension
pile
Bearing
pile
Fig. 3.15 Principle of a structure with a high

relieving platform.
3.4.2 Low relieving platform

Structures with a relieving platform have been further developed for high retaining heights.
The relieving platform is positioned deeply so that pile-driving problems are prevented or
reduced to a minimum. The platform is supported by the foundation elements: on the
water side a retaining and bearing sheet pile structure and on the land side one or two rows
of prefabricated concrete bearing piles and one row of tension piles. By using cast iron
saddles between the relieving platform and sheet pile wall a hinge is created. Not only the
piles, but also the sheet piling can be positioned at an angle.
With heavy loads and a low-lying relieving platform the pile group may work as a screen.
In this way the working of the relieving platform is reduced, which may lead to undesirable
Relieving platform
Drainage
Saddle
Combi-wall
Tension pile
Bearing pile
Fig. 3.16 Principle of a structure with a

deep relieving platform.
61
deformation. The dense pile group can also lead to extra compression in the subsoil, making
it difficult to drive the piles to the desired depth.
With very high retaining heights the final stability of the quay wall can be ensured by a
row of MV piles (steel tension piles with grout injection). These MV piles are driven at an
inclination of approx. 45◦ to take up the horizontal anchor forces and the horizontal soil
pressures of the superstructure. A representative value for the maximum tensile force that
these piles can bear is 6,000 kN.
3.5 Open berth quay

This type of structure differs from all other types because the difference in height is not
bridged by a vertical wall, but by a slope.
The structure consists of a horizontal deck that is parallel to the shore and if necessary
anchored. The deck is founded on vertical and inclined piles. Underneath the deck, the soil
is covered by a revetment that must be able to withstand currents caused by bow thrusters
and main propellers and by wave attack. The waterside of the construction is finished in
a similar way to that used in the previously described types of structure. These structures
acquire the character of a jetty and are mainly used when:
• Construction takes place above water

• There is sufficient space
• There is relatively poor subsoil
• There are existing protected slopes
When choosing the construction method and materials it is necessary to take into consid-
eration that the underside of the deck and the slope are difficult to access for maintenance.
Moreover, these structures are easily damaged by collisions.
3.5.1 Open berth quay over a slope

The basic form is a jetty-like structure that is built over a slope. A settlement-free quay
area is constructed on the site of the jetty. The vertical forces are taken up by vertical
piles that are linked to the superstructure, while a pile trestle is often used to take up the
horizontal forces. To limit costs, improve the quality and shorten the construction time, as
far as possible prefabricated elements are used. The slope under the deck is protected by a
filter structure. If there is a risk of wave attack on the underside of the deck, extra attention
must be paid to the connection between the deck and foundation.
3.5.2 Open berth quay over a slope with retaining wall

To limit the width of the superstructure a vertical sheet pile wall can be constructed on the
upper part of the slope.
62
Quay walls
Prefab pedestal footing,

beam and floor slab
Filter structure
Concrete pile
Fig. 3.17 Principle of an open berth quay over a slope.
Concrete deck
Anchoring
Sheet pile wall
Fig. 3.18 Principle of an open berth

Concrete
pile quay with retaining
wall [3.17].
3.6 Examples of gravity walls

Quay walls are built throughout the world. Every country adapts the designs to its own
needs and experience. Designers travel round the world to build quay walls and take their
experience with them, as illustrated by the examples that follow.
3.6.1 Prefabricated L-wall, Athens, Greece

In Panoramas Bay, 50 km south of Athens, a quay was built for a yacht harbour that had
to be deepened to a depth of 3.50 m. The wall is built of 23 ton reinforced prefabricated
L-shaped elements. The reinforcement of the concrete reduced the weight and volume by
a third. This brought about a considerable saving in the cost of material, as well as savings
in time and costs during the execution of the work. The stability of the structure is partially
provided by the weight of the soil on the platform of the L-walls.
63
2.40 0.50
2.00 20cm concrete
1.00
Rubble fill
50kg
Prefab element
om
our bott
Old harb
3.50 Rubble fill
20kg
1 1:2
4.70 1: Rubble fill
Filter layer 50kg
0.1/50kg
Fig. 3.19 Prefabricated elements, Athens [3.4].
3.6.2 Cellular wall, Zeebrugge, Belgium

The container quay of Zeebrugge is constructed as a cast in situ cellular concrete wall. To
carry out this work in a dry building pit the existing spit of land was extended and the
building pit was excavated in combination with the use of a drainage system. From the
ground level of the building pit at TAW + 3.50 m, large concrete cells were built. These
had an outer diameter of 29 metres, a wall thickness of 750 mm and a height of 10.50
metres. To make it easier to sink them, the cells had a steel blade on the bottom edge.
To take up friction a bentonite film of 70 mm was applied between the concrete and the
surrounding soil. The foot of the cell was placed at TAW −21.50 m. The 2 metre-wide
spaces between the cells are filled by diaphragm walls. For these the soil was excavated
between reinforced concrete plates and once installed deep enough these plates functioned
22.00
3.00
8.00
3.00
Diaphragm wall
1.50
0.75
0
9.0
15.00
ø2
21.50 2.0
ø29.00
Cross section Top view
Fig. 3.20 Cross-section of the cellular quay wall, Zeebrugge [3.3].
64
Quay walls
as formwork for the walls. Finally, the cells were filled with soil and the superstructure
was built. This consists of a 1.5 m thick closed deck, a conventional concrete berth front,
serving as a mooring support for the vessels and a crane track. The distance between the
rails is 22 m. The crane rails can take up a load of 700 kN/m. The surface of the quay can
bear loads of 60 kN/m2 .
3.6.3 Block wall, Rijeka, Croatia

A paper presented at the International Port Congress of 1996 showed that soil with a low
bearing capacity does not always lead to construction on pile foundations. The container
quay in Rijeka was built on the fluvial and marine sediments of the river Rjecina. To solve
the problem of the 50 metre thick weak layer, for economic reasons it was decided that a
phased approach should be taken for the construction of a gravity wall.
A filter structure on the seabed served to separate the 34 m rubble fill from the seabed.
On top of this six prefabricated concrete blocks of 3.20 × 7.20 × 2.10 m were placed. To
accelerate the process of consolidation and settlement a temporary surcharge of a further
five such blocks was placed. The predicted settling was 2.50 to 4.50 metres.
Rubble fill Time in years

8 26.5
'78 '80 '85 '90 '95
3.0 20
±0.00 Phase I
25 in use
1:
1. Phase II
12.0 Rubble fill
17.0 100
Natural fill
25.0 .75 Phase II
1:1
in use
Flow and bed
sediment 200 Settlement
10 22.7 10
in mm
240
Fig. 3.21 Settlement under load with block wall, Rijeka [3.6].
3.6.4 L-wall, Deurganckdok, Antwerp, Belgium

In Antwerp a new tidal container dock with a capacity of 5.3 million TEU has been built.
The dock is 2,600 m long and 450 m wide. The reinforced L-shaped concrete gravity wall
of the Deurganckdok is enormous: a total height of 30 m, 24 m wide at the foot and
varying in thickness between 2.7 m and 5.5 m. At intervals of 20 m, there are expansion
joints. The elements of the wall are joined by ‘tongue and groove’. The wall was built in a
dry pit. During the construction phase the pumping of water from this building pit could
have caused settlement damage to factories on adjacent sites. However, such damage was
prevented by leading the drainage water back into the adjacent area. To increase the seepage
path, sheet piling was placed on the front and rear of the base. The concrete of strength class
C 25/30 was mixed with CEM III. In the uppermost 40 cm, an aggregate based on micro-
balls was added to provide the concrete with extra resistance to the effects of freeze-thaw
attack and de icing salt. Every day 1100 to 1400 m3 of concrete was processed.
65
5.0
9.00
3.50
Drainage
1
1:
Backfilling
with sand
15.00
17.30 18.00
20.00 21.00
Sheet pile wall 24.0 Sheet pile wall
Fig. 3.22 Deurganckdok, Antwerp.
3.6.5 Block wall San Pedro

In the port of San Pedro the existing wall was extended by 389 metres. For this work,
hollow concrete blocks for the gravity wall were placed and later filled with sand to create
sufficient weight and to guarantee stability. It was necessary to dredge 0.85 million m3 of
soil and to introduce 0.26 million m3 of fill material.
3.0
2.50
Prefab
concrete
blocks Sand Sand
Rock fill
12.00 3-50kg
Rock fill 3-30kg Filter layer 0-100mm
Fig. 3.23 Quay wall, San Pedro [3.12].
3.6.6 Reinforced earth quay, Swansea, United Kingdom

In 1983 a new quay of reinforced earth the Knabb Rock Sea Wall, was built for the sailing
club in Swansea, South Wales. The earth reinforcement consists of 40 × 10 mm steel strips.
Owing to the earth reinforcement, the structure of the retaining wall could be lighter and
more attention could be paid to aesthetic requirements for the facing. The tidal range in
the yacht harbour is 9.90 m. Because of the big tidal range, it was possible to construct the
66
Quay walls
quay on the beach at low tide. To prevent excess water pressure and piping, the occasional
weak clay layers at the toe were removed and replaced by gravel drainage. The facing of
the quay wall consists of cladding panels that, together with the steel strips, are anchored
in a compacted fill. This backfill consists of 100 to 130 mm sandstone rubble. There is a
prefabricated capping beam on the top of the wall.
6.60
Steel reinforcement strips Back fill

3.50
40x10 mm, length 7.0m
Prefab concrete
panels our
Original harb
bottom
1.28
Fig. 3.24 Quay wall with reinforced earth, Swansea [3.21].
3.6.7 Caisson wall, Damman, Saudi Arabia

For the port of Damman it was necessary to construct sixteen berths for ships up to
65,000 DWT and three quays for Ro-Ro ships within four years. A caisson structure
11.0
In situ
+4.68 concrete
Rear crane
track
Caisson Sand- Back fill

fill
Filter layer
14.00
Crushed stone foundation layer
Fig. 3.25 Caisson quay wall, Damman [3.20].
67
was chosen, which made possible an intensively mechanised and continuously flowing
work process. In the construction dock, three sliding formworks were used simultane-
ously. A rail system brought the caissons to the water, where they were sunk onto a rubble
foundation. After filling of the caissons, the bed protection for the port basin and the
filter structure behind the caisson for the drainage were placed. The concrete superstruc-
ture was made with a travelling formwork construction and finally the backfill could be
placed.
In this way between 1976 and 1980, approximately 3,900 m of quay wall was constructed
by using 199 caissons that were 20 m long, 16–18 m high.
3.7 Examples of sheet pile walls

Throughout the world, many examples of wall structures can be found that derive from
the possibility to retain soil by using a thin structure under strain of bending. This section
gives a number of examples.
3.7.1 Diaphragm wall, Le Havre, France

The tidal port of Le Havre has used the diaphragm wall technique to construct a container
terminal. The wall is 35 metres high (from −27.00 to +8.00 m) and 1.50 metres thick. It
is anchored on two levels, these being at +5.00 m and −5.50 m. The 42 m long anchors
are fixed to an 8.50 m high anchor wall.
The construction phases were as follows, (Fig. 3.26).
• Installation of dewatering system round the site. Making guiding rails for the
diaphragm wall. Excavation for the six metre panels, using special equipment. To
prevent collapse the excavated trench was filled with bentonite slurry. For each
panel the reinforcement cages were built up to form a single 30 ton element and
placed in the slurry. Each panel was then filled with 350 m3 of concrete made
on site.
• Soil excavated from the future waterside. Site drained to 0.00 m and the capping beam
made.
• Excavation behind the diaphragm wall and further drainage to a depth of −6.00 m.
Construction of the rear anchoring sheet pile wall and the installation of the lower tie
rods.
• Layer by layer filling with compaction, up to the level of the uppermost anchor tie
rods and installation of the upper tie rods.
• Soil fill on the rear side up to ground surface level, installation of the foundation for
rear crane track.
• Finishing of front crane track, placing of bollards and fenders and excavation of the
front of the wall by dredging.
68
Quay walls
Dewatering
Excavation Capping beam
+8.00 Guiding beams
Diaphragm Dewatering
wall
14.50 Phase 1 Phase 2
Upper tie
Excavation Lower tie rods
rods +5.00 +4.00
5.50 4.50
Back fill
Anchor screen
Phase 3 Phase 4
Rear crane track Completion 42.0

Back fill foundation of quay
Sand
Coarse
sand
14.50
Dredging Silt
Clay
Sand and
Phase 5 27.00 Phase 6 gravel
Hard clay
Fig. 3.26 Construction phases of diaphragm wall, Le Havre [3.5].
3.7.2 Sheet pile wall with an integrated superstructure, Hamburg, Germany

In Hamburg efforts to build quay walls for ships with increasingly deeper draughts have
led to the development of various types of anchored walls. Often a steel sheet pile wall is
the chosen solution. Figure 3.27 shows an example of this.
3.7.3 Anchored combined wall, Mauritius

A new grain transhipment terminal has been built on the island of Mauritius. The site
consisted predominantly of soft marine clay extending to a depth of 5 m to 20 m. Weathered
basalt rock was found at a depth of 27 m to 38 m. Between these were some layers of coral
with sand and clay. The chosen solution was a combined wall of tubular steel piles ∅1422,
with three intermediate sheet piles. The wall is anchored by vertical steel anchor walls
that are connected to the combined wall by high strength steel bars ∅125–150 mm. The
tip levels of the tubular piles and intermediate sheet piles were adapted to the local soil
conditions and vary from −21.25 m to −30.50 m. The backfill behind the combined wall
consists of basalt chips (0–200 mm) and crushed aggregate (5–40 mm). To accelerate the
consolidation process of the existing soil, vertical sand drains were introduced over the
full height of the soft clay.
69
25.5m
+2.60
Tie rod Existing
quay wall
Combi-wall Anchor wall
6.40
Underwater
fill
14.00
Drainage with
sand drains
30.00
Fig. 3.27 Anchored combined wall for the grain terminal, Mauritius [3.22].
3.7.4 Combined wall, Hamburg, Germany

In Hamburg, it was necessary to build a 650 m long deep-water quay within the limiting
boundaries of insufficient slope stability, two warehouses on shallow footings and a grain
silo. A further complication was the large number of stones and boulders in the subsoil,
which made normal pile driving activities impossible. This complex situation led to the
choice of a combined wall with double PSp 1012 H-section beams as bearing elements
and PZ 612 as intermediate piles. Because of the presence of stones and boulders in the
position of the front wall, overlapping pre-drilling was used, with tubular piles ∅1.80 m.
When emptying the tube casing the large stones were removed. The bearing piles were
provided with concrete base plugs. Vibration was used to compact the concrete and soil,
18.10
2.20 15.00 2.80
+5.70
+3.00
Combined Concrete pile

wall
Steel pile
16.30
20.85
Fig. 3.28 Quay wall, Hansaport, Hamburg

26.85 [3.8].
70
Quay walls
after which the casing could be withdrawn, while the drill hole could be further filled.
Because the drill holes overlapped each other, the space between the bearing piles was
free of boulders and other obstacles and the intermediate piles could be installed without
further problems.
3.7.5 Cofferdam, Ras Al Ghar, Saudi Arabia

In 1977, a double quay was built in the port of Ras Al Ghar on the Persian Gulf. Ships
can berth on both sides of this pier. The walls consist of Larssen 430 piles that are driven
to −17 m. An anchorage links the two walls so that a cofferdam is formed. The piles were
supplied as double sheet piles. On the building site the double sheet piles were welded
together to make quadruple piles. The piles are mounted from a platform that rests on two
rows of piles.
+3.40
Anhor rod
Drainage
Sheet pile Back fill Sheet pile
wall wall
ca. 8.00
10.00
12.00
40.0
15.00
17.00
Fig. 3.29 Cofferdam wall for the port of Ras Al Ghar [3.31].
3.8 Examples of walls with relieving platform

In many countries this type of construction is usually built with a high relieving platform.
The reason for this is that this makes it possible to work above water. In Rotterdam both
high and deep relieving platform constructions are found. A number of examples are given
in this section.
3.8.1 High relieving platform, Gent, Belgium

The Kluizendok in the port of Gent is a typical example of a high structure with a relieving
platform. The length of the walls is 4,200 metres; the water is 13.50 metres deep with an
option to extend to 18 m. The wall consists of an L-shaped plate of reinforced concrete that
is founded on a diaphragm wall of reinforced concrete and a pile foundation. The concrete
diaphragm wall also serves to retain soil. The bearing piles are concrete in situ cast piles
of the Vibrex type with ∅0.56 m, foot plate ∅0.61 m, effective bearing capacity per pile
71
1,800 kN. The tension piles are steel H-section 346 × 370 mm beams, with effective stress
resistance of 700 kN per pile.
2.00 22.00
Back fill with
+7.80 compacted sand
Diaphragm
wall
Steel tension
pile
9.05
1:3.5
1:2
1:2
1:8
1:6
1:3
1:3
13.55
Concrete pile
cast in situ Fig. 3.30 The Kluizendok
in the port
25.00 23.00 of Gent [3.1].
3.8.2 High relieving platform, Bremen, Germany

The difficulties to be surmounted when the container terminal at Bremerhaven was under
construction were certainly not few. The soil conditions were so difficult to manage that it
was necessary to excavate down to NN −16.00 m. The weak layers were replaced by sand,
after which the superstructure was founded on piles. The requirements of the users were
also demanding: a retaining height of 23.50 to 26.50 m, with a site load of three stacked
containers, and this with a tidal range of almost 10 metres: from HHW = NN + 5.35 m to
LLW = NN − 4.20 m. This necessitated the installation of a drainage system to reduce the
differences in water pressure over the quay.
31.5
Energy dissipating
+7.50 chamber
Sand Drainage
Soil improvement
Drainage
Sheet pile
wall Sheet pile
16.00 wall
19.00 Steel
Composite steel H-pile
piles with feet
Double steel
31.00 H-pile 30.50
Fig. 3.31 Container terminal, Bremerhaven [3.7].
72
Quay walls
The structure of the damping chamber to reduce the reflection of the waves from the sea is
interesting. The working of the damping chamber was investigated with the aid of hydraulic
models. Behind the sheet pile wall a drainage tunnel was built to restrict the excess water
pressure. The driving of the piles caused great problems, which were solved by using a
new design with shorter piles, Larssen 430 instead of IPB 1000, and a bigger relieving
platform.
3.8.3 Deep relieving platform Maasvlakte, Rotterdam,

Netherlands
For the extension of the Delta 2 container quay on the Maasvlakte in Rotterdam the design
depth was fixed at NAP − 18.00 m. With a top elevation of NAP + 3.50 m the retaining
height is 21.50 m. Optimisation of the cost of the foundation and superstructure resulted
in a deep relieving platform at NAP − 4.50 m that reduces the load on the pile wall in
addition to the relieving platform, the concrete superstructure consists of a front and
rear wall with a bearing function and a deck. The foundation consists of a combined
wall with a bearing and soil retaining function, MV-piles and concrete piles supporting
the relieving platform. With the battered combined wall and concrete piles, the MV-
piles take up the resulting horizontal anchor force. The land side crane track has its own
foundation.
8.90 7.00
+3.50
Drainage
4.50
Saddle
Combi-wall
MV-pile
3,5:1
3:1
3:1
17.40
1:
1
22.30 Concrete
pile
24.00/28.50
28.50/32.50 22.00/29.50
Fig. 3.32 Delta 2 container quay, Rotterdam.
This design has been further evaluated and resulted in 2006 in the design of Euromax and
the quay walls on Maasvlakte 2, currently (2013) the most durable and sustainable cross
section in Rotterdam.
73
3.25 15.25
+5.00
Drainage
2.00 1.50
Concrete
hinge
Vibro
Diaphragm piles
wall
3:1
3:1
17.50
1:
1 MV-pile
24.50/28.50
33.00/34.00
35.50/39.50
Fig. 3.33 Euromax/APMT Maasvlakte 2 cross section.
3.9 Examples of open berth quays

There are many examples of these jetty-like structures, three of which follow.
3.9.1 Open berth quay, Buenos Aires, Argentina

About a century ago, a wooden terminal was built in the port of Buenos Aires. This consists
of a wooden jetty built over a slope of 1:3, on the foot of which there is a wooden gravity
wall filled with hard soil (tosca). The decision was taken to make the already partially
disintegrated terminal suitable for use by Panamax container ships. The new structure was
completed in 1995. This consists of cast in situ concrete beams built over the old structure
31.50
Concrete paving on
+4.75 prefab plates and beams
Wooden gravity
wall filled with
hard soil
Existing wooden
7.60 structure
9.00
12.00
Jet grouted Concrete Concrete
column ø1.0 pile ø1.0 pile ø0.8
Fig. 3.34 Container terminal, Buenos Aires [3.18].
74
Quay walls
and founded on vertical cast in situ concrete piles Ø 1.00 m. Where the wooden piles were
still good, these were used as foundations for the concrete beams. To reach the desired
dredging depth a submerged wall with round columns was constructed by jet grouting.
3.9.2 Open berth quay, United States of America

In a United Nations book there is a typical example of a built over slope with anchorage.
This type of open structure is used throughout the world. At some distance from the quay,
an anchorage is constructed. A layer of rubble on a filter structure protects the slope. In
addition to the effective load, the distance between the piles is also determined by the
distance between the crane rails.
Front and deck paving of
concrete cast on site
Anchorage
Floor slabs and
beams of prefab
concrete
Tubular
steel pile
Rock ground level
Fig. 3.35 Example of an open berth quay over a slope, United States of America.
3.9.3 Open berth quay with a retaining wall, Japan

To limit the length of the slope an L-wall is placed on a layer of rubble. Tubular steel piles
support the jetty-like structure.
L-element
Concrete deck
Rubble fill
Tubular
steel pile
Fig. 3.36 Japanese design for an open berth quay with a retaining wall [3.17].
75
3.10 Examples of repair or deepening of quay walls

Technological progress is the most important stimulus to the adaptation of the functionality
of quays. They must be restored or rebuilt for ships with a deeper draught and with greater
capacity or for the increased weight of cranes and greater loads of cargo. This section
gives a number of examples. See also the report of MarCom WG 164, Upgrade of Port
Terminals by increasing dredged depth.
3.10.1 Renovation of harbour areas, London, United Kingdom

On the abandoned and decaying dockland area in the East End of London, a new business
centre is under construction. As part of the development of the entire area, the old ware-
houses are being converted for other uses and the quays are being renovated. For the repair
of the quays, a system has been chosen in which the new sheet pile wall is placed in front
of the old one and the vertical ground anchors together with the tubular piles are used as
an anchorage for the entire structure.
Old sheet Pile anchorage in

pile wall accessible space
New sheet New Light

pile wall achor rods back fill
Soft clay
Peat
Soft clay
s
pile
or
nch
Ground Gravel
el a
anchors
Ste
Hard clay
Fig. 3.37 Quay Pontoon dock, London [3.9].
3.10.2 Deepening of water at the existing container quays in Rotterdam,

Netherlands
A question that often arises relates to the possibility to adapt the functions of a quay to the
demands of the users. The following renovation or deepening measures can be taken:
• Reduction of the surcharge load of the area behind the quay

• Adaptation of ships and logistics
• Regular inspection and monitoring
76
Quay walls
• Adaptation of quay structure

• Reinforcement of the front of the quay
• Fixation of the bottom
Three such projects are shown in Figure 3.38 a, b and c.
+2.00
Grout pipe
Temporary
fill Caisson
7.0 3.0
7.65
13.20
12.00
13.50
13.00
Grout injection
19.00
Fig. 3.38a To prevent further erosion and to restore the stability a grout body is added to the toe of the
caisson wall.
3.5 12.0 4.5

Fendering
Existing jetty
+3.30
NAP
3:1
Layered fascine
mattress
3.0
9.65 9.30
12.65
Sheet pile wall
using step method
ca. 18.60
20.00
Fig. 3.38b To safeguard the stability of the layered fascine mattress a short staggered sheet pile
wall is added.
77
+4.00
NAP
3.50
30.0
5:1
11.0 4.8 14.2
18.60 Existing Poured

Rubble rubble asphalt
18.15 18.35 17.20
19.80
1:4
22.50
Graywacke
Fibrous stone asphalt
thickness 0.25m
Fig. 3.38c An open textured fibrous stone asphalt mattress is used to increase the depth of this quay.
3.10.3 Jet grouting technique for harbour repairs in Antwerp

To repair and increase the water depth at the old quay walls of the Albert Dock in the port
of Antwerp, Fig. 3.39 the very high-pressure grouting technique was used. The method of
working was as follows: a hole was drilled through the existing masonry gravity wall and
a hollow rod was introduced into this. Next a cement water mixture, grout, was injected
under very high pressure while rotating and lifting the rod. The high pressure causes intense
mixing of grout and soil under the quay. After setting, a round pile is created in and under
the quay wall. A row of such piles can be made next to each other to form a closed screen
in front of the wall. The harbour can now be deepened without the soil behind the wall
being washed out. To ensure safety, a double row of grout piles is made. To take up the
higher horizontal forces the quay is anchored at the rear.
+6.29
+4.25
Gr
ou
Existing ta
nc
quay wall ho
r
-7.48
-10.50 Grout pile
-14.00 -14.50
Fig. 3.39 Renovation of a gravity wall, Antwerp [3.23].
78
Quay walls
Photo 1 Fibrous open stone-asphalt mattress.
3.10.4 Sheet piles for harbour repair in Hamburg, Germany

For the renovation of a seriously damaged gravity wall in Hamburg, first the bearing piles of
the combined wall were driven. These were PSp 802 double H-section profiles. Next short
intermediate piles were driven between the back flanges of the double H-section profiles
2.0 6.0
+5.70
+2.50
Existing
quay wall
Combined wall Concrete pile
cast in situ
5.00
Tension pile
11.00
Permanent
intermediate pile
16.00
Short intermediate pile
22.00
Fig. 3.40 Provisional intermediate piles for harbour repair, Hamburg [3.24].
79
to take up the existing slope. This made it possible to dredge away the obstacles in front
of the quay wall and to excavate the harbour to the required depth. Finally, the permanent
intermediate piles, PZ 612 were driven down between the front flanges of the bearing
H-piles to a depth of −16 m and the anchorage Pst 370/106 tension piles were installed.
3.10.5 Adaptation of existing quay walls in Gdansk, Poland

To meet changing demands, a number of new concepts for the adaptation of quays were
developed for the port of Gdansk in Poland. These are shown in Figure 3.41 a to e:
3.41a The existing quay is used as a bearing element for the superstructure.
3.41b The new quay is built over the old one, bearing the L-shaped superstructure. The
old quay reduces the earth pressure on the new quay.
a 1.8 6.0 c 1.8 9.0
+2.50 +2.50
±0.00 ±0.00
0.5 5.2 0.3 Steel
6.0 pile
Caisson Sheet pile
wall
5:1
10.00 10.00
Caisson
Concrete Concrete
pile pile
18.30 18.30
b 1.3 d ca. 40
+3.30 +4.00
±0.00
7.9 Anchor
±0.00
Sheet pile
wall
Steel
Sheet pile pile 16.00
wall
22.50
11.70 ca. 25
2.5
e
+4.00
:1
±0.00 Anchor
Sheet pile
18.90 Caisson
20.20 wall
23.50
9.00
Concrete
pile
17.50
Fig. 3.41 Renovations in Gdansk [3.27].
80
Quay walls
3.41c The front element is anchored by means of the old caisson structure.
3.41d The old quay serves as an anchorage for the new quay.
3.41e With this front structure, the space between old and new quay wall is filled with
coarse material. The new structure is anchored separately.
3.10.6 Renovation of quay walls in Naples, Italy

In Italy too, the trend towards ships with increasingly deeper draughts and greater engine
capacity has led to the renovation of existing quays. Interesting examples include:
Figure 3.42a shows an example of the construction of a new quay wall behind the existing
quay in Naples. Here the need to extend the water area was greater than the demand for
land area, so a diaphragm wall connected with two rows of piles with a diameter of 1.20 m
was built behind the existing quay. Upon completion of the works the original quay wall
was removed.
11.55 2.85 8.00

+1.60
±0.00
Concrete capping
Diaphragm wall beam
width 1.20
Bored pile
9.50 ø1.20
Existing quay
to be demolished
22.30
Fig. 3.42a Renovation with a diaphragm wall to the rear of the existing quay, Naples [3.28].
Strengthening of the existing wall. A good example of this is shown in Figure 3.42b, a
quay in Naples, in which both land and water sides had to be retained. A system with a
network of piles was driven through the old structure and deep into the subsoil to give the
quay sufficient stability for the required deepening of the harbour.
Figure 3.42c shows a front extension in the harbour basin in which a sheet pile wall is
driven into the harbour bottom in front of the old block wall. In addition, a pile trestle
system of grout piles is linked to the sheet pile wall by a new superstructure.
If there is sufficient space, the harbour can be deepened by using an open berth quay.
Figure 3.43d shows such a structure. A jetty like structure is built over a slope. In front of
the existing block wall, heavy piles have been introduced to support a new deck.
81
15.00
+2.20
±0.00 Crane
Anchor track
rod
Existing
block wall Grout
pile
11.00
14.00
Grout
pile row
Grout pile A
ø200/250mm B Grout pile
ø100/150mm
Fig. 3.42b Renovation with piles through the existing structure, Naples. [3.28]
3.60
+1.60
Concrete fill
Sheet pile
wall
11.00
Existing
concrete pile
ø0.4 pile ø0.8/ ø1.0
cast in situ
20.00
21.00
Grout pile
ø0.4 with
steel core
28.40
Fig. 3.42c Renovation with sheet piling in front of the existing quay, La Spezia, Italy [3.28].
82
Quay walls
5.40 16.90 6.70

+3.00 Prefab
Existing
block wall
3.5
ø1.8
16.00
2:3
2.0
25.00
10.50 7.00 10.70 3.4
48.00
Fig. 3.42d Deepening and seaward extension, with open berth, Tarente, Italy [3.28].
3.10.7 Renovation of a quay wall, Goa, India

In the port of Mormugao, Goa, on the west coast of India, a new quay wall was built
to replace a block wall that had been built by the Portuguese 200 years earlier and had
collapsed. The quay was constructed with an anchorage in the bedrock. The depth of the
water is 11.00 m. The front wall is a diaphragm wall that is 1100 mm thick and has 5 m
wide panels. The second wall is 12.00 m behind this. Owing to lack of space, it was not
possible to build an anchor wall so the 2000 kN heavy anchors were fixed into the rock
bed at an angle.
12.0
Existing
Back fill block wall
11.00 Pile ø0.75
Diaphragm
Weathered
wall Casing
rock
1.1
Rock anchor
Basalt (hard rock)
Fig. 3.43 Renovation of a quay wall, Goa, India [3.25].
83
References
3.1 Mortier, R. and R. Duthoi, L. Maertens, D. Missiaen, W. van Alboom, J. Wijffels,

J. Braeckman, E. van Celst, Het kluizendok in de haven van Gent, Cement 1998,
nr. 5.
3.2 Molenaar, Teus, Zeebrugse containerkade “in den droge” bouwen, Land en Water
1992 nr. 7.
3.3 Denayer, C.C.S., Construction of the caisson quay wall for the Flanders container
terminal in Zeebrugge, International Harbour congress 1996 06.
3.4 Drettas, Dr. Gregory, Gravity walls of reinforced concrete, PIANC.
3.5 Scherrer, Paul, Construction of a diaphragm wall quay in a tidal dock, Le Havre,
France.
3.6 Maric, B. en A. Markivic, R. Komen, D. Zigman, Performance of a concrete block
quay on silty sand deposit, International Harbour 1996.
3.7 Lackner, Erich, Planning, design and construction of the quay wall for the
Bremerhaven container handling facility, PIANC 1982 nr. 42, p. 41 ff.
3.8 Roth, S. and H.H. Sass, Quay walls for deep water, 10th International Harbour
Congress 1992.
3.9 Rankine, Gordon, A comparison of two unconventional quay refurbishment
projects, International Harbour Congress 1996 no. 6.
3.10 Wilde, Friedrick-Karl, Erfahrungen mit Kaimauerbauwerken in Hamburg in den
letzten 20 Jahren. SMM ’92 “Hafentag”, Hansa-Schiffahrt – Schiffbau – Hafen
1992 nr. 7.
3.11 Evers, Gerard, Schlitzwand-Konstruktionen für Hafenbauwerke.
3.12 Erweiterung des Hafens San Pedro/Elfenbeinküste.
3.13 Gijt, J.G. de, and H. van der Horst, P.J.M. Heijndijk, C.N. van Schaik, Quay wall
design and construction in the port of Rotterdam, PIANC bulletin nr. 80-62.
3.14 Keijts, Kaden en bestratingen voor nieuwe kolenterminal, Land en water May 1990.
3.15 Parent, .M.G., Ontwerp kademuur E.E.C.V., Netherlands.
3.16 Calle E.O.F. and G.J. Schotmeijer, R.G.J. Weersink, J.T. de Vries, Probabilistische
ontwerpprocedure kistdammen, Geotechniek, Jan 2002
3.17 Kiyomiya, Osamu, Quay walls in Japan, June 2001.
3.18 Larrague, J.A., Design and construction of a new wharf for container terminal over
an existing old timber one, PIANC third seminar on ports and inland waterways,
Nov 1995.
3.19 Heijmans, P.J.M.J. and Kleef, J.H.M. van.: Een fraaie wand langs Roermondse
Maasoever, Land en Water, maart 1993.
3.20 Holzmann, Philipp: Port of Damman Saudi Arabia, 1976–1980.
3.21 Berg, M.N. van den, Knabb Rock Sea Wall, Terre Armée, Breda, Netherlands
3.22 Suntah, S. en S. Dhar, Development of peninsular area of Port Louis Harbour for
grain terminal, Mauritius, PIANC proceedings 3e Seminar GOA, 1995.
3.23 Eecken, Koen van der, Deepening and renovation of old quay-walls Albertdock,
the 2nd and 3rd Harbourdock, PIANC proceedings 3e Seminar GOA, 1995.
84
Quay walls
3.24 Hofmann, K.F., New methods for the construction of quay walls in the port of
Hamburg, PIANC bulletin 1989, nr. 03.
3.25 Varadarajulu, G.H. en A.N. Basu, A. Sinha, B.K. Saha, Construction of ship repair
facilities at Mormugao, India with state of the art methods, PIANC proceedings
3rd Seminar GOA, 1995.
3.26 Broeken, M.L. and Sijberden, H.L, Gijt, J.G. de, Een rechthoekige koker op een
fundering van MV palen, Land en Water, Oktober 1992.
3.27 Mazurkiewicz, Boleskaw, Methods of adapting existing quay walls to new require-
ments, International seminar on renovation and improvements of existing quay
structures, Gdansk, 1985.
3.28 Franco, L. en A. Noli, Renovation of quay walls in Italian harbours, International
seminar on renovation and improvements of existing quay structures, Gdansk,
1985.
3.29 Spundwand Handbuch Berechnung, Gruppe KRUPP Hoesch Industries,
Dortmund, Germany (importeur Nederland Nedeximpo A’dam), 1998.
3.30 Spundwand-Handbuch teil 1, Grundlagen, Trade Arbed, Luxemburg, 1986.
3.31 Spundwand-Handbuch, Bauwerke Hoesch, Estel, Hüttenverkaufskontor
Dortmund, 1978.
3.32 Grotegoed, D., Dudok van Heel, D., De Gijt, J.G. Research into the causes of the
measured displacements of a quay wall, MTEC 2011, April, Singapore.
3.33 Broos, E.J, Design & construct contract for a deepsea quay wall in the Port of
Rotterdam: case study Brammen terminal, Port Infrastructure Seminar 2010, Delft,
The Netherlands, June 22–23, 2010.
3.34 PIANC MarCom WG 164, Upgrade of Port Terminals by increasing dredged depth.
3.35 Spundwandhandbuch Berechnung, ThyssenKrupp Gft Bautechnik GmbH, Ham-
burg February 2007
85
Quay walls
Chapter 4
INVESTIGATION
Quay walls
Contents
4.1 Importance of investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 Survey and monitoring plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.3 Topographical and hydrographic investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4.3.1 Basic data and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.2 Topographical and hydrographic surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4 Hydraulic investigations: water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4.4.1 Project locations in the Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.2 Project locations outside the Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5 Hydraulic investigations: waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

4.5.1 Seaports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5.2 River ports close to the sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.5.3 Wave measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.6 Hydraulic investigation: other wave phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.7 Hydraulic investigations: points of special interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.8 Hydraulic investigation: currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.9 Investigation into ice loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.10 Investigation into meteorological conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.11 Investigations into morphological conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.12 Investigation into nautical boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.13 Investigation into seismic impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.14 Geotechnical and geohydrological investigation: soil

investigation plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.14.2 Soil investigation plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.14.3 Risk driven soil investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.15 Geotechnical and geohydrological investigations: desktop

study, geological maps, groundwater maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Investigation

geophysical investigations and site investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.16.1 Site visit and geophysical investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.16.2 Site investigations: cone penetration tests, boring and
sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.16.3 Site investigations: groundwater level and potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.16.4 Tests to determine in situ parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

laboratory tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.17.2 Types of laboratory tests to establish strength and stiffness
parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.17.3 Permeability tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.17.4 Other tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.17.5 Influence of seismic impacts on the testing programme . . . . . . . . . . . 128

determination of parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.18.2 Indirect determination of parameters via correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.18.3 Direct determination of parameters via tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.18.4 Determination of the characteristic value of a parameter . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.18.5 Determination of the design values of a parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.18.6 Extent of the soil investigation to be carried out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

presentation of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.20 Environmental investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

4.20.1 Investigation of contamination of aquatic sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.20.2 Investigation of soil contamination on land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.20.3 Result of the environmental investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
90
Quay walls
Chapter 4
INVESTIGATION
4.1 Importance of investigation

The terms of reference (Chapter 5), which will serve as a frame of reference for the design
and execution of the work, set down the boundary conditions that the quay wall must meet
in the operational phase. To define terms of reference it is often necessary to carry out
soil investigations or geohydrological and hydraulic surveys. It is very important that the
data that is included in the mainly technical terms of reference is complete and reliable.
Unfortunately, there are many examples of calamities resulting from what later appeared to
be misplaced cuts in the investigation budgets. With regard to the investigation, distinctions
can be made between desk studies, investigations into archives and site investigations,
possibly in combination with laboratory tests.
The design of quay wall structures requires design parameters and boundary conditions
related to various disciplines. Therefore, for each discipline this chapter focuses as much
as possible on the information about design parameters and environmental boundary con-
ditions that are important as well as on the investigation methods are available to determine
these. In addition, a general indication of the mathematical processes that are used to derive
the design parameters from the actual data is given.
4.2 Survey and monitoring plan

To determine the design parameters and boundary conditions as efficiently as possible it is
recommended that an investigation plan should be set up. This plan comprises the actual
justification for the investigation to be carried out for each discipline:
• Formulation of the objective of the investigation

• Work method of investigation/survey
• Required phasing of the investigation and motivations
• Desired result
• Justification of the choice of the type of field investigation or survey, and laboratory
test programme and also possible modelling studies
• Costs of the investigations
The following discipline related types of investigation are commonly distinguished:
• Topographic and bathymetric/hydrographic surveys

• Hydraulic investigations, including water levels, waves and currents
• Investigations into ice loads
91
Investigation
• Meteorological investigations
• Morphological investigations
• Nautical investigations
• Seismological investigations
• Geotechnical and geohydrological investigations
• Environmental investigations
4.3 Topographical and hydrographic investigations

4.3.1 Basic data and boundary conditions
It is important to find, collect and review basic data on the site and information relating
to the condition of the location of the project. This data can be collected from maps
and charts, photographs and site visits and from data on projects that have been previously
constructed in the area. The information collected may be binding or may provide guidance
for the further field and laboratory investigation that is needed. For example, information
about adjacent premises or structures for which strict stipulations are set in relation to
such factors as deformation and vibration is important. In industrial areas there are often
industrial plants that obtain cooling water from the adjacent waters and discharge this after
use. The planned new quay wall must not adversely affect the flow patterns.
4.3.2 Topographical and hydrographic surveying

Depending on the phase of the project, maps with relevant information are needed for
each phase. In the orientation and preliminary design phases, maps on scales of 1:25,000,
1:2,000 or 1:1,000 are adequate. Maps on these scales, such as the 1:25,000 topographical
maps and the large-scale base maps of the Netherlands (1:2,000 and 1:1,000), are usually
available. In the final design and tendering phases, more detailed information is required
and maps on the scales of 1:500 to 1:50 are commonly used. If such maps are not available,
it may be necessary to carry out additional topographic and hydrographic surveys at the
proposed construction site. However, in many parts of the world the required maps are
already available in digital form.
A wide range of investigation techniques can be employed including:
• Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)

• Echosounders and multibeam sonar
• Tachymetry.
DGPS and echosounder and multibeam sonar

With the aid of satellites, the DGPS system measures and records the x, y and z coordinates
directly. The DGPS base station on the earth is set up at a survey point for which the x,
y and z coordinates are already known and corrected with the aid of online telemetry, the
coordinates of the second GPS station, the Rover. In this way data is recorded with the aid
92
Quay walls
of the satellite station. For hydrographical measurements the Rover is installed on the ship
and the positional measurements can be combined with depth measurements made with
the echosounder (directly below the vessel) or by using multibeam sonar measurements.
Because of the constant data flow, post-processing is necessary.
Since neither the echosounder, nor the multibeam sonar can measure up to the water level
on rising underwater slopes, overlapping soundings must be made. DGPS measurements
cannot be made if the objects to be measured are shaded, for examples by the crowns of
trees or between high buildings that block the passage of the receiving signal.
Tachymetry
Tachymetry is often carried out with the aid of a ‘Total Station’. The measuring instrument
is a combination of an angle measuring device and a telemeter that uses an infrared light
signal and a reflector. With the aid of signal codes, the detailed topography that is to be
measured is automatically recorded. In this way a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) from
which the required cross and longitudinal sections can be drawn, is generated. When the
reflector is placed on the ship, hydrographical measurements can be carried out with the
Total Station. The depth measurements (shown on the print out of the echosounder) must
then be combined with the position at that moment. This combination cannot be used with
multibeam sonar.
There are new developments in the area of Earth Observation (EO) with the aid of radar
satellites. In near shore and coastal waters, this technique can be used to make bathymetric
charts. When using these charts it is necessary to carry out a bathymetric survey to calibrate
and interpret the radar picture. With radar one looks for patterns in wave propagation and
especially for refraction patterns, which illustrate the influence of bed topography on the
propagation of waves. Since in theory the influence is well known, an estimate of the bottom
profile can be made from the radar image, although there are a few disturbing factors,
including tide and density currents, that introduce uncertainties into the results of these
interpretations. Therefore, it is recommended that radar measurements should be combined
with direct observations via echosounder or sonar. In this way the information can be
obtained with fewer measurements per project location than is traditionally considered
necessary. Table 4.1 summarises the above.
Table 4.1 Surveying and hydrographical investigation.

Geographical situation
Situation Land Water
Technique Surveying Hydrography
Instrumentation GPS (position) Echosounding
DGPS (position and height) Multibeam sonar
Tachymetry Earth Observation
Aerial photogrammetry
93
Investigation
4.4 Hydraulic investigations: water levels

In the planning phase, the hydraulic boundary conditions can provide information that will
assist in the selection of the location for the new quay wall. Hydraulic loads also determine
the dimensions of quay walls. This section describes the desired phases in the investigation
into water levels and what information is important for the determination of the normative
water levels.
4.4.1 Project locations in the Netherlands

Rijkswaterstaat (The Ministry of Public Works Transport and Water Management of the
Netherlands) continuously records water levels along the coastline, the lakes and the upper
and lower reaches of the rivers of the Netherlands. The characteristic data and statistics
are presented in a number of reports. In relation to this, specific reference is made to the
‘Tienjarige overzichten’ (Ten-yearly overviews) of Rijkswaterstaat for locations along the
rivers and the coast. These contain the astronomical water levels as well as the exceedence
curves. The most usual levels presented are:
NAP = Normaal Amsterdams Peil or Amsterdam Ordnance Datum, the Dutch

Reference Level, roughly MSL = Mean Sea Level)
HAT = Highest Astronomical Tide
MHHWS = Mean High High Water Spring
MHWS = Mean High Water Spring
MHW = Mean High Water
MWL = Mean Water Level
MLW = Mean Low Water
MLWS = Mean Low Water Spring
MLLWS = Mean Lowest Low Water Spring
LAT = Lowest Astronomical Tide
The corresponding levels for the rivers in the Netherlands are:
OLA/ALD = Agreed Low Discharge for the Rhine at Lobith

OLR/ALR = Agreed Low River Level for the Upper Rhine, IJssel and Waal up to
and including Tiel
OLW/ALW = Agreed Low Water Level; chart datum of the Dutch charts for the
Lower Rivers.
MR = Mean River water level
NW = Normal Water level
For an explanation of the terms, see the Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations in Annex A.
Further details are shown in Table 4.2. It should be noted that the use of MLLWS and
MHHWS is confined to the Netherlands and Belgium. The British Admiralty Tide Tables
(ATT) [4.1] do not mention MLLWS and MHHWS. The same goes for MLW and MHW.
94
Table 4.2 Overview of various water levels (Source RIKZ and ATT).
Term3 Definition Method of calculation Application Source
LAT (Lowest Lowest water level that can be The actual harmonic components The LAT serves as the basis for ATT (Admiralty Tide
Astronomical predicted under average are used to make a hindcast over the chart datum4 on the British Tables). Tide tables of the
Tide) meteorological conditions and previous 18.6 years and the Admiralty Charts. In other words Netherlandsar (RIKZ)
every combination of minimum of these is the LAT1 . the depths are given in relation to ISBN 90-12-08925-5
astronomical conditions; in The LAT is not the lowest possible the LAT2 .
other words, the lowest possible water level, since because of storm
low water with average weather. surges considerably lower
water levels may occur.
MLLWS (Mean Low The mean of the lowest spring tide Per spring tide one high water is The LLWS serves as the basis for The Netherlands: (RIKZ):
Low Water Spring low waters over 5 years. For each sought that lies closest to spring chart datum on the current http://www.waterland.net/
Tide). In the calendar month during which per tide and the immediately Netherlands and Belgian marine rikz/omega
Netherlands always spring tide two successive spring preceding and succeeding low charts. This concept is not used in RWS: www.waterland.net
called LLWS = Low low waters were considered. water levels. There are usually two any other part of the world. RIZA: www.riza.nl
low water spring to six low waters per calendar month
from which the lowest is
determined. The LLWS that is taken
for most places is the mean of the
years 1980 to 1984 and is
therefore described as LLWS
1985-0.
MLWS (Mean Low Mean level of the twice-daily Here the spring tide is the precise This value is used throughout KM: www.hydro.nl
Water Spring Tide) occurring minimum of the tidal point at which the influences of the the world. Moreover in Germany, USA: www.c-ops.nos.
movement when the influences of sun and moon are in phase. In other and some other countries it is the noaa.gov
sun and moon are in phase cases a less exact time close to this basis for datum levels on marine UK: www.hydro.gov.uk
(maximum declination of the point is taken. In the Netherlands the charts. www.meteo.gov.uk
moon 23.5◦ ). standard value of Mean LW Spring
is calculated with the aid of ’Port
number calculation’, while in other
places it is derived from harmonic
components.
(continued on the next page)
Table 4.2 (Continued)
Term3 Definition Method of calculation Application Source
MLW (Mean Low Mean level of the twice daily The standard values for mean low A standard value is used
Water)5 minimum of the tidal movement. water are derived from the trend throughout the world. Moreover,
line at the beginning of a decade. in the USA and some other
In some places they are calculated countries it is the basis for datum
from the harmonic components. levels on marine charts.
MW (Mean Water The arithmetic mean of the local In the Netherlands calculated
Level or Mean Sea water levels in a tidal area from hourly values. The standard
Level) recorded at short intervals over a level is derived from the
specific time (Preferably over a interpretation of a trend line through
long period, usually 18.6 years). the yearly means.
MHW (Mean High Mean level of the twice-daily
Water) maximum of the tidal movement.
Analogous to the MLW
MHWS (Mean High Mean level of the twice-daily
Water Spring tide) maximum of the tidal movement
when the influences of the sun and
moon are in phase.Analogous to
the MLWS
MHHWS (Mean Analogous to (M) LLWS where
High High Water one low water is sought that lies
Spring tide) closest to springtide and the
immediately preceding and
succeeding high waters are the
spring high waters, the highest of
which is determined every month
and these are averaged over 5
years. Unlike the other levels, this
concept does not really exist; there
are no standard values for it. From
old records it appears that values
for HHWS were once
determined, apparently without
any clear objective for their use.
HAT (Highest Highest water level that can be The actual harmonic components
Astronomical Tide) predicted under average are used to make hindcasts over the
meteorological conditions and previous 18 years and the maximum
every combination of of these is the HAT1 . The HAT is not
astronomical conditions; in other highest possible water level,
words, the highest possible high since because of storm surges
water with average weather. considerably higher levels may
occur.
(1) Elsewhere the LAT/HAT is sometimes calculated directly from the harmonic components, but the equations used here, especially those used for shallowwater tides, are
inevitably exceedingly simplified.
(2) The intention is that in the future the chart datum on the Netherlands marine charts and on those of other countries on the bordering the North Sea will also be based on the
LAT. In addition, in cases where in the interests of the shipping or management of the
locks, meteorological effects and astronomical tides are distinguished it is useful to know the minimum astronomical tide.
(3) These are the terms used in the ATT (Admiralty Tide Tables of the British Navy that are used throughout the world) with the addition of:
• The generally accepted abbreviations MHW and MLW
• The term (M)LLWS that is used only in Belgium and the Netherlands
• The analogous term (M)HHWS
(4) Explanation of chart datum.At the beginning of the 20th century it was agreed by the IHO (International Hydrographic Organization) that the depths on marine charts should
be given in relation to a datum beneath which the sea level seldom falls; later this was clarified to ‘only seldom’. How this level is actually determined varies from country to
country, as indicated above. The LLWS was devised in 1919 in consideration that the mean LW Spring tide would not be low enough and the lowest known level in a place
would be excessively low. This system was also taken up by Belgium.
(5) In the Netherlands Mean LW or Mean LW at Mean tide: the abbreviation MLW is reserved for the horizontal position of the waterline at Mean LW.
Other terms used in the Netherlands and ATT are:
• MLWN Mean Low Water Neap tide: Mean level of the twice daily minimum of the tidal movements in the phases when the influences of the sun and moonare in opposition,
otherwise analogous to MLWS
• MHWN Mean High Water Neap tide: Mean water level of the twice daily maximum of the tidal movements when influences of the sun and moon are in opposition, otherwise
analogous to the MLWS
Terms used in the USA are (based on a 19 year period) are:
• MHHW Mean Higher High Water
• MLHW Mean Lower High Water
• MHLW Mean Higher Low Water
• MLLW Mean Lower Low Water
Investigation
In the ATT, Mean Low Water Neaps (MLWN) and Mean High Water Neaps (MHWN) are
given. Finally, it should be noted that with the exception of HAT, LAT and MW, all the
levels indicate a semi-diurnal tidal rhythm.
The measuring stations in the Netherlands are distributed in number and position in such a
way that the network covers almost all riverbanks and coasts. The levels of project locations
that are not included in the selection of stations, can be interpolated from the levels of the
nearest measuring stations. In practice, this is what usually happens. When using data
from stations at some distance from the site of the planned quay wall, it is necessary to
ascertain that these are sufficiently characteristic for the site of the planned quay wall. If
this is not the case, the available data must be transposed to the site of the planned quay
wall, for example by using a hydraulic model. An alternative to such a model is to use
spectral analysis. For this, however, it is necessary to measure the water levels at the site
of the planned quay wall for a relatively short period. With the mathematical function, an
estimate of the water level development at the site of the planned quay wall can be derived.
For further information on spectral analysis, reference should be made to books in this
field.
Since the statistics in the form of exceedence frequencies are well known or easily derived,
the designer can choose an exceedence frequency for which the associated water level can
be taken as a boundary condition for the design.
Finally, the ground water levels that are important for the design (design water level) can be
obtained from maps or from relevant institutes. Table 4.2 presents an overview of various
water levels (Source: RIKZ and ATT).
4.4.2 Project locations outside the Netherlands

In other countries the data relating to water levels is available from port authorities or
authorities similar to the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management of the
Netherlands. The British Admiralty Tide Tables are often used for tidal information [4.1].
Sometimes no data is available for the project location or the available data is not entirely
applicable in question; an example of the latter is water level data that does not include
information on extreme conditions. Such cases require more effort and study than projects
located in the Netherlands. For water levels, it is important to make a distinction between
seaports and ports in tidal river areas (lower reaches of rivers) and ports on the upper
rivers.
Seaports and ports located on tidal rivers

Two accepted methods can be used to determine the design water levels:
• Methods based on water level measurement

• Methods based on calculations
98
Quay walls
Water level measurements

If there is a significant astronomical tide, measurements of water levels must be conducted
for a minimum period of one month. For the analysis of the observations, it is important
to obtain insight into the rises or falls in water levels caused by wind. This is a stochastic
phenomenon and determines the extreme values of water levels. The meteorological con-
ditions may also be seasonally governed, in which case measurements must be carried out
in both calm conditions and the normative extreme seasonal weather conditions. In tidal
river areas, in addition to changes caused by the wind, the discharges of rivers can affect
the water levels and therefore it is necessary to obtain information about the regimes of
the rivers. Because the regimes may be seasonally governed, it is also necessary to record
water levels at different seasons.
Calculations
If the boundary conditions governing water levels are determined mathematically, it is
important to separate the effects of the astronomical tide from rises and falls due to mete-
orological effects. The advantage of model investigation, as opposed to measurement, is
that model studies provide more insight into extreme conditions. Ideally, the astronomical
tide is given in the form of tidal curves. Often these are not available although some or all
of the data mentioned in Table 4.2 is available. The levels used in other parts of the world,
which are also given in the Admiralty Tide Tables for levels such as MHHW, are only
used for areas with diurnal or mixed tidal regimes. Table 4.2 presents various sources that
supply information on water levels and tides and also nautical charts and charts showing
currents and meteorological information. If the data is available for other locations, but not
for the actual location of the project, the tidal information must be interpolated from the
local tidal information obtained from the recording stations in the vicinity. In practice such
data is often interpolated either from the available water level records, or alternatively, via
spectral analysis as indicated in 4.4.1.
Once the tidal data is known, the effects of the wind must be determined and for this
purpose wind records must be collected. A frequently consulted source of international
information on winds is the British Meteorological Organisation (BMO), but regional
meteorological services and airport authorities are also potential sources of information.
When the data on wind has been obtained, if it is not already in the desired format it
must be processed statistically. The data is usually used to make a wind rose which
shows the distribution of the wind speeds and directions, but for more extreme values
it is necessary to carry out an extreme value statistical analysis. Often the necessary data
is not available so the designer must rely on a desk study and make assumptions based on
experience.
When the wind statistics have been collected or processed, the designer must make the
following choices for the calculation of the changes in water levels relating to:
• Exceedence frequencies of the wind speed to be used

• Astronomical levels to be applied
99
Investigation
• Methods of calculation: simple calculation or the application of hydraulic models to

simulate flows
Simple calculation rules are described in CUR Report 154 [4.2] and in the Shore Protection
Manual [4.3]. These calculation rules describe a steady state situation and have limited
accuracy. More reliable and more accurate results can be obtained from hydraulic models
to simulate flow. The disadvantage is that these are extensive and relatively expensive.
The Hydraulic models to simulate flow that are currently available in the Netherlands are
WAQUA and DELFT-3D. Some companies and organisations also use MIKE software.
For the construction of the models, the seabed must be schematised. While the governing
equations obey the fundamental rules of physics, it is recommended that the above-
mentioned choices be made in consultation with a hydraulic specialist. The calculations
finally yield the possible changes in water level, with the probability of occurrence of each
of them.
Ports on upper rivers

For ports on the upper reaches of a river, the discharge of water plays a prominent role.
There are two ways to determine water level boundary conditions:
• Taking water level measurements

• Calculation
Water level measurements

In upper rivers, the precipitation data and seasonal influences are important. Thus to obtain
reliable results it is necessary to conduct measurements at all seasons. Often the extreme
seasonal conditions are relevant to the design and it is only necessary to measure currents
during this season. However, the results apply only to the season in question and do not
give the average extremes over a number of years. In order to get an impression of how the
recorded water levels relate to this season it is necessary to acquire the data on precipitation
from the meteorological service, especially the precipitation in the catchments area. In this
way, it is still possible to make assumptions of extreme water levels that are not included
in the measurements.
Calculations
It is also possible to calculate the water levels on the site with the aid of numerical models.
In this case, water level or discharge curves from upstream and downstream locations
must be collected. In other countries organisations similar to Rijkswaterstaat may supply
the desired information. Next, data can be adapted to the project site by using model
calculations. For this purpose, simpler or even possibly more complex numerical models
can be used.
100
Quay walls
4.5 Hydraulic investigations: waves

The wave climate at the project site is important for:
• The determination of the normative wave load on the quay wall, the moored ships the
structures during both the construction phase and after completion
• The determination of the height of the quay in relation to the permissible wave
overtopping
• The determination of conditions under which work cannot proceed during the
construction phase (downtime)
Often this information is not available, even though the offshore wave climate is known.
For many offshore locations along coast and rivers, the wave climate, or data relating to
this is available from local authorities, port authorities or research institutes.
With the aid of calculation rules or numerical models, the wave propagation can be
calculated in order to determine out the wave climate at locations within the port.
4.5.1 Seaports
For seaports the usual procedure is as follows:
• First, the deepwater conditions must be determined.

Based on the wave data for deepwater, wave roses can be composed and statistical
processes can be used to derive extreme values. In the Netherlands this data is available
from Rijkswaterstaat or the Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute, KNMI, for nine
locations on the North Sea. For projects in other countries, the data can be obtained
from the BMO or from organisations similar to Rijkswaterstaat; other potential sources
are port authorities, the KNMI and NOAA, from which wave and wind data over a
five-year period can be obtained for locations throughout the world. This information
comes mainly from shipping observations. Based on contracts with shipping traffic,
daily observations of wave height, direction, time and date are made. In practice, it
appears that from a specific field of individual waves, the observer records a wave
height that corresponds reasonably with the significant wave height. The information
based on the available shipping observations often relates to measurements that have
been collected over a long period, so that a good picture of variations in wave height
and direction can be made at some distance from the project location.
These measurements do not include extreme values, since ships do not sail during
hurricanes and other extreme weather conditions. Based on this data, it is not possible
to make a probability distribution of extreme values. However, the data often forms
a good basis for statistical extrapolation to extreme values because it covers a long
period of time (ten years or more). The values that derive from the measurements at
sea are recorded as ‘swell’ (period usually greater than 10 s) and ‘sea’ (period usually
less than 10 s) the latter measurements being influenced by local winds. Swell consists
of waves that are no longer dependent on the wind by which they were generated and
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therefore present a much more regular picture than ‘sea’ waves. Depending on the
meteorological conditions sea and swell can occur simultaneously.
New developments via Earth Observation open the possibility to determine the
wave climate with the aid of radar satellites. BMO and companies specialising in this
also provide data from satellite observations. The advantage of satellite observations
is that they make available observations from any deepwater location and can thus
supply data for locations from which few or no observations are available from marine
observations. This data has been available since 1987 and is still combined with marine
observations that have been made since. Disadvantages of the measurements are the
low resolution of measurements (see Section 4.4) and the fact that swell cannot be
distinguished directly on the basis of these observations.
• If step 1 cannot be implemented and no deepwater conditions can be ascertained, these
will have to be calculated on the basis of wind conditions. These must be put together
in the form of a wind rose, after which the deepwater conditions must be calculated
with the aid of calculation rules or numerical models.
• Once deepwater conditions are known, simple calculation rules or shallow water wave
propagation models can be used to convert them into offshore conditions outside the
port. The bottom profile close to the coast can be derived from marine charts. Often
an additional bathymetric survey is required to map the seabed levels at and close to
the project location with sufficient accuracy.
• Finally, with the aid of calculation rules or numerical models, the wave penetration
into the port can be calculated.
4.5.2 River ports close to the sea

The procedures for river ports are as follows:
• First, the wind conditions are calculated; these are often presented in the form of a
wind rose.
• Next, the offshore wave conditions are calculated; in most cases, simple calculation
rules are sufficient and wave propagation models are not needed. The profile of the
riverbed must be known or be determined.
• Finally, with the aid of calculation rules or numerical models, the wave penetration in
the port is calculated.
• For ports further from the sea, local waves are dominant.
4.5.3 Wave measurements

For both sea posts and river ports the conducting of wave measurements can be considered.
The objective of the measurements is to determine local wave conditions, but at the same
time, they provide the possibility to calibrate numerical models. Wave riders, which record
vertical acceleration from which the wave pattern can be calculated, are used for these
measurements. The newest generation of wave buoys, pitch-roll-buoys, also measure the
wave direction. Compared to model calculations, wave measuring campaigns are generally
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Quay walls
expensive. They must be carried out over a long measuring period, require specialised data
processing and show only a limited part of the wave climate. It is recommended that,
in collaboration with a hydraulic expert, the pros and cons of the execution of measure-
ments should be weighed against those of making calculations. For this evaluation, it is
also necessary to bear in mind the project budget, the anticipated results and the added
value. In practice, only for a small number of projects is it necessary to carry out mea-
surements. For most projects, model calculations are used to determine the design wave
conditions.
4.6 Hydraulic investigation: other wave phenomena

Seiches
In some ports seiches play an important role. A seiche is a standing wave within a harbour
basin that can be locally generated by strong winds and/or changes in air pressure. This
phenomenon may be an important design factor, as seiches can exert strong forces on
moored vessels resulting in strong hawser forces, and moreover, may cause quays to
flood. In principle a model investigation of this phenomenon can be made. However,
in practice in many cases little is understood about the generation of seiches, while the
model investigation demands great effort. Where series of measurements of water levels
are available at the project locations or the experience of port authorities suffices, it is
often more tempting to restrict investigation efforts to the making of assumptions based
on experience and engineering judgement.
Tsunamis
In areas that are prone to earthquakes, tsunamis are a normative phenomenon. Tsunamis
are long period sea waves that are generated by vertical movements of the seabed. In deep
water, it is often impossible to detect a tsunami, but it becomes increasingly obvious as the
tsunami approaches shallow waters. Tsunamis can develop into very high and long waves
that can penetrate far inland. In practice, structures are not explicitly designed to withstand
tsunamis but this phenomenon is anticipated by striving to minimise damage, for example
by not using prefabricated concrete slabs as paving on the quay.
4.7 Hydraulic investigations: points of special interest

Chapter 6 considers the design of a quay wall in detail. This section gives a brief introduction
to a number of aspects.
Ship waves
In addition to the determination of the previously mentioned probability distribution of
water levels and waves, attention must be paid with local phenomena that influence wave
height, such as ship-generated waves. Usually these are subordinate to wind waves.
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The choice of the normative water level

For the structural calculations, it is necessary to choose the normative water levels to
be employed. Furthermore, it is necessary to be aware that current Dutch and European
standards require characteristic design values of loads generated by water pressure. For
the normative water levels, see Chapter 6: Design.
Duration of sea conditions

To determine the wave conditions in the construction phase of a project the frequency,
duration and intervals between extreme sea conditions are important. These are usually
expressed in terms of a maximum permissible value of the significant wave height Hs . The
determination of the long-term exceedence of calms and rough periods, during which Hs
continuously remains under or over a specific value, is often part of the standard processing
of wave data series.
Loads on the quay wall

Reflection by vertical walls: loads caused by non-breaking waves:
A flat vertical wall will totally reflect waves approaching at right angles, as a result of
which a standing wave will be generated in front of the wall. Sainflou [4.19] has derived
an approximation for the pressures over the height of a wall.
Wave loads caused by breaking waves: wave impact on vertical walls

Wave impacts are short pressure impulses that are exercised on a structure by short waves.
It is well known that wave impacts can exert considerable forces, in the order of 150 to
600 kN/m2 . Therefore, the design should aim to create a situation in which the waves
are prevented from breaking against the structure. The objective should be to build the
structure so low that it is below the trough of the waves or so high, that it is above the crests
of the waves.
Short crested waves

With regard to the incidence of waves on a structure with a specific width, short crested
waves must be taken into consideration. A standing wave does not occur over the entire
width of the structure at any one time, but only over a certain stretch.
4.8 Hydraulic investigation: currents

When choosing the site for a new quay wall, it is necessary to take into consideration the
pattern of the prevailing currents and the related morphological conditions (4.11).
Here too, investigation can be directed towards archival investigation, measurements or
calculations. Insight into the flow patterns is important to the orientation and choice
of the site of the quay wall and the possible anticipated scour in front of the quay
wall.
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Quay walls
+16.50
Solar panel The instruments measure:
- velocity of currents
Operating platform
- directions of currents
- water levels
Steel tube Measuring

ø0.75m instrument
34.0m
NAP
Measuring Measuring
instrument instrument
Top view
Measuring
instrument
-17.50
Suction anchor
ø3.0m
-24.75
Fig. 4.1 The collection of hydraulic data using current measuring station at the mouth of the Meuse.
Fig. 4.2 Current measuring pole at the mouth of the River Meuse.
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Investigation
Archival investigation
In the Netherlands usually the most recent charts of the Royal Navy, Marine Hydrographic
Service, Department of Geodesy and Tides are used. On the basis of these the prevailing
flow pattern can be determined. To obtain a three dimensional image of the seabed these
charts can be combined with nautical charts [4.4].
Measurements
In addition to the archival study, it is always necessary to measure the currents in the field.
Floating or deep current meters can be used to make directional and velocity measurements.
Depending on whether extremes are anticipated, the duration of the measuring campaigns
may vary from a few days to a few weeks. Sometimes it is also necessary to record seasonal
influences. In addition, if necessary, the movement upstream of a saline wedge underlying
the fresh water can be measured. This saline water wedge is strongly influenced by the
discharge of the river.
Calculations
Based on the recorded data on the positions of the seabed, water levels and flow velocity,
water movement models can be used to calculate the anticipated flow velocities at the site
of the quay wall. Usually this involves complex, extensive, specialised calculations that
are still often not carried out in design practice. The model can be derived or validated by
the results of flow measurement campaigns.
4.9 Investigation into ice loads

In Arctic areas and to a lesser degree in the Netherlands, ice loads must be taken
into account. For a detailed description of ice loads refer to the API [4.7], the EAU
2012 and articles on this subject. Ice loads can be very substantial, line loads from
several hundred to thousands of kN/m can occur. In tidal area, according to CUR
166 [4.5] line loads of 250 kN/m can be taken into account for saltwater conditions
and 400 kN/m for fresh water conditions. These can be anticipated when making the
design.
In the API Recommended Practice [4.7] and articles [4.8] the properties of ice are pre-
sented as well as the anticipated forces on vertical walls and cylindrical structures for a
specific discharge of floating ice and water depth. Since there are many uncertainties in the
calculation of ice loads, it is recommended that laboratory tests into the properties of the
ice should be carried out for locations where ice loads play a serious role. Moreover, it is
possible to carry out scale model tests in which in addition to the ice loads, the behaviour of
the ice masses influencing the designs of icebreaking structures can be studied. Figure 4.3
shows an example of a laboratory model.
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Quay walls
Fig. 4.3 Investigation into ice loads in the laboratory.
Floating ice in Delfzijl.
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Investigation
4.10 Investigation into meteorological conditions

Wind
To assist in the hydraulic and structural design process, data relating to wind should be
collected over the longest possible period. For a number of locations in the Netherlands
wind roses showing the wind direction and speed are available [4.9]. Based on average
annual wind conditions, it is often possible to extrapolate to extreme conditions. For the
calculation of wind loads, the Dutch standards distinguish between land climates and
marine climates, specifying appropriate normative wind loads. Depending on the location
of the project, it may also be necessary to collect data on hurricanes.
Air temperature, evaporation, precipitation and humidity

This data can be obtained from the KNMI or from similar organisations in other countries.
The data is important in relation to the behaviour of materials and also for dimensioning
of the drainage systems.
Salt spray
Data relating to the occurrence of salt spray should be collected on the basis of experience
in the immediate surroundings. Salt spray increases the risk of corrosion of the materials
of the quay.
Visibility
In the design phase, the construction phase and the service phase it may be important to
have information relating to visibility at the project location. Often this information can
be obtained from the operators of short sea services or from meteorological institutes. It
is important to possess visibility data before the quay is constructed.
4.11 Investigations into morphological conditions

The construction of a quay wall can affect the prevailing morphological system. Wave
reflection against the quay may locally influence the hydraulic system and thus the transport
of sediment, leading to siltation or erosion elsewhere in undesirable locations. Should this
be the case a morphological impact assessment must be carried out. Usually a simple
analysis and calculations without extensive model investigation suffice. If it appears that
the influence will be significant, it is still possible to consider a model investigation.
However, model investigations are expensive.
4.12 Investigation into nautical boundary conditions

For a new quay wall, it is necessary to determine the dimensions of the design vessel in
the current situation and what the future developments will be. For the current situation
an inventory will suffice.
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Quay walls
The following information of the design vessel is required:
• Capacity in TEU for container ships

• Length overall (LOA)
• Length between perpendiculars (LBP)
• Beam
• Height (freeboard + draught)
• Draught
• Dead weight tonnage for other shipping traffic
• Water displacement
• Block coefficient
• Street length on board of Ro-Ro ships
• Head Engine capacity
• Propeller diameter and location above keel
• Capacity of bow thrusters
• Diameter of bow thrusters and location above keel
• Capacity of stern thrusters
• Diameter of stern thrusters. And location above keel
• Used power while berthing
• Berthing with or without tug assistance
• List, berthing angle, berthing velocity, bow flare
• Draft because of ballast (water) empty tankers
• Mooring configuration
• Belting (permissible line load)
• Permissible hull pressure
This information must be presented in the terms of reference (Chapter 5).
4.13 Investigation into seismic impacts

For the design of quay walls in areas that are prone to earthquakes, the normative horizontal
and vertical acceleration must be determined. This is obtained from analyses of geologi-
cal, tectonic and historical data on seismic activity [4.23] and [4.31]. Maps showing the
normative earthquake to be considered are available for various locations throughout the
world [4.21].

soil investigation plan
4.14.1 Introduction
Geotechnical and geohydrological parameters play a dominant role in the design of a quay
wall. The following sections consider the objectives of geotechnical and geohydrological
investigations and the ways in which these investigations can be carried out, as well as
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Investigation
the results that they should provide. In this section these subjects are not treated in detail
because various books provide information on geotechnical and geohydrological inves-
tigations and standards. For more detailed information, reference may be made to these
books and standards.
4.14.2 Soil investigation plan

Soil investigations are usually divided between the geotechnical, geohydrological and
environmental disciplines. Geotechnical and geohydrological investigations are carried out
to determine the parameters for the design work. Environmental investigations focus more
closely on the possible restrictions that may be attributed to the substrata in the project area.
In Section 4.20, the environmental investigations are discussed in more detail. In view of
the importance of the geotechnical and geohydrological investigations, it is recommended
that a soil investigation plan should be formulated.
The objective of the soil investigation is threefold:
• Determination of the soil profile and the level of the firm layers
• Determination of the groundwater conditions
• Determination of the geotechnical characteristics of the soil, such as stiffness, strength
and suitability as a building material
The soil investigations should preferably, be carried out in phases. First, penetration tests
must be carried out, followed by borings in order to optimise the possible laboratory test
programme.
The following phasing can used:
• Historical investigation (desk study)

• Site visit
• Geophysical investigation
• Site investigation with the aid of penetration tests, borings and sampling (in phases)
• Laboratory tests
The type of investigation to be made is highly dependent on the point of specific interest
and the calculation method that will be used (analytical, FEM). Table 4.3 gives a general
overview of the types of investigation that can be carried out for each point of interest.
A more detailed description of the various types of field and laboratory tests is presented
in the following sections.
In addition to the technical justification for the investigations to be made, it is also impor-
tant that the client is convinced of the necessity to incur costs in the relatively early
stages of the project. It must be demonstrated that the appropriate targeted investigations
will minimise risks and will result in a design that is both technically and financially
optimal.
110
Table 4.3 Overview of applicability of soil investigation per point of attention.
(continued on the next page)

Table 4.3 (Continued)
Quay walls
4.14.3 Risk driven soil investigation

In the practice of soil investigations a number of problems appear in many projects. These
problems are related to the type of the contract, the tight planning of the project and the lack
of uniformity in soil investigation. To overcome these problems Guideline CUR 247 was
published. In this publication a method, based on risk management, is given to determine
which kind of soil investigation has to be performed in every phase of a project. In this way
the soil investigations are directly linked to the geotechnical risks of the project. For further
information see [4.27].

desktop study, geological maps, groundwater maps
Prior to starting the survey, it is advisable to obtain and review information on the char-
acteristics of the soil at the project site and in the surrounding area. Possible sources
include:
• Archives
• Geological maps
• Groundwater maps
Archives
Based on the previous experience of the designer in the project area, it is often possible
to form an idea of the local soil conditions. Likewise, by calling on soil investigation
companies it may be possible to obtain one or more significant core penetration tests or
bore logs. This information may be very valuable in the formulation of an appropriate
investigation programme.
Geology maps
Geological maps can be used to get a first impression of the nature of the soil in the
project area, however the required information is not always available. In such cases, the
information may be obtained from local engineering consultants, contractors, universities
or libraries.
Groundwater maps
TNO has made groundwater maps of large parts of the Netherlands. In addition to ground-
water levels, these maps also show potentials and deep and shallow bore holes that have
been made by TNO and the National Geological Service. The groundwater maps also refer
to various publications of TNO and the RGD in which geological profiles are given. Since
deeper strata are often interesting from the point of view of geohydrology, these maps
are less useful for Holocene deposits, but they are useful, for example, in the recognition
of deeper interbedded clay layers. For project locations outside of the Netherlands local
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Investigation
institutes and universities may have general information on groundwater tables, such as
groundwater maps.

geophysical investigations and site investigations
4.16.1 Site visit and geophysical investigations
It is recommended that before the soil investigation plan is set up a site visit should be
made to obtain a general impression of the area. From this impression of the area, it is
sometimes possible to get an idea of ‘what is possible’ on the site, as indicated by existing
slopes and structures. Rock masses, coral and mountain ranges often give an indication of
the nature of the substratum.
Section 3 of NEN 9997-1 and NEN-EN 1997-2 (Eurocode 7 Part 2) establish the prin-
ciples and requirements for geotechnical and geohydrological investigations. Normative
references for specific in-situ and laboratory investigation test are given in 1.2 of NEN
1997-2. The following standards apply:
– NEN-EN-ISO 14688 for identification and classification of soil

– NEN-EN-ISO 14689 for identification and classification of rock
– NEN-EN-ISO 22475 for sampling and drilling
– NEN-EN-ISO 22476 for field testing
For laboratory tests many standards are still being prepared, see:
– CEN-ISO/TS 17892 Geotechnical investigation and testing – Laboratory testing of

soil
National standards apply as long as international standards are not finalised.
Geophysical investigations
Geophysical measurements can provide a general impression of the soil profile. However, it
is wise to remember that these measurements are relatively unreliable for the determination
of the actual soil profile, though they can give an idea of the nature of the soil profile in
extensive areas and alignments. Significant differences in conductivity or in the ground
structure can be determined with relative reliability. These also show which locations
require more detailed site investigation, and indicate the presence of soft soil deposits.
Geo-electrical and electromagnetic investigations are used because of the rapid way of
working and the reasonable reliability of the results. These methods are less suitable for
profiles with many interbedded layers or soft soil layers at a considerable depth. It is also
necessary to determine whether cables, pipelines or other obstacles in the subsoil can
influence the results. With seismic investigations, the velocity of shock wave propagation
or vibrations in the ground is measured. For the seismic investigation on land, the seismic
reflection or seismic refraction methods are often used.
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Quay walls
There are various ways to carry out a seismic investigation:
• Crosshole measurements
• Downhole measurements
• Surface refraction measurements
• Surface vibratory measurements
For a detailed description of these methods, refer to [4.11] and [4.13]. For geotechnical
purposes, such as the detection of bedding in soil layers, this investigation is seldom used
because it is a rather laborious. However, such an investigation does provide valuable
information about the behaviour of the soil in earthquake zones, including shear modulus
G0 at small strains and shear wave velocities vs , and is therefore to be recommended in
these situations.
4.16.2 Site investigations: cone penetration tests, boring and sampling

Cone penetration tests
In the Netherlands and some other parts of Europe it is usual to carry out electrical pen-
etration tests by measuring cone resistance and local friction and, less often, to measure
pore pressures. But also outside of Europe penetration tests are becoming increasingly
popular. During the last few decades in particular, there has been much interest in the
use of new techniques and the determination of correlations. Lunne, Robertson and
Powell, have been engaged in investigation of the potential of penetration test tech-
niques. Types of penetration test and correlations in different types of soil are described
in [4.12].
An advantage of penetration tests is that they give a good picture of the structure of the soil
strata. The various types of soil can be distinguished and, to a lesser degree, the strength
and stiffness properties can be determined. To exclude measuring errors, the cones must
be frequently calibrated and preconditioned. Sensitive cones can be used to distinguish the
soft soil layers in the Holocene deposits more accurately if, for example, strong humus-clay
and peat layers are encountered.
The following types of cone penetration test (CPT) are distinguished:
• Dynamic cone penetration tests, percussion sounding

• Mechanical cone penetration tests, including measuring local friction
• Electrical cone penetration tests, including measuring local friction
• Sensitive electrical cone penetration tests, measuring local friction
The two latter types are usually carried out in the Netherlands. Other types of cone pene-
tration tests are also available, such as penetration tests with a magnetometer or a seismic
cone and also conductivity and porewater pressures can be measured with special cone
penetration tests.
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Investigation
Types of boring
Borings are primarily carried out to classify soil layers to obtain undisturbed or disturbed
samples, and to facilitate in-situ tests such as the vane test and standard penetration test
(SPT). They are less suitable to determine the depth of soil layers than cone penetration
tests, since no continuous record of the levels is made. However, with Begemann boring
and other methods in which continuous samples can be taken throughout the depth, a
reliable record of the soil layers can be obtained.
The following types methods of boring can be distinguished:
• Hand boring
• Wash boring, jet or rotary boring
• Percussion boring
• Auger boring
• Begemann boring
In cohesive soils, hand boring is possible to a depth of four or five metres. This method is
commonly used to obtain disturbed samples. Layer boundaries are roughly distinguished
and a reasonable classification of the soil can be obtained.
When wash boring, jet or rotary boring methods are used, the nature of the soil layers
is determined by examining the colour of the wash water and the soil particles that are
carried in it. The soil layers and levels can be roughly recognised. It is not possible to
accurately determine from what level the samples are being taken. Such methods of boring
are therefore considered to be less useful.
For percussion boring the soil is removed from the casings with the aid of a percussion
sampler. With this method, a 1.5 m long cylinder, with a cutting edge at the toe and a
horizontal valve directly above the toe to hold the sample in the cylinder, is suspended on
long cable. Allowing the percussion sampler to move up and down traps the soil, mixed with
groundwater. The difference between the soil layers is determined from the mixture that
is found inside the cylinder. The accuracy of this method of determining the composition
of soil layers is moderate, although the levels can be reasonably estimated. An Ackerman
instrument is often used to take undisturbed samples.
Mechanical auger drilling is often used abroad and less frequently in the Netherlands.
With a special drilling rig, the auger is brought to the required depth. At this depth, a
field vane test (FVT) or a standard penetration test (SPT) is carried out. When the auger
is withdrawn, the soil that is sticking to the blade gives a good impression of the structure
and composition of the layers of soil.
Begemann boring is a continuous type of drilling which produces a very long sample.
This gives a good impression of the composition and structure of the soil layers, while
undisturbed samples can be of excellent quality, but only when ø 66 mm or ø 100 mm
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Quay walls
drills are used. As an alternative, 29 mm diameter drills are available, but these produce
undisturbed samples that cannot be used for compression tests or triaxial tests because of
diameters are too small and there is too much remoulding of the samples.
Distinction between land and offshore site investigations

Depending on the location of the future project area, the soil testing must be carried out
onshore or offshore.
Onshore following types of geophysical equipment can be distinguished:
• Standard cone penetrometer on a truck, with a pressure capacity of 160 to 200 kN

ballast
• Standard cone penetrometer on a truck with caterpillar tracks with a pressure capacity
of 160 to 200 kN ballast for moderately accessible sites
• Caterpillar vehicle with a pressure capacity of 160 kN for poorly accessible sites and
for locations with limited free space
• Lightweight equipment and equipment to work in restricted space, possibly anchored,
30 tot 100 kN
• Manual penetration equipment
In the nearshore regions, a distinction is often made between sub-bottom profiling and
deep or shallow drilling.
In the nearshore zone, penetration tests can be made from a pontoon or survey vessel. For
depths to about of approx. 15 metres, a jack-up rig can be installed and the work can be
carried out without wave impact because the pontoon stands on spud piles. With anchored
pontoons and vessels, if the depth of the water exceeds 15 m, a swell compensation system
must be used to restrict the wave influence. When CPTs are being carried out, a casing
can be used to give horizontal support to the sounding rods.
Specially designed ships are used for cone penetration tests in deep water, but for offshore
use special jack-up rigs are also available (offshore industry). Here a pre-drilled casing is
used (the ‘downhole’ method). In addition, platforms that are placed on the seabed have
also been developed. From these platforms, cone penetration tests, sediment core boring
and sub-bottom profiling can be carried out. This method is often termed ‘the seabed
method’.
Gravity corers are usually open or piston penetration tubes that are lowered by a winch
and, with the aid of ballast weight, penetrate the seabed. Usually the penetration tubes
are lined with PVC tubes. The penetration depth depends on the stiffness of the subsoil,
varying from five metres in weak clay to one metre in stiff clay. Core catchers are mounted
to achieve a higher recovery. This category includes drop corers that can be thrown into
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Investigation
Table 4.4 Categories of sampling.
the water from a ship or a pontoon and can take a sample by using their own falling
weight.
Vibro-corers are used for granular materials and stiffer clays. Vibration is used to bring the
penetration tube to the required depth. This method is less suitable for sampling in clay
because the vibration disturbs the sample.
Rotary drilling equipment, in combination with water flushing, is often used to carry out
deep drilling from a ship or jack-up rig. Boring operations that penetrate the seabed are
carried out from vessels by using casings with flexible hinges or telescopic casings that can
assume a certain degree of bending and thus can drill undisturbed to depth in 1 or 2 metres
of swell. Another frequently used method is pulse drilling, but here too only disturbed
samples are obtained.
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Quay walls
Table 4.5 Relation between sample quality and sampling category.

Quality classes of soil
samples for laboratory 1 2 3 4 5
testing
A
Sampling categories B
C
Table 4.6 Required quality class

Quality of soil sample 1 2 3 4 5
Unchanged soil properties
Grain size distribution * * * *
Water content * * *
Density, density index, permeability * *
Compressibility, shear strength *
Properties to be determined
Sequence of layers * * * * *
Limits of layers (raw) * * * *
Limits of layers (fine) * *
Atterberg limits, specific weight, organic content * * * *
Water content * * *
Density, density index, porosity, permeability * *
Compressibility, shear strength *
Sample category EN ISO22475-1 A
B
C
Sampling
Various sampling instruments have been developed to take undisturbed samples includ-
ing the:
• Shelby tube or open tube penetration tube, either thick or thin walled
• Piston sampler
• Ackermann apparatus or variants of this
• Begemann bore.
EN-ISO 22475-1:2006 [28] gives a table in which the above mentioned methods of sam-
pling are included. For different soil types the sampling methods and the category of the
samples are given. Furthermore a relation is given between the sampling category and the
quality class of soil samples for laboratory testing.
In NEN-EN 1997:2-2010 (Chapter 3.4.1) the required quality class of the soil samples for
each type of laboratory test is given, see Table 4.6.
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Investigation
Table 4.7 Suitability of sampling methods in clay.

Laboratory test Soil type: clay
Ackermann Ackermann Begemann Rotary Piston Sonic
(OS-T/W) (OS-T/W-PE) (PS-TK/W) core sampler drilling
A B A B drilling+) (PS-PU) (CS-DT)
Grain size distribution * * * * * * * –
Water content * * * * * * * –
Density, permeability * * – * * * * –
Compressibility * * – * – * * –
Shear strength * * – * – * * –
Sequence of layers * * * * * * * –
Limits of layers Raw * * * * * * * –
Limits of layers Fine * * – * - * * –
Atterberg limits * * * * * * * –
Organic content * * * * * * * –
+)
double/triple tube, corebarrel with extended inner tube
Samples of the quality 1 and 2 can only be obtained by application of a sampling technique
category A, which means a method in which no or little disturbance occurs during sampling
and further handling (in the field or in the laboratory).
Samples obtained by a technique category B excludes sample qualities better than class 3.
The structure of the soil is disturbed. Samples obtained by a technique category C excludes
sample qualities better than class 5. The layering of the soil is disturbed and the water
content may differ from the in situ content.
In EN-ISO 22475:2006 (Table 2, 3 and 4) the different sampling techniques and the
category are given.
To determine which more or less standard methods are useful for laboratory tests in different
soil types an overview is given in Table 4.7 (clay), 4.8 (sand) and 4.9 (organic) below.
4.16.3 Site investigations: groundwater level and potential

The determination of the groundwater level and phreatic head
One or more of the following methods determines the groundwater level and the potential
in deeper lying aquifers.
The piezo-cone measures pore pressure during the cone penetration test. The test is used in
combination with cone pressure and friction ratio, to determine whether there is a relatively
permeable or impermeable stratum, especially in those cases where this is difficult to
determine from the cone pressure and friction ratio. With the piezo-cone, dissipation tests
120
Quay walls
Table 4.8 Suitability of sampling methods in sand.

Laboratory test Soil type: sand
Ackermann Rotary Piston Sonic sampler drilling
(OS-T/W) Ackermann Begemann core (PS-PU) (CS-DT)
(OS-T/W-PE) (PS-TK/W) drilling +)
Grain size distribution * – * * – *
Water content * – * – – –
Density, permeability * – * – – –
Compressibility n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Shear strength – – – – – –
Sequence of layers * – * – – *
Limits of layers Raw * – * – – *
Limits of layers Fine * – * – – –
Atterberg limits n.a. n.a n.a n.a n.a. n.a
Organic content * – * – – –
+)
Table 4.9 Suitability of sampling methods in clay.

Laboratory test Soil type: organic (peat)
Ackermann Ackermann Begemann Rotary Piston Sonic
(OS-T/W) (OS-T/W-PE) (PS-TK/W) core sampler drilling
A B drilling +) (PS-PU) (CS-DT)
Grain size distribution n.a. n.a n.a n.a n.a n.a
Water content * – * * – * –
Density, permeability * – * * – * –
Compressibility * – * – – * –
Shear strength * – * – – * –
Sequence of layers * – * * – * –
Limits of layers Raw * – * * – * –
Limits of layers Fine * – * * – * –
Atterberg limits * – * * – * –
Organic content * – * * – * –
+)
from which the pore pressures can be determined are carried out. To carry out such a
test, the penetration is temporarily stopped and the decrease in the excess pore pressure is
measured. In this way, only the momentary value for the pore pressure is measured.
For the actual determination of this pore pressure, preference is given to the use of piezome-
ters. The piezometer is placed in a borehole and fitted with a filter filled with granular
121
Investigation
Table 4.10 Applicability of water pressure meters to types of soil [4.14].

Measuring equipment Type of soil Accuracy Reliability Cost
Piezometer Sand, peat 1) ++ ++ ++
Bourdon water pressure meter Sand, peat, clay 1) + – 0
Electric water pressure meter Sand, peat, clay ++ + −−
Explanation: 1) not applicable for cyclical or dynamic water pressure measurements;

++ good or inexpensive; + reasonable; 0 moderate; − poor or expensive;
−− very poor or very expensive
material at the desired depth. To prevent short-circuiting, the other levels are sealed again
with bentonite grains. The water levels in the piezometric gauges can be read manually or
can be continuously recorded automatically by using ‘Divers’.
To measure the excess pore pressures resulting from fill operations, more sensitive water
pressure meters, which give a more rapid response than open piezometric observation
instruments, should be installed. Types used include the Bourdon water pressure gauge
and the electric water pressure meter; the electric water pressure metre being preferred
(Table 4.10).
The determination of parameters for permeability based

on site investigations
In the field, the permeability in a borehole can be measured by using the falling head test.
In this way, the horizontal permeability can be measured. In contrast, in the laboratory
the vertical permeability is measured so that combined with the field observations a good
impression of the permeability is obtained. The permeability is important for consolida-
tion calculations and drainage advice. It should be noted that when sand is prepared for
laboratory tests, the structure of the sample is destroyed.
Pump tests must be carried out when drainage is required over a long period of time
and when there is large-scale water extraction, (settlements, drought damage, foundation
damage or damage to the surrounding area).
4.16.4 Tests to determine in situ parameters

Plate bearing test
The plate bearing test is an in situ test that is used to determine the stiffness of the subsoil.
It is also used to determine the bearing capacity of a paved area or to check the degree of
compression in a fill area. This test is used abroad, but very seldom in the Netherlands.
Based on this test and with the aid of assumptions of the Poisson ratio for the subsoil and
the stiffness of the plate, a value for the elasticity modulus is determined.
122
Quay walls
CBR test
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is also a test to characterise the bearing capacity
of the subsoil or foundation material. The test can be done in the laboratory or in situ. As
with the plate bearing test, based on the CBR value, a modulus of elasticity for the subsoil
can be determined. A CBR test is set down in NEN 5108.
Camkometer test
The Camkometer, or Ko meter, is an apparatus developed in Cambridge to measure the
lateral soil pressure. It is a cylindrical apparatus, equipped with a blade at the bottom that
makes a cut to the required depth. Round the cylinder, pressure cells are mounted to record
the soil pressure. The pressure cells are attached to the cylinder wall by strain gauges. The
lateral earth pressure is determined by increasing the gas pressure from inside the cylinder
to the moment that the zero level for the strain gauges is attained. Ko is calculated by
dividing the gas pressure, the lateral earth pressure minus the water pressure, by the initial
vertical pressure.
Pressiometer test
In the pressiometer test or the Ménard pressiometer, a cylindrical element in a borehole
is radially stretched in the horizontal direction under the influence of a uniform pressure.
The probe can be introduced into the ground in various ways, for example in a borehole,
by vibration, by driving, or with the aid of a retro-jet. The pressiometer consists of a
cylindrical body surrounded by a rubber membrane, composed of three independent cells.
The middle cell is the measuring cell. Once it is in the drill hole, the pressure in the cell is
increased in steps and the change in volume is measured at three time-intervals. This test
is used to determine the Ménard modulus of elasticity Em . Empirical relations are used to
calculate values for the vertical and horizontal coefficients of subgrade reaction, the latter
being important for the dimensioning of sheet pile structures.
Dilatometer test
The Dilatometer is a flat rectangular plate, fitted with a membrane and mounted on a
sounding rod. The apparatus is pressed into the ground or driven by a penetrometer. At
regular intervals of 200 mm, the pressure behind the membrane is increased and measured.
By calculation of the pressure differences and the measured penetration, a relation with
the elasticity modulus can be determined.
Field Vane Test

The Field Vane Test is carried out with the vane, a rod on which four plates, the vanes, are
mounted at right angles to each other. The Field Vane Test is made in a drill hole, the vane
first being pressed into the bottom of the borehole. The rod on which the vanes are mounted
is then slowly turned round so that a plane of shear develops between the soil enclosed by
the vanes and the soil outside them. The moment increases until the development of the
critical plane of shear. The development of the measured moment determines the undrained
shear strength of the soil. After the maximum moment is reached, a turn of a further 180◦
123
Investigation
must be made to determine the undrained residual shear strength. After this, ten runs
must be made to determine the remoulded undrained shear strength. The method for the
implementation of this test is specified in the NEN 5106 standard.
SPT
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is frequently used in other countries and functions
in the same way as the cone penetration tests in the Netherlands. With this test, a thick
walled sampling tube, the ‘split-spoon sampler’, is hammered into the soil at the bottom
of the borehole. The hammering is carried out with a standard weight that is released at a
standard falling height of all 760 mm. The number of blows needed to penetrate into the
ground three times 150 mm is recorded, the number of blows needed to penetrate the last
300 mm, is given as the N-value. After the SPT test has been carried out, the split-spoon
sampler is opened and the composition of the soil is determined. The recorded N-value
must be corrected to an effective stress of 100 kPa.
There are two ways of dropping the weight: one method in which the weight is automatically
detached from the winch on which it is suspended when the standard falling height is
reached and the other method in which this is not done. In the latter case, higher N-values
are recorded because of energy loss. This should be remembered when the results are
being interpreted. The methods of carrying out the SPT test are specified in NEN-EN-ISO
22476-3.
Special cone penetration tests

In addition to the standard electrical cone penetration tests that record the cone resistance
and local friction, several new measuring techniques have been developed to determine
various in situ parameters. For the sake of completeness an overview of all the possible
techniques is given:
• Piezo-cone: to measure water pressure and permeability

• Seismic cone: to measure the shear modulus G0 at small strains
• CPM Cone pressure meter: to measure undrained shear strength and shear modulus
G0 for small strains in clay and relatively density, horizontal pressure (initial state),
angle of internal friction and shear modulus G0 at small strains in sand
• Electrical resistivity probe, ERT: to measure the in situ porosity
• Nuclear density probe, NDT: to measure the in situ density.
It should be remembered that soil parameters derived from these measuring sensors
are often determined empirically and that the equipment is in need of further devel-
opment. The evaluation and applicability of the various measuring instruments and
other methodologies according to Lunne, Robertson and Powell [4.12] are presented in
Table 4.11.
124
Table 4.11 Evaluation and applicability of field tests. [4.12]
Investigation

laboratory tests
4.17.1 Introduction
To design the quay wall it is necessary to determine the strength and stiffness of the various
soil layers. In addition to the previously mentioned field tests, laboratory tests are usually
carried out. The final objective is to derive a parameter set that can be employed for the
various analyses. When setting up the laboratory test programme it is first necessary to
establish which mathematical models are available and which of these will be used. The
number of tests per layer must be sufficient to determine the calculation parameters in a
statistically reliable way.
As mentioned in the introduction, the soil investigations should be phased. That goes for
both the field investigations and the laboratory investigations. It is possible that during the
design it will become clear that some aspects can only be determined by using an advanced
mathematical model. It may also appear that a different soil model is more suitable for the
analysis of the problems. This is illustrated in Figure 4.4.
Geotechnical Structure (GS)

- 4 Areas of geotechnical Application (GA)
- 3 Geotechnical Categories (GC)
Geotechnical Analysis (GA)

- Limit states (also predicted values)
- Design phasing
Geotechnical investigation (GI) Numerical models and material models

- Field investigation - Analytical
- Laboratory investigation - Simple numerical
- FEM
Geotechnical or physical parameters Model parameters
Fig. 4.4 Relation between geotechnical investigations and geotechnical design.
Another aspect that is important, certainly when advanced mathematical models are to be
used, is the recognition of the disturbance of the sample before it reaches the test apparatus,
(Figure 4.5).
It is necessary to realise that the sample is disturbed during the sampling operation, the
degree of disturbance depending on the sampling technique and drilling method. Removal
of sediment by coring for subsequent laboratory testing imposes disturbances and alters
the sediment matrix and the strength characteristics. This should be taken into account
during the laboratory testing.
126
Quay walls
σv − σ h AP: "Perfect" sampling

q= AB: Drilling
2
BC: Tube sampling
CD: Extrusion from tube
DE: Cavitation and water content K1 line
redistribution
EF: Trimming and mounting in the
triaxial cell K0 line
A
g
illin
ng
ion
Dr
Sampli
rus
Ext
F E
0
Trimming D P
B σv' + σh'
p' =
2
Fig. 4.5 Influence of sampling on the stress state of normal consolidated clay [4.15].
4.17.2 Types of laboratory tests to establish strength

and stiffness parameters
Oedometer tests and triaxial tests are commonly used to determine the strength and stiff-
ness characteristics of the subsoil. Other tests, that are usually less often used, are the
direct shear test and the simple shear test. Less expensive, but also less accurate are the
laboratory Torvane test, the hand vane test and the pocket penetrometer test. It is often
useful to do these types of test in combination with triaxial tests per layer in order to estab-
lish a correlation between the strength parameters found in the triaxial tests, the Torvane
tests and pocket penetrometer tests. The most frequently used tests, with the parameters
that can be derived from these and the action to be taken by the advisors, are shown in
Table 4.12.
The disadvantage of direct shear tests for the determination of the shear strength parameters
c and ϕ is that the stress condition is poorly defined because the critical shear plane is
imposed. An improvement in this respect is found with the direct simple shear test (DSS-
test). The DSS-test has the advantage of applying a reasonable homogeneous shear stress
state in the soil specimen and avoiding the stress concentrations as occurs in direct shear
test. A DSS-test is considered to be the most reliable method when determining strength
properties of peat. Usually peat consists of predominantly horizontal oriented layers of
organic material. During a triaxial test a (peat) sample is loaded in the vertical direction,
which is considered to be the strongest direction of peat due to this layering. This often
results in unrealistically high strength parameters (e.g. ϕ > 40 degrees). During a DSS-test
the sample is loaded in the horizontal direction, resulting in lower, but more realistic,
strength parameters.
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Investigation
Table 4.12 Action to be taken by the geotechnical advisor per test.

Type test Parameters Importance for design
Compression test Koppejan Terzaghi Critical consideration of the
Cp , Cs , Cp , Cs Cc , Cr , Cα relevant stress path
Ap , As , Ap , As Cαr , Cαswell , Cswell Determine the loading steps
Pg , cv , m v
Pg , c v , m v , e 0 Determining whether decompression tests
are required
Critical consideration of the determination of
pre-consolidation stress
Triaxial CD G50 , E50 Stress path
c , ϕ
Triaxial CU Gu;50 , Eu;50 Stress path
Converting Eu;50 to E50 for FEM
calculations
c , ϕ Relation depends on:
c, ϕ – Atterberg limits
cu – OCR
Triaxial UU cu Preferably used only for soft soils to
2 m below ground level because of
unconsolidated prepared sample
4.17.3 Permeability tests

To determine the permeability, the tests carried out are the Falling Head test or Constant
Head test. In addition, the permeability can also be determined from oedometer tests.
Grain size distribution diagrams obtained by sieve analysis are also used to determine the
permeability and degree of compaction via correlations.
4.17.4 Other tests

Other tests on the base of which the subsoil can be classified are:
• Atterberg limits
• Classification tests for volumetric weight and water content
• Organic matter content, calcium content
• Chloride content
The evaluation of the parameter determination, including the relative costs and reliability,
is given for each type of test In Tables 4.13 and 4.14.
4.17.5 Influence of seismic impacts on the testing programme

If the project is located in an area that is prone to seismic activity and in areas of sites
where liquefaction is expected during the excavation phase, attention should be paid to
this during the formulation of a test programme. Efforts to determine the sensitivity of
128
Quay walls
Table 4.13 Evaluation in relation to strength parameters [4.14].

Method of testing Applicability Cost Reliability Insensitivity to
in cohesive soils method of
application
In situ measurement:
– vane test + + + 0
Laboratory test
Triaxial test ++ – ++ –
Cell test 0 – + –
Simple shear test ++ – ++ –
Direct shear test 0 + 0 –
Vane test 0 ++ 0 –
Pocket-penetrometer test 0 ++ 0 –
Correlations via:
Classification/identification + ++ 0 Not applicable
Static penetration tests:
– Normal cone 0 ++ + +
– Sensitive cone 0 ++ + 0
– Cone/friction + + 0
– Cone/pore pressure + + + –
– Cone/pore pressure/friction + + + –
Explanation: ++ good or inexpensive; + reasonable; 0 moderate; – poor or
expensive; – – very poor or very expensive
the substrata to earthquakes are often concentrated on the sand formations. It is important
to investigate whether the strength and stiffness of the soil can be temporarily lost due
to vibrations induce by earthquakes. Often semi-empirical equations are used, with data
from soundings (to obtain relative density), sieve analyses and grain shape to determine
the sensitivity of the substrata to liquefaction. In addition, cyclical triaxial tests provide
insight, and seismic soundings are also very valuable. At present dynamic analyses that
use finite element models can be carried out to study the behaviour of the substrata.
In Japan, large-scale tests to assess the earthquake resistance of structures are carried
out when structures are being planned. There is much experience in the design of struc-
tures in areas that are prone to earthquakes [4.21], [4.23] and [4.24] and [4.31] in Japan
and the US.

determination of parameters
4.18.1 Introduction
This section considers the parameters that are important to the design of quay walls.
Attention is given to the correct way to determine these parameters and the way in which
129
Investigation
Table 4.14 Rating in relation to stiffness parameters [4.14].

Method of testing Application in Costs Reliability Independent of
cohesive soils method of operation
In situ measurement:
Menard pressiometer test 0 0 + –
Self-boring pressiometer 0 0 + –
Camkometer test + – ++ –
Dilatometer test + – ++ –
Laboratory test:
Compression test ++ – ++ +
Triaxial test ++ – ++ –
Simple shear test ++ – ++ –
Direct shear test ++ + 0 –
Correlations via:
Classification/identification 0 ++ 0 Not applicable
Penetration test – ++ 0 0
Explanation:
++ good or inexpensive
+ reasonable
0 moderate
– poor or expensive
– – very poor or very expensive
characteristic values and design values of the parameters can be determined. Finally, the
necessary extent of the soil investigation, as stipulated in the NEN standards, is discussed.
This chapter is based on CUR 166 [4.5]. This guideline gives a clear overview of these
subjects. NEN 9997-1:2012 [4.26] is also considered
In order to determine the values of the parameters it is important to take into account the
limit state that is to be considered. For the ultimate limit state, the shear strength parameters
can be based on the peak value from the σ-ε diagram as measured with the triaxial tests.
The disadvantage of this is that for stratified soils, possible differences in the deformation
levels at which the peak value is reached in the different layers are not taken into account.
Sand reaches its peak value at much a lower strain than clay and peat. This means that with
large deformations the layers fail one by one and not all at the same time as is assumed
in the models. For stratified soils in which there are big differences in these properties, it
is advisable to determine the shear strength for an axial strain of 5% in the ultimate limit
state. When testing for the serviceability limit state an axial strain of 2% is taken, since
this state is determined by deformation and in this case, only the deformation parameters
for the soil layers are significant. If computer models in which the actual relations between
soil pressure and shear strength can be entered are used, the finite element method is
preferable.
130
Quay walls
Table 4.15 Parameters required for various calculation models [4.5].

Mathematical models Parameters
All modes Composition of soil layers
Layer boundaries Pore pressure
Standard model γ, ϕ and c or fundr , δ
Spring model γ, ϕ and c or fundr , δ, kh
Finite elements model γ, ϕ and c or fundr , δ, E, G, ν, ψ
Groundwater flow model KD, c and/or kv , kh
Critical hydraulic gradient according γ
to Terzaghi and Peck or EAU
Anchorages γ, ϕ and c or fundr , δ, qc
Bishop critical sliding plane, Kranz stability γ, ϕ and c
Table 4.15 shows, the parameters that are needed to dimension a sheet pile structures.
Which parameters are required depends on the mathematical model that is chosen.
4.18.2 Indirect determination of parameters via correlations

Correlations can be used to determine strength and stiffness. In the literature many
correlations can be found between strength and stiffness properties and the following
tests:
• Cone penetration test: strength and stiffness, soil type, soil layer, relative density
• Atterberg limits: strength and stiffness, consistency, over-consolidation ratio and
liquefaction
• Calcining loss: stiffness (compare the Fokkens method for settlement calculations in
peat), and liquefaction
• Volumetric Weight density: type of soil, indication of strength and stiffness, and
liquefaction
Types of soil and soil layer levels

Based on the cone resistance and the friction number, various correlations can be used
to determine the composition of the soil, certainly when the local situation is known.
CUR 166 [4.5], CUR 91 [4.16] and Lunne [4.12] give various correlations between the
cone resistance and friction ratio, also including the determination of the type of soil.
As already stated in the previous sections, bedding planes can be found via boring and
penetration tests.
Pore pressures
To estimate the groundwater map and data from piezometer in the Netherlands, data of
TNO/NITG can be employed. Assuming that there is a hydrostatic distribution of the
131
Investigation
pressure in the deeper soil layers, a first impression can be derived from the water levels
in open water or groundwater levels in adjacent areas.
Soil properties
The characteristic value of various parameters can be found in Table 2b of NEN 9997-
1:2012 [6.25]. This relates to:
• Weight γ
• Angle of internal friction ϕ
• Cohesion in terms of effective stress c
• Undrained shear strength cu
• Modulus of elasticity E
Conservative values are given.
To determine the shear modulus G, the following values are taken for the Poisson ratio ν.
• Sand: ν = 0.2 to 0.3

• Clay and peat: ν = 0.3 to 0.45
• Undrained behaviour of clay and peat: ν = 0.5 Finite Element Programs depending on
the soil model, see the relevant program information.
Dense sands exhibit dilatancy behaviour. For sand (quartz sand) with angle of internal
friction ϕ > 30◦ the dilatancy angle is ψ = ϕ − 30◦ . Normal consolidated or slightly over
consolidated clay and peat do not show dilation.
Wall friction angle δ

From the angle of internal friction and the roughness of the surface of the wall area, the
angle δ can be determined according to Table 9b of NEN 9997-1. A distinction must be
made between straight and curved slip planes.
Modulus of subgrade reaction kh

The modulus of subgrade reaction can be determined according to the Terzaghi method
or the Ménard method. These methods are comprehensively described in CUR 166 [4.5].
In CUR 97-1 [4.16] the modulus of subgrade reaction is given in relation to the types of
soil for both sheet pile structures and piles. These values often agree with the low values
of Table 3.15 from CUR 166.
Permeability k
The permeability can be determined from experience or calculations based on sieve analysis
results. On the groundwater map of the Netherlands the kD-value is often given for the
permeability of aquifers. This value is frequently used in geohydrological calculations.
132
Quay walls
4.18.3 Direct determination of parameters via tests

In Section 4.17, the various tests that can be used to determine parameters have been
considered. In this section, some of the tests are considered in detail.
Composition of soil layers and the soil

The composition of the soil layers can be classified by taking samples and submitting them
to the following tests:
• Mass density
• Grain size distribution
• Moisture content
• Atterberg limits
• Organic matter content
The classification of soil layers is very important to the assessment of the value of other
tests.
Pore water pressures

Section 4.17 has already indicated how water pressures can be measured in the field
by using piezometric measurements, cone penetration tests with piezo-cones and pore
pressure meters.
Angle of internal friction and cohesion for drained conditions

To determine the effective shearing resistance parameters ϕ and c triaxial tests are used,
Class 1 soil samples are required. No good Class 1 samples can be obtained for non-
cohesive soil. For these soils, a test sample must be prepared from a Class 3 sample in which
the in situ stresses are simulated as closely as possible. The triaxial test is usually carried
out by using the consolidated undrained (CU) procedure, but sometimes the consolidated
drained (CD) procedure is used.
In Figure 4.7, the axial strain is in the stress path also shown. The mobilisation curve in
which the relation between the shear strength parameters and the axial strain is presented
is often also shown with the results of the triaxial tests, Figure 4.6.
The undrained shear strength

This parameter relates exclusively to the strength of cohesive soils and, as explained in
4.17, is determined in the field or in the laboratory by using the vane test. The undrained
shear strength cu can also be determined by using the CU triaxial test. In other countries
the unconsolidated undrained (UU) triaxial test is sometimes used, but the results of this
should be handled with caution. It should really only be carried out in the upper layers,
preferably in the uppermost 1 to 2 metres, since the sample is not consolidated to the
vertical in situ stress, while the undrained shear resistance is dependent on stress.
133
Investigation
Deviator stress [kPa]
[DEG]
1000 50
900 45
800 40
700 35
F1
w
600 30
2
500 3 25
1
400 20
300 15
200 10
100 5
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Axial strain [%] Axial strain [%]
50 1000
45 900
40 800
Cohesion [kPa]
35 w 700
30 600
25 500 3
20 400 2
15 300 1
10 200
Coh 3
5 100
2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Axial strain [%] Axial strain [%]
Cohesion [kPa] Water tensin/pressure [kPa]

F1 [DEG] Deviation stress [kPa]
Fig. 4.6 Examples of the results of CU axial tests [4.5].
According to the triaxial test:
su = 12 (σ1 − σ3 )
with
su undrained shear strength
σ1 the total vertical stress on the sample at the failure moment
σ3 cell pressure
134
Quay walls
500
450
400
Max shear stress [kpa]
350
300
5%
250 0 2%
2
200 0
0 1%
150 0 0
0
0
100
0
50 0
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Average effective stress [kpa]
Fig. 4.7 Examples of the results of CU triaxial tests [4.5].
Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity E can be derived from a triaxial test according to the CU or CD
procedures, as follows:
σ
E=
ε
The stress-strain diagram of soil is non-linear so the elasticity modulus decreases as the
deformation increases. Usually, the secant modulus at 50% of the maximum deviator stress
is used as modulus of elasticity in the calculation. Naturally, the elasticity modulus also
depends on the stress level for the soil element under consideration in the soil. The cell
pressure in the triaxial test should be made equal to the state of stress present in the field.
Poisson ratio
By means of a drained or an undrained triaxial test with water pressure measurement, it is
possible to determine the lateral contraction coefficient or Poisson ratio ν as follows.
ε3
ν=
ε1
with
ε1 strain in the main direction of the principal axial stress and

ε3 strain in the direction of the principal radial stress direction.
The following equations are also valid for the drained standard triaxial test.
V
εν = = ε1 + ε2 + ε3
V0
135
Investigation
where V volume change, V0 original volume, εv volumetric strain
σ1 + 2σ3
εν = (1 − 2ν)
E
1
εν = ( σ1 − 2ν σ3 )
E
By measuring εv and ε1 , it is possible to determine ν. In the triaxial test at the moment of

failure σ3 = 0 from which is follows that:
εν
= (1 − 2ν)
ε1
Angle of dilatancy
In the same way, the dilation angle ψ can be determined from a drained triaxial test by
using the following relation:
εν
sin ψ =
εν − 2ε1
or
εν 2 sin ψ
=
ε1 1 − sin ψ
Wall friction angle

The wall friction angle δ can be determined by means of direct shear tests. These tests
are seldom used. Usually the values given in Table 9b of NEN 9997-1 or values based on
experience are used.
Coefficient of subgrade reaction

The coefficient of subgrade reaction can be derived for the modulus of elasticity E of the
soil. The pressiometer test provides a direct method to determine the horizontal coefficient
of subgrade reaction.
Coefficient of permeability
In Section 4.17, the ways in which the permeability of soil can be determined in both the
laboratory and in the field were considered. Summarising, the tests are as follows:
Laboratory tests
• Constant head and falling head test
• Coefficient of consolidation via the triaxial test
• Coefficient of consolidation from the oedometer test
136
Quay walls
Field tests
• Pumping test
• Hooghoudt test
Depending on the test that is used, the results must be converted to the parameters that
must be entered in the ground water flow model that is applied.
4.18.4 Determination of the characteristic value of a parameter

In the calculation with the geotechnical standards according to the Probabilistic Level 1
design method, depending on the limit state that is entered, characteristic values and design
values for the parameters must be determined.
For a first estimate of the characteristic values Table 2b of NEN 9997-1 can be used. In this
table, conservative estimates of characteristic values are presented. For sand and gravel
layers the table can be correctly used by adjusting the cone resistance based on the actual
in situ stress level. Table 2b is actually standardised to a stress of 100 kN/m2 . It is better to
determine the characteristic value from direct tests. If various samples from a specific soil
layer are tested, the characteristic value is equal to the characteristic value of the average
for the property for which a probability of 5% is taken.
When determining the characteristic value it is very important to investigate whether a

local lowest value of a parameter is significant to the failure and deformation behaviour
of a structure or the failure and deformation process is determined by the average value of
the parameter. Often the failure mechanism operates over a greater distance, so that local
differences in the parameters are largely averaged out. This means that in design practice
the characteristic parameter for soil parameters is usually determined as the characteristic
value for the average for a specific layer. For water levels and piezometric heads, it may be
interesting to use not the characteristic value for the average, but the characteristic value
for the series or for the individual characteristic value.
In the NEN-standards, the characteristic value and the characteristic value are bracketed
together. Assuming a normal distribution for the parameters and a 5% exceedence value
or within range value, the characteristic value is determined as follows:
Xk char = Xav ± 1.64σ
with
Xk char characteristic value of a parameter

Xav average value of a parameter
σ standard deviation of the observations
Often the average value and the standard deviation are not known and must be estimated
as closely as possible from the results of these tests.
137
Investigation
If n tests in a local series are included, the best estimate for the average is:
X1 + X2 + · · · + Xn
Xk =
n
The best estimate for the standard deviation σ is:

(Xi − Xav )2
σ=
n−1
In which n − 1 is the number of degrees of freedom
The standard deviation for the distribution of the average value is:
σ
σXav = √
n
The safety characteristic value Xav;k for the average Xav is determined as follows:
1
Xav;k = Xav − ts √
n
t is a student t series parameter, belonging to a within-range probability

of occurrence below 5%
s is a standard error of the average of the random sample survey.
n is the number of tests
If the safety characteristic value Xk for the individual result is of interest, this can be
determined as follows:

n+1
Xk = Xav − ts
n
For n − 1 degrees of freedom, the value t can be determined. For n − 1 = 4 a value of 2.13
is found, for n − 1 = 10 a value of 1.81 is found and for an infinite number of degrees of
freedom t = 1.64 is found, which is equal to a normal distribution. From these t-values
it appears that at least four tests, and preferably more, must be carried out on a layer
to calculate statistically reliable characteristic values. When using the above-mentioned
statistics the results of the tests should first be carefully analysed and results from the test
series that are considered unrealistic should be discarded.
138
Quay walls
If the parameters are determined by the above method, values corresponding to NEN
9997-1, Section 2.4.5, are found. NEN 9997-1 uses the following equation to determine
the characteristic values:
Xav;k = Zn;v Xav
Zn;v is a multiplication factor according to Table 2c of NEN 9997-1.
The difference between the two methods is that the NEN-standard is based on a specific
variation coefficient for the parameters, while the method given above determines this
value based on test results
4.18.5 Determination of the design values of a parameter

The design value of a soil parameter is determined by dividing the characteristic value by
a partial factor γm . The values for the material factors can be derived from NEN 9997-1,
Table A.4.
Xav;rep
Xav;d =
γm
In which γm = partial material factor from the NEN 9997-1, Section 2.1
4.18.6 Extent of the soil investigation to be carried out

According to the NEN standards, the nature and the extent of the soil investigation depends
on the geotechnical category in which the construction of the project falls. NEN 9997-1
distinguishes three geotechnical categories, GC1, GC2 and GC3.
In accordance with the division into geotechnical categories, the NEN 9997-1 makes a
distinction in the extent of the soil investigations, depending on the geotechnical category
in which the construction falls. NEN 9997-1 leaves sufficient room for the geotechnical
consultant to devise a soil investigation programme. The NEN 9997-1 requirements are
briefly outlined below. Primary consideration is given to GC2 and GC3 since GC1 is not
considered important for quay walls. The text that follows is not the full text, but is a
summary of the most salient features of the standard.
Geotechnical category 1: GC1

This category includes only relatively simple sheet pile structures, such as those made of
wood, concrete or synthetic material, very small projects and projects involving tempo-
rary structures. For these structures, the behaviour on site can be determined from local
experience. NEN 9997-1 describes the conditions that must be satisfied.
139
Investigation

Unless they form part of a primary flood defence, quay walls fall into category 2. For GC2
structures, the building site must be investigated by means of field tests and laboratory
tests.
Extent and depth of the required investigation:
• The distance between the measuring points must be determined based on the geology
of the area, the extent of the construction site, the nature of the soil at the project
location and the nature of the geotechnical construction.
• For pile foundations of buildings, the investigation must include at least two penetra-
tion tests. If no unusual variations in the soil structure are found the average distance
between the penetration test points may be a maximum of 25 metres.
• In sand and gravel it is not necessary to take any undisturbed samples.
• For shallow foundations the depth of field tests or boreholes under the foundation
level in question must extend at least 1 to 3 times the width of the foundation element.
For pile foundations penetration tests must be made at least 5 metres below the pile
toe level, and at least 1 penetration test must be 10 times the smallest transverse
measurement of the pile toe beneath the pile toe level if this is more than 5 metres.
• For impermeable layers or layers that cause settlement, the investigation must extend
to at least 5 metres below the underside of the layer.
• Laboratory investigation must be carried out to determine the parameters.

This category includes very large and unusual sheet piles structures, structures that involve
unusual risks and structures in unusually difficult soil and load conditions. The require-
ments for GC2 are also the lower limit for a structure that falls into GC3. In this book,
with the exception of quays that are also primary flood defences, quay walls are placed
in GC2.
The NEN 9997-1 states that for GC3the investigations according to GC1 and GC2, plus
requirements in Sections 3.1(c) and 3.2.3(7)P shall be carried out. In CUR 166 [4.5], it is
stated that the minimum extent of the soil investigation must include the following:
• Penetration tests with measurements of the local friction centre-to-centre ≤ 25 m to at

least 5 m below the proposed pile toe level or, if deeper, to at least 2 m into a soil layer
in which it can be shown that this is no longer affected by any limit state and design
situation.
• With retaining heights H > 10 metres, at a distance of 0.75H and 1.5H to the quay
wall as well as penetration tests centre-to-centre ≤ 25 metres, preferably staggered.
• Borings centre-to-centre ≤ 50 metres to the same depth.
140
Quay walls
10
20
Depth
30
40
50
60
600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200
Fig. 4.8 Example of the longitudinal geotechnical profile of Riga, Dangava River, Letland.
Equation
Depth
Fig. 4.9 Example of stiffness as a function of depth Eemclay, Amsterdam.

presentation of the results
For the design it is recommended that the soil strata should be shown in a longitudinal
geotechnical profile. In this way the soil layers can be mapped and more closely investi-
gated. Later the results of supplementary investigations can be included in the longitudinal
geotechnical profile (Figure 4.8).
The geotechnical parameters are often presented in well-ordered tables in which the nature
of the calculations for which they are valid is shown. The presentation of various parameters
in graphs clarifies the complex situation (Figure 4.9).
141
Investigation
– Eur;ref E modulus unload-reload reference stress in PLAXIS

– qc based on correlation with penetration tests
– TA-O based on the triaxial relaxation test
– cpm based on correlation with cone pressiometer tests (CPM)
– TA-S;E’25 based on standard triaxial test with 25% of the failure stress, small strains
– void based on correlation with the pore number
– TA based on with standard triaxial test
4.20 Environmental investigation

It is obvious that ports and the related industries should play a significant role in envi-
ronmental care. The port is a main custodian of the environment owing to the inevitable
interactions between ports and land, water and air. To prevent losses of environmental
quality it is necessary to pay due heed to the concept of sustainable design. The basic prin-
ciples of sustainable development were laid down in the Rio Convention on Bio Diversity
in 1992. This concept has led to a series of international treaties and conventions, which are
continually being updated and developed as scientific knowledge increases. The first of the
global intergovernmental treaties on conservation of natural resources was the RAMSAR
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1971. Moreover, regulations with
respect to environmental impact assessment and various European directives are relevant
for port planning and design. These include the Habitats Directive and the Birds Directive.
In addition a Europe-wide network of protected areas, the Natura 2000 network, has been
in place since June 2004, leading to specific requirements when planning projects in or
adjacent to Natura 2000 sites. However, these subjects are beyond the scope of this book.
However make sure that an ecological scan is always made because flora and fauna can
delays projects heavily.
In addition to items related to nature protection, it may be important to carry out investiga-
tions into the quality of soil and water. The question is how to proceed if soil or sediments
are contaminated. For example, in this section the mode of working with contaminated
soils and sediments that is followed in the Netherlands is discussed.
In the Netherlands, there are two kinds of environmental investigation and related
procedures and permits. These depend on whether the soil will be reused:
• Investigations into the quality of the soil: determination of the extent of contamination
and determination of the need for decontamination of the soil. The Soil Protection Act
is applicable.
• Investigation into the quality of a specific batch of soil in relation to its possible
use elsewhere. Base on soil map (with restrictions and/or batch investigation (AP04)
(Decree Soil Quality) [4.38].
4.20.1 Investigation of contamination of aquatic sediment

Much of the aquatic sediment in the Netherlands has become locally contaminated. Before
granting permits, the water quality management can require that the aquatic sediment is
142
Quay walls
investigated and that measures are taken to prevent dispersal of contaminants. Within the
framework of the Soil Protection Act, there is a duty to report for all works in aquatic
sediments.
Phasing
The phasing of environmental investigation depends on the project that is being carried
out. The following situations may be encountered:
• Heavily contaminated aquatic sediment must be cleaned while the quay wall is being
replaced. The responsibility for the environmental investigation lies primarily with
the manager or the organisation liable for the maintenance of the aquatic sediment.
Investigations of aquatic sediments are carried out according to NEN 5720 [4.34].
• A strip of aquatic sediment beside the quay wall must be removed for the purpose of
the work. The primary responsibility lies with the initiator of the work. The prescribed
investigation can vary from water authority to water authority, but usually NEN 5720 is
required, as well as the SIKB-protocol 7003. Certification for this protocol is possible
through [4.32].
• A new sheet pile wall is driven into aquatic sediment. The primary responsibility lies
with the initiator of the work. The prescribed investigation depends on the point of
view of the competent water authority and varies from no investigation to satisfying
the requirements of NEN 5720.
• If the aquatic sediment is not touched or disturbed no investigation is needed. However,
the contractor must be informed that the aquatic sediment might be contaminated and
that the sediment must not be disturbed.
Investigation programme
The environmental investigation of the aquatic sediment begins with sampling carried out
with small grabs and core borers or variations on these, including piston sampler, mud
percussion borer and gravity corer. A batch investigation consists of a prescribed number
of samples per unit of soil. Chemical analysis is used to determine the concentration of
substances that are foreign to the environment. How serious the contamination of the
aquatic sediments is can be assessed against the standards of the Decree Soil Quality.
Special assessment software such as iBever/Towabo has been developed by RIZA.
Points of interest
The following points of interest should be taken into account:
• To avoid delays, take ample time for the analysis of aquatic sediment
• Permits are required for the excavation of contaminated aquatic sediments
• Contaminated dredged material may not be relocated without permission of the local
authorities
• To prevent the contamination of aquatic sediment the water authority will make stipu-
lations about the transport of refuse and waste materials from works on the quay wall.
For this it is necessary to apply for a permit under the Water Act.
143
Investigation
4.20.2 Investigation of soil contamination on land

For earth moving operations, it is necessary to investigate the quality of the soil at the site.
Often an exploratory survey is carried out in accordance with NEN 5740 [4.34]. One part
of this is the preliminary survey according to NEN 5725 [4.34]. When soil is to be used
sampling and testing of a batch is required according to Decree Soil Quality. When other
building materials are to be used, sampling and testing of a batch is required in accordance
with the Building Materials Decree.
Investigation programme
The environmental investigation of the soil at the site consists of historical investigation,
field investigation and chemical investigation of soil samples. Historical investigation of
archives can show whether earlier site investigations have been carried out and whether
there have been previous activities that might have given rise to environmental problems.
The samples required for field investigation and chemical investigation are obtained by
sample boring according to NEN 5740 [4.34]. The investigations should be carried out by
certified specialist companies. Certification for VKB protocols 2001 and 2002 is possible
through [4.29].
Clean soil may be used for any purpose. Lightly contaminated soil is placed in cate-
gory living or industry, resulting in limitations for use, while seriously contaminated soil
may not be used, but must be removed and treated or relocated in a disposal site. To
determine category and possible destination of the soil a check of the Soil Map (under
conditions/requirements) or a batch investigation must be carried out and the results of the
analyses assessed against the standards of the Decree Soil Quality [4.38]. The batch inves-
tigation must be carried out by certified or accredited companies. Certification is possible
for VKB-protocols 1001, 1002 and 1003 through [4.29]. Alternatively, accreditation for
the accreditation programme AP04 is possible through.
4.20.3 Result of the environmental investigation

The results of investigation must be reported, including the degree of contamination of
aquatic sediments and land soils at the location. Depending on the seriousness of the
contamination, supplementary action must be taken. If there is little or no contamination
of the aquatic sediment, the water authority does not impose any supplementary stipulations
relating to the dredging and transport of sediments. If there is no contamination of land
soil, it will usually be reused. The results of the chemical analysis must be reported in
accordance with the Decree Soil Quality. The Municipality is the competent authority for
the use of soil on land.
If the aquatic sediment or land soil is contaminated, this must be reported to the competent
authority and a remediation plan must be drawn up. In the Netherlands, the competent
authorities are the Water Board for regional waters and Rijkswaterstaat for national waters,
while for land soils the competent authority is the Province or Municipality.
144
Quay walls
References
4.1 Admiralty Tide Tables Pacific Ocean and adjacent seas including tidal stream
tables/Hydrographer of the Navy. – [S.l.]: Hydrographic Department, 1989, NP
201-89 202-89 203-89 Volumes I, II and III.
4.2 CUR154/CIRIA Special publication 83, Manual on the use of rock in coastal and
shore engineering, ISBN 0860173267, CUR/CIRIA, Gouda, Netherlands, 1991.
4.3 Shore Protection Manual, Volume II, Coastal Engineering and Investigation
Center, Department of the Army, US Army Corps of Engineers, 1984, Second
Printing.
4.4 Catalogue of Admiralty Charts and other hydrographic publications, published by
the Hydrographer of the Navy, Taunton, 1995, Crown copyright 1994.
4.5 CUR 166, Damwandconstructies, ISBN 9037600638, CUR, Gouda, Netherlands,
2012. (In Dutch).
4.6 Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses “Ufereinfassungen” Häfen und
Wasserstrassen, ISBN 978-3-433-01848-4, EAU 2012, 11 Auflage.
4.7 Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing, and constructing Structures and
pipelines for Arctic Conditions, API Recommended practice 2N, Second edition,
American Petroleum Institute, December 1985, Order nr. G02N02.
4.8 Foroughi, A.R., “Methods of ice design for offshore structures”, Article of
OMAE-Volume 8, Arctic/Polartechnology, 1990 and C.H. Luk and J.C. Chao, “Ice
and rubble failure loads on sloping structures by two-dimensional upper-bound
plastic limit analysis”, Article from OMAE-Volume 4, Arctic/Polar Technology,
1993.
4.9 Wieringa, J. and P.J. Rijkoort, “Windklimaat van Nederland”, KNMI,
Staatsuitgeverij, Netherlands, 1983.
4.10 TAW, Leidraad voor het ontwerpen van rivierdijken, deel 1 bovenrivierengebied en 2
benedenrivierengebied, inclusief appendices, ISBN 901205169X en 9021231689,
TAW, Netherlands, 1985 en 1989.
4.11 CUR 182, Geofysicale Technieken voor Grondonderzoek, ISBN 9037600395,
CUR, Gouda, Netherlands, 1996.
4.12 Lunne, T. and P.K. Robertson, J.J.M. Powell, Cone Penetration Testing in
geotechnical practice, ISBN 041923750X, 1997.
4.13 CGF1 Cursusmap, Elsevier opleidingen, Netherlands.
4.14 CUR 162, Construeren met grond, tweede druk, ISBN 9037600247 CUR, Gouda,
Netherlands, 1993.
4.15 Holz, R.D. and W.D. Kovacs, “An introduction to Geotechnical Engineering”, ISBN
0134843940, 1981.
4.16 CUR 91-7, Vuist- en rekenregels voor grond constructies op sterk samendrukbare
ondergrond, CUR, Gouda, Netherlands, 1991.
4.17 Kalkwijk, J.P.Th., De analyse van getijden naar college “Getijden” (b75) herdruk
1979, collegedictaat TU Delft, Netherlands, herdruk 1979.
4.18 Battjes, J.A., Korte golven, Collegehandleiding b76, herdruk 1991, collegedictaat
TUDelft, Netherlands, herdruk 1991.
145
Investigation
4.19 Nortier, I.W. and P. de Koning, Toegepaste vloeistofmechanica, hydraulica voor

waterbouwkundigen, ISBN 9040103186, zevende druk, derde oplage 1991.
4.20 Lambe T.W. and R.V. Whitman, Series in soil engineering, Soil mechanics, ISBN
0471024910, MIT, 1969.
4.21 International Association for earthquake engineering, Earthquake resistant
regulations, a world list, 1973, supplement 1976.
4.22 Head, K.H., Manual of soil laboratory testing, three volumes, ISBN 0471977950,
Chisester Wiley, 1998:
• Vol 1: Soil classification and compaction tests, Pentech Press, London, UK,
1992.
• Vol 2: Permeability, shear strength and compressibility, Chisester Wiley,
New York, USA, 1994.
• Vol 3: Effective stress tests, Chisester Wiley, New York, USA, 1998.
4.23 Pianc report working group 34, Seismic design guidelines for port structures, PianC
Brussels, 2001.
4.24 CEN, EN 1998 Eurocode 8, Design of structures for earthquake resistance.
4.25 CUR 2001-5 Aan het werk met het Bouwstoffenbesluit ISBN 90 12 092825, CUR
Gouda, 2001.
4.26 NEN-EN 1997-2:2007/NB:2011 en, Nationale bijlage bij NEN-EN 1997-2
Eurocode 7 Geotechnisch ontwerp – Deel 2: Grondonderzoek en beproeving
(inclusief C1:2010).
4.27 CUR Richtlijn 247. Risicogestuurd grondonderzoek, CUR Gouda 2013.
4.28 EN-ISO 22475-1:2006 Geotechnical investigation and testing – Sampling methods
and groundwater measurements – Part 1: Technical principles for execution.
4.29 VKB-protocols 2001-2002, Veldwerk bij milieuhygiënisch bodemonderzoek
(2007) (www.sikb.nl).
4.30 BRL SIKB 1000, Monsterneming voor partijkeuringen (2007) (www.sikb.nl).
4.31 Kramer S.L., Geotechnical earthquake engineering, Prentice Hall, 1996.
4.32 BRL SIKB 7000; Uitvoering van (water) bodemsanering en ingrepen in de
waterbodem (2011) (www.sikb.nl).
4.33 NEN 5725, Strategie voor het uitvoeren van vooronderzoek bij verkennend en
nader onderzoek, Nederlands Normalisatie-instituut, Delft, januari 2009.
4.34 NEN 5740 Strategie voor het uitvoeren van verkennend bodemonderzoek, Neder-
lands Normalisatie-instituut, Delft; januari 2009.
4.35 NEN 5717 – Bodem – Waterbodem – Strategie voor het uitvoeren van vooron-
derzoek bij verkennend en nader onderzoek, Nederlands Normalisatie-instituut,
November 2009.
4.36 NEN 5720 – Waterbodem – Strategie voor het uitvoeren van verkennend onderzoek
– Onderzoek naar de milieuhygiënische kwaliteit van waterbodem en baggerspecie,
Nederlands Normalisatie-instituut, November 2009.
4.37 Circulaire bodemsanering 2009, Ministerie van VROM en V&W, 3 april 2012.
4.38 Besluit bodemkwaliteit, Ministerie van VROM en V&W, 22 november 2007.
4.39 Regeling bodemkwaliteit, Ministerie van VROM, V&W en LNV, 7 april 2009.
4.40 Waterwet, ministerie Verkeer en Waterstaat, 22 december 2009.
4.41 NEN 9997-1 Geotechnisch ontwerp van constructies – Deel 1: Algemene regels.
146
Quay walls
Chapter 5
TERMS OF REFERENCE
Quay walls
Contents
5.1 Terms of reference for design and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

5.1.1 Position within the design process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.1.2 Relation to the form of the contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.1.3 Scheme for the terms of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.2 Functional terms of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

5.2.1 Retaining function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.2.2 Bearing function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.2.3 Navigation function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.2.4 Safety function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.3 Technical terms of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.4 Detailed explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

5.4.1 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.4.2 Guidelines for the design of safe mooring facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.4.3 Determination of the retaining height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.4.4 Layout of the transhipment zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.4.5 Tolerances/deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.4.6 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.4.7 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.4.8 Checklist for permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Quay walls
Chapter 5
TERMS OF REFERENCE
5.1 Terms of reference for design and construction

5.1.1 Position within the design process
The realization of a quay wall is a process of planning, design and construction in which
many choices must be made and decisions must be taken. The most crucial decisions are
probably those associated with the determination of the wishes and requirements of the
client, because these determine the required function of the quay wall. The combination of
wishes and requirements forms the terms of reference: this is the basis for the development
of different options. The optimum design is then worked out in detail and the quay is
constructed. The above operations depict the design process that is followed for quay
walls. This is characterised by its phased nature, the following phases being distinguished
in a traditional building contract:
• Orientation phase
In the orientation phase the client expresses the desire to construct a quay wall.
Based on these wishes and requirements, a general investigation of the technical
and economic feasibility of this is carried out.
• Definition phase
In this phase, the terms of reference are drawn up in consultation with the owner and
finalised.
• Preliminary design phase
Based on the final terms of reference, various alternatives or preliminary designs are
developed and evaluated with the aid of an assessment framework. This assessment
framework contains criteria that derive from technical, economic, legal, environmen-
tal and social considerations. These considerations lead to the selection of a preferred
option.
• Design phase
In this phase detailed development of the preferred design leads to the final design.
The result forms the basis for a detailed cost estimate.
• Preparatory phase
In the preparatory phase, based on the final design, tender specifications and construc-
tion drawings are made. With the tender documents and the conditions of contract,
these documents function as the contract between the owner and contractor. In this
phase if necessary the ground is purchased and applications for permits are submitted.
• Construction phase
When the contract has been awarded and permits granted, the construction starts. The
construction phase finishes with the defects liability period during which an inspection
determines whether the structure meets all the stipulated requirements.
151
Terms of reference
• Service phase
When all the works have been substantially completed and have passed any tests
prescribed by the contract the quay wall can be taken into service.
Although the final establishment of the terms of reference has already taken place during
the definition phase, they are often augmented during the later phases. The changes are
mainly the result of further definition and detailing of the requirements. This is necessary
because the terms of reference are defined in a phase during which the functional and
operational requirements are formulated. For the owner, for whom it is the function and
not the type of structure that is important, this is sufficient. However, for the designer
such functional terms of reference are inadequate. The designer can indicate options that
are possible in principle, but further characterisation of the requirements is needed for the
detailing of the final design of the quay wall. The functional terms of reference, supple-
mented by technical terms of reference must always be convertible into the functional and
operational requirements.
The terms of reference can thus be considered as a living document that evolves during
the design process. So in the formulation of the terms of reference during the defini-
tion phase, the emphasis lies primarily on the functional requirements, while during the
following phases these functional requirements become increasingly more specific. This
happens when a specific type of quay wall is chosen and further requirements relating to
this option such as quay length, foundation level, type of foundation and anchoring are
defined. Through this, the initially abstract character of the terms of reference becomes an
increasingly more technical description of the quay wall to be built. As the definition of
the plans progresses, the extent and level of detail of the terms of reference increases.
To manage the Terms of Reference trough out the entire project, it is advised to apply
system engineering.
5.1.2 Relation to the form of the contract

The terms of reference also depend on the form of contract. The Dutch UAV [5.12] and
the international FIDIC [5.14] forms of contract distinguish the following parties: princi-
pal or owner, engineers, contractor and subcontractors, each with their own roles in the
implementation process in various possible combinations.
In most countries the contract consists of:
• Contract agreement
• Letter of acceptance
• Tender
• Administrative conditions: General and particular
• Technical conditions: General and particular
• Bills of quantities with unit prices and total cost
• Drawings
• Annexes: Hydraulic, meteorological, environmental and geotechnical information,
laboratory tests
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The contract stipulates not only the technical, administrative and financial aspects, but
also how to deal with changes and claims, risks and damage during the execution of the
work, and the requirements relating to insurance, bank guarantee and liability.
There are various options for the form of the contract:

• The traditional contract, also called the Build contract
• Various types of Design & Build contract
Traditional contract
In the design process, as described in the previous section, after the preparatory phase,
approaches are made to the contracting market. Specifications, drawings and a tender doc-
ument, deriving from the terms of reference and the final design, form parts of the contract
between owner and contractor. This form of contract is inextricably linked to the condition
that construction on site can begin only after the entire design or part of the design has
been completed. Usually the contractor is free to propose alternative solutions if these are
minimally equivalent to the stipulated option. Such procedures characterise the design of
a traditional tender.
Design & Build contract

The Design & Build contract seeks to link design and construction, giving the contractor
the opportunity to integrate his specific construction experience in the design, rather than
in the construction alone. The design process is steered by the construction process and
by costs and risk management. The intended advantages are: a quicker procedure, a fixed
price and a design that is easier to construct in the specific case and therefore possibly
less expensive. There may also be more opportunity for innovations because the creative
power of the contractor is also engaged during the design process.
It was this line of reasoning that encouraged the move towards the innovative contracts
that have been introduced experimentally in recent years. The best-known form of these is
the Design & Build (D&B) contract, sometimes called the Design & Construct (D&C). If
desired, this can also be linked to a management and maintenance contract (DBM). If the
contractor also arranges the financing the DBMF contract is used. The most extended form
of contract, the DBMFE, includes the exploitation of the quay. With this form of contract,
the owner grants only the concession. It is characteristic of such contracts that the approach
to the contracting market takes place not after the preparatory phase, but rather directly
after the definition phase. The contracting market is invited to offer an integrated design
and construction based on the stipulated terms of reference.
Relation to the terms of reference

This shift affects the status of the terms of reference. With a traditional call for tenders,
the award of the contract is based on a quay wall design that is set down in specifications
and drawings. In that case, the terms of reference have a largely communicative function
between the owner and designer that is intended to define the requirements and wishes of
the owner with greater clarity. With Design & Build, the terms of reference are a direct
part of the contract that the owner makes with the contractor. This changes the situation
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Terms of reference
in that it is not the quay wall design, but only the requirements that the quay wall design
must satisfy that are defined in the contract. Usually a reference or outline design is added
to the initial specification to provide an idea of the preferred option.
Such a market-oriented approach gives the contractor more space, in the form of freedom
to design, but can make the review of the options more difficult. After all, the usual method
of formulating review criteria that is geared to the intended solution cannot be used, since
the solution is not known in advance. Therefore, the assessment cannot be introduced from
the point of view of the solution, using criteria such as to whether the correct number of
piles has been used or the correct driving depth of the sheet pile wall has been reached.
Instead, it should be based more on the functional performance that must be furnished: does
the design solve the problems of the owner? This implies that the functional performance
must be specified on a sufficiently abstract level to provide freedom for creativity. With
the aid of specific criteria, it is possible to assess whether the requirements have been met
and the functional performance has been furnished.
A similar dilemma arises with regard to the quality that is desired. It is more difficult to
indicate in advance the level of quality that the product must attain when no specific solution
has yet been identified. The assessment of the quality of the functional performance will
then take place at a higher level of abstraction. Thus, it is logical that there should be a
move from the assessment of the quality of products to the assessment of processes and
systems. The latter means that the contractor must indicate how the product quality, or
in other words, the formulated product performance, will be achieved. The contractor
must provide the quality assurance. The quality assessment will therefore focus on the
proposed procedures. The assessment takes place at process level and by evaluating the
degree to which the contractor controls the proposed design and construction process.
For this it is important to understand the mode of operation of the contractor. In this
respect, certificated companies provide some security because their quality assurance is
standardised and confirmed in writing. However, never forget to demand that the design
should be “suitable for the desired use”.
Considerations
From the above it appears that the form of the contract affects the terms of reference. When
considering the type of contract, it is necessary to realise that allowing the preliminary
designs to be developed by several contractors creates an extra item of cost, while the
owner must also have a professional system to assess the quality system of the contractor.
Against this is the fact that the total costs may possibly be lower if the contractor can
develop a design that is more compatible with the available equipment.
In his tender, the contractor must also take into consideration the engineering risks that are
taken over from the owner. In practise, this is extremely difficult to manage. Much time and
energy goes into the delineation and allocation of risks. Some of these risks, such as those
associated with permit applications and compulsory purchase or with the cable and pipeline
situation, cannot and may not be allotted to the contractor by the owner. It must be realised
that the owner is never entirely protected against possible claims or damage. Amongst
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these are soil information that is incomplete, unusually bad weather conditions, defects
that are revealed after expiration of the liability period or the bankruptcy of the contractor.
5.1.3 Scheme for the terms of reference

From the above, it emerges that the terms of reference play an important role. For the
clarity of the assessment in particular, it is very important that there is a clear link between
criteria and requirements. Usually terms of reference, consist not only of an introduction
to the project, but also of a combination of boundary conditions, requirements and criteria.
Boundary conditions
The boundary conditions are the environmental factors that cannot be influenced but that
are called into being by the presence of the project. Often this involves the delineation of
the natural and built-up areas. The legal and management frameworks can also be included
(laws, standards and plans).
Requirements
Depending on the phase of the project, the requirements result from an enumeration of
functional and operational requirements, the functional terms of reference, or a package of
technical requirements, given in the technical terms of reference, which are derived from
these. In both cases, it is possible to distinguish the main and secondary requirements.
The main requirements are derived from the problem to be solved and from the choice of
location. For example, the needs to tranship more goods or different goods can create a bot-
tleneck. The formulation of this requirement leads to problem-linked main requirements.
Often a choice of location is linked to this requirement and it is possible that the location
in question also fulfils other functions, leading to location-linked main requirements. For
example, the decision to site a quay wall in a dike means that the quay wall must also satisfy
the requirements for a high water-retaining structure. The distinction between problem-
linked and location-linked requirements is relevant because it provides insight into what the
capacity of the quay must be to meet all these requirements. Of course, the choice of location
is not governed by the required length of the quay and the number and types of ships that will
use it. However the choice of location does play a part if the quay has a high water-retaining
function or if noise must be kept within specific contours: the noise standards in the neigh-
bourhood of a residential area are stricter than those in an industrial area. In addition,
secondary requirements, including odour pollution, dust and light pollution play a role.
Criteria
Criteria are the requirements that can be measured. Undeniably, the requirement that
the quay wall must fulfil its retaining function only becomes meaningful when the term
retaining is understood. What has to be retained, over what retaining height and for how
long? The answers to these questions give precisely the criteria that can be used to assess
whether a quay wall concept satisfies the specified requirements.
But on the other hand, if you desire a certain type of bollard, just ask for that bollard instead
of trying to make a functional puzzle. It is often important for maintenance departments
to have uniform ladders, bollards, drainage outlets, etc. because they want to have spare
parts in stock.
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Terms of reference
It has already been stated that the terms of reference are a living and evolving document.
As the design progresses, the originally introduced abstract package of functional require-
ments acquires an increasingly concrete and more detailed shape, until finally a set of
technical requirements remains. The status of the criteria changes during this process.
Criteria from the functional terms of reference often develop into technical requirements
in the technical terms of reference, which can be tested against new, often detailed, cri-
teria. For example, the retaining height that is a criterion for the functional requirement
‘retaining’ changes into the technical requirement ‘the quay wall must be able to retain to
a specified height’. For this reason, criteria such as the ground level directly behind the
quay wall and the construction depth in front of the quay are added. Figure 5.1 shows a
schematic elaboration of these.
Boundary
conditions
Problem
Primary Functional tor Set of criteria
requirements Technical terms
Location of reference
Secondary
requirements
Environs
Fig. 5.1 Structure of the terms of reference.
5.2 Functional terms of reference

In the first exploratory discussions, the owner must indicate what the bottlenecks are and
to what extent these must be solved. While concrete solutions are not considered at this
stage, an indication of the performance required of the quay wall is given. It is implicit
that the initial impulse has already been given to the interpretation of the functional terms
of reference. To provide some structure for this process, it is as well to realise that a quay
wall provides a solution for the requirement that goods can be transferred as efficiently as
possible from the ship to land and from land to ship. A quay wall has four functions:
5.2.1 Retaining function

1) ‘The quay wall must be able to safely retain both soil and water (only in case of water
retaining structures).’
Characteristic of this aspect is that the retaining height is determined by the level of the
top of the quay and the level of the seabed. The required depth follows from a combination
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Quay walls
of the ship with the deepest draught that will berth at the quay and the minimum water
level that this ship requires at the berth. The elevation of the quay deck is determined by
the alongside level of the anticipated ships. Moreover, it is necessary to ensure that this
height falls within the exceedence frequency of the water levels at which the quay may
flood.
5.2.2 Bearing function

2) ‘The quay wall must be able to safely bear the loads of cranes, vehicles and stored
goods’.
For this function, it is primarily the layout of the site that is important. Thus, a distinction
is drawn between storage and transhipment zones. The required capacity is given for both
zones. After all, some goods are stackable (containers), while others are stored in sloping
piles (bulk goods). In addition to the way the quay is managed, this consideration eventually
leads to the layout of the storage zone.
To determine the required transhipment capacity it is important to know how quickly

a ship must be loaded or unloaded. From this, the numbers and types of crane are
determined. This information, linked with the number and types of vehicles used to
transport the goods to and from the storage zone, determines the area of the storage
zone. This largely relates to its width because the navigation function is normative for the
length.
5.2.3 Navigation function

3) ‘Ships must be able to berth quickly and safely, and be loaded and unloaded and leave
the berth without damaging either the quay or themselves.’
The number of berths depends on the number and type of vessels that the owner expects to
handle at any one time. The number of berths, multiplied by the required distance between
berths and the required end of the quay, determines the necessary length of the quay
(Section 5.4.1). If there is any lack of clarity about the shipping movements a cargo-flow
analysis can be used to provide an estimate of the number and type of ships that may be
expected and the frequency of their arrival at the quay. Depending on the chosen degree
of occupancy, which is related to the transhipment capacity, the number of berths and thus
the length of the quay can be determined.
5.2.4 Safety function

4) ‘The ships must be able to berth and leave the quay safely.’
This fourth function, the safety function, can be derived from the navigation function.
Depending on the type of ship and the conditions under which it must be able to berth and
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Terms of reference
depart, mooring facilities such as fendering and bollards are installed. Likewise, the type of
ship with associated propellers, in combination with the under-keel clearance, determines
whether bottom protection is required.
Quay length
Transhipment
area
Storage area
Transhipment Storage
area area
Fig. 5.2 Functional design of the quay.
From the above-mentioned requirements, a functional description of the actual quay design
is made. In addition, stipulations are usually made about the lifetime, method of mainte-
nance, permitted deformations and the construction time. The scheme given in Figure 5.3
shows the criteria needed to make the above functional requirements measurable. Finally,
this leads to the definition of functional terms of reference.
Primary
Transhipment of cargo
requirement
Functional Retaining Bearing Navigation Protective

requirement function function function function
Design depth
Transhipment Nautical
of cargo gauranteed
depth
Top level
of quay
Bottom
Criteria protection
Storage
area
Berthing
facilities
Functional design Superstructure Front wall Bottom
Fig. 5.3 Scheme showing the relations between functional requirements and quay wall design.
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Quay walls
Functional terms of reference

1. Introduction
This gives a brief description of the project
2. Boundary conditions
2.1. Description of the existing situation
2.2. Environmental conditions such as water levels and wind
2.3. Existing operational situation
3. Requirements
3.1. Navigation requirements
3.1.1. Types of ship + characteristic parameters including length, beam and
draught
3.1.2. Number and length of berths
3.2. Bearing requirements
3.2.1. Width of transhipment area
3.2.2. Number and types of cranes + characteristic parameters
3.2.3. Dimensions of the stack area
3.2.4. Sort and volume of freight to be handled and stacking method
3.3. Retaining requirements
3.3.1. Top level of quay
3.3.2. Seabed level
3.4. Protective requirements
3.4.1. Berthing/mooring facilities (fenders, bollards)
3.4.2. Bottom protection
5.3 Technical terms of reference

The technical terms of reference, describes the technical aspects that the structure must
satisfy in detail. For this a transition from the functional content to the technical content
must be made. The owner gives the functional requirements and the designer works these
out to create the technical terms of reference. After approval by the owner and the terminal
operator, the technical terms of reference forms the basis for the design.
The project is now less abstract and the technical requirements can be set down in detail.
The degree of detailing depends on the phase that the project has reached. In the Preliminary
Design Phase, it is still possible to choose between various structures. In the Final Design
Phase, the choice of a specific type of structure has already been made. The terms of
reference are geared to this type of structure. Frequently only technical terms of reference
are made, but this approach carries the risk that it is usually a very long time before the
terms of reference are agreed, as this mode of work also provides more material for disputes.
Therefore, it is very important to reach agreement about the most important requirements
and to set these down as quickly as possible. In the next phase, the terms of reference can
be worked out in detail. To ensure that the functional requirements are satisfied there must
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Terms of reference
Technical terms of reference

1. Introduction
This gives a brief description of the requirements. The objective of the project,
the organisation, planning, and possible phasing and functional requirements
are described
2. Boundary conditions
2.1. Description of existing situation
2.2. Environmental conditions, such as
2.2.1. Topographical conditions
2.2.2. Hydrographic conditions
2.2.3. Geotechnical conditions
2.2.4. Hydraulic conditions
2.2.5. Meteorological conditions
2.2.6. Environmental conditions
2.2.7. Disturbance in the subsoil
2.3. The presence of cables and pipelines
2.4. Existing operational situation
3. Navigation function
3.1. Nautical basis
3.1.1. Usable length of berths (nautical length)
3.1.2. Type of vessel
3.1.3. Details of main propellers
3.1.4. Details of bow thrusters
3.2. Dimensions of quay wall
4. Retaining function
4.1. Structure of the quay wall
5. Bearing function
5.1. Data of freight
5.2. Data of cranes and vehicles
5.3. Crane track facilities
5.3.1. Details of crane track
5.3.2. Criteria for use
6. Protective function
6.1. Mooring facilities
6.2. Harbour bed
6.3. Harbour bed protection
6.4. Shore protection
6.5. Maintenance requirements and management aspects
7. Diverse
Public utilities, lighting, drainage, signage
8. Safety aspects/reporting and permits
9. References
9.1. Procedures, guidelines, standards, legal aspects
10. Annexes
Drawings, load diagrams
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always be feedback from the technical terms of reference to the functional and technical
terms of reference.
Aspects that must be worked out in detail in the terms of reference are included in Annex A
‘Checklist for the technical terms of reference for a quay wall’. It is not necessary to include
all the detailed information mentioned in the checklist in the terms of reference. In many
cases, it is sufficient to refer to reports such as the geotechnical and hydraulic investigations.
However, a site drawing and several cross-sections showing the existing situation should be
included. From the boundary conditions, the consultant for the design process can derive
data that form the basis of the final design. To avoid disputes at a later stage it is important
that the starting points derived in this way are included in the terms of reference.
5.4 Detailed explanation

When formulating the terms of reference it is necessary to investigate a number of aspects
in detail. The most important of these are considered below.
5.4.1 Layout
The functional requirements determine the length of the quay wall. In addition to the length
of the largest vessel, manoeuvring space is needed, while end wings are needed for the
transition from nautical guaranteed depth to ground surface. Some guidelines for these are
given below.
If several ships are moored, the spacing between them must be such that they do not touch
each other during the berthing manoeuvre. There must also be sufficient space to secure
mooring lines. In calm conditions, the specified space between ships should be at least
0.1 × the length of the largest vessel. With strong wind, high waves and a powerful current,
the distance between ships is increased to 0.2 × the length of the largest vessel. For ships
carrying hazardous substances such as LNG, there are additional requirements relating to
the safety zone.
0.15L1 0.1L1
Fig. 5.4 Mooring configuration for two ships.
If a slope is made perpendicular to the quay, (Figure 5.4), the distance between the ship
and toe of the slope must be 0.15 × the length of the ship. The angle of the slope depends
on the nature of the soil. For an excavation in sandy soil, an underwater slope of 1:4 is
feasible, for a reclaimed area a slope of 1:7 must be considered. Above water, an angle of
slope of 1:2 is feasible, although in this case bank protection is necessary. When a slope
is being constructed, care must be taken to avoid potential slip planes of, for example, an
old seabed. For a vertical soil retaining structure at the end of a harbour a distance of 0.10
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Terms of reference
to 0.15 × the ships length must be taken (Figure 5.4). The 0.10 × Loa can be taken when
nautical signs are placed at the toe of the slope on the front of the quay wall.
The distance from the toe of the slope must be greater than the distance from a transverse
or head quay because the exact position of a ship in relation to the toe of a slope is difficult
to determine unless the toe line is indicated by a nautical sign on the quay.
Berthing simulation
To determine the force on a bollard it is necessary to know how the ship is moored (mooring
plan), including the number of hawsers and spring lines that are used, the type of material
and the allowable stresses. The angles of the hawser in the horizontal and vertical planes are
important. Empty tankers can be ballasted entering the port. If the ships are moored close to
each other, as is the case with container vessels, double bollards must be installed to prevent
hawsers from being tied over each other on the same bollard, in fact it is recommended to
use always double bollards. For ships with side ramps, it may be necessary to use sunken
bollards or bollards that can be removed. Simulation programs can be used to determine
the mooring forces, hawser forces and the best positions for bollards, storm bollards
(if desired), dolphins and mooring poles.
90°
y
Stern line Stern spring Bow spring Bow line

Berth line
180°
0°
+
Fender face
Length of
fender contact Wind, wave or
current direction
Fig. 5.5 Mooring configuration.
A free-floating vessel has six modes of freedom. In consequence, a ship exposed to waves
may respond in six different modes or in any combination of these (Figure 5.6).
5.4.2 Guidelines for the design of safe mooring facilities
Introduction
A good mooring process is very important for the port and the terminal as it improves
productivity and safety. First a ship breaking loose of her moorings is a big danger to
people, to other vessels and the port infrastructure. Infrastructure damage is not always
covered completely by assurance.
Second, a moving vessel has a negative impact on the cargo operations and can even cause
huge damages to cranes, manifolds and fenders.
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Heave
Yaw
Centre of Sway
mass
Pitch )
Surge
Roll
Fig. 5.6 Ship movements.
Third, a good mooring process leads to fewer accidents. Most personal injuries on board
of vessels are related to failure of ropes under tension.
Finally, reduction of green house gasses becomes an important driver to bring a ship quick
and safe alongside, so tugs and extra auxiliary engines can be stopped much sooner.
The last few decades however, vessels have become bigger and more complex, while the
number of crew on board has become relatively smaller. Not all crews are very well trained
in mooring operations.
To realize a more safe and efficient mooring process at the same time seems difficult to
accomplish, but is not impossible. So a good mooring process should be safe and efficient.
So what can we do to improve the mooring process? Therefor we need to understand its
components which are discussed in the subsequent sections.
Components of mooring system

First we need to understand all components of the mooring system. A mooring system
consists out of 3 components:
1) The mooring winch on board

The mooring winch has a brake that keeps the line under tension. The brake has a maximum
load, called the Maximum Holding Capacity (MHC). When this load is exceeded, the winch
will render. The MHC however can change due to wear and tear and should be regularly
tested. On many tankers this is already a good practice. Keep in mind that if the brake is
not spring applied, the setting remains not very accurate.
If the brake is not used and the winch is on auto tension, the winch will render much more
quickly: the heaving capacity of a mooring winch in auto tension may be only 20 tons,
while the same winch can have a brake holding capacity of 60 tons.
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Terms of reference
2) The mooring line

The mooring line has a Minimum Breaking Load (MBL). This MBL is mentioned on the
certificate of the line, provided by the manufacturer when the line was delivered to the
vessel. However, during the use of the line this MBL can be reduced significantly due to
wear and tear.
3) The mooring bollard or quick release hook ashore

The mooring bollard or quick release hook has a Safe Working Load (SWL) for a certain
maximum vertical angle, e.g. 45 degrees.
Fig. 5.7 Components of mooring system.
Today no international regulations for the relationship between these 3 components are
available. However common sense shows that the bollard ashore should be the strongest
component.
The brake of the mooring winch should always be the weakest link. It should render before
the mooring line tend to break. If the brake doesn’t render, the mooring line will break
first, which is a big danger to all crew being present at the mooring station. In addition to
this, the captain won’t have sufficient time to order tugs.
Mooring plan
A good mooring plan involves the following issues:
Length of mooring lines between fairlead and bollard or hook should be minimal 35 and
maximal 50 meters. This is to ensure that the mooring lines have sufficient availability to
stretch, elasticity.
Mooring lines for the same use (e.g. all breast lines) should have the same length, elasticity
and tension load. In this way it is ensured that the mooring lines work together. If the length,
the elasticity or the tension is different from the other mooring lines, the mooring lines
will not work well together.
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Quay walls
The horizontal distance between fairlead and the bollard should be about 2 times the height
difference – leading to a vertical angle of about 30 degrees. The horizontal component is
then sufficient to keep the vessel alongside. Larger vertical angles only lead to less efficient
use of mooring lines.
Fig. 5.8 Maximum vertical angle.
The spring lines should be positioned parallel to the longitudinal centre line of the vessel.
The breast lines should be positioned as perpendicular as possible to the longitudinal centre
line of the vessel.
Sometimes it’s impossible to meet both the ideal horizontal and vertical angles of the lines
due to the location of the bollards with relation to the ship’s fairleads. This is, especially
the case for container and dry bulk terminals. In these cases, first is tried to realize the
maximum vertical angles and second focus on the lead angles.
Fig. 5.9 Same line = same specs.
Vessel information is needed for the calculation of the vertical angles.
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Terms of reference
Table 5.1 Vessel information for determining mooring configuration
Vessel type Example Displacement Length × Beam × Number Number MHC MBL Fairlead fwd – Fairlead aft –
in tonnes Draught* (metres) of Spring of Breast winch lines waterline waterline
lines lines brake (T) (T) (metres) (metres)
Handymax Sanko 56,000 183 × 32 × 6 2 4 30 60 10.90 8.80
Supreme
Aframax Yasa 134,000 251 × 43 × 8 2 6 35 72 15.00 12.50
tanker Golden
Horn
VLCC TI Europe 348,000 334 × 58 × 11 2 8 50 103 22.00 13.70
Suez max SKS 173,000 276 × 45 × 9 2 6 42 83 18.00 13.10
tanker Saluda
Panamax Overseas 10,000 246 × 32 × 6.6 2 6 32 64 12.50 10.80
tanker Goldmar
Container CMA 104,000 346 × 43 × 10 2 4 75 130 20.00 17.50
ship CGM
>8,000 TEU Thalassa
<12,000 TEU
Container Maersk Emma/ 172,000 400 × 56 × 11 2 6 75 130 23.00 20.50
ship Mc Kinney
>12,000 TEU Møller
CMA
Marco
Polo
*Note: the draught in this table is the draught of a empty vessel with ballast, not the maximum draught!
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All distances are determined for the situation that the vessel is in ballast (empty) condition,
being the condition with the maximum vertical angles of mooring lines.
Additional means for mooring vessels

If wind is picking up, one can deploy additional lines. However, this only makes sense if
the additional lines have the same length and tension as the other lines. For that reason extra
lines to so called ‘storm bollards’ are not very effective as lines will have a different length.
In addition, paying out lines which are not winch lines is possible. However, belaying them
on bollards and giving them the same tension as the other lines is very difficult. Additional
lines without the same tension can give a false feeling of safety.
The second option is to order tugs of sufficient combined power to overcome the excess
environmental forces and keep the vessel alongside.
However, if a port is faced with a decreasing number of tugs this option becomes less and
less realistic.
A new possibility is to pay out shore lines to the vessel, and tension them ashore by means
of hydraulic cylinders (Shore Tension system).
Design aspects
Safe working load of bollards/hooks:
For tanker berths one can refer to the Mooring Equipment Guidelines. In general hooks
should be as strong as the minimum breaking load of the strongest line anticipated (one
line per hook).
For dry bulk/container berths there is no international rule for the relation between mooring
lines and bollards. Common sense dictates that the bollard should at least be stronger than
the weakest component of the entire mooring system: the brake of the winch. Given the
fact that the setting of these brakes is not 100% reliable, the safest approach is to stick to the
OCIMF recommendation: safe working load to be as strong as the minimum breaking load
of the strongest line anticipated. If it is the intention to put more lines on one bollard, the
safe working load should be increased accordingly. Keep in mind that many new container
vessels have mooring lines with a Minimum Breaking Load of 130 tons on board.
The position and number of bollards/hooks:

A good mooring plan should be made for the construction of wet bulk, and dry bulk and
container berths. This plan determines the position of bollards or hooks
For tanker berths (jetties), the Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) has
provided guidelines in the publication ‘Mooring Equipment Guidelines’.
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Terms of reference
However, details such as access ladders, railings and working spaces around quick release
hooks should still be discussed with linesmen.
For dry bulk/container berths guidelines can be found in the Nautical Institute publication
‘Mooring and Anchoring Ships’.
In general it is good practice to reduce the intermediate distance between bollards and
to use double bollards, allowing the vessel more flexibility to choose the best bollard for
optimal vertical and horizontal angles. E.g. a distance of 15 meters versus 22 meters is
already an improvement.
If it is possible to locate bollards more land inwards, it would improve the vertical angle of
especially the head lines, as their vertical distance to the quay is a lot more versus stern lines.
For new berths, a Harbour master, being the link between the vessel, nautical service
providers and the terminal, is often requested to advise about location of and access to
mooring facilities.
As many construction companies might be working for the first time on a berth or jetty,
it is recommended to organize a meeting with pilots and linesmen and discuss the plan
before the construction starts.
This is the moment to improve the mooring plan and safe working space for linesmen –
especially the latter party is often forgotten.
It can also avoid a lot of damage during the use of the jetty, as a lot of damages are caused
by mooring lines under tension and stuck behind obstacles such as railings or corners.
If the crew continues to heave in the line, the line might break. Sudden release of a tight
rope can pose a serious hazard to both linesmen ashore and crewmembers at mooring
stations on board the vessel.
The choice between bollards and hooks, equipped or not with capstans:
General
These issues are topics of many discussions. Not in the last place because quick release
hooks and capstans are much more expensive, both in purchasing as well in maintenance.
So when do circumstances dictate the use of quick release hooks and capstans?
Both issues are related to the weight of the mooring line to be handled.
The weight is determined by 3 issues:
1) Length of mooring line – especially on mooring dolphins of tanker berths the length
can be substantially more compared to container berths
168
Quay walls
2) Material of mooring line – especially tankers use often steel wires versus synthetic
lines, which are less heavy.
3) Is the line in the water or leaning on the quay – if the mooring line is in the water
(especially if it’s a wire) the weight is much more compared to a line which has to be
dragged over the quayside.
These 3 issues lead to the following choices per type of berth:

For tanker berths (jetties):
For vessels smaller than 40,000 ton DWT: bollards with capstans (as mooring dolphins
can not be reached by winch cars).
For vessels larger than 40,000 ton DWT: quick release hooks with capstans.
Tanker berths might prefer quick release hooks anyway, as one can release the line when
it’s still under tension, in case of an emergency departure.
For dry bulk/container berths: (quays):

For vessels smaller than 40,000 ton DWT: use only bollards.
For vessels larger than 40,000 ton DWT: use only bollards and capstans if bollards can not
be reached by winch cars (or if no winch cars are available).
If one chooses any way quick release hooks: pay attention to maintenance, as hooks can
easily get stuck due to debris.
Access and safe working space

Safe working spaces for linesmen
As mentioned before, the safe working space for linesmen is often forgotten. Also the
maximum weight to be handled has to be taken into account. This issue has been given
more attention by consulting an ergonomic expert of the Royal Boatmen Association
Eendracht and experts in construction of berths and jetties.
For tanker berths:

Quick release hooks with a safe working load less than 75 tons: minimum 50 cm alongside
and in front of the hook in open position.
Specific issues to be addressed for mooring dolphins:

Do not place railings in the direction of the mooring line: this increases the chance of lines
getting stuck or sudden release, increasing the risk on damages to railings
On both sides of the mooring line there is a vertical pole, stopping the line from falling to
the side of the platform.
169
Terms of reference
Photo 5.1 Safe working space in front of hook.
The rest of the platform must be fitted with a railing of 110 cm in height.
The platform itself is located minimum 7 centimetres above the head of the mooring
dolphin, to stop the build up of debris. The platform is surrounded by a pipe, ¾ of
it’s diameter above the surface of the platform, preventing people of slipping off the
platform.
The platform lighting is in such a way that it doesn’t blind people looking into the direction
of the vessel, and is located above the opening of the ladder.
For dry bulk/container berths:

The distance between centre line of the bollard and the edge of the quay should be minimum
50 centimetres.
The minimum space alongside of the bollards (parallel to the quay): 90 centimetres.
The minimum space behind the bollard: for vessels smaller than 40,000 ton: 120 centi-
metres. If bollards need to be accessible for winch cars: minimum 3.5 meters. If bollards
are placed in pairs: minimum 50 centimetres clearance between the two of them.
As container cranes are getting larger and larger due to the increasing beam of container
vessels, it is imperative to pay attention to the minimum distance between the container
170
Quay walls
Photo 5.2 Position of vertical poles.
Photo 5.3 Position of lighting versus access of platform.
171
Terms of reference
Photo 5.4 Space alongside bollards.
Photo 5.5 Openings should be covered.
crane and the bollard; this should be minimum 1 meter. Be aware that crane operators not
always realize that there is somebody working when they start driving.
Also lashing devices for cranes should not be located alongside the bollard. If they are,
they should be covered by lids to prevent linesmen stepping into the recesses indicated
on photo 5.5.
172
Quay walls
For tanker and container/dry bulk berths making use of capstans:

To be able to release a line that is stuck one need to give slack in a controlled manner.
Therefore the capstan should turn in 2 directions and be provided with a backstop for safety
and to prevent damage to railings.
The minimum distance between the capstan and bollard or hook is 50 centimeter.
The minimum space behind a capstan is 1.20 meter.
The maximum vertical distance between platform and head of the capstan is 1.40 meter.
The capstan must be provided with a heaving line guide. This guide must ensure that the
line is guided to the capstan at the correct height, preventing the heaving line is tangling up.
Ports making use of boatsmen

The difference between boatsmen and linesmen is that boatsmen use boats to bring the line
ashore.
This method improves the turn around time as lines are already secured before the vessel
comes alongside. It’s also an extra back up if the bow thrusters of a vessel fail: one can
still bring a head line ashore before the ship starts drifting.
Constructing the ladder in such a way that the ladder can not be damaged by the mooring
boat or other vessels and still providing a safe access for boatmen is a challenge.
Access from boat to quay side:

Locate the ladder in the recess of a fender panel or quay side.
If the ladder is not in the recess of a fender panel, locate the ladder in the middle between
bollards.
If the ladder is not in a recess, protect the ladder by fender posts.
Access from boat to dolphins:

The ladder should be placed parallel to the direction of the mooring line.
The ladder should not be place directly behind a bollard or quick release hook.
It is recommended to involve always a harbour master, pilots and linesmen during the
design of berths and jetties.
It will decrease the number of damages, the turn around time of vessels will be shorter,
and will increase safety.
173
Terms of reference
Fig. 5.10 Postion of ladder parrallel to the direction of mooring lines.
Photo 5.6 Position of ladder versus lines.
174
Quay walls
5.4.3 Determination of the retaining height

When determining the height of the quay wall it is necessary to consider the inundation
frequency, which is the number of times the quay wall may be allowed to be flooded during
its lifetime. If there are dangerous objects such as the electric motors of cranes and power
supply pits, and if valuable goods are stored close to the quay, the quay must never be
inundated. For the quay walls on the Maasvlakte at Rotterdam a high water level with an
exceedence frequency of once per 700 years is taken. From an operational point of view,
it may be desirable to construct a quay at a lower level, for example for Ro-Ro ships that
must berth with a side or quarter ramp at a specific level on the quay. When determining
the top level of the quay it is also necessary to take into account the rising sea level and
subsidence of the land.
Water may be thrown over the quay by wind and waves. When the front wall is flat, a
standing wave may be formed. The terminal operator indicates the wind force at which it
is safe to work. For wave overtopping in port areas a value of 0.00042 m3 /s/m1 is recom-
mended. This value is for a design for a storm with a probability of occurrence of once in
fifty years [5.5].
Design depth (maintenance margin, dredging tolerances and tolerances of stone fill).
The definition of the required depth must be based on the water level of low low water
spring (LLWS). In addition, the required depth depends on the draught of the loaded ship,
the vertical movement caused by waves, listing and trim and the required keel clearance.
As a rule of thumb, 10% of the maximum draught is taken for the keel clearance. The
required nautical guaranteed depth (NGD) is then equal to the level of LLWS – 1.1 × the
maximum draught.
Top of quay wall

LLWS
Ship Retaining
height
Draught D
Vertical ship movement Gross under keel

due to waves etc. clearance about of
Nominal
bottom Nett under keel clearance approx. 10% D
NGD
depth Sounding accuracy
Maintenance margin*
Dredging level Dredging tolerance/
tolerance on bottom protection
Design
depth
Disturbance level *0.5 m no scour protection or
1.0 m with (bottom) scour protection
Fig. 5.11 Factors influencing NGD and design depth.
175
Terms of reference
For the design depth the following factors are also important:
• Maintenance margin, which is the space that is available for sedimentation after dredg-
ing. To save on maintenance costs and on hindrance caused by dredging activities, it
is necessary to optimise the relation between the execution of maintenance dredging
work, the capacity to accommodate sediment at bottom level and the extra costs of
a greater retaining height for the quay wall. In the port of Rotterdam the mainte-
nance margin is 0.50 m for unprotected bottoms and 1.0 m for bottoms with scour
protection.
• Survey inaccuracies [5.4].
• Dredging tolerance depends on the depth and on the dredging equipment used.
CUR-report 250 Construction & Survey Accuracies for the execution of dredging
and stone dumping works’, 2013 gives a guideline for dredging tolerance. Table 5.1
is derived from this.
• The possibility to construct a scour protection in the future.
• The disturbance level is also important for the design. This is the depth below the
required depth to which the dredging equipment has disturbed the underlying sediment.
Spillage occurs during dredging, so it is necessary to dredge deeper than the required
depth in order to compensate for spillage. This will destroy the cohesion of the soil
and will reduce the passive resistance of the soil.
Design Depth (DD) unprotected harbour bottom
1) Determine UBMD :
UBMD = NGD or defined by port authorities
2) Determine MDL:
MDL = UBMD − hmaintenance − δsounding − δdredging
3) Determine DD:
DD = MDL − hdisturbance
DD = MDL − hscour
Design Depth (DD) in case of bottom protection:
1) Determine UBMD :
UBMD = NGD or defined by port authorities
2) Determine UBBP :
UBBP = UBMD − hmaintenance − hsuction
3) Determine MDL:
MDL = UBBP − dtop − dfilter − δsounding − ((δtop )2 + (δfilter )2 + (δdredging )2 )0.5
4) Determine DD:
DD = MDL − hdisturbance
176
Quay walls
NGD = Nautical Guaranteed Depth

UBMD = Upper Bound Maintenance Dredging (absolute value)
UBBP = Upper Bound Bottom Protection
MDL = Mean Dredging Level (Realization Phase)
DD = Design Depth quay wall calculation
hmaintenance = Maintenance margin asset management
hsuction = Safety margin suction pipe- bottom protection
hdisturbance = Disturbance margin dredging works
hscour = Scour depth
dtop = Layer thickness top layer bottom protection
dfilter = Layer thickness filter layer bottom protection
δtop = Tolerance layer thickness top layer
δfilter = Tolerance layer thickness filter layer
δdredging = Tolerance layer thickness filter layer
δsounding = Tolerance/Accuracy echo sounding harbour bottom
Fig. 5.12 Design Depth without scour protection.
Table 5.2 Maintenance margin and dredging tolerances.

Intermediate values can be interpolated
Water Maintenance margin Minimum Minimum additional margin on
depth (m) unprotected tolerances (m) NGD to determine design
bottom (m) depth (m)*
5 0.5 0.2 0.7
10 0.5 0.3 0.7
15 0.5 0.4 0.9
20 0.5 0.5 1.0
25 0.5 0.7 1.2
*Note: without influence of scour.
177
Terms of reference
Fig. 5.13 Example of scour.
Fig. 5.14 Design depth with scour protection.
Table 5.3 Maintenance margin and dredging tolerances with scour protection.
Water depth Maintenance margin Minimum Minimum additional margin
(m) with scour protection tolerances (m) on NGD to determine design
(m) depth (m)
5 1.0 0.2 1.2
10 1.0 0.3 1.3
15 1.0 0.4 1.4
20 1.0 0.5 1.5
25 1.0 0.7 1.7
178
Quay walls
When determining the design depth it is important to bear in mind future developments in
shipping. In some sectors, the draught of ships is steadily increasing. It is better to consider
these developments in the design. If, after some time, it appears that a quay wall must be
deepened, this will have serious consequences. It is not always possible to increase the
depth while maintaining the same berth line. As an emergency measure, a structure must
be built in front of the quay. This may cause technical problems. Moreover, the quay cannot
be operated during the modification or construction activities so it is better to take into
account future increases in design depth during the design phase.
During the berthing and departure of the ships, movements of the propellers and bow
thrusters can cause scouring in the bed material close to the foundation of the quay wall.
When determining the design depth, the position of the intermediate sheet piles in the
combi-wall and the elevation of the toe, the designers must take into account the risk
of scour holes caused by propeller action. In sand and non-cohesive clay soils with low
undrained shear strength, erosion holes several metres deep may be created. These, and
especially the piping that can occur, endanger the stability of the quay wall.
5.4.4 Layout of the transhipment zone

A ship approaches at an angle when berthing. The berthing angle depends on the size of the
ship. A large sea-going ship approaches at an angle of approx. 5◦ , a small coaster feeder
ship or inland vessel approaches the berth at an angle of approx. 15◦ . In addition to the
berthing angle, the flare of the ship must be taken into account; this is angle of the bow
with the vertical caused by the downward tapering of the bow. If the ship approaches the
quay at an angle, the bow may overhang the quay. The flare of the bow of a containership
that berths at an angle of 5◦ amounts to 16◦ to 20◦ .
Ships hull at Crane leg

Ships hull at
fender level
upper deck level
Ships hull at bulb level Ship

(under fender level)
Ships hull at
fender level
Maximum Fendering
Ships hull at
berthing angle Ships hull at bulb level
upper deck level
Fig. 5.16 Flare extending over the quay.

Fig. 5.15 Cross-section ship/fender.
This must be taken into account when the level of fendering and upper edge of the quay
are being determined. When a ship is mooring with a compressed fender it is necessary to
make sure that the ship cannot come into contact with the upper edge of the quay, bollard
or crane. This can be prevented by increasing the distance by using bigger fendering (more
179
Terms of reference
stand-off), by bevelling the upper edge of the quay wall and by positioning the bollard and
crane track further back. In [5.2] it is recommended that the face of a bollard must be at
least 0.15 m from the front face of the quay. For reasons of safety, the minimum distance
between the back of the bollard and front of crane must be 0.80 m. The minimum distance
between the centre of the waterside crane rail and front of the quay is 1.75 to 2.50 m.
The stand-off of a fender structure must be implied sufficient. The design of the fendering
and its positioning are specified in a later phase. However, the terminal operator usually
wants to know the maximum fender stand off required at an earlier stage in relation to the
outreach of the cranes that are to be ordered. For the design of fender constructions refer
to [5.5].
The layout of the transhipment area depends on the requirements of the terminal operator.
The service lane in front of the waterside crane rail can be used for a walkway, the placing
of gangway, as traffic route, parking place and storage. On either side of the waterside
rail, there are manholes for power pits for the cranes. The electric cable runs over the deck,
or is laid in a cable channel or pantzerbelt. If the strip on the waterside is too narrow, a
traffic lane for vehicles serving the ships can be created between the legs of the crane.
Transhipment takes place between the legs of the crane.
Outreach Backreach
crane crane
2 till 8.5 m 15/48 m
0.35 till
footpath > 0.5 m
Traffic lanes or
Traffic lanes or
Traffic lane or
1.5 m
Hatch cover
crane track
crane track
stack area
stack area
Waterside
Land side
Space for
fenders
Bollard
Ship
area
Width Width
of leg of leg
Partition
Power cables
Fig. 5.17 Example of the layout of the transhipment area of a container quay.
Container terminals that handle feeders can choose to use a container gantry crane that
unloads the ship, stacks the containers and loads the freight trucks. A storage area that is
big enough to completely unload feeder vessels is formed if the crane legs are 48 m apart.
For bigger ships, this is no longer possible. For these ships, straddle carriers, reach stackers
and separate stacks must be used. Various traffic lanes are laid out under the crane. Behind
the landside crane rail, there is often a strip that can be used to accommodate the hatch
covers of the seagoing ships.
180
Quay walls
5.4.5 Tolerances/deformations
For tolerances of construction works NEN-standards 2881/2886/2887/2888/2889/3682
are applicable. Detailed consideration is given to these in Chapter 9, Construction.
For parts such as tubes, sheet pile walls and concrete structures there are separate
standards.
When backfill is being placed on the relieving platform settlement will occur. During the
dredging-clear stage, the quay will move forwards and upwards. The movement depends
on the amount of fill and the depth of the excavation operation. For example, during a
dredging operation beside quay walls for container transhipment on the Maasvlakte with
a retaining height of 22 m, the movement was around 4 cm upward and 1.5 cm forward.
The dredging reduced the load on the substrata, which therefore rose. The quay, with its
foundation piles in Pleistocene strata was thus also pressed upwards. This phenomenon
makes it difficult to set strict tolerances in mm for the local elevation of the crane rail in
the terms of reference. The standards used by crane rail engineers work are different from
those used by civil engineers, millimetres as opposed to centimetres. These differences in
tolerances are difficult to coordinate because it is still necessary to anticipate deformations.
The magnitude of the expected deformation can be calculated by using a finite element
method program such as PLAXIS. Modelling and input for this is very important. The
inaccuracy margin is +/−30%.
It is advisable to stipulate in the terms of reference, that the installation of a crane rail
may only start after the quay wall has been completely dredged clear. Owing to pressures
of time, this is not always possible and it is advisable to warn the terminal operator that
the quay wall is susceptible to deformation during both the construction phase and the
service phase. For cranes, it is advisable to use a hinged leg, which takes up the effects
of deformations caused by surcharge loads, water level variations and other factors during
the service phase. It is strongly recommended that adjustable rails are used. Often the
maximum terrain loads can only be reached with the help of these cranes. Then only
when the site is fully loaded and equipped, maximum loads and therefor deformations will
occur.
5.4.6 Loads
In the terms of reference, the characteristic loads must be determined. The design load
is dependent on the chosen safety philosophy, (Chapter 6). To determine the relevant
combinations of loads, it is also important to know which situations lead to extreme loads.
The information on loads is often provided by the terminal operator. If the loads are not
yet known the data below can serve as a guideline.
Containers
The maximum weight of a full container is 350 kN. A 40 ft container mea-
sures 40 × 8 × 8.6 ft (12.20 × 2.44 × 2.62 m) and a 20-foot container 20 × 8 × 8.6 ft
181
Terms of reference
(6.10 × 2.44 × 2.62 m). Approximately 17% of the containers is unloaded (weight 45 kN
(40 ft) and 24 kN (20 ft)). The most frequently encountered weight of a loaded container
is nowadays 270 kN (10% of the number of containers), (instead of the mentioned 240 kN
in Figure 5.18). It makes little difference whether these are 40 ft or 20 ft containers.
When a container is being placed on a quay deck, it is necessary to consider the concentrated
loads at the corners (175 × 160 mm2 ). For loads on the stack area, calculations can be based
on a uniformly equally distributed load.
1 layer 17.5 kN/m2

2 layers 35 kN/m2
3 layers 45 kN/m2
4 layers 55 kN/m2 (empty 15 kN/m²)
5 layers 70 kN/m2
The higher the stacks, the smaller the chance that containers of maximum weight are
stacked on top of each other. There is some space between container stacks. If straddle
carriers are used for container handling it is necessary to have lanes between the container
stacks. These spaces interfere with the uniform distribution of loads.
18
16
14
12
Percentage
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Total weight in (kN)
Fig. 5.18 Distribution of total weight of containers in the 90’s (source ECT).
Bulk goods
When bulk goods are stored behind the quay, it is necessary to agree on the distance from
the front of quay and the height of piles of bulk the goods. Table 5.4 show the specific
gravity of the most common bulk goods and the possible angles of slope for these materials.
From this, the surcharge behind the quay wall can be calculated.
182
Quay walls
Table 5.4 Bulk goods.

Material Specific gravity (kNm3 ) Angle internal friction (◦ )
Iron ore 22.4–32 35–40.9
Copper ore 22.6–26 38–45.9
Aluminium (Bauxite) ore 14 28 (dry)/50 (wet)
Zinc ore 15–17.9 38
Lead ore 25.6–27.6 35–40
Magnesium ore 15 35
Coal Coke 3.6–5.1 37
Pulverized Coal 7 25
Rough Coal (moist) 10 45
Other forms of Coal 8.5 30
Cement 12 25
Gravel 16 (dry)/20 (wet) 40
Sand 17–18 (dry)/20 (wet) 30–40
Furnace slag (granular) 11 25
Scrap metal 10–16 35
Waste material/rubbish 5.6 10–40
Salt 9 45
Soya beans 8.2 35–60
Fig. 5.19 Bogie of a port container crane.
183
Terms of reference
Table 5.5 Portal container cranes with eight wheels on each leg.
Lifting capacity Lifting capacity Max. Max. Distance
on the water on the land Self wheel wheel between
Rail side wih an side with an weight load water load land wheels
gauge out reach of backreach of (kN) side (kN) side (kN) (m)
15.24 m 410 kN – 36 m 410 kN – 13 m 5,150 293 274 1.75
15.24 m 500 kN – 38 m 500 kN – 12 m 8,100 474 433 1.20
20.00 m 500 kN – 43 m 500 kN – 16 m 9,770 568 542 1.00
30.48 m 500 kN – 40 m 500 kN – 18 m 8,970 408 609 1.24
35.00 m 670 kN – 52 m 670 kN – 25 m 12,122 691 691 1.05
48.00 m 450 kN – 30 m 450 kN – 20 m 7,350 420 383 1.50
61.00 m 450 kN – 30 m 450 kN – 28 m 18,000 700 700 1.00
30.48 m 700 kN – 64 m 700 kN – 25 m 28,000 1,200 1,200 1.05
Crane loads
Table 5.5 gives a list of the crane loads of the existing container cranes in the port of
Rotterdam. If the terminal operator cannot yet provide the information on the crane loads
the values in the table can be used as guidelines.
On the APM terminal in Rotterdam, container cranes with a rail gauge of 35 m have been
installed. These are suitable for the future generation of container ships that have a 22
containers width capacity. The maximum wheel load is 910 kN, on eight wheels (centre-
to-centre 1.05 m). In addition to the vertical load, a horizontal wind and brake load must
be taken into account. This horizontal load is between 10 and 15% of the vertical load.
If there is a hinged leg on the landside, the horizontal load is transferred only on the
waterside.
On the Euromax terminal in Rotterdam container cranes with a rail gauge of 30.48 m (100
feet) have been installed. These are suitable for the future generation of container ships
that have a 22 containers width capacity. The maximum corner load is 12,300 kN, wheel
load is 1,230 kN, on 10 wheels (centre-to-centre 1.05 m). In addition to the vertical load, a
horizontal wind and brake load must be taken into account. This horizontal load is between
10 and 15% of the vertical load. There is in the ZPMC-crane no hinged leg on the landside
so the horizontal load is divided on both sides.
Table 5.6 gives an indication for the crane loads generated by other transhipment equipment.
Container carriers
For the transport of containers on the area behind the quay, depending on the terminal
operators, straddle carriers, reach stackers or automated guided vehicles are used as well
as fork lift trucks, chassis and multi trailer systems (MTS).
184
Quay walls
Table 5.6 Crane loads generated by other unloading systems.

Lifting Outreach Rail Max. Max. Wheel
Type of crane capacity waterside gauge vertical wheel Number of distance
(Manufacturer) (kN) (m) (m) load (kN) load (kN) wheels (m)
High general 25 38 8.85 375 188 2 0.90
cargo crane 50 19
(Figee)
Pallet general 80 21 8.85 1194 279 4 1.20/
cargo crane 1.50/
(Croese) 1.20
Heavy 450 45 8.85 2369 296 8 1.84
multipurpose
crane (Figee)
Heavy 450 40 15.24 27900 465 6 1.50
multipurpose
crane
(Liebherr)
Grab crane 320 42 20 7000 875 8 1.43
(Corus)
Grab crane – 45 24 12483 1560 8 1.57
(coal/ore)
Grab gantry 850 45.5 70 30000 625 56 1.35
crane (coal/ore) (4 rails) (tot. 2.15
EMO Terminal weight) 6.8
Heavy mobile 300 40 – Max. leg – 8 spreaders Leg
crane (Gottwald 600 load (2 per leg) distance
HMK 280) 10 × 10
Heavy mobile 400 46.20 – Max. leg – 8 spreaders Leg
crane (Nelcon) 670 25 load (2 per leg) Distance
N-300-LHO, 10 × 11.90
for container
handling
Table 5.7 gives an indication of the loads that are involved. For the direct load on the quay
deck, the axle and wheel loads are important. The wheel configuration has an important
bearing on the distribution of loads, [5.6]. For the loads imposed by these vehicles on the
area behind the quay, calculations can be based on an evenly distributed load. Usually this
load falls within the given surcharge for the storage of containers.
5.4.7 Corrosion
Corrosion occurs when steel structures are unprotected. The various forms of corrosion
are described in Chapter 8. The terms of reference must indicate what corrosion-
restricting measures should be taken since local conditions determine the rate of corrosion.
Reference [6.1] gives an indication of values that can be taken in the various zones.
The monitoring of corrosion rates on existing structures can provide important information
185
Terms of reference
Fig. 5.20 Straddle carrier.
186
Quay walls
Table 5.7 Container carrier loads.

Description Axle loads Maximum wheels Average wheel
in kN loads in kN loads in kN
Light reach stacker 320 110 80
Medium reach stacker 900 – –
Heavy reach stacker 1050 325 265
Fork lift truck 4 ton 90 55 45
Fork lift truck 16 ton – 92 75
Fork lift truck 37 ton 850 255 215
Automated guided vehicle (AGV) CT 40 290 160 145
Automated guided vehicle (AGV) CT 60 400 220 200
Terminal tractor – 65 50
Terminal chassis – 30 25
Multi-trailer system 400 65 45
Straddle-carrier 3 high 340 170 110
Straddle-carrier 4 high 320 160 90
for new structures. For the calculation of the construction, the average corrosion rates are
important, while for prevention of the washing out of fine particles, the maximum corro-
sion rate is important. Chapter 6 indicates how corrosion must be taken into account in
the design. It is important to know whether a structure will still meet the stipulated safety
requirements at the end of its design life.
5.4.8 Checklist for permits

In the Netherlands the most important permits required for the construction of a quay wall
and for the use of the area behind it are:
Planning phase:
• Rights of ownership
• Spatial Planning Act (6 months–2 years)
• Noise Abatement Act
• Environmental Management Act
• Activity Decree (6 weeks–3 months)
• Soil Protection (6 weeks–3 months)
• Soil Protection Act (General)
• Soil Protection Act (Aquatic Soils)
• Environmental Impact Assessment Decree (6–12 months)
Preparatory phase:
• Earth removal (3–6 months)
• Earth Removal Bylaw (Municipal)
187
Terms of reference
Fig. 5.21 Reach stacker.
Fig. 5.22 AGV Automated Guided Vehicle.
188
Quay walls
Fig. 5.23 Fork Lift truck.
• National Earth Removal Regulations

• Pollution of Surface Water Act (Water Act) (3–13 weeks)
• Disposal of dredged material (2–13 weeks)
• Filling in and raising (2 weeks–12 months)
• Hydraulic Land Reclamation and Embankment Act
• Earth works subject to Environmental Impact Assessment
• Earth removal subject to Environmental Impact Assessment
• Filling and raising subject to Environmental Impact assessment
Landside infrastructure:
• Housing Act/Building permit (3–6 months)
• Housing Act/Demolition Permit
• Mobile crushing installations (6 weeks–3 months)
• Tree Preservation Bylaw (Municipal) (3–6 months)
• Tree Preservation Ordinance (Provincial)
• Work in, on, and under traffic routes
• Public Works Management Act
• Provincial Road Bylaw
• General Local Bylaws
189
Terms of reference
• Work in, on, under, and above railways

• Main and Local Lines Service Regulations
Waterside infrastructure:
• Housing Act/Building permit (3–6 months)
• Housing Act/Demolition permit
• Mobile crushing installations
• Working in, on or above waterways (Water Act) (3–6 months)
• Working in, on, over water retaining structures (Water Act) (3–6 months)
• Work in the water board management area (Water Act) (2–12 weeks)
Construction phase:
• Building Materials (2–4 weeks)
• Building Materials Decree/Environmental Management Act
• Pollution of Surface Waters Act (Water Act) (2–13 weeks)
• Noise Abatement Act (4–13 weeks)
• Environmental Management Act
• Drainage and Discharge (Water Act) (2–13 weeks)
• Cables and pipelines (Pipeline Decree) (2–6 weeks)
The time needed to process applications for permits can vary from weeks to months and
even to years. Therefore, it is important to make a list of the required permits before work
starts and to take up timely contact with the competent authority.
190
Quay walls
References
5.1 EAU 2012 Empfehlungen Arbeitsausschusses ‘Ufereinfassungen’ Häfen und

Wasserstrassen EAU 2012, 11th edition 2012, Ernst & Sohn Berlijn,
Germany.
5.2 Thorensen, C.A., Port Design, Guidelines and Recommendation, Tapit Publishers,
Trondheim, Norway, 1988.
5.3 CUR report 250 Construction & Survey Accuracies for the execution for dredging
and stone dumping works, 2, SBRCURnet, 2013.
5.4 PIANC, Guidelines for the Design of Fender Systems 2002, Brussel, Belgium.
5.5 Maritime works recommendations ROM 0.5-05 Actions in the design of maritime
and harbour works, Obras maritimas tecnologia, Direccion General de Puertos y
Costas, Madrid, Spain.
5.6 Standaard RAW bepaling 2010 + UAV 2012, CROW, Ede, The Netherlands.
5.7 UAR EG 1991, Uniform Aanbestedings Reglement EG 1991 (voor werken
ingevolge richtlijn 71/305/EEG, zoals gewijzigd bij richtlijn 89/440/EEG), SDU,
Den Haag, The Netherlands.
5.8 UAR 2003, Uniform Aanbestedings Reglement, SDU, Den Haag, The
Netherlands, 2003.
5.9 RVOI 2011, Regelgeving van de verhouding tussen opdrachtgever en adviserend
ingenieursbureau, KIvI, Den Haag, The Netherlands, 2011.
5.10 U.A.V. 2012, Uniforme Administratieve Voorwaarden voor de uitvoering
van werken 1989, SDU, Den Haag, The Netherlands, 2013 (ook als bijlage in
RAW bepalingen).
5.11 Model Basisovereenkomst & UAV-GC 2000, Uniforme Administratieve
Voorwaarden voor geïntegreerde contractvormen, CROW, Ede, The Netherlands.
5.12 FIDIC, Conditions of contract for works of civil engineering construc-
tions. ISBN2-88432-001-6 Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs-Conseils,
Lausanne, Switzerland, 1992.
5.13 Plaxis, (Eindige elementen methode) Computerprogramma van PLAXIS B.V., The
Netherlands.
5.14 Ridder H.A.J. de, Design & Construct of complex civil engineering systems, ISBN
9040710279, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1994.
5.15 Ham, N.A.V.M. van, Gijt J.G. de (2003 Results of measurements of container crane)
loads versus design loads at the Amazone quay wall 13th International Harbour
Congress, Antwerp 2003.
5.16 Richtlijn van de Raad 85/337 EEG van 27 juni 1985, en geamendeerd met
de Richtlijn 97/11/EEG betreffende de milieu-effect beoordeling van bepaalde
openbare en particuliere projecten, EU 1997.
5.17 Thoreson C.A., Port Designer’s Handbook, Recommendations and guidelines,
ISBN 07277 32285, Thomas Telford Limited, 2003.
5.18 De nieuwe regeling DNR 2011/The new rules DNR 2011.
5.19 OCIMF, Mooring Equipment Guidelines 3rd edition.
5.20 ARW 2012, Aanbestedingsreglement Werken 2012.
191
Terms of reference
5.21 PIANC report 115-2012 Criteria for the (un)loading of container vessels.
5.22 PIANC report 116-2012 Safety aspects affecting the berthing operations of tankers
to oil and gas terminals.
5.23 PIANC report 117-2012 Use of Hydro/Meteo Information for Port Access and
Operations.
192
Quay walls
Chapter 6
DESIGN OF QUAY WALLS

Quay walls
Contents
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.2 Functional design aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.3 Structural design aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

6.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.3.2 Structural system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.3.3 Design aspects of the sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.3.4 Design aspects of the foundation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.3.5 Design aspects of the anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.3.6 Deformation of quay wall and adjacent structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.4 Design philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

6.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
6.4.2 Probabilistic design approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.4.3 Semi-probabilistic design calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.4.4 Limit states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.5 Features of the structural design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

6.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.5.2 Starting points in the development of a quay design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.6 Design models and calculation methods of retaining walls . . . . . . . 241

6.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.6.2 Sheet pile calculations general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.6.3 Calculation with spring supported beam method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.6.4 Finite element method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.6.5 Determination of design water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.6.6 Local buckling of primary tubular piles in combi-walls . . . . . . . . . . . 271
6.7 Sequence of design calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

6.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
6.7.2 Phases 1 to 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Quay walls
Chapter 6
DESIGN OF QUAY WALLS
6.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the aspects of design of quay walls, as well as a framework and
reliability approach that aims to cover the complete design verification. The ultimate
objective of this design process is to produce the optimum design that will satisfy the
functional requirements and that is the result of balancing various, sometimes conflicting,
aspects such as construction costs, durability and robustness. In addition, experience
gained during the construction of quay walls under comparable conditions should have an
important place in the design process. It is especially important to include experience of
the installation of sheet piles and foundation members. Without exaggeration, it can be
postulated that the core of the design issue concerns the difficulties of installing sheet piles
and foundation members. The subjects that are important to the design, which are discussed
in Chapter 9, Construction and Chapter 12, Lessons from Experience, are incorporated
in this chapter. Finally, the result of the design process must satisfy the condition that the
quay can be constructed in such a way that the risks are acceptable and manageable.
In this chapter, the description of the design process is restricted to the design of quay
walls in the delta area of the Rivers Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt. It is characteristic of this
area that the substrata consist of Pleistocene sand layers that are relatively difficult to
penetrate, covered by soft Holocene beds. Over many years, various quay designs that take
into consideration the characteristic conditions in this delta area have been developed and
implemented. In Chapter 3, main forms of quay walls, the most important types of quay
walls are discussed.
This chapter discusses the design of quay walls with a relieving platform and load bearing
sheet pile wall. But also single anchored sheet pile walls. Depending on the retaining
height, various types of wood, steel and concrete sheet pile wall systems can be used for
the anchored and un-anchored walls. For quay walls with a relieving structure, which are
often used with greater retaining heights, the sheet pile wall has both a retaining and a
bearing function. From this it seems evident that a combined steel sheet pile system would
be appropriate.
In the Netherlands the most frequently used types of quay walls are:
• Single anchored sheet pile walls (simple barge quay walls)
In some situations a single anchored sheet pile wall can be used to construct a barge
quay. The sheet pile wall is usually covered by a heavy concrete capping beam on which
197
Design of quay walls
the bollards are placed and which has a distributing function. This quay design is shown
in Fig. 6.1. For support during design and calculation of this type quay structure see
Section 6.7.
Capping
beam
Combi-wall Anchor wall
Design depth
Underside
intermediate sheet pile
Fig. 6.1 Structure of single anchored sheet pile wall (Simple Quay Wall).
• Quay walls with a relieving structure and bearing sheet piles
Much attention is devoted to the quay design characterized by a relieving structure and a
load bearing sheet pile wall, mainly because the various special design aspects that appear
in this category can also be incorporated to some extent in the design of simpler quay
structures. Examples of this type of quay wall are given in Fig. 6.2 and Fig. 6.3. The
relieving platform guarantees spreading of forces in a horizontal and with a superstructure
also in a vertical direction. The foundation system used for these structures provides both
horizontal and vertical stability to the quay wall and consists of a load bearing sheet pile
wall on the waterside and usually a system with tension piles and bearing piles on the
landside. Under certain conditions horizontal anchoring is used instead of a tension pile
Combi-wall
Combi-wall
MV-pile
Design depth
Design depth
Underside
Underside Concrete pile intermediate pile Concrete
intermediate pile pile
Fig. 6.2 Quay wall with deep relieving platform. Fig. 6.3 Quay wall with medium depth relieving
platform.
198
Quay walls
system. It should be noted that this chapter primarily considers the design of the quay
in general. Specific design aspects of the members that compose a quay are discussed in
Chapter 7.
An outline of this chapter is given below:
In Section 6.2, some general design aspects are discussed and the guiding functional
requirements are analyzed. The results are used in the development of a structural
design.
The structural design aspects are then treated in Section 6.3. This is based on a quay design
with relieving structure and bearing sheet pile wall. Both specific and general design
aspects of the most important components of this type of quay wall are discussed: the
relieving structure, the sheet pile wall and the foundation system. These recommendations
form the design philosophy for the quay design with relieving structure and bearing sheet
pile wall.
In Section 6.4, the design philosophy of Eurocode 7 (NEN-EN 1997) including national
annex is presented. After an introduction to the probabilistic design approach, the principles
and probabilistic analyses that determine the partial factors are considered. This section
concludes with a discussion of the semi-probabilistic design method.
There are various other safety philosophies, such as presented in the German Rec-
ommendations of the committee for Waterfront structures, Harbours and Waterways
EAU, the British Standard for Maritime Structures BS6349, the Spanish ROM and the
Dutch CUR 166 sheet pile manual. These foreign safety philosophies are not discussed
in this book.
Section 6.5 pays attention to the determination of the design values of various parameters
such as soil properties, loads, strength, and geometric parameters. The design values are
determined by multiplying the characteristic values by the partial factors for the limit state
under consideration. In addition, loads and combinations of loads resulting from soil and
water pressures and serviceability loads are considered. First a summary is given of the
calculations required during various phases of the engineering. Next, the calculations are
discussed systematically in a logical sequence. For each calculation, the aim, the result,
the basic assumptions and schematization, the loads and combinations of loads and
approach are given.
In Section 6.6, design models and calculation methods are explained. The spring supported
beam method is compared with the Finite Element Method. Also the determinations of the
outer and ground water levels is discussed. Finally a method to deal with local buckling
of primary tubular piles in combi-walls is given.
In Section 6.7 the sequence of calculation is given for both the spring supported beams
method (SSBM) as well as the Finite Elements Method (FEM).
199
6.2 Functional design aspects

Prior to the design process, the most important functional requirements that the quay
must meet are defined in consultation with the client, the operator and the asset manager
of the quay facilities. These requirements are laid down in terms of reference (TOR).
In the design process that often progresses in phases, for example from feasibility studies
and preliminary design to a final design, the terms of reference are defined increasingly
accurate. It appears that already at an early stage in the project it is necessary to obtain an
idea of the effects of various functional requirements on the design. This can be filled in
by the development of a more or less schematic functional design or partial design. The
effects of the various requirements on the functional design can then be directly analyzed.
In this way, possible conflicts become known at an early stage. It should be noted that the
translation of the functional requirements into a structural design only occurs at a later
stage. The structural design of the classic types is – if carried out properly – of no direct
consequence to the operators of the quay facilities.
To eliminate impossible or conflicting situations it is necessary to coordinate and harmonize

the requirements of both operator and asset manager in relation to the following subjects:
• Arrangement and layout of the superstructure of the quay wall itself

• (Pile) foundations of superstructures at facilities of operator
• Basis of design for the front of the quay
• Determination of the depth of the water (retaining height)/maximum draft vessels
• Possible combinations of loads
• Clarity of internal interaction of forces due to external loads
Chapter 5 ‘Terms of reference’ (TOR) discusses in detail those subjects that are partly
based on the results of the investigations as discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 also outlines
how a number of functional requirements are determined. The aspects that relate to each
other are summarized below.
Arrangement and layout of the superstructure

• Choice of the elevation of the quay wall, based on an acceptable exceedance frequency
for high water levels
• Reservation of space on the quay deck for transport and storage functions, such as:
local traffic, transport of people and goods, storage and transshipment of loads
• Reservation of space on the quay deck within the framework of shipping operations,
taking into consideration possible types of ship, berthing activities, position of the
ship, loading and unloading, positions of bollards. Points of conflict: contact between
ship and traffic, contact between ship and crane
• Loads on the quay wall, based on the layout of the quay deck
Basis of design for the front of the quay

• Basic assumptions for the design of fendering
• Positioning of bollards and ladders
200
Quay walls
• Loads generated by shipping operations, berthing and manoeuvring, mooring angles,

list, dimensions of the contact area between ship and quay
Determination of the retaining height/nautical guaranteed water depth

• Nautical Guaranteed Depth (NGD), relation to the ship with the maximum draught
at low water (see Section 6.6.5), influence of list, keel clearance, the execution of
maintenance dredging (0.5 metre at unprotected and 1.0 metre at protected bottom)
and tolerances of sounding (0.10 metre), dredging (see Table 6.19 in Section 6.7) and
stone dumping in case of scour protection (see Section 5.4.3)
• Design Depth, taking into consideration the disturbance level when dredging or execut-
ing maintenance dredging, depth reserved for possible deepening caused by propeller
jet stream (scour), reservation for possible increases in the size of ships and changes
in use
• Reservation of space for the possible use of a scour protection, data for the development
of designs for scour protection
In Section 5.4.3 the various terms used in the determination of the retaining height have
been explained.
6.3 Structural design aspects

6.3.1 Introduction
At first sight, when quay wall designs are being developed, the designer seems to have a
high degree of freedom. The many possible types of structure seem to confirm this. It must
be realized that this diversity can partly be explained by differences in local conditions,
such as location of the quay, substrata, and climatic, hydraulic and geohydrological aspects.
Nautical issues such as types of ships that are expected play a part in this as well. Moreover,
the quay design depends to a high degree on whether the possible construction options
determined by the location permit the use of a dry building pit. Construction in a dry
pit implies that the structure is built up from a surface level that is created either by
reclamation or by making an excavation in which the groundwater level may possibly be
artificially lowered. Otherwise, the quay is constructed from the waterside. Furthermore,
the designer must realize that the building of quay walls is always accompanied by a
variety of problems. New problems may be experienced when the limits are extended
or new designs are being built. This is demonstrated by experience gained in the use of
a new combined sheet pile system and the use of new foundation members. These and
other construction experiences are considered in detail in Chapter 9 and, where necessary,
reference shall be made to this discussion. In addition, problems may arise in relation to
the behaviour and use of the quay structure. Specific experiences are described in detail
in Chapter 12. In view of this experience, it can be concluded that this freedom must be
used wisely in order to reach feasible and effective designs. In the development of a quay
design, a balance must be found between competing aspects such as construction costs,
durability and robustness. The feasibility and accompanying construction risks play a very
201
dominant part in the evaluation of quay designs. To reach a balanced and effective design
it is recommended that sufficient time is planned in the design process to develop and
analyse several alternatives.
The final choice can then be based on the results of this comparative analysis in which the
following aspects are taken into consideration:
• Construction, management and maintenance costs (LCC = Life Cycle Costs)

• Construction time
• Construction risks
• Robustness, susceptibility to catastrophe and overloading
• Clarity of the internal interaction of forces caused by external loads
• Durability
In those cases where the deformation behaviour of the structure has to comply with the
strictest requirement, these can also play an important role in the evaluation.
In this section, attention is primarily paid to the structural design of the quay wall in its
entirety. In so far as they are important to the total system, attention is also paid to the
structural design aspects of the various quay-members. The specific design aspects of
quay-members are treated separately in Chapter 7. Following on from the structural design
aspects, attention is paid to the deformation behaviour of the quay structure. Section 6.4
deals with the ‘Design philosophy’, a summary of the most important design principles
that apply to types of quay wall with relieving structures.
6.3.2 Structural system

In this section, the most important design aspects of parts of the quay structure are con-
sidered from a structural point of view. The quay design discussed in this chapter has a
superstructure that also functions as a relieving structure for the retaining sheet pile wall.
The superstructure is supported by a bearing sheet pile wall on the waterside and a system
of tension and bearing piles on the land side. In addition to supporting the superstructure,
the foundation system must also provide stability to the quay wall. During the service-
ability stage the superstructure transmits the various loads that act on the superstructure
to the foundation. The soil retaining function of the structure is provided by the sheet pile
wall. A superstructure with a deep relieving platform will take over a large part of the soil
retaining function. Usually the aim is to place bearing sheet piles directly under or close
to the crane track on the waterside.
Reduction of active earth pressure on the sheet pile wall

The use of a relieving structure primarily reduces active earth pressure on the uppermost
part of the sheet pile wall. The most important effects are the cost savings on sheet piles
through a reduction of bending moment and pile depth. When the relieving platform is
situated on or just under the level of the quay deck, reduction is more or less limited to the
surcharge consisting of crane, storage and traffic loads. When deeper relieving structures
202
Quay walls
Theoretical ground level

Surcharge Soil
profile
1
γ1,
GWL
ϕ1,
C1
σk0
'
σ k0
'
2
Surcharge γ 2,
weight of soil ϕ 2,
ϕ2 C2
θa2
3
3.5:1
γ3,
θa3
through
influence ϕ3,
σ ko
' C3
θa4 Clay 4 γ 4,
Design
depth
layer ϕ4,C4
5
γ 5,
ϕ 5,
σk1
' σ k0
' C5
θa5 σ k' left = σ k' right σ k' right
σkv' at centerline σ kv' behind the vertical relieving

sheet pile wall platform
Fig. 6.4 Principle of a relieving platform.
are made, earth pressure reducing effects are much larger. Fig. 6.4 shows the principles
on which the determination of the impact of a relieving platform is based and it shows

the influence of the surcharge σko , working on the level of the underside of the relieving
structure on vertical effective stress in the position of the axis of the sheet pile. The area of
influence begins where the line at angle ϕ intersects with the axis of the sheet pile. The full
influence is valid at the intersection of the line composed of various active sliding planes
θa . The angle of the sliding plane θa depends on the angle of internal friction ϕ, the wall
friction angle δ, the slope of the ground surface β and the inclination of the sheet pile α.
The expression for the case in which δ, β and α are not zero is:

sin(ϕ+δ) · cos(α+β)
1+ 1
cos α cos(δ−α) · sin(ϕ−β)
· sin ϕ
tan θa =
sin(ϕ+δ) · cos(α+β)
tan α + 1
cos α cos(δ−α) · sin(ϕ−β)
· cos ϕ
203
For a further indication of the parameters and sign conventions see
+βa
–βa
–α +α
+δa
Fig. 6.5 Levels and inclination angles for sheet pile calculations.
It is important to ascertain that shear stresses that develop in the soil mass under the
relieving structure are high enough to ensure that the relieving effect occurs. If a weak clay
layer is present or if a stiff sheet pile wall is used, the shear stresses in the clay layer may
be insufficient. This situation can also occur by excess pore pressures.
Fig. 6.6 and [6.2] explain this phenomenon. The verification implies that the horizontal
balance of the soil mass above the clay layer that is located between the sheet pile wall and
the vertical behind the relieving platform is considered. The magnitude of the stabilizing
shear forces is derived from the properties of the boundary between this soil mass and the
clay layer. The following horizontal forces play a part in this:
• Acting to the left: the resultant of horizontal earth pressure H1 acting on the vertical
behind the relieving platform
• Acting to the right: the resultant of horizontal reaction forces H2 of the sheet pile wall
acting on the soil mass (equal and opposite to the earth pressure on the sheet pile)
• Acting to the right: the horizontal component RH of the reaction force R
The vertical reaction force RV is derived from the condition of vertical balance of the
soil mass based on effective stresses. The horizontal component is determined using the
expression RH = RV tan ϕred , in which ϕred is a reduced angle of friction that corresponds
with deformation that occurs in the clay layer based on the stress–strain curve in question. If
necessary, water pressures must also be taken into account. If H2 + RH ≥ H1 the relieving
effect of the relieving structure can be calculated as shown in Figure 6.4. If H2 + RH < H1
204
Quay walls
Surcharge
weight of soil
G
v1
α δ
H2 H1
δ
V2
δ−α RH
TTrans- Clay layer
verse
force
bearing
pile
4:1
Rv by Σv
ϕred Clay
∆P H1 H2 RH T 0
∆P is addition to anchor force
Fig. 6.6 Verification of the relieving effect of a relieving platform in the presence of a clay layer.
this cannot be entirely accepted and a higher horizontal load on the sheet pile wall must be
taken into account. It is clear that in the hypothetical case in which the friction resistance
of a deep lying layer is equal to zero, the relieving action extending to the layers above is
rendered impossible. For some large quay projects this phenomenon is taken into account
by means of a supplement P on the anchor force. In this, the transverse force capacity of
the piles, T in kN/m1 , is taken into account as a reduction. In that case the expression for
the supplement to the anchor force is: P = H1 − H2 − RH − T . Note that in Fig. 6.6,
only bearing piles are found in the interface plane. It should be noted that a check can
also be made with the aid of a geotechnical computer program that is based on the finite
element method (FEM), see Section 6.6.4.
Reducing the length of sheet piles

The biggest effect of choosing a deeper positioned relieving structure is that the length
of the sheet piles is reduced. By this means the distribution of vertical forces in the sheet
piles can be reduced to any desired level. This reduction can be achieved by reducing the
205
retaining height of the sheet piles and by reducing the active earth pressures as a result
of the effect of the relieving platform. In addition to saving on the use of construction
material, a limited length of the sheet piles is also advantageous for the drivability of the
sheet piles and the other foundation members. The drivability is especially important for
quay walls with a very high retaining height. When a combined wall system is used, the
problem is usually caused by the length of secondary members. In order to keep the risk
of interlock failure to an acceptable level it is sometimes necessary to limit the length of
the sheet piles.
Extra vertical load component on the foundation system

The foundations of quay walls with relieving structures often consist of a pile system of
tension and bearing piles. This system ensures stability of the quay wall. The weight of the
soil on the relieving platform provides an extra vertical load on the foundation of the quay
wall. Within certain limits, this has a favourable effect on the design of the pile system.
Usually the horizontal load component that still has to be delivered by the tension piles
can be greatly reduced. This leads to an efficient design for the foundation system. For
very deep positioned relieving platforms the vertical load component on the bearing sheet
piles is higher than desired. This occurs primarily when MV-piles with a large capacity are
placed at an angle of 45◦ and, with the sheet piles, form a pile trestle. Indeed, the tensile
component of the MV-piles in the direction of the system line of the sheet pile wall leads
to an important increase in the axial load of the sheet piles. In such a situation, a hollow
box can be chosen as part of the superstructure. With this, a locally effective reduction of
the soil weight on the sheet pile wall is attained. For an explanation of the principles that
have been described see Fig. 6.7.
Water side Water side

crane leg crane leg
G1
G1 G2
Rh
Rα G0
R
3.5:1
3.5:1
1:
1:
1
Fig. 6.7 Reduction of the vertical load on sheet pile wall and foundation system.
206
Quay walls
6.3.3 Design aspects of the sheet pile wall

Bearing function and the position of sheet piles
The starting point is that in addition to a soil retaining function, the sheet pile wall also
has a bearing function, so positioning bearing sheet piles on the waterside directly under
the crane track is a good option. This principle is very suitable for cases when the distance
between waterside crane track and front of the quay wall is not too big. If this distance is
relatively big, the position of the sheet pile wall must be such that the optimum foundation
system can be constructed. For example, see the situation at the container quay of the Delta
terminal on the Maasvlakte in the port of Rotterdam (Fig. 2.29).
For both technical and economic reasons it is not advisable to use sheet piles on the rear
side of the relieving structure, since all the earth pressures act on the sheet piles causing
high anchor forces and requiring the use of relatively heavy sheet piles. When there is
an underwater slope under the relieving platform the anchor force and system length of
the sheet piles can be slightly reduced. However, this influence is very minimum because
the passive supporting pressures that can be provided by an underwater slope are very
limited. Even so, situations exist for which this solution is chosen, especially in cases
where an existing quay wall must be adapted to accommodate ships with a deeper draught.
An example of such a solution is the quay design that is frequently used in Germany that
is shown in Fig. 6.8.
Steel
pile Sheet pile wall
Concrete pile
Fig. 6.8 Quay wall with retaining sheet pile wall on the landside.
Inclined sheet piles

Because the planned crane track is usually at some distance from the front of the quay
wall, it is advisable to use the available space and drive the sheet piles at an angle. When
this is done it must be ensured that ships cannot come into contact with the sheet piles
during berthing or when moored. It is necessary to maintain sufficient space, this being
determined by the maximum list of the ship, the maximum deviation from the position
and the deflection of the sheet pile wall. Consideration must be given to allowing an
extra margin so that ships with a deeper draught can be accommodated. If the crane track
on the waterside is designed to be further inland, the positioning of the sheet piles can
be adjusted. Though one should bear in mind the maximum rake of the sheet piling, in
207
practice, inclinations up to 3.5:1 cause no problem. If the inclination of the sheet piles in a
quay wall must continue round a corner, a transition structure with especially manufactured
piles are used. In principle, the rake of the sheet piles is reduced in stages until the sheet pile
at the corner reaches a vertical position. As this is a vulnerable part of the quay structure,
great attention must be paid to the detailing of the transition structure.
This is considered in Chapter 7. In practice, the corner solution devised for a combined wall
appears feasible. However, if a quay wall is built at a site where recent land reclamation
or infilling has taken place the rake of the sheet piles is limited. During installation of the
sheet piles and foundation members, the loosely packed sand fill is considerably compacted
(approximately 8% of layer thickness) and sheet piles inclined towards the landside will
be subjected to significant deformation (see lessons learned Chapter 12).
The most important reason for inclining the sheet pile wall system is that it acts as a
bearing foundation member and contributes to the stability of the quay wall, thus relieving
other members of the foundation system. An important additional effect is that the inclined
position of the sheet piles creates space for the tips of the bearing piles in the pile trestle sys-
tem. This space has a favourable influence on the required width of the relieving structure.
Besides positive effects, there are also negative effects. The rake reduces active earth pres-
sures, but the reduction is even greater for passive earth pressures. Reference can be made
to the formulas for the active and passive earth pressure coefficients and the further expla-
nations in NEN 9997-1 Geotechnical design of constructions [6.25] and CUR 166, [6.1].
When making a choice, it is advisable to analyze the effects of the inclination of the sheet
piles on the distribution of forces. Although the positive effects on the total design of the
quay wall usually dominate, the rake must not be exaggerated. A very effective solution
is reached by combining the inclined bearing sheet pile wall with a tension pile driven at
an angle of about 45 degrees. The component action of the tension piles that derives from
the inclination of the sheet pile wall will then be borne as an axial bearing load. For bigger
quay walls, the bearing capacity of sheet piles can usually be adapted without incurring
much extra cost. The above does not apply in situations with weak deep subsoil and must
be adapted to the conditions encountered.
Static system of the sheet pile wall

The sheet pile wall is considered as a beam that is loaded by soil and water pressures.
On the upper side, the sheet pile wall is anchored via the superstructure by means of an
anchorage. At the base the sheet pile wall is supported by the passive soil resistance of the
layers under the bed of the harbour. Within certain limits, the depth of the sheet pile wall
may vary. With a minimal depth, the soil layer providing resistance is just able to ensure
the stability of the sheet piles. Greater depths lead to fixed end moments. The degree of
fixing depends on a number of factors, such as extra sheet pile length in relation to the
minimal length, stiffness of the resistance-providing soil layers and the bending stiffness of
the sheet piles. The various calculation methods used also give different results. According
to the Blum method, which is based on the failure condition of the soil, with adequate
pile depth the sheet pile wall is fully fixed when minimum active and maximum passive
208
Quay walls
earth pressures occur. By using calculations based on the principle of the beam on elasto-
plastic springs (i.e. spring supported beam method) , the soil is schematized by a system
of elasto-plastic springs. Only with sufficient deformation of the sheet pile wall the plastic
strains of the soil can develop and active earth pressures or passive soil resistances occur.
When this approach to calculation is used, in contrast to the method of Blum, even for
piles exceeding the minimum length no fully fixed sheet pile wall is found. This generally
also applies for calculations based on FEM methods.
From the point of view of structural analyses two basic concepts may be recognized:
• Fully free earth supported sheet piles

• Sheet piles with a partly of semi fixed earth support
The type of quay wall with a relieving structure, that is considered in this book, is based
on partly or semi fixed sheet piles.
Besides these two concepts a fully fixed retaining wall system can be considered. Fully
fixed sheet pile walls have the following advantages:
• Minimizing the risk of loss of stability caused by insufficient passive earth pressure
• Creation of extra redistribution capacity in very extreme load situations
• The bearing function often appears to be normative for the determination of the length
of primary sheet piles, which then generates fixed sheet piles
• The maximum bending moment is reduced, the material required for the solution with
fixed sheet piles is usually more favourable
• With a fixed sheet pile wall solution the horizontal anchor force is reduced as well
If there are hard layers in the subsoil, that could cause high driving risks and thus damage
piles, the choice of a fully free earth supported sheet pile wall may be considered.
Sheet pile wall system

For the type of quay wall under consideration a combined steel sheet pile system is usually
chosen. This system consists of heavy primary members that are placed at a fixed distance
from each other, and light secondary members that close the spaces between the primary
members and seal them. For some examples of combined sheet pile wall systems and the
associated steel qualities refer to Chapters 7 and 8. The most frequently used system is the
combi-system that is composed of tubular piles as primary members with double or triple
sheet piles as secondary members.
The foundation depth of the primary members is determined from a sheet pile calculation
based on the principle of an optimisation of material and element length or on required
bearing capacity. The dimensioning of primary members is based on the distribution of
forces found in sheet pile calculations. The secondary members must be strong enough to
transfer earth and water pressures to the primary members. To ensure that the installation
209
of the sheet piles can be adequately controlled, in addition to the strength, stipulations are
made in relation to stiffness and cross-section. In principle, it is assumed that the sheet piles
will be installed to the required depth by means of vibration, often combined with jetting.
The dimensioning of the members of the combined wall is considered in Section 6.7.
Corrosion
Corrosion plays a very important role in the dimensioning of sheet piles. Corrosion mainly
occurs at the side of the sheet piles which is in contact with water. If there is no exchange
of oxygen-rich water, corrosion is usually negligible at the side which is in contact with
the soil. However, if the drainage coffer or draining layers are near the sheet pile wall is a
real threat. Chapter 8 gives specific information on this matter. Various types of corrosion,
especially in seawater, can lead to considerable corrosion of the steel sheet piles. Local
environmental conditions or conditions during use, such as the influence of contaminants
and effects of propeller jets, have an important influence on the rate of corrosion. However
measurements in the Port of Rotterdam indicate that the corrosion is fairly homogeneous
over the vertical of the quay wall. This is mainly caused by the propellers of big ships. A
dominant factor is the vertical positioning of the sheet piles in relation to the high and low
water levels. In the literature, 4 to 6 zones with significantly different rates of corrosion
are distinguished. Depending on the type of corrosion, adverse corrosion rates are found
in the splash, tidal and low water zones. The highest rate of corrosion often occurs in
the oxygen-rich area just below the low water zone. When designing quays, the corrosion
problem can be severely restricted by choosing a construction level for the top of the steel
sheet pile wall with some margin below the low water level.
Consequently, when dimensioning the sheet pile wall, great attention must also be paid to
the phenomenon of corrosion during the lifetime, so that the quay continues to conform to
the requirements relating to safety and serviceability. For this, it is important to distinguish
between general and local corrosion. General corrosion relates to average corrosion and
reasonable estimates of this rate of corrosion can be made. The data on general corrosion
can be used to verify the strength and stiffness requirements for the sheet pile wall and
concern mainly the primary members. Local corrosion may be concentrated in inconvenient
positions in which very high rates of corrosion can occur. It is very difficult to predict the
rate of this type of corrosion. Corrosion measurements on sheet pile walls in comparable
situations may provide important information. The information on local corrosion rates can
be used in the verification of the durability and functionality of the primary members and
of the secondary members. The appearance of gaps in primary and secondary members,
resulting in loss of soiltightness is unacceptable.
Based on data relating to local and general corrosion rates and chosen lifetime, a choice
must be made between possible measures to protect against corrosion including:
• Use of a corrosion allowance; extra thickness of the steel

• Application of a coating
• Use of active or passive cathodic protection
• Combination of measures
210
Quay walls
It should be noted that cathodic protection works only for parts of the sheet pile wall that are
under water, which are then fully protected. In the tidal zone, cathodic protection works only
for a part of the time and often gives inadequate protection against corrosion, in which case a
coating can be applied in combination with a corrosion allowance. With such a combination
in unfavourable conditions, the lifetime is often limited to 25 years. Other combinations
can also be used, such as a corrosion allowance in combination with equipment for cathodic
protection that can be activated later. In order to monitor the actual corrosion process it is
advisable to take supplementary management measures in the form of periodic inspections
and measurements. For further information on corrosion control, is reffered to Chapter 11.
Length of sheet piles in the sheet pile wall system

Usually secondary members, sheetpile, can be kept considerably shorter than the primary
members, bearing piles. The secondary members must be minimally installed to the level of
the load centre, where earth pressures on the active and passive side are equal. A normative
condition for the determination of the length of the secondary members is that the sheet pile
wall must be soiltight and that in no circumstances internal erosion can occur. However,
in spite of this requirement, this frequently occurs in quay and sheet pile structures. There
are various reasons for this such as secondary members that are too short, the occurrence
of local increases in the water depth caused by the effects of propeller jets (scour) and the
failure of interlocks or combinations of these. See also Section 12.9 ‘Bottom stabilization’.
As a result, in non-cohesive soil layers internal erosion (piping) or hydraulic soil failure
(heave) may occur. Parallel with the tidal movement and a ground water level that reacts
to this, transport of soil to the front of the sheet pile wall grows. If not noticed, this can
eventually lead to the formation of large hollow spaces behind the sheet pile wall and under
the relieving platform and ultimately to local failure of quay members. For a description
of the background to piping and hydraulic soil failure and to the verification calculation,
see Section 6.7.2 phase 11.
The determination of the length of the secondary member in a combined sheet pile-system
is based on the following:
• The level of the underside of the secondary member (toe level) must be at least equal
to the level of equal pore pressures at both sides
• Verification of piping and hydraulic soil failure is carried out for two extreme load
cases
• To allow for possible faults during construction, an extra margin of 0.5 m is added to
the design level of the underside of the sheet pile
In association with the Eurocodes, the following management activities should be under-
taken in the construction phase and service phases to ensure the reliability of the
soiltightness of the sheet pile wall:
• Intensive monitoring of possible interlock failure during installation of the interme-

diate piles, using interlock sensors and monitoring of possible interlock failure when
dredging
211
• Dive inspections of interlocks, during and immediately after dredging

• Investigation of increased depth close to the quay structure by taking periodic
soundings
• When there is major scouring: inspection of the exposed area of the sheet pile wall for
interlock failure, repair of the failures, earth fill/grouting and, if necessary, placing of
bed protection
Connection of superstructure and sheet pile wall

The connection to the relieving structure can be accomplished in various ways. A fixed
moment connection is possible, but requires good detailing of the connection. A disad-
vantage is that the construction system of the quay wall becomes unclear. This is because
the internal distribution of forces is strongly dependent on the deformation of the quay
system. It is difficult to calculate this deformation. Moreover, it should be noted that the
anchor forces in a fixed moment connection are considerably higher than those occurring
in a hinged connection.
A hinged connection is an option that has a large number of advantages. For larger quay
walls in Rotterdam, the connection is achieved with the aid of a cast steel saddle. The saddle
creates a hinge between both parts of the quay wall, so a more statically determinate system
is created and the distribution of forces in the sheet pile wall, foundation and superstructure
becomes clearer. Moreover, placing the saddle on the front flange of the sheet piles creates
a favourable eccentric moment on the upper side of the sheet pile. This reduces the moment
in the span and the associated deep fixed-end moment remains limited.
6.3.4 Design aspects of the foundation system

Functions
The foundation of a quay wall must ensure both the horizontal and vertical stability of
the quay wall. Naturally, this applies throughout the entire lifetime of the quay structure.
Sustained effects, such as the effects of cyclic loads, incidental loads or overloading may
not lead to unsafe situations or unacceptable behaviour. See the various examples that are
given in Chapter 12, under the heading ‘Lessons from experience’.
In principle, the foundation system is formed by a bearing sheet pile wall, in combination
with a system of tension and bearing piles. The most suitable systems are:
• A system with an inclined sheet pile wall and inclined prefabricated concrete tension
and bearing piles. Such a system is only suitable for lower retaining heights.
• A system with an inclined sheet pile wall, MV-tension piles at an angle of about 45◦
and inclined prefabricated concrete bearing piles or vibro piles. Usually the MV-pile
is positioned close to the sheet pile wall. The vertical component of the tensile force
in the MV-pile is taken up by the primary members of the sheet piling.
It is necessary to prevent a pile field from becoming so dense that it becomes difficult to
drive the piles. A very dense pile field might behave as an extra sheet pile screen and could
cause a loss of the relieving effect of the platform. In such a case consideration can be
212
Quay walls
given to use heavy piles that are cast in situ piles (e.g. bored piles) instead of prefabricated
concrete piles. However, in that case the rake is limited.
In specific situations a system with an inclined sheet pile wall, horizontal anchoring and
inclined prefabricated concrete bearing piles can be used. Such a solution can be interesting
if the use of tension piles presents a problem in relation to technique or cost. A few options
are shown in Fig. 6.9.
Combi-wall Combi-wall
MV-pile
3.5:1
3.5:1
3.5:1
3:1
4:1
1:1
5:1
5:1
3:1
3:1
Design depth Design depth

Concrete pile
Concrete pile
Underside Underside
intermediate pile intermediate pile
Anchor
Anchor wall
Combi-wall
3.5:1
5:1
3:1
Design depth
Concrete pile
Underside
intermediate pile
Fig. 6.9 Various options for foundation and anchor systems.
Loads
The foundation system is loaded by the resulting horizontal and vertical loads.
Horizontal:
• Horizontal loads caused by earth and water pressure on the superstructure, and hor-
izontal loads caused by the use of the superstructure (e.g. cranes, berthing loads,
surcharges behind superstructure)
• Anchor forces from the sheet pile system
• Supplement to anchor force if the relieving action of the relieving platform is restricted
by a cohesive layer, Fig. 6.6
213
• Extra horizontal loads resulting from screening effects of foundation members in the
area between sheet pile wall and the back of the relieving platform
Vertical:
• Weight of vertical loads from the superstructure by deadweight and the use of the quay
wall (live load)
• Weight of earth on relieving structure, including soil friction forces
• Weight of vertical component from the anchorage
Foundation members
When designing the foundation members it is important to take into account a number of
matters that have led to problems in the past. This experience is considered in Chapter 12
and briefly summarized here:
• Deformation of the sheet piles on the active side of the sheet pile wall may lead to
relaxation of the bearing stratum. In the design of the foundation system, the tips of the
bearing piles must be at sufficient depth and a safe distance from this area. Moreover,
the bearing piles must be placed in such a way that the area expected to contribute to
the bearing capacity of the bearing pile via positive friction remains outside the active
sliding area.
• When inclined tension piles are used above a compressible soil layer it is necessary to
investigate whether settlement of the compressible layer can be expected as a result
of high loads on the area. With settlement, the part of the maximum possible negative
friction that exceeds the pile tensile force will be supplied as external loads on the pile
trestle system. This can lead to overloading of the bearing piles and to extra settlement.
To prevent this effect, the foundation of the tension piles should lie in a deeper non-
compressible layer. The extra negative friction that occurs can then be transmitted
directly to the subsoil.
• Loads out of the foundation piles influence the shape of the sliding plane and the
active loads on the retaining wall. Fig. 6.10 shows this mechanism. The influence on
the bending moment and anchor force is small, but this mechanism has more influence
on the mobilised passive resistance.
• Some piles may be loaded till the design value of the bearing capacity, if the foundation
as a whole does not fail. The soil resistance should fail before the failure of the
structural elements occurs.
6.3.5 Design aspects of the anchorage

A discussion follows of some general design aspects that influence the design of an anchor-
age. For more specific details, see Chapter 7. Two types of quay in which stability is
provided by means of an anchorage system are distinguished:
• Single anchored sheet pile wall

• Quay wall with relieving structure and anchorage
214
Quay walls
Single anchored sheet pile wall

With this type of quay wall, the use of vertical sheet piles is assumed. Stability is provided
by an anchorage. The choice of the anchorage level is determined by the economy of the
design, which is governed by the cost of the materials for the sheet pile wall. The optimum
distribution of moments of the sheet pile wall is chosen such that the cost of the material
for the sheet pile wall, which governs the choice, is minimized. The construction costs also
play a role, for example, when an anchorage level is chosen at such a depth that drainage
must be used to install them. The members of the anchorage are dimensioned in accordance
with the calculation of the anchor force that derives from the calculation of the sheet pile
wall. The anchorage consists of horizontal anchors in the form of bars or cables and an
anchor wall. See Fig. 6.1 or Fig. 3.12.
Anchorage can also be achieved by means of members that are placed at an angle and are
anchored in a bearing sand layer, including prefabricated concrete piles, smooth steel piles,
MV-piles, Fig. 3.14 grout anchors and screw injection anchors Fig. 3.13. The chosen angle
is usually approximately 45◦ . In special conditions it may be necessary to place the anchor
members at a steeper angle, for example due to lack of space or because other objects are
in the way. For relatively shallow sand layers it is also possible to place screw injection
anchors or grout anchors at a smaller angle than 45◦ (i.e. 20◦ to 30◦ to the horizontal.
Note: less than 10◦ may cause execution problems). In a design with anchors at an
angle the vertical component of the tensile force of the anchors is supplied by the
sheet pile wall.
Quay wall with relieving structure and an anchorage

Under some conditions, the traditional foundation system that consists of a bearing sheet
pile wall and a pile trestle system with tension and bearing piles is not used. Instead of
tension piles, horizontal anchorage is used. See Fig. 2.27 and Fig. 2.29. The level of the
anchorage is largely determined by the geometry of the superstructure of the quay. The
dimensioning of the anchorage is based on horizontal loads acting on the quay system,
reduced by the part that is taken up by the inclined sheet piling and the inclined bearing
piles.
Anchorage
The dimensions of the anchorage (anchor wall, anchor and anchor length) are determined by
its safety in relation to stability. When determining safety, both high and deeply positioned
sliding planes are taken into consideration. It is also necessary to consider deformation
of the soil mass before the anchor wall generates forces. It is recommended that in view
of the usually stiff structure of a quay wall, the anchorage should be pre-tensioned. With
high-grade or high yield strength steel tie-rods or with strands, the need for pre-stressing is
even greater because of the elongation of the anchors that takes place when loaded. From
experience, it appears that because of the relaxation of the soil, the pre-stressing process
must be carried out in phases in order to get an even distribution of the pre-stressing in
the anchors. Phased pre-stressing is also often needed to prevent overloading of the quay
structure and quay members, waling beam and anchor wall.
215
6.3.6 Deformation of quay wall and adjacent structures

Requirements
Often operators do not set special requirements in relation to the deformation of a quay
wall because they know from experience that with a safe design, these will remain within
acceptable limits and the functional uses will not be negatively influenced. Deformation
of the sheet pile wall as part of a quay structure with relieving platform also appears to
have no influence on the behaviour of the quay wall and is not of interest to the operator.
An exception to this is formed by tolerances that the transshipment companies and crane
suppliers set for the position of the crane tracks. To obtain an impression of this see NEN-EN
1993-6:2008/NB:2012 and Design and calculations of steel structures – part 6: Crane rails
(including C1:2009) and NEN-EN 12999:2011+A1:2012 Cranes – Loader cranes. In this
standard, the tolerances of the supporting structure are defined. In addition, transhipment
companies and crane suppliers can agree to different tolerances. The tolerances concern
the horizontal and vertical positioning of the rail profile. The order of magnitude is often
expressed in a few millimetres.
The most important tolerances relating to the design of crane beams concern:
• Rail gauge
• Level
• Inclination
For simple quay structures consisting of a single anchored sheet pile, as shown in Figure
6.1, the waterside and landside crane tracks are not integrated with the sheet pile structure
and have separate foundations. Depending on the bearing capacity of the subsoil, the
foundation of the crane beams is a shallow foundation or a piled foundation. When the
waterside crane beam is situated close to or within the active sliding surface of the sheet
pile wall, a pile foundation may be chosen, even if the subsoil does have a good bearing
capacity. For quay walls with a relieving structure, the waterside crane beam is usually
integrated in the superstructure. Because of the relatively wide gauge of modern harbour
crane rails (30.48 metres (100 foot) till 62 metres), landside crane beams often have a
separate foundation. The choice of the type of foundation is determined by the quality of
the subsoil.
Deformation behaviour of quay structures

The deformation behaviour of quay structures is largely determined by the retaining height
and the quality of the subsoil. Furthermore, the structure and more especially the stiffness
of pile trestle or anchorage, determine its behaviour. For each type of design a simple
calculation can be used to determine the horizontal spring stiffness. From a comparison
of results, it appears that the stiffest behaviour is found in pile trestles with the greatest
rake (with a maximum angle between pile axis and the vertical). Thus, the horizontal stiff-
ness of a pile trestle consisting of inclined sheet piles and an MV-pile at a gradient of 1:1
is considerably greater than that of a pile trestle with inclined piles at a gradient of 3:1.
216
Quay walls
A horizontal anchor built up from pre-stressed cables and an anchor wall often appears less
stiff. If stringent stipulations are made with regard to tolerance, the choice of a structure
with great horizontal stiffness seems obvious. It should be noted that no reliable defor-
mation can be calculated based on horizontal spring stiffness. The best approximation is
found from calculations using the finite element method, for example with the PLAXIS
program. Due to deviations in the schematization and the modelling and the many assump-
tions about the soil properties, the margin of accuracy of calculations of deformations with
PLAXIS is in the order of ±30%.
Deformation caused by dredging in front of the quay

In Section 5.4.4 ‘Tolerances and deformation’ of Chapter 5 ‘Terms of reference’, the
orders of magnitude of deformations caused by dredging are given. These are in the order
of several centimetres and usually exceed tolerances set for crane tracks.
The deformation caused by dredging is determined by two mechanisms:
• Reduction of vertical effective stress in the soil layer in front of the quay wall
• The activation of the retaining function of the quay wall
The first mechanism involves the elastic rising of the bed of the harbour, which causes
the sheet pile wall to rise and the quay to rotate, the front of the quay rising higher
than the rear. The magnitude of this effect is determined by the extent of the reduction of
effective stress. The design of the quay wall has scarcely any influence on this. The biggest
deformation is found with the highest retaining heights and when construction takes place
in a dry building pit. The effect of the second mechanism, the occurrence of horizontal
deformation, is primarily dependent on the retaining height, but can be influenced by
choosing a quay structure with stiff deformation behaviour. The conclusion can be drawn
that deformations caused by dredging and mainly acting via the waterside crane beam will
exceed the tolerances. It is advisable to install crane rails only after dredging has been
completed.
Deformation arising during the use of the quay

From deformation measurements on quay walls with a relieving structure, it appears that
some time after dredging the quay wall clear extra horizontal deformations arise in the direc-
tion of the harbour basin. Depending on the deformation behaviour of the quay structure,
this varies from a minimum of a few centimetres to sometimes more than ten centimetres.
The time-dependent behaviour of cohesive soil layers, such as creep, relaxation and set-
tlement plays a role in this. Under unfavourable conditions, deformations can amount to
several decimetres, due to effects such as wedge formation caused by dynamic or cyclic
loads, the appearance of much higher loads than anticipated in the terms of reference
because of injudicious use, or emergency storage. It must be remembered that a quay
structure that is exposed to an unfavourable load situation will not fully return to it original
state.
217
This is plausible because deformation does not give rise to any open spaces behind the
quay wall and the contact points remain stable. During the lifetime of the quay structure,
this gives rise to the development of a situation in which, because of previous unfavourable
load situations, the superstructure is more or less attached to the soil.
The most important design principles are summarized in Fig. 6.10.
Crane load water side
Hinge connection
sheet pile wall /
superstructure
MV-pile:
alternative
Max. list concrete/steel
Combined quay wall max. tension pile
rake 3.5:1 Position bearing
pile so that area
No contact between sheet piling
with positive friction
and ship with max. list
remains outside the
active sliding wedge
Contract depth
Design depth
To extend intermediate pile
4 m deeper to prevent piping
Sheet pile wall that is both

bearing and retaining
characterised as "fixed" In dense pile groups
take into account extra
Bearing pile point outside the hor. load caused by
area with relaxing penetration screening action
values caused by deformation
of the sheet pile wall In a clay layer verify:
– relieving action of
Take into account superstructure
extra load of the sheet – transmission of
piling from the pile tip negative friction
of the bearing pile by tension pile
Fig. 6.10 Summary of structural design aspects.
6.4 Design philosophy

6.4.1 Introduction
Safety is a very important item in the design process. In the past the safety of a structure
was based on a deterministic approach, at present, under the influence of national and
European regulations, a fundamental or probabilistic approach is taken.
218
Quay walls
The deterministic approach to safety, which is used in the recent past at the designing of
quay structures, sets a margin between the characteristic values of loads and strengths that
must be obtained to ensure the safety of the structure [Rk /γoverall > Sk ]. This is reached by
using safety factors that are based on experience as well as on a stochastic distribution of
loads and strength. The probabilistic approach to safety is based on the principle that a
design must satisfy a defined maximum probability of failure. Therefore all parameters
are considered to be stochastic. The stipulation of the maximum acceptable probability of
failure is based on the principle that the larger the consequences of failure, the smaller
the acceptable probability of failure. The failure of a structure can be caused by various
mechanisms or limit states, each with its own probability of occurrence. Together, these
limit states determine the total probability of failure of the structure. The objective of the
methodology is to assign probability of failure space to the various limit states, assuming a
maximum probability of failure of the structural system. By means of probabilistic analyses
for each mechanism, it is possible to verify whether the chosen dimensions of the structure
satisfy the safety requirements.
However, satisfying the safety requirements is not sufficient to ensure that a structure
fulfils the stipulated requirements throughout its entire lifetime. National and international
regulations add supplementary requirements. For example, quality control must be carried
out in the design phase and during construction to ensure that the basic assumptions and
requirements of design and construction are satisfied. The same holds for the design
working life, during which the original objectives of the design must be guaranteed. This
can be guaranteed by means of a management and maintenance plan based on the terms
of reference, which prescribes the required maintenance and inspections.
The current European and Dutch standards stipulate that a semi probabilistic approach to
safety should be used during the design process. Reference is made to the most relevant
NEN-standards for the design of quay structures: NEN-EN-1997-1 Geotechnical design,
general rules, NEN-EN 1997-1/NA national annex and additional clauses. These are all
combined in Dutch code NEN 9997-1.
In NEN-EN 1990 Basis for structural design, table NB.20-B1, three safety categories
based on the consequences of failure (Consequence Classes = CC) are defined. For each
safety category the maximum allowable probability of failure of the structure during the
construction phase and during the design working life is stipulated for the limit states under
consideration. For the calculation, parameters are considered to be stochastic parameters.
However, a problem arises because knowledge about the statistical distribution of many
parameters is limited. This is especially true for loads and combinations of loads. Three
reliability classes RC1, RC2 and RC3 may be associated with the three consequence classes
CC1, CC2 and CC3.
To maintain the practicality of the design method and to avoid complicated probabilistic
analyses, the NEN-standards were based on a semi-probabilistic approach to safety (see
Section 6.4.3). Book CUR 166 Damwandconstructies (Manual on sheet pile walls) provides
a basis for the design and construction of simple (barge) quay wall structures in which the
219
sheet pile wall (and anchorage) is the most important member. The sixth edition of CUR
166 matches with Eurocode 7. The structure of a quay with a relieving platform differs
so greatly from that of a simple sheet pile wall with simple anchorage and simple coping
that it demands a much more specific approach. Such an approach is highlighted in this
chapter.
For many years work has been in progress to develop and issue a European Directive for
Structures. These regulations are also based on a semi-probabilistic approach to safety.
The European approach is laid down in a number of codes that covers the various areas of
design. Furthermore, each member state can add a national annex (NA) in which specific
parameters can be stipulated within the degree of freedom indicated in the code. These
are called Nationally Determined Parameters. The set of Eurocodes (NEN-EN-standards)
together with The Dutch National Annexes replace the old NEN-standards.
The following Eurocodes are published:
• Eurocode 0 NEN-EN 1990 Basis of Structural Design

• Eurocode 1 NEN-EN 1991 Actions on structures
• Eurocode 2 NEN-EN 1992 Design of concrete structures
• Eurocode 3 NEN-EN 1993 Design of steel structures
• Eurocode 4 NEN-EN 1994 Design of composite steel and concrete structures
• Eurocode 5 NEN-EN 1995 Design of timber structures
• Eurocode 6 NEN-EN 1996 Design of masonry structures
• Eurocode 7 NEN-EN 1997 Geotechnical design
• Eurocode 8 NEN-EN 1998 Design of structures for earthquake-resistance
• Eurocode 9 NEN-EN 1999 Design of aluminium structures
Note: For the actual versions of the Eurocodes and national annexes reference should be
made to www.nen.nl.
Design approach according to the Eurocode

The most important Eurocodes for the design of quay walls are: NEN-EN 1990, NEN-
EN 1991, NEN-EN 1992, NEN-EN 1993, NEN-EN 1997 including national annexes.
In particular, NEN-EN 1997-1, considers the design aspects of retaining structures. The
design rules are based on a semi-probabilistic approach to safety. This approach to safety,
which makes use of partial factors, agrees in principle with that of the former NEN-
standards. However, there are some differences. For example, the safety of the structure
must be verified by using one of three defined design approaches. To this end, different
basic assumptions are used when determining the design values of earth pressures on the
quay wall.
The Dutch National Annex to the NEN-EN 1997-1 specifies that Design Approach 3 shall
be used for all geotechnical calculations (see clause 2.4.7.3.4.1). Therefore partial factors
given hereafter apply to Design Approach 3 only.
220
Quay walls
The article ‘The significance of the European regulations for the foundation techniques’
[6.6] goes further into the design approach to retaining structures according to NEN-EN
1997-1 and draws a comparison with the approach according to the NEN-standards as
detailed in CUR 166, [6.1].
6.4.2 Probabilistic design approach

General
The NEN-EN-standards distinguish three consequence/reliability classes (CC/RC) in
which the maximum probabilities of failure for the limit states to be verified are defined.
When verifying the ultimate limit state (ULS) of a structure the terms ‘loss of stability’
or ‘collapse’ are sometimes used instead of failure. The collapse of a quay can be caused
by various failure mechanisms. The relations between these mechanisms are shown in a
fault tree (see Fig. 6.11). The probability of failure can be calculated for each limit state by
means of a probabilistic analysis in which the parameters are considered stochastic. The
total probability of failure of the structure is determined by summing (OR-gate in the fault
tree) or multiplying (AND-gate in the fault tree) the probability of failure for all the limit
states, taking into account the mutual dependencies. The safety verifications in SLS1 and
ULS must be carried out for both the design working life, when the quay is being used, and
during the construction phase. In this book, attention is paid only to the design calculation
for the design working life. It is assumed that this will provide sufficient information to
verify safety during the construction period.
A structure is considered to have failed if one or more of its main functions can no longer
be fulfilled. For quays the following main functions are distinguished:
• Earth retaining
• Load bearing when the quay wall is in use
• Resistance against scouring caused by currents resulting from river discharge, tide
and ships manoeuvres
Defining safety levels, reference period/design life

In NEN-EN 1990, three reliability classes with different safety levels expressed in a relia-
bility index are defined. For each category the maximum probability of failure, or margin
of safety, is defined. The given margin of safety is valid for the defined design life. For
the serviceability limit state, the minimum design life is equal to that of the serviceability
period. For the construction phase a minimum construction time of one year is assumed.
Table 6.1 gives an overview of the safety categories defined in the NEN-EN 1990, a selec-
tion of the relevant associated β-values and the design life on which these are based. The
β-values that relate to load situations in which wind is normative are not relevant for sheet
pile wall and quay structures. Of course, bollard loads and crane loads caused by wind are
taken into consideration in some combinations.
1 SLS = Serviceability Limit State, ULS = Ultimate Limit State
221
Table 6.1 Reliability classes and design life according to NEN-EN 1990 table B2 and
table 2.1.
Description of reliability classes Reliability Design life Example
index β in years
RC 1/CC 1 β = 3.3 50 Simple sheet pile structure/quay
Consequences of failure wall for small barges.
– Risk of danger to life negligible Retaining height till 5 m
– Risk of economic damage low
RC 2/CC 2 β = 3.8 50 Conventional quay wall for
Consequences of failure barges and seagoing vessels.
– Risk of danger to life negligible Retaining height > 5 m
– Risk of economic damage high
RC 3/CC 3 β = 4.3 50 Quay wall in flood defence/
Consequences of failure LNG-plant or nuclear plant
– Risk of danger to life high (hazardous goods)
– Risk of economic damage high
Note: CC1 corresponds with safety classes 1 and 2, CC2 corresponds with safety class 3 of former
NEN 6700.
For shorter or longer design life periods the variable loads have to be adapted. The
National Annex of NEN-EN 1990 refers to clauses in NEN-EN 1991. For loads not
specified in NEN-EN 1991 the following formula is given in the National Annex of
NEN-EN 1990:

1 − ψ1 t
Ft = Ft0 · 1 + · ln
9 t0
where:
Ft is the adapted extreme value of the variable uniform load with the chosen design life
Ft0 is the extreme value of the variable uniform load with the design life of 50 years
ψ1 is the factor according to Table A.1.1 of NEN-EN 1990/NB
t is the chosen design life
t0 is the design life of 50 years
According to the formula above, the load increases by a factor 1.02 to 1.06 depending on
the value of ψ1 , when increasing the design life from 50 to 100 years. The partial factors
for loads and materials remain unchanged.
For long structures where the failure of the considered cross section leads to the fail-
ure of the quay wall as a whole, the length-effect should be accounted for. This
applies only for quay walls in primary flood defences. See for further information
TAW Leidraad Kunstwerken (Guideline Constructions in water defence structures)
[6.35].
222
Quay walls
Design calculation for quay walls, subdivisions

As previously indicated, the safety considerations for quay structures and the associated
design calculation are based on a quay design with a relieving structure.
The Approach is now divided in two:
• Table 6.4 for simple quay-walls, e.g. anchored sheetpile wall

• Table 6.3 for quay walls with relieving structure, to be calculated with FEM
methods
The safety considerations and design calculation for the superstructure and foundation are
based on the approach of the NEN-EN 1990 till 1997. The superstructure is designed as
a structural element of a building (with NEN-EN 1992 or 1993) and the foundation and
the retaining wall as a geotechnical structure (with NEN 9997-1). These are explained in
Section 6.4.4.
Fault tree, general considerations

For the development of a fault tree various assumptions may be made. The fault tree
developed in this book is intended to verify the structural safety of a quay wall against
possible failure mechanisms. In principle, the verifications are carried out for the ULS
and for the SLS. As previously mentioned, a system fails if it can no longer fulfil its main
functions. This failure may be caused by several failure mechanisms or limit states. With
the aid of a risk analysis, a fault tree can be developed for a given system. In this, the
undesirable events that may lead to failure can be included in their mutual relationships.
The undesired top event, the failure of the system, is placed at the top of the fault tree. In
principle, it can be assumed that the ratios of the probability of the occurrence of various
limit states are random. With the choice of the safety category, the maximum probability
of failure for the top event can be determined via the associated β-value. Starting from the
ratio of probability of failure, the allowable probability of failure or margins of safety of
the various limit states can be determined.
Fault tree quay wall with relieving structure

The fault tree shows two top events:
• Failure caused by excessive deformation of the quay wall

• Failure caused by loss of overall stability of the quay structure
In the development and verification of the safety of the structural design, only the top
event that causes failure of the quay by loss of overall stability of the quay is elaborated.
The specific characteristics of a quay wall with a relieving structure are included.
Because of the great differences between a quay with a relieving platform and a sheet pile
wall (simple quay wall), the fault tree for the sheet pile wall has been adjusted to incorporate
223
the characteristics of the type of quay wall with relieving platform. The following important
differences are incorporated:
• A superstructure with various structural functions such as:

– distributive function for the introduction, bearing and transfer of concentrated
vertical loads to the foundation (crane beam function)
– distributive function for the introduction, bearing and transfer of concentrated
horizontal loads to the relieving platform
– transfer function for the horizontal loads from sheet piling and superstructure to
the foundation (waling function)
– bearing function of the relieving platform (relieving of the sheet pile wall)
• Foundation of the superstructure that also provides stability of the quay
In this quay design, the relieving platform is considered as an almost infinitely stiff disk
that has a hinged connection with strong shear connectors in the position of the expansion
joints. Compared to the simple waling that is used in a sheet pile wall, this type of quay
structure has a very large redistribution capacity for horizontal loads. Variations in the
horizontal anchor forces deriving from the sheet pile wall that are caused by differences
in the soil mechanical profiles are more or less evened out by the superstructure.
The foundation of the superstructure is a system of inclined tension and bearing piles and
a bearing sheet pile wall. This foundation system also provides the stability of the quay
structure. Besides a system with tension piles, the fault tree also contains a variant with
a horizontal anchorage. In addition, a bearing sheet pile wall with fixed end is taken as
basis, the background for this choice being explained in Section 6.3.
The fault tree for quay structures shown in Fig. 6.11 includes the following primary and
secondary limit states:
• Sheet pile wall fails: the following secondary limit states are included: sheet pile profile
fails, passive resistance is inadequate, bearing capacity is inadequate and connection
fails
• Loss of stability
• Ground water flow too high
• Superstructure fails: the following secondary limit states are included: failure of the
relieving platform as a disc and as a slab, failure of the front wall, failure of the crane
beam and failure of the deck
• Failure of a bearing pile
• Failure of a tension member: the fault tree includes both an anchorage in the form
of an anchor wall with anchor rod and a tension pile or an anchorage with a grout
body. Secondary failure mechanisms for the tension pile or the anchorage are: soil
mechanical failure (shear stress and Kranz stability), failure of the profile and failure
of the connection (steel or concrete)
224
Collapse of
quay wall
Excessive Quay wall

deformation fails
Sheet pile Lack of Groundwater Superstructure Bearing pile Other Tension

wall fails equilibrium flow too high fails fails causes member fails
Upward
Other Sheet pile Connection Passive Bearing Relieving Front wall Crane beam Quay deck
seepage Piping
causes profile fails fails resistance capacity platform fails fails fails fails
pressure
inadequate inadequate
too high
Structural
element
fails
Primary Secondary Other Local Overall Other Bending Bearing
resistance capacity Connection
element element causes instability stability causes
inadequate inadequate fails
fails fails e.g. Heave e.g. Bishop
Platform
Tensile Bending can no
resistance resistance longer fulfill
inadequate inadequate waling function
Profile anchor / Anchor wall Soil mechanical failure Connection

tension member fails fails of tension member fails
Quay walls
Supporting
Strength Kranz stability Shear resistance of High sliding Structural
earth Steel fails
inadequate inadequate anchorage inadequate plane element
pressure
inadequate fails
inadequate
225
Fig. 6.11 An example of a fault tree for a quay wall with a relieving structure.
6.4.3 Semi-probabilistic design calculation

Principle semi-probabilistic design calculation
The semi-probabilistic design method is characterized by a practical, not too complicated
approach in which the dimensioning of a design can be based on a probabilistic safety
approach. For this no complicated probabilistic analyses are required. These analyses have
been carried out earlier on the limit states of the type of structure under consideration
and have yielded a set of partial factors. A specific partial factor has been determined
for each calculation variable. The principle has been outlined in the previous section.
With the semi-probabilistic design calculation, the structure and members of the structure
are verified on the occurrence of a number of relevant limit modes within the defined
limit states. For each limit state, the design value of forces caused by loads ‘Sd ’ is com-
pared with the design value of the strength ‘Rd of the structure or part of the structure
in question.
The requirement that the probability of exceeding of a limit state is smaller than the value
set in the chosen safety category is formulated as follows:
Fd ≤ Rd or Ed ≤ Rd
The determination of distribution of forces is based on the design values of the various
parameters. Depending on the type of parameter, these are determined by multiplying or
dividing the characteristic values of the parameters by the partial factor in question.
Thus the design value of loads Fd is found from: Fd = γf · Frep , or Ed = γSd · E
the design value for material properties Xd from: Xd = Xk /γm
and the design value for the geometric parameters ad . The parameter ad can either be
appointed (nominal value) or be calculated by:
ad = anom ± a
in which:
Frep characteristic value of loads
Xk characteristic value of material properties
γf partial factor for loads
γm partial factor for material properties
anom nominal value of geometrical data
a change made to nominal geometrical data for particular design purposes
When these partial factors are used to determine the dimensions of structure and structural
members, the probability of failure for each structural element remains within the stipulated
safety margins.
226
Quay walls
Semi-probabilistic design calculation to quay structures

The calculation is based on a semi-probabilistic safety approach, in which partial factors are
used to determine the design values for the parameters. The partial factors are determined
by means of probabilistic analyses. These analyses are made for a quay wall with a relieving
structure. The specific characteristics of this type of quay wall have largely determined the
values of the partial factors.
This is clarified by the following characterizations of the quay walls that may be calculated
with this approach:
• Embedded sheet pile wall

• Sheet pile also carrying vertical loads
• Superstructure with high horizontal strength and stiffness (such as a relieving platform)
• Statically determinate foundation
6.4.4 Limit states

Probabilistic safety verifications are used to analyse the boundary between failure and
non-failure of a main function of the structure or of a part of a structure. The analysis
is based on the condition of the structure that is subjected to various combinations of
loads. This analysis uses design values for soil properties, loads, geometry, strength and
stiffness. When reaching the limit state, the function under consideration just satisfies the
requirements. In the Eurocodes distinction is made between Ultimate Limit States (ULS)
and Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
In the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) the following have to be checked, if relevant:
a) EQU = Equilibrium = failure of the construction itself or a part of it, considered as

a rigid body, where the soil strength is irrelevant.
EQU is not relevant for the type of quay walls discussed in this chapter, it’s only
relevant for gravity walls on (weak) rock and anchor walls with relative high tie rods
(rotation equilibrium of anchor walls).
b) STR = Structural = internal failure of the construction or exceptional deformations
of the construction or structural elements including shallow and pile foundations,
where the strength of the building materials of the construction is leading
Examples of STR are:
• Failure of the sheet pile wall/combined wall (yield/break)
• Failure of anchor rod (yield/break)
• Failure of steel or concrete piles (yield/break)
• Failure of steel or concrete coping
• Failure of joints between elements
c) GEO = Geotechnical = failure or exceptional deformations of the subsoil at which
the strength of the soil is leading for the resistance to be provided.
227
Examples of GEO are:

• Failure of pile bearing capacity
• Insufficient passive resistance of a sheet pile wall, diaphragm wall, etc
• Failure of anchor pull-out resistance or of the stabilizing pile trestle system
• Overall instability (e.g. Bishop, Kranz)
d) FAT = fatigue: deals with the failure of the construction or construction elements
because of fatigue.
This is not relevant for quay walls with a relieving platform because of the large
permanent load (earth pressure) and the relative low cyclic loads (differential water
pressure, live load, crane loads, bollard pull).
e) UPL = Uplift: failure of the construction or subsoil because of upward forces by

water pressure or other vertical loads.
Examples of UPL are:

• Empty lock or a dock of a shipyard
• Quay wall with a closed box shaped superstructure
Only relevant at docks, locks and building excavations, not relevant for quay walls in
general.
f) HYD = hydraulic soil failure because of internal erosion by concentrated ground
water flow (piping) in the subsoil because of hydraulic gradients.
• Internal erosion eventually resulting in piping
• Seepage below and behind the structure
• Heave as it can lead to loss of passive resistance
It should be noted that quay structures or retaining structures in unconsolidated cohesive

soils or those with foundations on unconsolidated cohesive soils require for the Ultimate
Limit State GEO:
• Short-term analysis with undrained soil properties

• Long-term analysis with drained soil properties
The ULS GEO concerns the stability of the quay wall itself, such as:
• Failure of the stabilizing pile trestle system or the anchorage

• Insufficient bearing capacity of the foundation
ULS GEO type B (clause 2.4.9(2)P in NEN 9997-1) concerns the situation in which the
deformation of the quay wall leads to a ULS in adjacent structures (e.g. crane beam on shal-
low foundation) or facilities. The quay wall itself remains stable but in adjacent structures
or facilities serious structural damage may occur. Also for failure of the superstructure
itself due to large deformations of foundation elements.
228
Quay walls
SLS GEO deals with the serviceability of the quay structure based on the deformation
under loads while in use. This limit state is reached if:
• Deformations that affect the appearance or efficient use of the structure and the
adjacent structures.
• Deformations exceed the acceptable values or do not satisfy specific requirements
relating to deformation.
In practice, the operators of the quay facilities usually make few stipulations in relation to
deformation resulting from loads applied during the use of the quay. Often the designer will
make a prediction of the deformation, which, if possible, must be based on measurements
taken on comparable quay structures that are in use. When field experience has been used
in the design for the ULS, the deformation may remain within limits acceptable to the
operators.
In cases where stringent requirements are imposed on the position of the crane tracks,
deformation-requirements may be normative. The designer must realize that vertical defor-
mation caused by dredging in front of the quay can scarcely be influenced by a design choice
or by constructional measures. One solution may be to install the crane rails or the upper
parts of the crane beam, with space for the crane rails, only after the dredging operation
has been completed.
In certain conditions it may be necessary to set stringent requirements on deformation
behaviour. For example, if adjacent objects are susceptible to deformation and there is a
good chance that they will be damaged by deformation of the quay wall. In such cases a stiff
bearing quay structure must be chosen, for example, a design with MV-piles as anchoring
members is a good option. For more information on this subject, refer to Section 6.3.6,
‘Deformation behaviour of quay structures’.
For ULS STR/GEO the most unfavourable of following two formulas has to be taken
(NEN-EN 1990, equations 6.10a and 6.10b):
1.35G + 1.5ψ0 · (Q1 + Q2 + Q3 . . .) [6.10a]

1.2G + 1.5Q1 + 1.5ψ0 · (Q2 + Q3 . . .) or
0.9G + 1,5Q1 + 1.5ψ0 · (Q2 + Q3 . . .) [6.10b]
1.0G + Ad + ψ2 · (Q1 + Q2 + Q3 . . .) [6.10c] ALS (accidental load situation)
Factors given in this equations apply to RC2, for load factors for other RC’s see Table 6.5.
G = permanent action
Q = variable actions (These include forces from mooring, berthing and horizontal crane
loads)
ψ0 = combination factor
Design Approach
According to the Eurocodes there are three design approaches possible. The Netherlands
has in their National Annex chosen for Design Approach 3 (DA3) with partial factors on
the material characteristics and partial factors on the actions.
229
Table 6.2
Failure mechanism Limit state Retaining Retaining Retaining Retaining
(geotechnical and wall wall wall wall
structural) type 1 type 2 type 3 type 4
vertical bearing force subsoil GEO x
vertical pile bearing capacity GEO x x x
(compression)
vertical pile bearing capacity GEO/UPL x x
(tension)
horizontal bearing force GEO x x
subsoil
horizontal soil resistance GEO x x x
vertical soil fracture (heave) GEO/UPL x
tension resistance GEO/UPL x
anchorage1)
overall stability GEO x x x x
overturning EQU x
local stability/high sliding GEO x
plane (e.g. Kranz)
structural strength wall STR x x x x
structural strength piles STR x x
structural strength STR x
anchorage1)
structural strength other STR x
elements1)
failure trough very large STR x x x x
deformations
internal erosion HYD x x x x
under and back seepage and HYD x x x x
piping
1)
can also be applied to type 1, 2 or 3 when anchorage, soil nailing or soil reinforcement is used.
The limit state by failure or exceptional deformation has to be checked with the following
combination of partial factors:
Combination: (A1 or A2) + M2 + R3

A1 = structural actions
A2 = geotechnical actions
M2 = material characteristics
R3 = resistance
Note: the partial factors (shown for Design Approach 3 only) mentioned below must be
checked in the latest version of NEN 9997-1 (valid at the time the calculations are made).
230
Quay walls
Fig. 6.12 Failure mechanism of shallow founded retaining wall (Type 1: see Section 3.2 gravity wall).
Fig. 6.13 Failure mechanism of on piles founded retaining wall (Type 2: see Section 3.4 sheet pile walls
with retaining platforms and Type 3 L-shaped walls).
This book considers different safety design models and safety approaches for two types of
structures:
A. Relatively complex quay wall structures with relieving platforms

B. Simple quay wall structures without relieving platforms
Due to the complexity of a quay wall with a relieving platform on piles these type
of structures should be calculated with FEM, as will be explained in more detail in
231
Fig. 6.14 Failure mechanism sheet pile structures (Type 4: see Section 3.3 sheet pile walls).
Section 6.6.4. However, the partial factors for soil parameters of sheet pile walls (Table
A.4b of NEN 9997-1:2012) are based on probabilistic analyses of simple quay walls (type
B). Therefore, additional probabilistic calculations were carried out within the framework
of this book, which analysed FEM model of a quay wall with a relieving platform (type A).
Based on these analyses it was found that when using phi-c reduction the partial factors on
soil parameters should be higher than prescribed in Table A.4b of NEN 9997-1:2012. The
M2 factors for type A quay walls are given in table Table 6.3 and for type B quay walls in
Table 6.4.
Table 6.3 Partial factors for soil parameters (YM ) according to Table A.4a of NEN 9997-
1:2012 for Type A structures = quay walls with a relieving platform founded
on piles [for the FEM e.g. Plaxis].
Soil parameter Symbol Combination
M1 M2
Overall Stability* & Quay wall with
relieving floor on piles
Reliability/Consequence Class
RC1/CC1 RC2/CC2 RC3/CC3
Angle of internal frictiona γϕ NA 1.2 1.25 1.3
Effective cohesion γ c NA 1.3 1.45 1.6
Undrained shear strength γcu NA 1.5 1.75 2.0
Unconfined compression strength γqu NA 1.5 1.75 2.0
Density γγ NA 1.0 1.00 1.0
a This factor is applied to tan φ’
NA = not applicable
For explanation of M1 and M2 see NEN EN 1997-1
∗ For the load factor on the maximum anchor force in case of local stability (e.g. Kranz) see Section 6.7 phase 11.1
232
Quay walls
Table 6.4 Partial factors for soil parameters (YM ) according to Table A.4b of NEN 9997-
1:2012 for sheet piles (Type B structures = simple quay walls like an anchored
sheet pile wall with a coping) [for the spring supported beam method e.g.
D-sheet].
Soil parameter Symbol Combination
M1 M2
Sheet pile wall (simple quay wall)
Reliability/Consequence Class
RC1/CC1 RC2/CC2 RC3/CC3
Angle of internal frictiona γϕ NA 1.15 1.175 1.20
Effective cohesion γc NA 1.15 1.25 1.40
Undrained shear strength γcu NA 1.50 1.60 1.65
Unconfined compression strength γqu NA 1.50 1.60 1.65
Density γγ NA 1.00 1.00 1.00
a This factor is connected with tan ϕ
NA = not applicable
For explanation of M1 and M2 see NEN EN 1997-1
∗ For the load factor on the maximum anchor force in case of local stability (e.g. Kranz) see Section 6.7 phase 11.1
Only if the structure does not have to be modelled with FEM (simple quay wall structures,
type B), the partial factors of Table 6.4 may be used. In all other cases Table 6.3 should
be used.
Table 6.5 Recommended values of -factor for combinations of variable actions on quay
walls (Source: engineering judgment/ROM 0.5-05/BS 6349-2:2010 Table A.2).
Action Combination Frequent Quasi static
factor, 0 value, 1 value, 2
Uniform terrain load (cargo: containers, bulk goods) 0.7 0.5 0.3
Ship ramp loads (roll on roll of) 0.7 0.5 0
Traffic loads/actions (port vehicles) 0.6 0.4 0
Crane loads (crane for cargo handling) 0.6 0.4 0
Mooring loads (bollard pull/hawser load) 0.7 0.3 0
Ship berthing loads (reaction force fendering) 0.7 0.3 0
Earth pressures 1.0 1.0 1.0
(Ground) water pressures 1.0 1.0 1.0
Differential settlement 1.0 1.0 1.0
Environmental/Meteorological loads 0.7 0.3 0
(wind, waves, current, temperature, ice)
Design calculation for STR/GEO

The design value of the actions will be found by multiplication with a load factor and the
design value of the soil parameter by dividing by a material factor:
Design load: Fd = γF · Frep
233
Table 6.6 Partial factors for actions (YF ) or load effects (YE ) according to A.3 of NEN
9997-1:2012.
Action Symbol Combination
A1 A2
Other Retaining structure
Permanent unfavourable YG 1.35abc 1.0 1.0
favourable 0.9 1.0 1.0
Variable unfavourable YQ 1.5bd 1.3bd 1.1bd
favourable 0 0 0
a = Only with small variable actions is this value leading, see formula (6.10a) in NEN-EN 1990. Else should
be calculated with YG∗ ξ, see formula (6.10b) in NEN-EN 1990. Presumed ξ = 0.85 than Y *ξ = 1.2.
G
See also National Annex of NEN-EN 1990.
b = The value given here applies to RC2. For RC1 a multiplication factor of 0.9 and for RC3 a factor of 1.1
should be applied. In the column sheet pile wall for RC1 YQ = 1.0 and for RC 3 YQ = 1.25.
c = For liquid pressures with a physical limited value Y may be reduced to 1.0 if water levels are determined
G
according to Section 6.6.5
d = For horizontal loads on quay structures, such as wind loads and horizontal crane loads a load factor of 1,3
is recommended. The ϕ – reduction on soil properties has no influence on these forces. Originally the load
factor should be 1,5 for RC 2 (A1) but because of the model factor on the anchor force in Chapter 6.7.2
phase 9.3 a reduction to 1.3 is considered acceptable.
Design values of actions in permanent and temporary design situations.
The factors in column A1 apply to geotechnical loads on a geotechnical construction. These

actions include forces from mooring, berthing and horizontal crane loads.
The factors in column A2 apply to geotechnical loads on geotechnical constructions, not

being a foundation. In this case, these geotechnical loads have to be calculated with design
values of the soil parameters, such as ϕd . For a further explanation see clauses 2.4.2(a) and
(b) of NEN 9997-1.
The values in column A2 – Other – apply to loads on, for example, an embankment. With
a quay wall these values apply when checking the overall stability of the quay wall (such
as a Bishop analysis with deep seated sliding planes).
The values in column A2 – Retaining structure – apply to loads on retaining structures.

With a quay wall these values apply when checking the strength of the quay wall itself
(calculation and verifying of bending moment, shear force etc.).
Further explanation:
The current European standards are not written for structures which are a retaining wall
(A2) and a foundation (A1) on the same time like a quay wall with a relieving floor. This
234
Quay walls
causes problems because in the Netherlands DA3 is prescribed in the national annex. DA3
uses different factors on structural actions and geotechnical actions.
e.g. surface load:

1) On the relieving floor * 1.35 (for structure and bearing piles), but *0.9 for tension
piles. Also 0.9 * Horizontal component out of inclined bearing piles
2) Behind the relieving floor, for the effect
a. On the combined wall * 1.0 on the bending moment because it is a retaining
wall (A2)
b. On the combined wall * 1.35 because it gives the tension on the MV-piles (A1).
Because of this lack in the (European) Standards it is recommended to use following factors
in the following cases:
Calculation of sub-structure and superstructure (relieving floor) with FEM.
A. Substructure (foundation elements):

Geotechnical FEM calculation (e.g. PLAXIS) only to be used for the foundation
elements.
Load factors for GC 2:
1. Loads on superstructure: according to table 6.6:
– on permanent loads: 0.9 c.q. 1.2/1.35 (weight on superstructure/relieving floor
including soil above floor)
– live loads general: 1.5
– horizontal live loads: 1.3 (table 6.6 requires 1.5 but reduction to 1.3 is rec-
ommended because of the model factors on anchor force in Section 6.7
phase 9).
2. Loads on soil surface behind superstructure: 1.1 (load factor exerted via ϕ /c
reduction).
With these factors the bending moments in the retaining wall and design loads on
foundation elements are determined.
Model factors on anchor forces according to Section 6.6 phase 9 to be applied on
design anchor load determined with φ-c reduction.
B. Superstructure: use table 6.6 without reductions.
The Serviceability Limit State (SLS) has to be checked with a partial factor of Y = 1.0.
Partial factor for resistance of pre-stressed anchorages

For the check of ULS at failure or exceptional deformations of the structure (STR) and
subsoil (GEO) of pre-stressed anchorage according to set R1, R2, R3 or R4 the following
partial factors should be used on the resistance (YR ).
Values for set R3 are given only because they apply to Design Approach 3
235
Table 6.7 Partial factor (YR ) for pre-stressed anchors

according to table A.12 of NEN 9997-1.
Resistance Symbol Combination
R3
a b
Temporary Ya;t 1.2 1.35
Permanent Ya;p 1.2 1.35
a
for anchors which are subjected to an acceptance test
b
for anchors whereupon no acceptance test will be done
Partial factors (Y R ) for the resistance of the retaining structure

For the check of ULS at failure or exceptional deformations of the structure (STR) and
subsoil (GEO) of the retaining structure according to set R1, R2 or R3 the following partial
factors should be used on the resistance (YR ).
Table 6.8 Partial factors (YR ) for resistance of retain-

ing structures according to table A.13 of
NEN 9997-1 (not for FEM).
Resistance Symbol Set
R3
Bearing capacity YR;V 1.0
Horizontal slide YR;h 1.0
Soil resistance YR;E 1.0
Values for set R3 are given only because they apply to Design Approach 3
Partial factors for checking ULS by hydraulic influences (HYD).

For the check of ULS by hydraulic influences partial factors on the actions (YF ) should be
used.
Table 6.9 Partial factors for loads (YF ) according to

table A.17 of NEN 9997-1; 2012.
Action/Force Symbol Value
Permanent
• Unfavourablea YG;dst 1.0
• Favourableb YG;stb 0.9
Variable
• Unfavourablea YQ;dst 1.5
• Favourableb YQ;stb 0
a
= driving
b
= resistive
236
Quay walls
6.5 Features of the structural design

6.5.1 Introduction
Based on the design philosophy considered in Section 6.4, this section describes and
explains the main features of some quay wall designs. The calculations needed for this are
often general and are not considered here. The principles are discussed in Sections 6.6 and
6.7. The design process starts from a situation in which global functional terms of reference
are already available and in which the most important functional requirements are defined.
It is assumed that the type of ships that will be handled at the quay is known and that
associated nautical guaranteed and design depths have been determined. In addition, the
levels of the quay area and the top of the quay wall have been determined. From these,
general lines forming the basis for the determination of the geometry of the quay wall are
established. It is also assumed that some information on the soil mechanic properties of
the subsoil is available.
Based on the above, a number of quay designs for the following two situations are developed
in Sections 6.5.2:
• Situation with a low retaining height (<5 m), for the transshipment of barges to the
shore and storage of containers and general cargo
• Situations with a retaining height (>5 m), for the transshipment and storage of
containers, general cargo and bulk goods such as ores and coal
For each situation a specific set of data consisting of a summary of the most important
functional requirements and a characterization of the soil mechanical structure of the
substrata is used. This is based on requirements and conditions that have been encountered
in practice. For each situation designs based on construction in a dry building pit or from
the waterside are developed. For situations with a limited retaining height the draft designs
that are developed do not have a relieving platform. Instead of this, the design is based
on a relatively heavy girder-structure that works as a distribution structure to transfer
concentrated horizontal and vertical loads to the quay system. The sheet pile wall has
mainly a retaining function. For situations with medium and very large retaining heights,
the design is based on concepts with a relieving platform.
In the design stages that follow, which are not considered in this section, after some further
elaboration general construction costs of the designs are determined. The qualitative and
quantitative aspects can then be compared. Based on these comparisons, the most suitable
design can be chosen and worked out to the level of a provisional design.
6.5.2 Starting points in the development of a quay design

Geometry
For the development of a general design and the determination of the geome-
try of quay structures, supplementary information is still required on the following
237
subjects:
• Positioning of water and landside crane tracks

• General layout of the quay deck, taking into account the transport of people and goods
(by a service road), storage and transshipment of loads
• Positioning of bollards
• Starting points in relation to the berthing of ships and fendering
Method of construction
For the first stage of the design it is important to understand how the quay wall can or
must be executed. In principle, it can be assumed that in a location with sufficient foreland
the quay wall will be built in a dry building pit. To restrict corrosion it is recommended
that sheet piles should be installed at a level below extreme low water level. Usually
construction costs are lower for a quay wall executed in a dry building pit than those for
a quay executed from the waterside. However, if the construction site is within or on the
bank of the harbour basin, it is often necessary or desirable to construct the quay from the
waterside. Sometimes it is possible to construct the quay in a dry building pit by using an
auxiliary sheet pile wall or cofferdam.
When the decision falls on construction in a dry building pit is preferred, the quay design
can be optimized by choosing alternative options of the level of the relieving platform can
be developed. This may be influenced by the following aspects:
• Dewatering options in relation to available space, impacts on adjacent buildings and

facilities and impacts on the environment
• Savings on the sheet pile wall achieved by reducing earth pressures, bending moments
and pile driving depth
• Shortening the length of sheet piles and foundation members to reduce risks dur-
ing installation. For a combined sheet pile system often reduction of the length of
intermediate piles is the most important objective
• Restriction of the length of tension and bearing piles in relation to the availability of
supplies and equipment
• Reduction of the number of tension members in the pile trestle by increasing the
vertical load component through the self-weight of soil on the relieving platform
After comparison of building costs, feasibility and construction risks of the various
alternatives, the optimum design can be determined.
With construction from the waterside, the construction level of the relieving platform
should be such that it can be built as independently on the tide as possible. Often pre-
fabricated concrete beams are used. These can be placed on bearing sheet piles and on
a reinforced concrete slab in the form of a strip that is placed at the height of the pile
trestles. In this case, the width of the relieving platform is primarily determined by design
238
Quay walls
conditions for the positioning and inclination of bearing piles. The relieving action of the
superstructure plays a less prominent role than it does in designs with deeper relieving
platforms.
Positioning and inclination of the sheet pile wall

For designs with relieving platforms the sheet pile wall is usually placed directly under the
waterside crane track. The sheet pile wall is connected to the relieving platform by a hinged
saddle support. It is favourable to place the sheet pile wall at the maximum rake (with a
maximum angle between pile axis and the vertical) because in this way (cost)savings on
the foundation are achieved (reduction bending moment and anchor force). Moreover, this
extends the basis of the foundation, thus improving the stability of the quay wall. Pile
drivers can handle piles at a maximum rake with an inclination of 3:1. But in practice,
a maximum rake with an inclination of 5:1 is optimal for medium sized quay walls with
steel piles.
The pile trestle system

One of the following options may be chosen (Fig. 6.9):
• A system with inclined sheet piles and inclined prefabricated concrete tension and
bearing piles (at a maximum rake with an inclination of 3:1). This system is not
suitable for high to very high retaining heights due to the very close grouping of the
piles that is required.
• A system with inclined sheet piles, MV-tension piles at a gradient of approx. 45◦
in the position of the sheet piles and inclined prefabricated concrete or vibro piles
bearing piles. Usually the MV-piles are placed close to the sheet pile wall. The vertical
component of the tensile force in the MV-piles is taken up by the piles of the sheet
pile wall.
• A system with inclined sheet piles, horizontal anchors and inclined prefabricated
concrete bearing piles. This option is only used in particular circumstances.
In addition to the above options with prefabricated concrete or vibro piles tension and
bearing piles and MV-piles, there are many other possible types of pile that could be used.
The use of tension anchors such as grout and screw injection anchors may be an option.
For specific information such as approximate dimensions, possible angles of inclination
and range of bearing capacities of various types of foundation members and anchorages
is reffered to Chapter 7.
Usually the foundation of a quay wall can be schematized to one pile trestle and one
row of bearing piles. When the sheet piles are hinged to the relieving structure, it
can be assumed that the bearing of the relieving structure is statically determinate.
When an anchorage is used instead of tension piles, this is also statically determi-
nate. The bearing reactions of the relieving platform on the supports can thus easily be
determined.
239
A foundation design that is both effective and economical can be achieved by taking the
maximum rake for the piles. For prefabricated concrete piles and vibro piles, an inclination
of 3:1 can often be used without any problem. If the foundation is constructed with tension
and bearing, it is often necessary to use several rows of tension and bearing piles. To
avoid pile-driving problems it is necessary to pay attention to the choice of the minimum
distance between the piles. Furthermore, it is necessary to consider possible reductions in
the bearing capacity of tension piles caused by the density of the pile group. If settlement
resulting from loads on the site or lowering of the ground water level is anticipated, it may be
necessary to reduce the rake of prefabricated concrete piles. In that case, the effectiveness
of tension piles might be so seriously reduced that steel tension piles at a greater rake
would seem to be a more obvious choice. A combination of MV-piles at an inclination of
approx. 45◦ and prefabricated concrete bearing piles often provides a good and economical
solution for quay walls with greater retaining heights. This option is usually composed of
a row of MV-piles that forms a pile trestle, with bearing sheet piles and some rows of
prefabricated concrete piles.
The result of the foundation design must be such that the construction width is in reasonable
relation with the retaining height. The construction width is the distance between the
tip of the bearing sheet pile wall and the centre of gravity of the area from which the
tension piles derive their capacity. A designer with experience and a good structural sense
can already see the state of the stability of a quay wall design from all these geometric
relations.
Width and level of the relieving platform

The width of the relieving platform is determined by the foundation design. The reduction
of earth pressures on the sheet pile wall that has to be achieved is essential. Moreover, it
is necessary to consider the positioning of the row of bearing piles on the waterside. The
pile tip and the part that contributes to the bearing capacity of the bearing pile via positive
friction must remain at a sufficient distance from the area that is influenced by deformation
of the sheet piles. This relates especially to the effect of relaxation of horizontal effective
stress, which results in a decrease in the cone resistance. In any case, the chosen pile tip
level may not be above the shear centre of the fixed-end sheet pile. Usually the relieving
platform does not extend further than is necessary to transfer the forces to the foundation
members. However, some reserve is kept to accommodate possible shortcomings caused
by pile driving deviations.
When quays are constructed from the waterside, the underside of the superstructure must
be positioned well above the low water level. Then the relieving effect of the superstructure
is less than for deeper relieving structures, that are built in a dry building pit, in which case
the width of the relieving structure is determined more by the positioning and inclination
of the rows of bearing piles. In some situations, for example if the quay is situated on the
bank of a harbour basin, an underwater slope can be made under the relieving platform or
an existing slope can be used to reduce the earth pressures on the sheet piles, Fig. 6.15b
and d.
240
Quay walls
+3.35 +3.35
NAP NAP
-0.40
-2.00 6:1 Prefab 1:2 Prefab
7:1
concrete pile concrete pile
Combi-wall Combi-wall
As ToR As ToR
3:1
3:1
3:1
3:1
-22.00 ca. -22.50 -22.00 ca. -22.50
-34.00 -34.00
a Draft design b Draft design
Constructed in a dry building pit Constructed from the water side
+3.35 +3.35
NAP NAP
-0.40 Prefab
-2.00 Prefab
1:2 concrete pile
6:1
concrete pile
Combi-wall Combi-wall 7:1 MV-pile
MV-pile
As ToR As ToR
3:1
3:1
1:
1
1:
1
-22.00 ca. -22.50 -22.00 ca. -22.50
ca-25.00
ca-25.00
-34.00 -34.00
c Alternative draft design d Alternative draft design

Constructed in a dry building pit Constructed from the water side
Fig. 6.15 Draft designs medium retaining height.
6.6 Design models and calculation methods of retaining walls

6.6.1 Introduction
Design codes such as Eurocode allow for different design models and calculation meth-
ods to be used when defining loading conditions on the structural elements of hydraulic
structures. In this section, only the specific mathematical models and calculation methods
that are used in the design of quay structures or quay members are included. The following
subjects are considered:
• Sheet pile calculations general

• Calculation with spring supported beam method
• Calculations with Finite Element Method (FEM)
• Calculation and verification of the stability of the quay system and quay members
• Calculation of the bearing capacity of foundation members
241
The first subject is treated in detail in CUR 166. Here only broad lines and principles
are considered. The paragraph on the Finite Element Method provides some specific
design considerations for quay walls. The items calculation and verification of stability
are outlined for the aspects related to quay walls. For the calculation methods to determine
bearing capacity of foundation members, the available regulations and results of some
recently published CUR reports are used. For each subject attention is paid to issues
specific to quay structures. Familiarity with structural mathematical models is assumed
and not explained here.
6.6.2 Sheet pile calculations general

For the calculation and dimensioning of sheet piles in a quay structure, two calculation
methods are considered suitable. These are the calculation method based on the principle
of a beam supported by springs and the finite element method.
The spring supported beam design models are considered to be simple and user-friendly
and therefore suitable for designing simple quay wall structures such as anchored sheet
pile walls. The spring supported beam method uses a relatively simple schematization
of the soil and takes into account the soil-structure interaction of the front wall only.
If the quay structure or the construction sequence becomes more complex though, this
method requires simplifications which often do not sufficiently capture the behaviour
and interaction of the different structural components and soil. Examples of aspects
which are difficult to model correctly with this method are: dissipation of excess pore-
pressures caused by backfill, inclined walls and the influence of a relieving platform on the
front wall.
When designing with a finite element method the properties of both soil and all individual
structural elements are introduced. With this method of calculation, stresses and defor-
mations of soil and structural members as well as their interaction can be calculated in
a fundamental way. Furthermore, it provides a design tool with which a number of dif-
ferent design verifications can be carried out with one model. Although significant steps
have been undertaken to improve user-friendliness in the recent past, this method is still
considered to be rather complicated and time consuming.
Table 6.10 provides the advantages and disadvantages of both methods.
In general it is therefore strongly recommended to use the spring-supported beam method

only for simple quay wall structures or for a first development of (draft) designs of more
complex quay walls. The finite element method can also be used for simple quay wall
structures but is especially of added value when considering complex quay structures.
With this calculation method it is possible to calculate a sequence of phases in which

the stress history of the sheet pile is carried to the following phase. The input of spring
characteristics of the soil caused by fill or excavation operations can also be changed
during the calculation process. In the same way, pre-stressing of anchors can be included
242
Quay walls
Table 6.10 Advantages and disadvantages of design methods.

Method Advantages Disadvantages
Spring supported – Simple user-friendly input – Only covers the soil-structure
beam model – Short calculation times interaction of the front wall
– Easy to be adjusted and thus a – Required simplifications are not
powerful tool for development of always straightforward and may
(draft) designs lead to significant differences in
– Safety approach fully results
incorporated in the software – Modelling of inclined walls is
– Results can easily be verified by difficult
second parties – Modelling of undrained behaviour
– Simple and easy to understand soil is generally not included
schematizations – Prescribed form of failure planes
(only straight or curved)
– Only provides a rough estimate of
deformations
– Impact of inclined surfaces on
passive side are often
overestimated
– Surface deformation behind
quay wall is not covered
– Difficult to accurately model the
effect of a relieving platform
– Arching (Umlagerung) between
fixed points is not considered
(springs are uncoupled)
Finite Element – A fundamental approach – Higher level of knowledge on
Method resulting in a smaller amount of the schematization of soil
required simplifications behaviour required
– Virtually no limitations in – Verification of calculations and
geometry (e.g. inclined walls or results by second parties is
relieving platforms) difficult
– Covers the interaction of all the – More difficult incorporation
structural members and their of safety approach (partial factors,
soil-structure interaction geometrical adaptation, more
– Calculations can be carried out in geotechnical investigation etc.)
2D and 3D
– Enables dynamic calculations
– Groundwater flow calculations
incorporated
– All stability verifications carried
out in one calculation
– Reliable estimates of deformations
– No prescribed failure planes
– Effects of piles behind retaining
wall can be considered
in the phasing. However, the reliability of phasing calculations is doubtful because the
schematizing of the behaviour of soil is far from being perfect. It has been found that when
an unfavourable load situation occurs during an earlier phase the distribution of forces
in the sheet pile after relieving decreases much less than might be anticipated in reality.
243
For example, the unfavourable moments that develop in sheet piles due to relatively high
pre-stressing of the anchorage continue to dominate in subsequent phases. This does not
agree with reality, in which the pre-tensioning and the effect of this on the sheet pile seems
to decrease overtime as a result of creep. This can be explained from the effect of pre-
stressing on the sheet piling, that is determined not only by the behaviour of soil in the
area of influence close to the sheet piling, but also by the soil mass between sheet piles
and anchorage. The question is whether this phased calculation approach is suitable for
the verification of safety in the ULS.
In the calculation of the sheet pile as part of a quay structure the following aspects have to
be considered:
• Effect of inclination of the wall on active and passive earth pressures

• Effect of axial load from the superstructure on the distribution of forces in the sheet
piling
• Effect of an eccentrically placed saddle on the upper side of the sheet piling on the
distribution of forces
• Effect of transfer of axial load at the tip of the sheet pile on the sheet piling
Most programs do not allow for the input of data on inclined sheet piles. The effects of
inclination on the horizontal earth pressures are therefore taken into account by using
adjusted earth pressure coefficients. The programs do not usually take into account axial
loads either. The effect on the distribution of forces, such as the second order effect,
must be calculated. The eccentric moment that acts as a result of the eccentric position
of the saddles on top of the sheet piles can be input to most programs as an external
load (bending moment). For the principle of distribution of moments in sheet piles,
see Fig. 6.16.
6.6.3 Calculation with spring supported beam method

In this design model the ground is schematized as a set of elasto-plastic springs. Only with
adequate deformation of the sheet pile the plastic branch of the ground spring is reached
and minimum active earth pressures or maximum passive earth resistances develop. If there
is no displacement, the earth pressure is neutral. Because the earth pressures depend on the
deformation of the sheet pile wall the calculation follows an iterative process. After each
calculation step a verification is made whether the calculated earth pressures correspond
with the displacements. The calculation process ends when the results have converged. The
available computer programs are based on uncoupled springs. This means that the effect
of arch working of the ground, which causes an important reduction of the moment in the
span in non-cohesive soil, is not taken into account.
The determination of parameters is discussed in Section 6.7.
244
Schematisation Resultant M M M M Shear forces Displacements
earth pressure earth pressure eccentric 2 nd order resultant
Nd Nd
N d . e ecc Nd .
n .
δ
n-1
Md span max
lbuckling
δ
Centre of
moments
Centre of
moments Load centre
Deep shear
Md fix max
centre
0.5 N d . eecc F buckling = π2 EI

lbuckling 2
Nv
Fig. 6.16 Principle of the moment distribution of the sheet pile wall. In which n = Fbuckling /Nd
Quay walls
245
If non-horizontal surfaces and/or non-uniform surcharge loads are required one is obliged
to use the Culmann soil schematization. The Culmann procedure may however result in
poor estimations of the forces on a more complex quay wall due to the following limitations:
• The introduction of a relief platform implicitly introduces a jump in soil profile which
is not covered by Culmann and may therefore result in incorrect pressures on the front
wall.
• Surcharge loads can only be modelled assuming vertical loads only.
• For the situation that the green field surface is located at a larger distance behind the
retaining wall the Culmann procedure may significantly underestimate the horizontal
loading on the retaining wall.
• Because the Culmann procedure assumes straight sliding planes the passive soil pres-
sure is overestimated and the active soil pressure is underestimated at high values of
ϕ (ϕ > 35◦ ). On the other hand the Culmann procedure overestimates the passive
resistance of supporting banks.
6.6.3.2 Coefficient for lateral effect in stress according to different theories

For the classical analysis of soil retaining structures the loading effects are often calculated
as a ratio to the vertical soil stress, using parameters such as λa or equivalently Ka , λn or
K0 and λp or Kp , respectively the coefficient for active effective soil stress, for neutral
effective soil stress and the coefficient for passive effective soil stress. Classically λa and
λp were calculated according to Rankine’s theory of soil stress based on Mohr-Coulomb’s
theory of soil strength, that yielded for a horizontal ground surface and a vertical wall.
Retaining function of the sheet pile wall

For the calculation of sheet pile walls that also have a bearing function, the favourable
working of the angle of wall friction δ is often taken into account in the determination of
horizontal active and passive soil pressures. A precondition for this is that friction between
soil and sheet pile wall is downward on the active side and upward on the passive side.
With adequate deformation, active earth pressure takes on the minimum value and passive
earth pressure the maximum value.
When the sheet pile wall settles as a result of high axial loads, the wall friction between
the sheet piles and soil mass can change direction, causing increased active earth pressure.
For axially loaded sheet pile walls it is necessary to ensure that after settling of the toe
of the sheet pile wall, wall friction can still be taken as a starting point. To illustrate this,
Fig. 6.17 shows for various directions of the angle of wall friction δ, the effect on the
magnitude of the resultant of active earth pressure Ea based on an equilibrium assumption
of the active sliding wedge. In this analysis of equilibrium, the reaction force of the wall
on the active soil wedge is used instead of the resultant of the active earth pressure Ea .
This approximation assumes a fixed value for the angle of the sliding plane θ a despite the
dependence of δ. It is clear that the resultant of the active earth pressure Ea with a maximum
positive value of δ gets a minimal value and increases when the value of δ decreases.
246
Quay walls
e
ac
α
u rf
gs
din
G
Sli - E aδ -
- E aδ + δ E aδ δ
δ δ +
δ+ Q
Ea Q Q Q
ϕ G G G
θa
Fig. 6.17 Effect of the direction of wall friction δ on the resultant active earth pressure Ea (see NEN
9997-1 Figure 9b in §9.5.3.)
In a comparable way, the passive earth pressures are dependent on the value of δ.The
horizontal component of the minimum active and maximum passive earth pressures can
be determined with the aid of earth pressure coefficients Ka and Kp that are defined in
NEN 9997-1 §9.5.3. The expressions for the coefficients of earth pressures due to the
self-weight of the soil Kγ;a;d and Kγ;p;d are:
cos2 (ϕd + α)
Kγ;a;d = 2
sin (ϕd +δa;d ) sin (ϕd −βa )
cos2 α 1 + cos(α−δ a;d ) cos (α+βa )
cos2 (ϕd + α)
Kγ;p;d = 2
sin (ϕd −δp;d ) sin (ϕd +βp )
cos α 1 − cos (α−δp;d ) cos (α+βp )
2
The value of δ should be less than or equal to 20◦ , so when the angle of internal friction ϕ
is larger than 30◦ , δ is reduced.
Figure 6.18 shows Mohr’s circle for wall friction δ = 0. The angles of both the active
sliding plane θ a and the passive sliding plane θ p are given. The various parameters and the
convention for signs (+ or −) that are used for the sliding angles θ and the earth pressure
coefficients Kare also defined. It should be noted that maximum positive values of δ give
minimal active and maximum passive earth pressures. If the sheet pile wall is loaded by
an axial tensile force the wall friction is reduced and, from a certain magnitude of the
tensile force, the direction of the wall friction will be reversed. The effect of this is that
maximum passive earth pressures are also reduced. When designing sheet pile walls this
phenomenon must be taken into account.
Also the theory of Kötter (based on log-spiral shaped sliding surface) of Culmann (straight
sliding surface) can be used (c ϕ, δ method).
247
ϕ
. tan
τ τ=σ
ϕ θa θp
0
σ 3a σ
σ1
σ3p
β+
α- α+ β-
Ea
δ a+
δ a-
β+
α+
β- α-
δ p-
δ p+
Ep
Fig. 6.18 Relevant angles for the determination of active and passive earth pressure coefficients Ka and
Kp and angles of sliding planes θa and θp .
A very transparent theory which is still valid for a retaining wall that cannot take wall
friction.
In engineering practice however, real walls are not smooth but in general relatively rough.
The design based on the above mentioned relations might be (too) conservative and
therefore too costly.
To cope with this limitation in time more refined relations to calculate soil stresses on
retaining walls were developed. For that purpose one had to adopt a shape for the curva-
ture of the shear-surface. One solution that has become quite popular due to its simplicity
is known as Müller-Breslau’s equations, which assume straight shear surfaces. Other solu-
tions based on curved shear surfaces, were found by Caquot & Kerisel (C&K) and by
248
Quay walls
Kötter. The solution by C&K has been recently adopted by the Eurocode. For practi-
cal purposes the differences between C&K and Kötter are only limited. The differences
between Muller-Breslau (MB) and the latter two however may not be disregarded, particu-
larly with high values of ϕ . Especially for the calculation of the passive resistance MB may
overestimate the soil resistance, therefore, although MB theory according to the Eurocode
is still allowed one needs to further reduce the wall friction to get acceptable results; in
case a spring supported beam method is used in combination with MB or if the Culman
method is applied to account for variations in the level of green field, one needs to further
reduce the wall friction angle. For a semi-rough wall, which is the common case, according
to Table 3.2 of CUR 166 one needs to apply for example δ = 2/3ϕ , whereas if the analysis
is based on C&K or Kötter, i.e. curved shear surfaces, one may apply δ = ϕ − 2.5◦ .
Subgrade considerations for D-sheet

In the Netherlands it is customary to derive a horizontal subgrade reaction modulus, for
the analysis of soil retaining walls from the CUR 166 Sheet Piling book, Table 3.10. This
table gives a range of characteristic values that, for sheet pile design, can be adopted in a
sub-grade reaction model such as D-sheet. For most common building pits the values given
in this table are readily applicable and sufficiently conservative. However one needs to be
aware that a subgrade reaction modulus in itself depends on the size of the structure it is
applied for in design; a subgrade reaction modulus is a stiffness parameter that implicitly
takes into account some characteristic length of the structure.
One may recognize this looking at the dimensions of the subgrade reaction modulus:
kh ≈ [kN/m3 ], whereas the stiffness of soil in generally is better expressed with a Young’s
modulus or a Shear modulus E or G ≈ [kN/m2 ], apparently some measure of length must
be taken into consideration for the inference of a subgrade reaction modulus.
In general;
E
kh ≈
l
where l, is a length parameter, that is still unknown.
This character of geometry dependency was recognized by e.g. Menard, see also CUR 166,
who proposed to use:
E 2E
kh = −4
≈
(α a2 + 13(a · 9 · 10 ) ) α · a
α
where α (and E) are soil type dependent parameters and 2/3D < a < D, where D is the
length of the retaining wall.
249
From this one may conclude that the subgrade reaction modulus, is more or less inversely
dependent on the length of the retaining wall.
For example: if the retaining height of a quay wall is twice as large as the normal retaining
height of a building pit, this would mean that the subgrade reaction modulus taken from
Table 3.1. of the CUR 166 Sheet piling book would need to be divided by a factor of about
2 for application in a Quay wall design.
It is advised to take this effect into account for retaining heights larger than 10 metres.
6.6.4 Finite element method

The finite element method is based on a model in which the behaviour of soil and structure is
integrated. The properties of soil are introduced by means of stress deformation relations.
With this method fundamental calculations of stresses and deformations of earth and
structural members can be made. The method can be used to calculate sectional forces of
the structural members, verify the global stability of the quay wall and to calculate and
verify deformations.
The finite element method can also be used for three-dimensional problems, for example to
investigate the distributions of earth pressures over the primary members and intermediate
piles in combined walls, or soil loads on the piles of a marginal wharf.
Furthermore, quay structures may not always be loaded by static loads only but by dynamic
loads as well. Software based on the finite element method often provides dynamic modules
with which the effect of manmade or natural vibrations in the soil (caused by for example
pile driving or earthquakes) can be investigated. However, one should be aware of the fact
that even advanced software using FEM does not always include all failure modes (e.g.
liquefaction), possible strength reductions (e.g. cyclic degradation) and load increases (e.g.
hydrodynamic loads) caused by vibrations. A description on the use of FEM in seismic
design is not considered to be within the framework of this publication because of the
limited importance of seismic activity in the deltaic areas of Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt.
For more information is referred to NEN-EN1998 and specialist literature in this field.
The software packages that can be used to analyse and calculate geotechnical structures
include PLAXIS (of the PLAXIS Foundation) and DIANA (of TNO).
6.6.4.2 Constitutive models

This paragraph briefly describes the conventional constitutive soil models in FEM in the
Netherlands. The description of these models will be based on the material models in
PLAXIS, as the latter can be considered to be the most commonly used FEM in the
geotechnical field in the Netherlands. Other FEM software support comparable constitutive
models. The constitutive models which are considered to be of interest for quay wall design
are briefly described below. A detailed description of the models is provided in [6.46].
250
Quay walls
• Mohr-Coulomb (MC)
The Mohr-Coulomb model is characterized by a transition from linear elastic to
perfectly plastic defined by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
• Hardening Soil Model (HS)
The Hardening Soil Model also uses the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. However,
the description of the soil stiffness is much more advanced. It includes shear hard-
ening, compression hardening, stress-dependency of stiffness modulo, it allows for
the introduction of pre-consolidation and it distinguishes between elastic behaviour
during unloading and reloading.
• Hardening Soil Small Strain Model (HSS)
This model can be considered to be a modification of the HS model. It includes an
increased stiffness at small strains, resulting in more reliable deformations.
• Soft Soil Creep Model (SSC)
The Soft Soil Creep Model includes the description of viscous behaviour of soils
(e.g. creep), which is especially of interest when encountering soft soils. The SSC
model also uses the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, it includes stress-dependency
of stiffness modulo, it allows for the introduction of pre-consolidation stress and
it distinguishes between unload/reload behaviour. For unloading problems the SSC
model provides comparable results as the MC model.
Generally speaking the Hardening Soil Model (with or without small strain stiffness) is
considered to be the most suitable model for retaining structures, as based on the findings
of Vermeer et al. [6.45]. The MC model should only be used for a first analysis in the
development of draft designs and the SSC model whenever time-dependent behaviour
becomes dominant due to the presence of pre-dominantly soft soils. The Hardening Soil
Small Strain model must be considered especially when it is important that deformations
are calculated with higher accuracy.
The model parameters which are to be used for the HS model and the HS small strain
model are presented below:
γsat Saturated soil weight kN/m3

γunsat Unsaturated soil weight; the weight of the soil above the water kN/m3
table; be aware that this value is higher than the dry soil weight
as the soil always contains some pore water, even above the level
of zero water pressure.
ϕ Soil strength, effective angle of soil friction ◦
c Effective cohesion kN/m2

◦
ψ Angle of dilatancy
ref
E50 Secant Soil Stiffness, for a shear stress level that is 50% of the kN/m2
maximum shear stress in triaxial testing; for a reference stress;
Commonly the reference stress is: pref = 100 kPa
251
ref
EOed Oedometer stiffness for the reference stress kN/m2
ref
Eur Unloading-reloading stiffness; kN/m2
γ0.7 Shear strain for which the Shear modulus is reduced for it’s 70% –
value compared to its small strain value; (HS small-strain)
G0 Shear modulus for very small strain; onset of the Shear modulus kN/m2
at start of shearing. (HS small-strain)
◦
δ Angle of wall friction
kx,y Soil permeability, in x respectively y-direction; required if a m/sec; m/day
groundwater flow analysis is needed to establish the pore water
distribution field.
Rint Interface strength ratio; ratio of the interface’s shear strength
tan(δ)
compared to shearing in the soil; indicatively; Rint ≈ sin(ϕ )
6.6.4.3 Soil parameters FEM

With the introduction of Eurocode characteristic values for the soil parameters are required
as is describe in NEN 9997-1 article 2.4.5.2. If statistical methods are used to derive these
parameters, the characteristic values are defined in a 95 confidence interval (5% probability
that the parameter value is worse).
Fig. 6.19 Soil parameters: Mean value, Low characteristic value and High characteristic value.
Due to the relatively large dimensions of quay structures it is considered acceptable to

use mean values for the soil weight. On the other hand for the soil stiffness one needs
to be aware that both a low stiffness as well as a high stiffness may lead to unfavourable
load combinations. In general it is expected that low characteristic values for the stiffness
of the soil are determinate for the limit state forces of the retaining wall, whereas high
characteristic values of the soil stiffness may be required to evaluate the unfavourable load
combinations for the design of the quay’s anchorages.
If Finite Element analysis is used for the design, the soil weight parameters and strength
parameters that one may use for a spring supported beam analysis are the same. The soil
stiffness parameters that are used in Finite Element analysis are different than the subgrade
modulo that one may be used to work with using spring supported beam analysis.
252
Quay walls
In contradiction to NEN 9997-1, the research by Wolters [6.31] indicates that for a quay
wall design analysis, there is no reason for further reduction of the characteristic stiffness
values, such as is obliged in NEN 9997-1 for a standard Sheet pile analysis. However
one needs to be aware that an analysis based on low characteristic values only will not
suffice. The design values of the Quay’s anchorage requires an additional analysis with
high characteristic values.
6.6.4.4 Wall friction

If one uses Finite Element analysis, implicitly curved shear surfaces are calculated. In that
case the input of wall friction is done not by a direct input of the angle of wall friction but
instead a relative shear strength of the interface between soil and structure is used. In fact
we need to go back to the physical shear that may occur between materials. In the past,
research on this issue was done by Deltares (formerly known as Delft Geotechnics). From
this research it was concluded that the physical friction angle lies between δ = 2/3ϕ and
δ = 0.8ϕ .
Fig. 6.20 Wall friction between soil and steel (source: Deltares).
For a straight wall one would need to apply this value. In engineering practice however
most steel sheet pile walls have a U or Z-type of shape, where the actual surface per m
of wall is larger than the stretch of the wall. In that case, see Fig. 6.21 one may consider
that an actual shear surface for a large part must follow a straight line at the back of the
wall, and any reduction of the wall friction needs to be accounted for, only for a part of
the stretch.
253
Fig. 6.21 Shear surface between soil and sheet piling.
Assuming a physical wall friction of δ = 2/3ϕ for 1/3 of the stretch one would conclude
that no reduction would be necessary. For practical purposes it is advised to use a wall
friction ratio of
Rint = 0.8 to 0.9
In any particular case one may calculate the characteristic wall friction based on the physical
friction ratio and the effective stretch of the wall. For diaphragm walls one must consider
that it is difficult to prevent that any bentonite film may be left on the interface. According
the CUR/COB book for Diaphragm walls it is recommended to use δ = max (2/3 ϕ , 20◦ ).
The latter needs to be further transposed to an interface strength ratio according to:
tan(δ)
Rint ≈
tan(ϕ )
6.6.4.5 Stability verifications

The traditional verifications of global stability with the Bishop and Kranz method as well
as the verification of mobilisation of passive resistance with methods such as Kötter,
Culmann or Müller-Breslau, are based on simplified shapes of shear planes. The shape
of the shear plane used in these methods are pre-defined to be either straight (Culmann,
Müller-Breslau) curved (Bishop, Kötter) or multi-angular (Kranz).
FEM does not prescribe the shear planes as it uses a fundamental approach to determine
stresses and strains and thus possible shear planes. By doing so the dominant possible
failure modes can be estimated without limitations, resulting in a much more accurate
estimation of overall stability.
If instability would already occur during construction stages or SLS operational conditions,
this will result in unstable/unfinished calculations. Instability during SLS conditions is
therefore not allowed in FEM. In order to compute the amount of safety on stability a
so-called ϕ-c-reduction can be carried out. This procedure reduces the strength of the soil
in small steps until the reduction of strength of the soil triggers the dominant failure mode.
Fig. 6.22 shows some failure planes as calculated after ϕ-c-reduction with FEM. When
introducing elasto-plasticity in the structural elements it should be verified if failure during
a ϕ-c-reduction (no increase of SF) is caused by soil failure modes or due to e.g. yielding
of the front wall or piles.
The factor with which the strength has to be reduced in order to get instability can be
considered to be the available amount of safety, or Safety Factor (SF). One has to keep
254
Quay walls
Fig. 6.22 Shear planes caused by collapse of soil body after ϕ-c-reduction.
in mind though that a ϕ-c-reduction procedure reduces the angle of internal friction (by
reducing tan(ϕ)) and cohesion (c) with the same factor. If differences in reduction of both
parameters are required due to differences in partial factors, the ratio between the two
partial factors should be used to reduce one of these parameters beforehand, for example:
If γϕ = 1.25 and γc = 1.5, cohesion of all soil layers should be reduced by a factor 1.2
(=1.5/1.25) beforehand. In this way a ϕ-c-reduction of 1.25 will result in the required
amount of safety for both cohesion and angle of internal friction.
Furthermore, it should be noted that FEM does not recognize “favourable” or

“unfavourable” loading conditions. For example: it is not always known beforehand
whether a surface load behind a quay wall will result in a higher or lower stability for
a Kranz-type of failure mode. One should be aware that a manual adjustment of vari-
able external loads might be required to obtain dominant loading conditions and therefore
determine the lowest available Safety Factor.
6.6.4.6 Tools for modelling quay walls with FEM

In this paragraph some specific quay wall-related issues of modelling with FEM are dis-
cussed. As the amount of possibilities and choices when modelling with FEM are large
255
one should be aware on the influence of these schematization on the final outcome. The
goal of this paragraph is therefore to provide some tools and warn for pitfalls based on
practical experience of modelling quay walls with FEM. It covers some important issues
but should certainly not be considered as exhaustive or complete. Furthermore, develop-
ments of new available modelling options can make parts of this paragraph obsolete in the
(near) future.
Modelling front walls

Front walls are in 2D FEM models represented by plates. These plates can be positioned
under an angle, automatically resulting in a change in stresses on the front wall. This does
not require adjustments of the soil parameters, in contrary to the spring supported beam
method. As a 2D model in fact represents a 1 metre wide strip of the stiffness of the front
wall (EI and EA), should models in 2D models be based on an equivalent stiffness of
1 metre, despite the system width of the front wall which might be larger than 1 metre.
Usually the intermediate sheet piling is shorter than the primary elements. Nevertheless,
the lower part of the combined wall (only primary elements) usually can be modelled as
a continuous plate as well because in current design practice the centre-to-centre distance
of primary elements is such that the full passive resistance can still be mobilized due to
shelling. See CUR 228.
Plate elements in FEM do not provide any end bearing. The end bearing of a front wall
should therefore be modelled separately. This can be achieved by the introduction of a
fixed-end anchor or by the introduction of a perpendicular plate.
Both methods have its limitations though. By applying a fixed-end anchor the stresses
below the pile tip are not incorporated but ‘disappear’ into the fixed-end anchor and out
of the model. Stress increase in the direct vicinity of the wall or pile tip will therefore
unjustly be neglected. On the other hand, the pile tip displacements calculated according
to the norms and standards can much easier be fitted by adjustment of a fixed-end anchor
stiffness compared to a plate. In this way the shaft friction along the front wall will be
estimated more accurately as well.
If the pile tip is represented by a plate, the stress increase near the tip will be modelled
more accurately, but pile tip displacements are more difficult to fit. Besides, one should
be aware that the plate representing the end bearing may in fact result in a spurious change
in bending moments in the front wall due to bending in the plate, representing the pile tip
if a fixed connection is introduced.
Whichever method is preferred depends on the goal of the analysis and is determined by
the criterion if stresses near the pile tip are of any interest or not.
Relieving platforms and shielding effect of pile-rows

In order to prevent direct loading effects of surcharge loads on the quay, especially for large
quay walls quite often the quay wall is designed as a retaining wall with a superstructure
256
Quay walls
that includes a relief platform. The purpose of a relief platform is to prevent that loads
placed, on the quay behind the retaining wall, lead to a direct additional loading of the
retaining wall. For that purpose reason a floor is built, founded on piles that bear the main
part of this surcharge load before it can have a bearing on the front wall. Attention has
to be paid to the modelling of the bottom side of the relieving platform. If the soil and
the bottom of the relieving platform are connected one should be aware of the fact that
there might still be some stress increase below the relieving platform. If this is caused by
spurious modelling effects and not by any physical phenomena, this can be avoided by
applying a work-around such as applying a ‘sponge’ material or a small void below the
floor.
In addition to bearing the surcharge load, the piles under the relief platform have a shielding
effect to bending of the front wall due to surcharge load that is placed outside the area
of the relief platform. The possibilities to adequately model this with a beam on elastic
springs analysis are very limited and have shortcomings.
Due to the relative centre to centre distance between the piles, the piles will take up a part
of the horizontal load that is introduced by the surcharge by bending, see also Fig. 6.25
and Fig. 6.26. As in practical situations the centre to centre distance may be only a few
metres, resulting in a shell factor that may be as low as 2, one may understand that this
may significantly reduce the load that needs to be taken by the front wall.
With Finite Element Analysis in principal, two types of modelling for a quay wall with a
relief platform founded on piles are available.
1) Modelling of the piles as Node-to-Node anchors

2) Modelling of the piles with plate bending elements
For the model where Node-to-Node anchors are used, the pile footing may either be mod-
elled as a fixed end anchor or as a short beam element in cross direction. The latter type of
modelling has the advantage that pile foot bearing effects may be kept within the finite ele-
ment mesh, which has the advantage that the negative effects of piles that are placed within
the influence of the retaining wall may be taken into account. Fixed end anchors on the
other hand, although the model looks adequate on first impression have the shortcoming
that the end force is not taken within the mesh and interaction with other parts is lost.
If the piles are modelled as plates, the stiffness of these plate elements is reduced in the
ratio to the centre-to-centre distance. For this type, bending of these elements may bear a
part of the horizontal loads that are introduced by the surcharge load, eventually resulting in
additional shear forces, normal forces and bending moments in the piles and less bending
moments in the front wall.
Recent research by Sluis [2012] for his MSc thesis, who applied embedded piles in 2D
analysis, an even more advanced type of plate modelling, showed that for a characteris-
tic type of quay wall the results are close to that of the model with the plate elements.
257
As an alternative to embedded piles, the modelling of back piles with plate-elements with
an adequately reduced stiffness based on the centre-to-centre distances, is considered to
be a good option for the modelling of piles under relief platforms.
Sensitivity analysis on stiffness

In FEM as well as in spring supported beam methods estimations on the stiffness of the
various structural components are to be made. It is common practice to use best estimates
(mean values) of the stiffness in design calculations. However, the estimation of the stiffness
of these components is not always straightforward. The stiffness of concrete elements for
example may differ by a factor 3 as a result of the assumption whether concrete will be
cracked (E ≈ 10,000 N/mm2 ) or uncracked (E ≈ 30,000 N/mm2 ).
Another example is the stiffness of piles which is modelled by combining the elastic strain
of the pile together with load-displacement relation based on geotechnical circumstances
(e.g. available bearing capacity, amount of creep). In most cases only simple linear pile-
displacement relations can be used (translation spring or fixed-end anchor) while in fact
pile displacement behaviour caused by loading is non-linear. This indicates that in fact an
iteration between pile load and pile stiffness is required to converge to a best match of the
pile-displacement based on the calculated loads for each load case, which is impractical.
Furthermore, the stiffness of piles, even when represented by non-linear pile-displacement
charts, may be over- or underestimated significantly due to local differences in density of
the bearing stratum, as pile displacements are heavily dependent on the ratio between
available bearing capacity and pile load.
The stiffness behaviour of the various structural elements (foundation piles/anchorage)

have a significant bandwidth as illustrated in above-mentioned examples. It is not always
known beforehand whether a high or a low stiffness of an individual structural element
will be dominant. It is therefore recommended to investigate the influence of assumptions
made regarding stiffness on the individual structural elements and the behaviour of the
quay wall as a whole by carrying out a sensitivity analysis. By applying a lower and upper
boundary of the stiffness (for instance by applying a factor of 1.5 and 1/1.5) it can be
investigated whether the entire quay wall and/or the individual elements are sensitive to
the assumptions made. If so, it is advisable to apply unfavourable stiffness values in the
final calculations instead of mean values.
Modelling surcharge loads

One of the main differences between a common sheet pile wall for a canal bank and a
quay wall is the loads that may be put behind the retaining wall. Due to the surcharge
load the forces in the wall and its anchorage may be raised. In its most simple case the
effect may be compared to raising the level of the green field behind the retaining wall.
Accounting for the ratio between horizontal soil stress and vertical soil stress, the increase
in vertical soil stress as explained in the paragraph on the relief platform will lead to
a proportional increase of load to the front wall. Relief platforms are used if this load
becomes too unfavourable for the design of the front retaining wall.
258
Quay walls
Apart from the direct effect that surcharge loads may create on the retaining structure, two
additional effects need to be verified. The first is related to delayed drainage, if the load is
quickly added on less permeable soil. The second effect may be attributed to bulk storage.
Drained or undrained behaviour

Characteristic for the strength of soil is its direct relation between shear strength and
isotropic stress, especially for friction dependent materials such as sand. A different char-
acteristic of soil is its (im)permeability; especially the more fine materials such as silty
sand, silt and clay have a relatively low permeability. If a material with low permeability
is loaded in a short time, due to the incompressibility of the pore water, the main part
of a surcharge load may be taken by an increase of pore water pressure; i.e. excess pore
pressure.
In the latter situation one normally speaks about an undrained soil reaction. With the
increase of the pore pressures, (for surcharge loading), the effective soil stresses more
or less stay on the pre-load level with the consequence that there is no adjustment of
the soil strength due to the increased soil stress. This phenomenon e.g. is characteristic
strengthening of dikes along Dutch rivers, that are typically built upon a subsoil with soft
clay layers. For that reason banks are raised in stages so that excess pore pressures may
dissipate in time.
Fig. 6.23 Unloading of the effective soil stresses due to excavation of the harbour.
The reverse is characteristic for retaining walls, see Fig. 6.23. When the wall is excavated
there is unloading of the subsoil in front of the wall, leading to a decrease in soil effective
stresses in time. Also for the soil behind the retaining wall the main stress path is unloading
due to the flexibility of the retaining structure. The decrease in effective stresses means a
decrease in soil shear strength in time, for that reason a conservative approach is to evaluate
the strength of the wall for the drained situation.
In case of a quay wall, that both has a function for temporary storage of cargo high loads
may be put on the quay above the relief platform but for bulk storage quite often also
behind the structure. If the level of surcharge load is placed within a short time span, this
may also lead to excess pore pressures. As mentioned before, bulk storage may also lead
259
to horizontal stresses in the soil shear stresses. In case the soil can’t drain, the soil may
be overloaded, leading to higher loading on the quay wall. For that reason, in order to
establish the maximum anchor forces for the quay wall, an undrained analysis for the load
case with surface loads is always necessary.
Bulk storage
If the surface load consists of a bulk material such as iron ore or coal, quite often the
material is put on the ground surface as a bulk storage; a pile of material. In that case one
must consider that the material piled up in a heap, apart from its vertical load will also
infer a shear load on the ground surface.
Fig. 6.24 Shear loading of the terrain caused by bulk storage.
The horizontal shear loading on the ground surface may lead to higher forces on the quay
wall, see Fig. 6.25 and may lead to increased anchor forces compared to dead load where
there is no horizontal component. In order to account for this effect, one may consider
modelling the heap of material as a fictitious soil material. The heap is then effectively
modelled with soil elements that are activated for the load case where this load is evaluated.
Material parameters adapted for the behaviour of the bulk material need to be chosen.
Fig. 6.25 Principal stresses underneath bulk Fig. 6.26 Excess pore pressure in a clay layer
storage. due to undrained behaviour.
260
Quay walls
6.6.5 Determination of design water levels

6.6.5.1 Introduction water levels
The magnitude of the water pressure difference over a quay wall strongly depends on the
water level fluctuations at the outer side, the soil conditions and the presence of a reliable
drainage system. In for example tidal areas, there is a dynamic geohydrological system and
phreatic levels can correspond to the outer water level with some delay. The water pressure
difference can be minimized if the quay wall is equipped with a reliable drainage system.
Usually a load combination with low outer water level and high phreatic ground water level
results in the maximum water pressure difference over the quay wall and is governing for
the calculation of the retaining wall (sheet pile, combi or diaphragm wall). For parts of the
foundation of a relieving floor, such as tension or bearing piles, other load combinations
can be governing. Because the governing load situation cannot be determined in advance,
it is necessary to investigate several situations.
To determine the design values and reference values of the outer water levels often a sta-
tistical analysis is carried out, taking into account the effects of a reliable drainage system,
for permeable soil conditions. With the aid of a statistical analysis, it is possible to deter-
mine characteristic extreme values and associated standard deviations for the geometric
parameters, outer water levels and phreatic ground water levels. For most of the Dutch
waterways a lot of information and standard water levels are available and published.
These values are based on long term measurements and expressed in for example MLW,
MHW, LAT, LLWS. In Dutch river conditions OLW and OLR are commonly available.
Therefore it is recommended to use these published water levels to determine the design
values.
The CUR166 guideline presents recommendations for relatively impermeable soil con-
ditions and gives some practical guidelines for tidal areas. The EAU2012 distinguishes
minor, major and tidal water level fluctuations and is mainly focusing on the relative
permeable soil conditions. In this version of the book all the above mentioned
aspects are involved to determine the design values of the water pressure differences in
the Service Limit State (SLS), Ultimate Limit State (ULS). The ULS consists of the
fundamental actions (EQU, STR and GEO) and the accidental actions (ALS).
6.6.5.2 Service and Ultimate Limit State

In principle the water level fluctuations of the outer water level and the ground water level
are variable actions. The characteristic value of these loads multiplied by a partial safety
factor results in the design value of these loads. With these design value the SLS, ULS
and ALS loading combinations can be determined. For the verification of deformations
the SLS can be used. For the SLS and for the fundamental actions notice that the same
reference water levels are considered, however other partial safety factors are considered
on the other permanent and variable loads. A combination of loads consisting of perma-
nent loads and a dominant variable load will result in the governing EQU, STR or GEO.
If also an accidental load is involved, the load combination is considered as an ALS.
261
To determine the unfavourable load combinations, the so called i -factors are used. These
i -factors combined unfavourable water pressure differences, with surcharge loads, crane
loads, traffic loads and bollard forces. See Table 6.5 in Section 6.4.4 for the determination
of the i -factors.
Fundamental combinations of loads, in which the water pressure difference is taken as a

leading variable load, often appear governing for the quay structure. The situation with a
relatively low outer water level in combination with unfavourable variable loads (mooring
loads and wind loads acting on cranes) is governing for dimensioning the retaining wall.
For practical reasons the levels are determined for ULS situations only and no difference
is made between SLS and ULS situations. Therefore the loads are conservative for SLS
situations. If real forecasts are wished the water differences for the SLS situation might be
reduced.
In the NEN-EN1990, extreme loads that only seldom occur may be considered as accidental
actions. For dimensioning the tension piles or anchorage the principle of a falling high
water can be governing. Because the extreme falling high water only seldom occur and to
reduce the number of calculations this situation is considered as an ALS. For dimensioning
the bearing piles of a relieving floor relatively low reference levels of outer water level
and phreatic level need to be taken into account. If a drainage system is applied also the
failure of this system has to be investigated. These aspects are taken into account in the
ALS load combinations. In line with the CUR166 also the flooding principle is considered
as an accidental load. If a quay wall structure is part of a storm surge barrier or water
defense system other design codes may apply, with another reliability index. For outer and
phreatic ground water levels in the design of quay wall structures the following accidental
loads are distinguished:
• Flooding
• Extreme low water
• Falling high water
• Failure drainage system
6.6.5.3 Fundamental load combinations (EQU, STR GEO)

The fundamental combinations (EQU, STR, GEO) consist of permanent and variable
actions that are based on one leading variable action with an extreme representative value.
In addition, often not more than two variable and two meteorological actions are included
in the load combination. It should be noted that accidental actions are not included in
fundamental combinations. In the design of quay wall structures several load cases and
combinations need to be taken into consideration. The water pressure differences need to
be combined with other permanent and variable loads. The ground water level strongly
depends on the permeability of the soil and the presence of drainage systems. The outer
water level, the ground water level and the water pressure difference are defined as OWL,
GWL and h respectively in Fig. 6.27.
262
Quay walls
Fig. 6.27 Water pressure difference ( h), outer water level (OWL), ground water level (GWL).
6.6.5.4 Reliable drainage system

Existing quay walls are often equipped with a drainage system. When a reliable drainage
system (= enough drain capacity, clearing facilities, see Section 7) is applied it is assumed
that the soil conditions of the backfill above the drainage system are always permeable. If
this is not the case the drainage system will not fulfill the required function. If no reliable
drainage system is applied the GWL depends on the permeability of the soil and will be
influenced by fluctuations in the outer water level (OWL) and heavy rainfall. Therefore at
first a distinction is made between situations without and with a reliable drainage system.
See Table 6.11 below. These tables can be used to determine the water pressure difference
h in the fundamental combinations. Also the reference levels for OLW and GWL can be
derived from the tables below.
Table 6.11 Fundamental water pressure difference h without drainage.

Without drainage
Water level fluctuations Soil conditions OWL GWL hmin
Minor Impermeable MLW MLW + houter;month;1×year >0.5 m
Permeable MLW MLW + houter;day;1×year >0.5 m
Permeable MHW MHW + houter;day;1×year >0.5 m
Major (rivers) Impermeable OLW/OLR OWL + houter;month;1×year >1.0 m
Permeable OLW/OLR OWL + houter;day;1×year >1.0 m
Permeable MSL MSL + houter;day;1×year >1.0 m
Tidal conditions Impermeable LLWS MSL + 0.25* htide;mean >0.5 m
Permeable LLWS LLWS + 0.5* htide;spring >0.5 m
Permeable MSL MSL + 0.5* htide;spring >0.5 m
263
Table 6.12 Fundamental water pressure difference h with drainage.

Drainage
Water level fluctuations Soil conditions OWL GWL hmin
Minor – MLW hdrainage + 0.3 m >0.5 m
Major (rivers) – OLW/OLR hdrainage + 0.3 m >0.5 m
Tidal conditions – LLWS hdrainage + 0.3 m >0.5 m
NAP = Normaal Amsterdams Peil or Amsterdam Ordnance Datum, the Dutch Reference Level,
roughly MSL
GL = Ground Level
GWL = Ground Water Level
OWL = Outer Water Level
HAT = Highest Astronomical Tide
MHHWS = Mean High High Water Spring
MHWS = Mean High Water Spring
MHW = Mean High Water
MSL = Mean Sea Level
MLW = Mean Low Water
MLWS = Mean Low Water Spring
MLLWS = Mean Lowest Low Water Spring
LLWS = Lowest Low Water Spring
LAT = Lowest Astronomical Tide
The corresponding levels for the rivers in the Netherlands are:
OLA/ALD = Agreed Low Discharge for the Rhine at Lobith

OLR/ALR = Agreed Low River Level for the Upper Rhine, IJssel and Waal up to
and including Tiel
OLW/ALW = Agreed Low Water Level; chart datum of the Dutch charts for the
Lower Rivers.
MR = Mean River water level
NW = Normal Water level
For an explanation of the terms, see Section 4.4.1 and the Glossary in the Appendix.
Reference water level outer side (OWL)

Because the actual water pressure difference can be strongly affected by water level fluctu-
ations on the outer side a second distinction is made between minor, major and tidal water
level fluctuations. The reference water level at the outer side is in case of minor fluctuations
equal to the Mean Low Water (MLW) condition. For major water level fluctuations, for
example in Dutch river conditions, the reference outer water level (OWL) is equal to OLW
or OLR. In tidal conditions the reference level is assumed to be equal to the Lowest Low
Water Spring (LLWS). This is the same reference level as prescribed in the CUR166 and
the EAU2012.
264
Quay walls
Reference ground water level (GWL)

The next step is to determine the ground water level, GWL. If a large dataset of the GWL is
available this dataset can be used to determine a nominal static based design value. Often
the available dataset is not sufficient to produce a reliable static analysis and for example
the low water period during tidal conditions do not correspond to a normal distribution.
If the soil conditions are relative permeable there is a relative strong correlation between
the GWL and the OWL. In this case the GWL is dependent on the outer water levels. A
conservative value of the GWL is assumed to be equal to a reference water level at the
outer side enlarged with the maximum daily water level difference of the outer water level
( houter;day;1×year ) with a return period of a year. For situations without a reliable drainage
system and relative permeable soil conditions a relative high ground water level can be
governing for dimensioning the anchorage system.
If the soil conditions are relatively impermeable there is no correlation with the short
term (daily) outer water level fluctuations. The GWL depends more or less on the long
term (monthly) variations of the outer water level, for example in tidal areas this will be
approximately equal to MSL. Hereby it is assumed that heavy rainfall is included in these
monthly variations. Besides these aspects also the minimum requirement of hmin > 0.5 m
needs to be taken into account. In case of relative impermeable soil conditions the reference
water level will be enlarged with the maximum monthly water level difference of the outer
water level ( houter;month;1×year ) with a return period of a year.
When a reliable drainage system is applied, the reference level is affected by the geometry
of the drainage outlet system. The determination of this reference level, hdrainage , is in line
with CUR166 enlarged with 0.3 m.
Minimum water pressure difference

In line with the EAU2012 and the CUR166 a minimum water pressure difference, hmin ,
is prescribed in the last column of Table 6.11 and Table 6.12. These minimum values
also correspond to the min on the nominal value mentioned in the previous version of
CUR 211.
6.6.5.5 Accidental load combinations

Accidental combinations of loads are actually a combination of permanent actions, several
variable actions and one accidental action. An ALS is an extreme load combination that
only seldom occurs. One of the variable actions is considered leading and is included as
frequent load. The other variable loads are included as quasi-permanent actions. In this
paragraph the accidental actions for the water pressure difference are determined. For outer
and inner water levels in the design of quay wall structures the following accidental load
situations are distinguished:
• Flooding
• Extreme low water
• Falling high water
• Failure drainage system
265
A combination of loads consisting of accidental, permanent and variable actions finally

results in the Accidental Limit State. See Section 6.4.4 for the determination of the
i -factors.
General
A lot of the existing Dutch quay walls are designed with the principles of the EAU1990 and
the EAU1996. In the design approach of these design codes certain ‘Lastfälle’ (LF) load
configurations were commonly used. During that time designers of quay wall structures in
Rotterdam used tidal conditions to take into account a water pressure difference from 2.0
to 2.5m water table in the LF 3 load combination. Besides this water table also a drainage
system was applied. Based on the experience of designers in Rotterdam tidal conditions the
hmin > 0.5 m in combination with a drainage system at LLWS as suggested in CUR166
results in a too low water pressure difference during extreme seldom conditions. Therefore,
the hmin is in the ALS enlarged for respectively permeable and impermeable soil condi-
tions respectively into a value of hmin >1.0 m and hmin > 1.5 m. Unless a designer can
prove that these requirements are too conservative these minimum values need to be taken
into consideration by determining the design value in the ALS. See Table 6.13 and Table
6.14 below. These tables can be used to determine the water pressure difference h in the
ALS. Also the reference levels for OLW and GWL can be derived from the tables below.
Existing quay walls are often equipped with a drainage system. When a reliable drainage
system is applied it is assumed that the soil conditions of the backfill above the drainage
system are always permeable. If this is not the case the drainage system will not fulfill
the required function. If no reliable drainage system is applied the GWL depends on the
permeability of the soil and will be influenced by fluctuations in the outer water level
(OWL) and heavy rainfall. Therefore at first a distinction is made between situations
without and with a reliable drainage system. See the tables Table 6.13 and Table 6.14
below. These tables can be used to determine the water pressure difference h in the
fundamental combinations. Also the reference levels for OLW and GWL can be derived
from the tables below.
Flooding
According to the CUR166, for both the permeable and impermeable soil conditions, the
GWL behind the sheet pile wall can become equal to the ground level (GL) directly after
flooding. This maximum GWL needs to be taken into account in the design, unless a
reliable drainage system is applied. Directly after flooding the GWL is supposed to be
equal to GL. If the soil is relatively permeable or if a reliable drainage system is applied,
the GWL corresponds with the falling OWL. For relative impermeable soil conditions
a lower extreme OWL needs to be taken into account. This means the GWL will not
correspond with the short term outer water level fluctuations.
When a reliable drainage system is available the reference level of the GWL is affected
by the geometry of the drainage outlet system, hdrainage . When hdrainage becomes lower
the extreme water pressure differentiations will also become lower. The probability that a
266
Quay walls
Table 6.13 Accidental water pressure difference h without drainage.

Without drainage
Accidental Water level Soil
actions fluctuations conditions OWL GWL hmin
General – Impermeable LW1×250year LW1×250year + 1.5 m >1.5 m
– Permeable LW1×250year LW1×250year + 1.0 m >1.0 m
Flooding Minor – – – –
Major Impermeable GL- houter;month;1×year GL* –
Permeable GL-2 houter;day;1×year GL*- houter;day;1×year –
Tidal Impermeable MLW GL* –
conditions
Permeable GL-2* htide;mean GL*- htide;mean –
Extreme low Minor Impermeable LW1×250year LW1×250year –
water + houter;month;1×year
Permeable LW1×250year LW1×250year
+ houter;day;1×year
Major Impermeable LW1×250year LW1×250year –
+ houter;month;1×year
Permeable LW1×250year LW1×250year –
Tidal – LW1×250year MSL –
conditions
Falling high water Tidal – MLW MHW + 0.3 m –
conditions
Relieving floor – – LW1×250year LW1×250year –
reliable drainage system fails AND an extreme water level occurs is assumed to be very
small and negligible if clearing facilities are installed. Flooding is also considered as an
accidental situation in the EAU2012. When a quay wall is part of a storm surge barrier or
a flooding system, other design codes can be governing in determining the fundamental
and accidental loads.
Extreme low water

Occasionally extreme low outer water levels can occur. These extreme values are often
presented with a certain return period. The reference period is assumed to be equal to
the design lifetime of 50 years. A design lifetime of 50 years is common in the design of
hydraulic structures in the Netherlands. The unfavourable nominal outer water level in the
previous version of this book, for example in case of a low tide, is based on a probability
of occurrence below 5% over the reference period. This is a very conservative approach. A
suggestion is to take into account a return period of once every 250 years with a reference
period of 50 years. Notice that there is always a probability that this value will be exceeded
during the lifetime of a hydraulic structure. The probability that the outer water level with
a return period of once every 250 years will be exceeded is 18% during a reference period
267
Table 6.14 Accidental water pressure difference h with drainage.
Drainage
Accidental Water level Soil
actions fluctuations conditions OWL GWL hmin
Flooding Minor – – – –
Major – GL-2 houter;day;1×year GL-1.5* houter;day;1×year –
Tidal – GL-2 htide;mean GL-1.5* htide;mean –
conditions
Extreme low – – LW1×250year hdrainage +0.3m –
water
Relieving – – LW1×250year LW1×250year –
floor
Failure Minor Impermeable LW1×year LW1×year >1.0 m
drainage + houter;month;1×year
Permeable LW1×year LW1×year >0.5 m
Permeable MHW MHW >0.5
Major Impermeable LW1×year LW1×year >1.5 m
+ houter;month;1×year
Permeable LW1×year LW1×year >1.0 m
Permeable MSL MSL >0.5
Tidal Impermeable LW1×year MSL >1.5 m
conditions
Permeable LW1×year MSL >1.0 m
Permeable MSL MSL + 0.5* htide;spring >0.5
of 50 years. See the table below. Notice that this extreme water level (LW1×250year ) is only
a reference level for the WL and not the design value for the water pressure difference h
over the quay wall.
Return period year: 5 10 20 25 50 100 250 500

Reference period 50 year 100% 99% 92% 87% 64% 39% 18% 10%
The actual water pressure h depends on the correlation between the OWL and the GWL
and whether a reliable drainage system is installed.
Falling high water

In tidal areas the effect of a falling high water needs to be taken into account if no reliable
drainage system is installed. This can be seen in Table 6.13. As can be seen in this table the
construction level of the drainage outlet is influencing the water pressure difference h.
268
Quay walls
Failure drainage
If a drainage system is applied, the effect of a dysfunctioning drainage system needs to be
investigated. This effect may be considered as an ALS if clearing facilities are installed.
The reference outer water level, OWL, is assumed to be equal to the outer water level with
a return period of a year (LW1×year ). When the construction level of drainage, hdrainage , is
deep enough this ALS condition can become the governing situation. If a drainage system
with a relative deep construction level fails, a high ground water level could be governing
for dimensioning the anchorage system. This can only be the case if the soil conditions are
relative permeable.
6.6.5.6 Water loads

In general the reference state for the pore pressures will be a hydrostatic pressure, i.e.
pore pressures increasing with depth. For design conditions however, if the quay wall is
influenced by tidal conditions such as in Rotterdam one of the Ultimate Limit conditions
for the design of the retaining wall will include the analysis of pore water conditions related
to a low tide.
Fig. 6.28 Reference state for the pore pressures of a quay wall.
Water pressure boundary conditions as the waterside may be relatively simple; such may
not be the case for the pore water pressures at quay side. Due to delayed drainage the pore
pressures at the quay side may lag in time and may even be closer to normal high tide
conditions than to the intermediate water level. This will depend on the level of drainage
of the system.
One might be tempted to assume hydrostatic water pressure at either side of the retain-
ing wall. This may however introduce inconsistencies in the water pressure at the toe of
the retaining wall, which must be the same, see also Fig. 6.29. The hydrostatic assump-
tion would underestimate the water pressure at the passive side of the retaining wall,
overestimating effective stresses, which is unsafe.
269
unbalance in (ground)water
pressure
Fig. 6.29 Unbalance in pore water pressures with assumption of hydrostatic pressure gradients.
The preferred solution for this situation is to make a groundwater flow analysis, e.g. with
FEM. The flow analysis will guarantee that there are no singularities in the flow field,
which is illustrated by Fig. 6.30. and Fig. 6.31.
Fig. 6.30 Groundwater flow analysis: flow field. Fig. 6.31 Groundwater flow analysis: contour
lines of pore pressures.
If there is an impermeable layer that shields the adjustment of water pressures from the
outside water conditions, an alternative solution may be used; FEM may offer the option
to interpolate water conditions between adjacent layers. In that case the balance of water
pressures at the toe of the retaining wall is also guaranteed, as is shown in Fig. 6.32.
GW_line 1
GW_line 0
GW_line 2
GW_line 1
GW_line 2
Permeable, sandor silt
Clayor Peat layer Interpolate between adjacent layers
GW_line 0
Permeable,Pleistocene sand
Fig. 6.32 Water pressures in the subsoil based on linear interpolation.
270
Quay walls
6.6.6 Local buckling of primary tubular piles in combi-walls

6.6.6.1 Background to local buckling evaluation methods
The tubular primary piles of combi-walls are often chosen for their flexural strength,
stiffness and axial bearing capacity. Respecting the limits of feasibility of installation the
diameters tend to increase, where the wall thicknesses seem to stay behind. When combi-
walls are designed with some corrosion allowance, the D/t-ratio at installation is different
from the D/t-ratio at the end of the design life. In that case the cross section resistance
needs to be evaluated with the increased D/t at the end of the design life.
It is theoretically beneficial to increase the ratio D/t. This makes the piles susceptible to
shell buckling. The risk of local shell buckling is stress and strain level√dependent. It is
therefore that the limits are defined using the parameter D/tε2 , with ε = (235/fy ).
Steel material grades still tend to increase slightly. X65 and X70 are commonly used for
years already. X80 also appears on the market for piles.
The classification of the section according to EN 1993-1-1 is as follows:
Table 6.15 Limit values of section classes.

Class Limits Characteristics
1 – plastic D/tε2 < 50 • Full plastic moment allowed
• Section is able to develop a plastic hinge
• Plastic redistribution allowed
2 – compact 50 < D/tε < 70 • Full plastic moment allowed
2
3 – semi-compact 70 < D/tε2 < 90 • Full elastic moment allowed

(yield limit in outer fibre)
4 – slender D/tε2 > 90 • Limited effectiveness, buckling stress
(below yield limit) allowed in outer fibre
• Refer to EN 1993-1-6
Note that D/t = 90 as a commonly used limit below which buckling was not likely to occur, is not
valid.
For piling EN 1993-5 applies. EN 1993-5 refers to EN 1993-1-6 for evaluation of class 4 sections.
The checking of local buckling of steel tubular piles against the codes has been developing
over the last years.
It is generally sensed that the EN 1993-1-6 shell buckling rules are over-conservative.
Combi-walls are increasingly popular of their economy of design and they make designs
of deeper quay walls possible. The buckling evaluation should therefore be safe and in the
same time reflect the state of art.
In the pre-EN 1993-5 (issues of 1995 and 1998) a buckling evaluation method similar
to Heron 1986-4 [Gresnigt, 1986] and NEN 3650 was included. These ‘plastic’ buckling
evaluation methods are based on criteria of critical strain rather than on a buckling stress.
271
Tube buckling is related to the ability of the section to maintain its circular shape. Sections
with large D/t-ratios tend to adopt an oval shape that creates a ‘flat’ top portion, with a
virtually larger radius, which increases the susceptibility to buckling. Piles with an initial
out-of-roundness perform worse when evaluated against buckling criteria. EN 1993-1-6
distinguishes three levels of tolerances, A, B and C. Tubular piles should ideally fall in
category A, but B and/or C may apply in practise, which roughly corresponds to a 4 or 7%
decrease in permissible meridional stress.
Piles in the soil do not easily change their circular shape. In the Enhanced Economy of
Tubular piles by Improved Buckling (ETIB) study the effect of the soil surrounding the
pile was investigated theoretically. The effect of the surrounding soil on the permissible
meridional stress in the middle section of the pile is limited.
The effect of the confined soil inside the pile is investigated by the committee of this book,
see [6.47]. This is done by means of testing. The Eurocode EN 1990, the basis of structural
design, allows evaluating a design based on a combination of calculations and tests.
In this book the following design methods for evaluation of steel tubular piles are recom-
mended. These methods deviate from the EN 1993-1-6 for the reasons explained above.
For empty piles:
1. The modified Gresnigt method of pre-EN 1993-5 (issue 1998).
(Note that the intermediate secondary piles affect the out-of-roundness of the primary
piles. This effect, plus the initial out-of-roundness, plus the slenderness of the pile will be
input to the buckling calculation.)
Limitations
• The pre-EN 1993-5 respects a limitation of the steel grade of S430.

• Testing of piles by the committee of this book has been performed up to a yield stress
of 500 MPa. This may be considered as provisional evidence to use this method for
X70 steel also (fy = 483 MPa).
• The formulas are valid for water head differences less than 4 m.
For sand filled piles:
2. The modified Gresnigt method, see [6.47]

3. Alternatively EN 1993-1-6 may be used. In that case the resistance may be increased
with a factor 1.13. This is only allowed for D/t < 100 and for D/tε2 < 170.
Limitations for sand filled piles
• Sand shall be present in the area of the section subject to evaluation of the resistance.
Sand may be loose or medium dense, if naturally available.
272
Quay walls
• In actively filled piles the sand fill shall be compacted, obtaining 70% relative density
or qc values >10 MPa.
• Clay filled piles shall be considered as empty piles. Sand filled piles with thin (<0.5D)
intermediate clay layers may be considered as sand filled piles.
• EN 1993-5 clause 5.5.4 (8) and (9) suggests that filling the pile with well-compacted
non-cohesive material contributes to avoiding local buckling. Fill requirements and
achieved tube resistance are not given.
• Please note that the effect of the sand fill is not addressed in any of the models in the
presently valid Eurocodes. This provides a basis for using the paragraph design by
testing in the Eurocode.
• The results of this work should not be used for dolphin piles of for other applications
where plastic deformation capacity is required. The effect of use of the recommenda-
tions for these type of structures may result in choosing larger D/tε2 values, which is
not recommendable.
6.6.6.2 Bending moment evaluation for empty tubes

The recommended method is based on the critical strain criterion from [Gresnigt, 1986].
The critical strain criterion is a safe lower bound of measured critical strains (with estimated
5% probability of a lower value).
t D
εcr = 0.25 − 0.0025 for < 120
r t
(6.1)
t D
εcr = 0.10 for > 120
r t
Dependent on the slenderness and the out-of-roundness the critical strain will be under or
above the yield strain, which is expressed with the parameter µ.
εcr
µ= (6.2)
εy
In case of pure bending the position of the yield strain is indicated with the angle θ of
plasticity rate, starting at ½π for plastic strain in the outer fibre, and approaching 0 for the
full plastic moment.
1
sin θ = for µ > 1
µ
(6.3)
π
θ= for µ ≤ 1
2
The bending moment as a function of the plasticity rate can be calculated with:

1 θ
MR = + cos θ Mpl;d for µ > 1
2 sin θ (6.4)
MR = µMel;d for µ ≤ 1
273
with
D2 tfy π D2 tfy
Mpl;d = and Mel;d = with γM0 = 1.1
γM0 4 γM0
Tubular piles tend to be not perfectly round, and this reduces the critical strain.
For piles in combi-walls four causes of out-of-roundness can be distinguished:
1. Initial out-of-roundness which is permitted in the production process of the pile

2. Ovalization due to cross tensile forces introduced by the secondary members (the
intermediate sheet piles)
3. Ovalization due to outside soil pressure
4. Ovalization as a second order effect of tube bending
The initial out-of-roundness is categorized with the fabrication classes A to C of the
Eurocode EN 1993-1-6. The out-of-roundness parameter Ur is defined as:
Table 6.16 EN 1993-1-6, table 8.1: Recommended values for out-of-roundness tolerance
Dmax − Dmin
Ur = (6.5)
Dnom
Recommended value of Ur.max D ≤ 0.50 m 0.50 m < D < 1.25 m 1.25 m ≤ D

Class A Excellent 0.014 0.007 + 0.0093 (1.25 − D) 0.007
Class B High 0.020 0.010 + 0.0133 (1.25 − D) 0.010
Class C Normal 0.030 0.015 + 0.0200 (1.25 − D) 0.015
The ovalization deformation a at one side, as defined in Figure 6.33, can be calculated
with:
1
a = Ur D (6.6)
4
Ovalizations caused by outside circumferential loads can be calculated assessing the cross
section as a circular beam.
Fig. 6.33 Definition of parameter a and change of radius.
274
Quay walls
The formulas in the table below may be used.

Table 6.16 Ovalization formulas.
Case with tensile forces from secondary members

1
MA = − Fr −0.3183
π

1 1
MB = − Fr 0.1817
2 π
3
π 2 Fr
Dy = − 0.1488
4 π El

2 1 Fr3
Dz = − − −0.1366
π 2 El
Case with soil pressure from one side

1
MA = − qr2 −0.1250
8

3 2
MB = − qr2 0.1628
8 3π

2 1
MC = − qr2 0.0872
3π 8
1 qr4
Dy = 0.0833
12 EI
1 qr4
Dz = − −0.0833
12 EI
Case with soil pressure from two opposite sides

1
MA = − qr2 −0.2500
4
1
MB = qr2 0.2500
4
1
MC = qr2 0.2500
4
1 qr4
Dy = 0.1667
6 EI
1 qr4
Dz = − −0.1667
6 EI
m = plate moment [Nm/m] in the wall thickness

r = ½D
EI = E 1/12 t3 [Nm]
q = soil pressure [N/m2 ]
Note that the ovalization deformation parameter a = abs(½ Di;tot ), in which i = y or z, depend-
ing on the occurrence of the loadcases.
Also note that no re-rounding effect caused by soil support to the sides of the tube has been
taken in account. This effect has been omitted, since the soil support is unreliable due to various
(secondairy) pile installation methods.
275
Ovalization as a second order effect of the tube’s overall curvature has been studied in
[Gresnigt, 1986]. The formula for the ovalization as a consequence of imposed curvature
of the tube is:
κ2 r 5
a= (6.7)
t2
For curvature with meridional stresses beyond the yield limit this formula changes into:
σy κr 4
a= (6.8)
E t2
The values of a caused by the different ovalizing effects shall be combined. In the formulas
below the parameter a is the sum of the values of a caused by these effects.
As indicated in Figure 6.33 the radius of the top and bottom sides of the tube changes
according to the formula:
r
r = (6.9)
1 − 3a/r
This larger radius r is input to the critical strain formula, of [Gresnigt 1986]:
t D
εcr = 0.25
− 0.0025 for < 120
r t
(6.1)
t D
εcr = 0.10 for > 120
r t
This will lead to a lower critical strain, and consequently a lower theoretical bending
moment as can be evaluated with (6.2), (6.3) and (6.4). The bending moment shall be
further reduced with the factors g and βg to account for the effects of ovalizing bending
stresses and deformations respectively.
MRd = gβg βs MR
with
c1 2
g = +
6 3
√ meff;Sd
c1 = 4 − 2 3 (6.10)
mpl;Rd
and
2a
βg = 1 −
3r
In NEN 3650: βg = 1 − 1.5 ar
276
Quay walls
The tube wall bending moment meff ;Sd may be calculated as the average of MA and MB
in the Tables 6.17 to 6.19(x). For the tube wall ultimate bending moment the full plastic
moment may be taken.
1 fy
mpd;Rd = t 2 (6.11)
4 γM0
In the pre-EN 1993-5, issue 1998, annex G.2, clause (9), a recommendation has been made
for the value of βs . This parameter is meant to account for the fact that local buckling in
the elastic area tends to cause sudden failure, without deformation capacity.
For µ ≤ 1: βs = 0.75
For 1 ≤ µ ≤ 3: βs = 0.625 + 0.125µ (6.12)
For µ ≥ 3: βs = 1.0
The factor βs as defined above allows utilization of plastic properties and in the same time
does not stimulate a tendency towards very high D/t ratios.
In [Gresnigt, 1986] this factor is lacking. Also in NEN 3650-2 no provision for non-ductile
behaviour has been made. In NEN 3650 for local buckling a material factor γM1 = 1.1 and
a model factor γM = 1.0 are given. The recommendation of the pre-EN 1993-5 was given
as a ‘boxed value’, which means that national authorities were allowed to deviate from the
recommendation.
In reality the ductility of the system of the soil retaining wall is partly determined by the
deformation of the wall and the anchor. Wall deformations decrease the soil pressure on
the wall. Longer piles, and lower anchor positions develop negative bending moments and
provide redundancy in the failure mechanism of wall collapse. In cases where the system
provides sufficient ductility, for µ < 3, a higher value of βs may be chosen.
6.6.6.3 Combined bending and normal force evaluation for empty tubes
Combined bending and normal forces can be evaluated with the combination formula:

MSd NSd 1.7
+ ≤1 (6.13)
MRd NRd
with
NRd = gNpl;d
with g as in the formulas for M
and
fy
Npl;d = πDt (6.14)
γM0
277
6.6.6.4 Bending moment evaluation for sand-filled tubes

For the properties of the sand fill refer to Section 6.6.6.1.
The sand fill within the tubes appears to effectively prevent ovalization and therefore delays
the development of local buckling.
For the sand filled tubes we adopt the approach that the sand fill’s resistance against
compression provides extra spring stiffness k = q/a to the steel ring (see Figure 6.34). The
action of the sand matrix in preventing ovalization is primarily elastic and occurs at low
strains. Although the failure mechanism of the sand fill and the behaviour of the sand fill
when subjected to large deformations and small volume decrease may be rather complex,
for the elastic compression of sand a simple 1D elastic model suffices.
Measured compression moduli of confined dry sand went up to 400 kPa. For this evaluation
we recommend a safe value of saturated sand Esand 10 kPa.

12EI N
ksteel = 4
r m3
with
1
EI = Esteel t 3 (6.15)
12

Esand N
ksand =
r m3
With this extra stiffness we compute the ovalization a as:
ksteel
asand-filled = aempty (6.16)
ksteel + ksand
Fig. 6.34 Stiffness of steel tube and of sand volume.
278
Quay walls
The radius and the critical strain are calculated in a similar way as for the empty tube.
Optionally, for sand filled tubes a new formula for the critical strain may be used. Note
that this formula has not been verified outside the indicated range of D/t.

t 2 D
εcr = 7 for 70 < < 120 (6.17)
r t
This gives a roughly 1.3 to 1.4 increase of the critical strain, compared to the critical strain
evaluated in [Gresnigt, 1984].
Fig. 6.35 Critical strain test data and model formulas plotted against r/t.
Given the fact that a proper sand fill also prevents a sudden collapse of the piles, the
recommendation of the pre-EN 1993-5 for the deformation capacity reduction factors may
be reduced as follows.
For µ ≤ 1: βs;sand-filled = 0.90

For 1 ≤ µ ≤ 3: βs;sand-filled = 0.85 + 0.05µ (6.18)
For µ ≥ 3: βs;sand-filled = 1.0
279
6.6.6.5 Design assisted by testing

A total of 24 tests on sand-filled and empty tubes have been performed. Four types, with
six number of each type, of which three were tested empty and three were filled with sand
prior to testing. The tubes were subjected to pure bending.
The test results confirm the critical strain criterion for empty tubes, and give slightly higher
values for sand filled tubes.
The test results provide verification material for the observed differences in code evaluation
of local buckling. It appears that the method of [Gresnigt, 1986] gives a good fit. That
method is more or less similar to the one in the pre-EN 1993-5, without a factor βs .
The test results are evaluated according to the Eurocode EN 1990. Using the frame-
work of the Eurocode the design model may be corrected with statistically evaluated test
results. The test results are shown in the figures below, where the analytical design methods
are indicated with lines and the test results with markers.
Fig. 6.36 Results of design methods of class 3 and class 4 tubular piles for D/t = 90, with plotted test
results (D/t range of tests: 70 to 120).
Assessment of these test result via there characteristic value can be done with the formula
Xk 1
Xd = = mX (1 − kn VX ) (6.19)
γ m γm
The value of kn is dependent on the number of test. For evaluation of subsets the total
number of tests may be taken as n. For n = 12, kn = 1.71.
280
Quay walls
Fig. 6.37 Results of design methods of class 3 and class 4 tubular piles for D/t = 64, with plotted test
results (D/t range of tests: 70 to 120).
The variation coefficient VX of the test series is calculated as the average of the variation
coefficients of the four series of three sand-filled tubes. These values were: 0.046, 0.029,
0.016 and 0.118 respectively, yielding an average of 0.052. Extra information on the
variation coefficient can be extracted from the empty tube test series, where the average
V was 0.056.
Xk 1
Xd = = mX 0.91 = 0.83mX
γm 1.1
A trend line at 83% of the average of the test results is about 3% below the pre-EN 1993-5
‘without βs ’-line in figure 6.32, which can be seen as a confirmation.
Assessment of the test result via comparison with the officially valid method of EN 1993-
1-6 using the clauses of Annex D of EN 1990 works out as follows. As can be seen in
figure 6.34 the b-value is 1.38.
re = brt (6.20)
With re = the test value and rt = the model value. Evaluating these differences one has to
account for the statistical effects of variation in the test-values as well as in the model-
values.
For the model values the variation is obtained from the material factor of 1.1, using the
formula C6 of EN 1990. This results in Vrt = 0.033. For the variation of the test vales
281
around their model-line Vδ = 0.109. Evaluation of the numbers leads to a factor of the
characteristic test load of 1.14 times the model values. In other words, a sand filled tube
designed as an empty tube according to the formulas of EN 1993-1-6 may be considered
1.13 times stronger.
This result could have been better in case the model irregularities related to the yield stress
limitations could be improved.
Fig. 6.38 Tested values of ultimate bending moments of sand-filled tubes compared with model values
of (empty) tubes evaluated according to EN 1993-1-6.
6.7 Sequence of design calculation
6.7.1 Introduction
Sheet pile and combined walls should be designed with NEN 9997-1 chapter 9 retaining
structures. The stepwise approach, given in CUR 166 is incorporated in chapter 9 and in
particular paragraph 9.7.1 of NEN 9997-1. Here under the phased design calculations is
presented and subsequently discussed.
Two methods are distinguished:

1) Spring supported beam method (e.g. D-sheet) for simple quay walls (Type B
structures)
2) FEM (e.g. Plaxis) for quay walls with a relieving platform (Type A structures)
282
Quay walls
For these calculation methods and quay wall types the specific sequence is given
Phases in the design calculation:

Phase 1: Determine the leading starting points
Phase 2: Determine the characteristic values of the parameters
Phase 3: Determine the design values of the parameters
Phase 4: Choose calculation scheme A or B
Phase 5: Determine minimum embedding depth
Phase 6: Make a dimensioning calculation
Phase 7: Check the bending moment
Phase 8: Check the shear force and normal force
Phase 9: Check the anchorage forces
Phase 10: Check the deformations
Phase 11: Check the others mechanism, if applicable
Phase 11.1: Verify the resistance of the ground slice with the Kranz method
Phase 11.2: Verify the mechanism piping
Phase 11.3: Verify total stability
Phase 11.4: Verify the vertical bearing capacity
Phase 12: Determine the influence of building aspects on the design
Phase 13: Verify choices
6.7.2 Phases 1 to 13
Phase 1) Determine the leading starting points
The leading starting point (like live loads, water levels, consequence class, reference
period) should be written down in the Terms of Reference. See chapter 5 for further
information.
This concerns the normative cross section, all relevant external loads, water pressures and
the consequence class, if necessary length effect and / or reference period is less than or
over 50 years.
Phase 2) Determine the characteristic values of the parameters

Most of the characteristic soil parameters can be determined based on soil investigation.
Characteristic soil parameters can also be derived from statistical analyses of test results,
see clause 2.4.5.2(a), (b) and (c) of NEN 9997-11 table 2.b.
Wall friction
Note 1: Due to vertical loads on the front wall (e.g. inclined anchor or crane loads) the front
wall may undergo more vertical displacement than the soil. This will result in a change of
sign of the wall friction angle at the active side until vertical equilibrium is found. This
effect results in an increase in horizontal soil pressures and should therefore be taken into
account.
283
With the determination of the value of the wall friction angle δ the following factors must
be taken into account:
• The roughness of the wall in relation to the granular diameter d50 , in mm;
• The calculation method used for the soil pressure (straight or curved shaped sliding
planes)
These rules are fulfilled when the values of table 9.b of NEN 9997-1 are used. Soil pressure
in peat must be calculated with δ = 0.
Table 6.17 Wall friction angle δ for clay, silt, sand and gravel. ∗) According to NEN
9997-1 article 9.5.1 (7).
Wall surface Roughness δa respectively δp
straight sliding surface curved sliding surface
toothed >10d50 0.67ϕ ≤ϕ
rough 0.5–10d50 0.67ϕ ≤ϕ –2.5◦ and ≤27.5◦
semi rough 0.1–0.5d50 0.33ϕ 0.5ϕ
smooth <0.1d50 0 0
∗) Note 1: Theoretically only for δ = 0◦ straight sliding planes occur. The difference between straight and
curved sliding planes is small in case of active soil pressure. For high values of φ and δ the passive soil
resistance will increase too strongly with the application of straight sliding planes. This strong increase is
compensated in table 9.b of NEN 9997-1 by giving a lower value of δ for straight sliding planes than for
curved sliding planes.
Note 2: For steel, prefabricated concrete, plastic and wooden sheet pile walls the following relative
roughness approach of the wall surface is usually assumed:
• For d50 > 8 mm, smooth
• For 2 mm < d50 < 8 mm, semi-rough
• For d50 < 2 mm rough
(b) For the determination of the soil pressure by a undrained design situation in normal consolidated clay
may an adhesion a = 0.5cu be used. For peat may an adhesion of a = 0 be used.
(c) NEN 9997-1 (clause 9.5.1 c) specifies that the wall friction angle δ should, in case of active soil pressure,
be equal to 0◦ when the wall moves in downward direction with respect to the soil, for example due to an
external vertical load on the wall.
Further information on the wall friction is given in Section 6.6.4.4.
Subgrade reaction modulus (beam on elastic foundation)

InTable 6.18 the subgrade reaction modulus’are given for the Dutch practice. In Figure 6.39
the definition for kh -value is given. When for simplification only with a single string section
is calculated the median values of Table 6.18 can be used.
E-modulus (FEM)
For the procedure to be used in Quay wall design with Finite Elements the designer is
referred to the stepping procedure that is formulated in Section 6.6.4. The partial safety
factors to be applied need to be taken from Table 6.3, in accordance to the Confidence
Class; RC/CC, that is applicable for the Quay wall structure to be analysed.
284
Quay walls
P k h;1 k h;2 k h;3

C 1,0
B 0,8
A 0,5 Pea;h;p;rep
Pea;h;a;rep
0
Fig. 6.39 Structure of the deformation depending on subgrade reaction modulus with the numbers of
Table 6.18.
Table 6.18 Characteristic values for low and high average of the horizontal subgrade
reaction modulus at stress raising, belonging to Fig. 6.39.
secans-value kh (kN/m3 )
p0 < ph < 0.5pea;h;p 1) 0.5pea;h;p ≤ ph ≤ 0.8pea;h;p 0.8pea;h;p < ph ≤ pea;h;p
12) 23) 12) 23) 12) 23)
Sand qc (MPa)
loose 5 12000 27000 6000 13500 3000 6750
moderate 15 20000 45000 10000 22500 5000 11250
solid 25 40000 90000 20000 45000 10000 22500
Clay cu (kPa)
weak 25 2000 4500 800 1800 500 1125
moderate 50 4000 9000 2000 4500 800 1800
solid 200 6000 13500 4000 9000 2000 4500
Peat cu (kPa)
week 10 1000 2250 500 1125 250 560
moderate 30 2000 4500 800 1800 500 1125
1) the values in this column to be used for active soil pressure p
ea;h;a;b
2) characteristic value of the low average when a low subgrade reaction modulus is unfavorable
3) characteristic value of the high average when a high subgrade reaction modulus is unfavorable
p0 is the neutral soil pressure in kN/m2
pea;h;a is the active horizontal soil pressure in kN/m2
pea;h;p is the passive horizontal soil pressure in kN/m2
ph is the maximum horizontal pressure in kN/m2 for the relevant section of the subgrade reaction modulus
Note: Table 6.18 indicates constant values for the subgrade reaction modulus. Attention should be given to the
fact that the values given here have been validated for building pits that with a maximum depth of 8 to 10 m. One
should be aware that the subgrade reaction of a soil mass in practice will depend on the scale of the structure;
a retaining wall of twice the height will by approximation mean that the subgrade reaction modulus is only half
the value applicable for the smaller structure. For further explanation see Section 6.6.3.2. The size dependency
can e.g. be estimated by Menard’s equation which is also given in CUR 166.
285
Further for the different load combinations calculations need to be done for two different
Characteristic Stiffness’s for the soil; to begin with low design value of the soil stiffness:
Erep;low Eaverage
Ed;low = or Ed;low =
1.0 1.54
and two, a high design value for the soil stiffness:
Erep;high
Ed;high = or Ed;high = 1.5 · Eaverage
1.0
Strictly performing all the steps in the stepping procedure may result in a large number
of different calculations with variations in stiffness’s. Further both calculations for the
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and for the Serviceability Limit State (SLS) need to be done.
Performing all these calculations may be laborious and not always necessary. Quite often
the number of calculation can be reduced if one realizes the meaning of the different
variations. For example the calculation with the low characteristic stiffness of the soil
are aimed on the establishment of the highest bending moment in the front wall, and the
checking of the deformations (SLS), whereas the calculations with a high characteristic
stiffness are aimed at finding the highest anchor forces.
In general the above mentioned calculations will be performed for drained soil conditions.
For Quay walls with large surface load behind the Quay upper structure or backfill on top
of substantial cohesive layers it is strongly advised to perform an additional analysis for
the highest Characteristic Surface load for undrained soil parameters, in order to check
that the forces in the retaining wall and anchor forces will not be critical for the undrained
situation (short timespan).
Sheet pile parameters

With the calculation using the method of a beam on elastic foundation a sheet pile profile
should be chosen in advance. This concerns the length and the moment of inertia. For
the checking of the strength the section modulus is necessary. For permanent sheet piles
or combined walls should for loss of wall thickness due to corrosion during the service
period (if no cathodic protection is applied) be accounted for. Rates of corrosion are given
in Section 8.3. If cathodic protection is applied (and maintained i.e sacrificial anodes
replaced after 25 years) no loss of wall thickness due to corrosion has to be accounted
for. See also Section 8.3 for types of cathodic protection. When an appropriate coating
is applied on the sheet pile or combined wall corrosion will be delayed for about 10–15
years.
Oblique bending with U-shaped profiles

When U profiles are used, be aware of the phenomena of oblique bending.
286
Quay walls
With U-shaped steel sheet pile profiles (locks in the centroid) the effect of oblique bending
should be considered. That can be done, following NEN-EN 1993-5, by means of reduc-
tion factors βB and βD , where index B stands for bending and applies to the moment of
resistance/section modulus and index D stands for deflection and applies to the moment
of inertia. The formulas are:
Wcorr = βB · Wel
Icorr = βD · Iel
in which:
Wcorr is the oblique bending corrected moment of resistance in mm3 /m
Icorr is the oblique bending corrected moment of inertia in mm4 /m
βB is the reduction factor for the moment of resistance (bending), βB ≤ 1.0
βD is the reduction factor for the moment of inertia (deflection), βD ≤ 1.0
Wel is the elastic moment of resistance of the cross section at complete interacting
sheet piles (only yield in the ultimate fibre) by bending on the X-axis in mm3 /m
Iel is the elastic moment of inertia of the cross section at complete interacting sheet
piles (only yield in the ultimate fibre) at bending on the X-axis in mm4 /m
For Z-profiles, whereby the locks are not in the centroid, βB and βD are equal to 1.0.
This phenomena needs not to be considered for intermediate piles of combined walls,
because the oblique bending is strongly prevented and, since the moment of resistance of
the sheet piles itself is only a few percent of the total of the combined system the effect is
negligible.
Parameters combi wall
D D
30mm interlock 30mm interlock
0,5 diameter (D) width (B) 0,5 diameter (D)

tubular pile double or triple sheetpile tubular pile
(secondary element)
c.t.c.-distance primary elements
2 × 0,5 D + 2 × 30 + B
*) besides steel tubular piles also hollow section profiles combined of sheet piles or I-profiles can be used
Fig. 6.40 Combined wall.
287
The deflection of the combined wall in the main carrying direction will be based on the
interaction of the tubular pile and the intermediate sheet piles. The bending stiffnesses can
then be added according to the equation mentioned below, under the condition that the
sheet piles are placed symmetrical with regard to the centroid:
Itube + In;sheetpile
Icombi =
L
π 4
Itube = · De − Di4
64
in which:
Icombi is the moment of inertia of the combined wall in mm4 /m
Itube is the moment of inertia of the tubular pile (primary element) about the main
neutral axis in mm4
In;sheetpile is the moment of inertia of the sheet pile profiles (secondary element) about
the main neutral axis in mm4
L is the c.t.c.-distance of the primary elements in m
De is the external tube diameter in mm
Di is the internal tube diameter in mm
Itube + In;sheetpile
Wcombi = 1
D ·L
2 e
in which:
Wcombi is the elastic section modulus of the combined wall in mm3 /m
Itube is the moment of inertia of the tubular pile (primary element) in mm4
In;sheetpile is the moment of inertia of the sheet pile profiles (secondary element) in mm4
L is the c.t.c.-distance of the primary elements in m
De is the external tube diameter in mm
Di is the internal tube diameter in mm
When triple sheet pile profiles are used as filling the section modulus and the moment of
inertia of the triple sheet pile should be reduced because the centroid is not in the centre.
Vendors of combined walls usually have tables with this data on their website.
For tubes (NEN EN 1993-5) attention should be paid to a reduction of the section modulus
because of local buckling and ovalization of the tube. See Annex D.2 of NEN-EN 1993
(EC3) – part 5 and NEN-EN 1993-1-5 Plated structural elements and Section 6.6.6.
Because the sheet piling is not always present over the full height of the combined wall,
the wall should be divided into sections with different bending stiffnesses.
288
Quay walls
The contribution of the secondary elements in a combined wall with large tubes is only a
few percent. So to simplify calculations, the contribution of the secondary elements can
be neglected.
Stiffness of prestressed anchors

The stiffness of an anchor EA/L and the degree of pre stressing has a direct influence on
the variation of force in, and the deflection behaviour of the sheet pile. The choice of the
anchorage system is made during the engineering of the sheet pile. While making this
choice the engineer should be aware of the influence of that choice on the behaviour of the
structure. Points of special interest are:
– Anchors have a relatively low stiffness and will therefore be prestressed nearly always
(screw and grout anchors). Tie rods should also be prestressed. Plaxis calculations
and practice shows relatively high horizontal displacements when tie rods are not
prestressed. Because the final anchor force is depending on the degree of prestressing,
this prestressing should be taken into account in the design calculations.
– For (grout) anchors the length L is the distance between the sheet pile and the fictional
fixed point of the anchor. The estimation of the fictive anchor length is difficult.
Because on the one hand the area of the cross section over the length of the anchor is
not constant and on the other hand the load is distributed over the full anchor length
in a certain degree. Also the anchor body will move with regard to the soil in order to
develop body friction and mobilise the shear in the Kranz wedge. Taking the stiffness
based on the length up to the centre of the anchor body will give the upper bound of
the stiffness and highest anchor force.
An eventual angle α between the anchor and the horizontal should be considered. The
stiffness in horizontal direction is a factor cos2 α smaller than in the direction of the
anchor. The engineer of the sheet pile wall should point out the limits between which
EA/L should be.
– When an anchor is made in such a way that over a large length, load can be transferred
to the surrounding soil more than is necessary for the transfer of the anchor load, it can
turn out in a field test that the fictional anchor point is too close to the retaining wall.
In order to evaluate whether the fictional anchor point is sufficiently remote from the
retaining wall, the results of the field test should be checked for the minimum value
according to Kranz-stability by the engineer of the sheet pile wall. It is allowed to
raise the load in such a way that the field test will indeed satisfy the Kranz criterion.
(See NEN 9997-1 and CUR 166).
– In practice it is not easy to consider execution inaccuracy in the connection of the
anchor and the sheet pile in the sheet pile design. That is why adequate care should be
paid to a good connection between waling and sheet pile during execution (e.g. by steel
filling plates). Detailing of anchor plates allowing adequate margin for installation
inaccuracies and rotation.
– In the calculation of the sheet pile half the deflection of an eventual waling should be
taken into account for the anchor stiffness.
– Settlement of the soil leads to an increase of tension forces, shear forces and bending
moments, see CUR 166 part 1, Section 7.4.
289
Variable loads:
– Surface loads
The loads by storage in the area behind quay walls are much larger than the values
mentioned in Section 2.4.2 (9)c of NEN 9997-1. In Section 5.4.5 and in the EAU
values are mentioned for surface loads on quay walls in ports. In the case of high
loads on the high side, for example the storage of ore or a stack of containers, the
size of this should be determined based on the maximum value given in the Terms
of Reference, with taking into account the given load distribution in the direction of
the sheet pile wall and perpendicular to it. See Section 5.4.5 for examples/values of
surface loads.
When it’s uncertain what surface load should be calculated on the active side behind
(small) quay walls, a uniformly distributed load of at least 20 kPa should be calculated.
For not equally distributed loads, e.g. on a sloping or refracted surface, is referred to
CUR 166 part 2 Section 4.5. See also Section 6.7.4.6 Bulk storage and NEN-EN 1991.
– Traffic loads
When the traffic load can not act just behind the sheet pile wall, the wheel loads may
be modelled as a uniformly distributed load. An indication of traffic loads is given in
NEN-EN 1991-2.
See Section 5.4.5 for an indication of the axle and wheel loads of reach stackers,
straddle carriers and fork lift trucks.
– Other loads
Crane loads: See for this purpose CUR 166 part 2 Section 3.2 or Section 5.4.5 (for
crane loads)
See Chapter 7 for an indication of mooring loads or see Mooring equipment guidelines
OCIMF.
See reaction forces in fender vendor manuals.
Phase 3) Determine the design values of the parameters

The design values of the soil parameters can be determined with the characteristic values
divided by the partial material factor YM (see tableA.4a orA.4b of NEN 9997-1). The design
values of the actions can be determined by characteristic action multiplied by partial load
factors YA (see table A.3 of NEN 9997-1).
Design soil parameter: Xd = Xk /γM
Soil (spring supported beam method)
The design value of the weight density is equal to the expected value. The design value of
the wall friction angle δ should be determined according to 9.5.1(a) of NEN 9997-1, listed
in table 6.1, wherein for ϕ the design value for the angle of internal friction is taken.
The low design value of the subgrade reaction modulus should be obtained by division of the
out of table 6.18, appointed characteristic value of the low average with γm;E = 1.3. The low
design value of the subgrade reaction modulus can also be obtained, without using (Table
6.18), by division of the expected value (i.e. the best guess of the average) by a factor 2.0.
290
Quay walls
The high design value of the subgrade reaction modulus can be obtained out of division
of the out of table 6.18, appointed characteristic value of the high average, by γ m;E = 1.0.
The high design value of the subgrade reaction modulus can also be set without using table
6.18 by multiplying the expected value with a factor 1.5.
Bending stiffness sheet pile wall and anchor

The design value of the bending stiffness of the sheet pile wall (EI )d , and the spring
stiffness of the anchor (Ka )d , can be equated at the respectively expected values with a
partial material factor γ m = 1.0.
For the potential prestressing load of the anchor a partial load factor of γ f = 1.0 is valid.
In order to obtain certainly the size of the load is measured.
Geometric parameters
The increase a on the retaining height according to Section 9.3.2.1 of NEN 9997-1, should
not be used in the design calculation of quay walls. Because there is a larger uncertainty
in the bed level due to the dredging and sounding inaccuracy and possible scour of various
depth. In front of quay walls the seabed level at the lower side can be affected by scour, when
no scour protection is applied. The scour depth is depending on the kind of soil (cohesive or
non-cohesive), the used engine and thrusters power and the reflection of water jets against
a sheet pile wall. The scour depth can be 2 up to 6 metres. See Scour Manual G.J.C.M.
Hoffmans and H. J. Verheij (1997) [Lit. 6.37] and the report of T. Blokland [Lit. 6.38].
By choosing the design depth conservatively low (at least 2 metres) a safe design can be
reached and no additional a is required (see Section 6.2).
When there will be dredged in front of the quay wall the tolerances of the dredging equip-
ment should be used on the low side. See CUR-report ‘Construction & Survey Accuracies’
for the execution of dredging and stone dumping works, 2013.
For the way of determining the retaining height see Section 5.4.2. The design value of the
retaining height will be taken into account by lowering the bed level on the passive side
and by holding the ground level on the active side the same (surface level).
Free surface water level

The design water levels at the harbour side should be chosen based on the tidal (high and
low water level) variation (see Section 6.6.5).
Ground water pressures

Ground water levels and the hydraulic head of water deducting layers should preferably be
determined by a statistic process of the measurement data over long term periods.
The elevation of the drain(opening) will determine the ground water level just behind the
sheet pile wall. The tidal fluctuation will lag. For sure if the drain opening has (ball) valves.
291
292

Table 6.19 Tolerances depending on kind of dredging equipment, kind of soil and particular circumstances.
Dredging equipment
Bed Trailing suction- Cutter suction Environmental Hydraulic crane Floating crane Bucket dredger Plough
dredger dredger suction dredger (backhoe) (pontoon) (supported)
bulk max. bulk max. bulk max. bulk max. bulk max. bulk max. bulk max.
Sludge 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.25 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.45 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Sand 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.25 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Gravel 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 n/a n/a 0.5 0.25 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Clay 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 n/a n/a 0.5 0.35 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Rock n/a n/a 0.5 0.4 n/a n/a 0.6 0.4 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Surcharge because of specific working circumstances
unsheltered water 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 n/a n/a 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2
current 0.5–1.0 m/s 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
water depth 10–20 m 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Explanation and comments:
– The given values have 95% confidence value, so the probability they will be exceeded on one side is 2.5%. The tolerances are expressed in metres and are both
positive and negative (for example) 0.10 = +/ − 0.10 metre);
– The values above are indicative and depend upon, amongst other things, the equipment on board.
– The values above are the sum of the inaccuracies in construction and measurement, the inaccuracies of measurement can be an order of magnitude smaller than
those during construction.
– ‘Bulk’ is for bulk products, where a higher priority is assigned to the production level than to the accuracy.
– ‘Max’ is for maximum effort, with a higher priority assigned to the accuracy and the production is sacrificed in the interests of accuracy.
– Maximum effort is a relative concept. With yet more effort it is always possible to obtain an even better result.
Quay walls
If the drain system is maintainable (can be inspected visional and can be cleared). Further
landwards the ground water level will rise.
When the drainage is not maintainable the drainage can be slugged or the (ball)valve at
the drain opening can get stuck. So the drainage would not work well after several years.
A more pessimistic ground water level should be assumed. For the extreme design value
of the groundwater level on the high side sometimes simply the top side of the quay wall
can be used, because a higher water level (i.e. level difference in reference to the surface
water level) is physically not possible.
For the determination of the design water levels for the calculations of the quay wall see
Section 6.6.5.
Surface Load
The live load should be calculated with a load factor γ Q . Sheet pile structures belong
to group C according to NEN-EN 1990. In group C the fact that by the application of
partial factors on the soil parameters the soil pressure and the soil resistance are raised
respectively lowered considerably is taken into account in the determination of the load
factor. Thereby an important part of the safety in the sheet pile calculations is obtained.
On the live load a lower load factor can therefore be applied then for structures in group
A and B according to NEN-EN 1990. The values of the factors are given in table 6.6-A2
sheetpile wall.
Phase 4) Choose calculation scheme A or B

A = design values in all phases
B = design values in the check phase(s) and characteristic values in previous phases
Scheme A is the most simple but does not always lead towards an optimal design
Phase 5) Calculate the minimal embedding depth t min
For the design values of the soil parameters (lower design value of the subgrade reaction
modulus), the bending stiffness of the sheet pile wall, the spring stiffness of the anchor
and the soil parameters. For the water level on the lower side two cases should be taken
into account.
Phase 6) For the design of the sheet pile wall the following calculations are necessary:
Spring supported beam method and FEM
For the dimensioning of the sheet pile wall the calculations mentioned in table 6.2 are
necessary. Here also a larger imbedding depth than the minimal value found in phase
5, has to be used. Because of the favourable moment distribution this larger imbedding
depth can result in a lighter sheet pile profile which, in spite of the larger length, can be
economical.
293
Besides the ULS results the calculated SLS values have to be multiplied with a factor of
1.2 in order to get the design values of the sectional forces M and D and the maximum
anchor load Pmax . For a explanation, see Section 9.7.1(k) of NEN 9997-1. In formula:
Ms;d = 1.2 · Ms;rep

Ds;d = 1.2 · Ds;rep
Pmax = 1.2 · Prep
ULS-verification with FEM

Checking of Ultimate limit states in FEM can be carried out with the following approaches:
1. Calculations are performed with representative values of parameters for the strength
of the soil (c and ϕ ). Additional stages are introduced in which the soil properties
are changed, taken into account the relevant partial factors. For the retaining height,
the water levels, the loads and the stiffness of the soil and the structure, design values
of the parameters are taken.
2. In this approach the different load steps are calculated for the representative value of
soil strength which means the stress path will not deviate too much from the stress
path that may develop in situ. The Ultimate Limit States (ULS) will be checked by
performing a strength reduction procedure, for each load step that might be critical.
The adaption of design values for the geometric parameters, water levels, loads and
stiffness’s is taken because these will not be influenced by the strength reduction
procedure.
3. Integrated procedures in the software such as “Design Approach” might be available
where the user may define the partial safety factors to be applied in the “Design
verification”. The third option is not always available in FEM software, but becomes
available in the latest version of Plaxis.
4. In this approach the calculation is performed with design values for the soil parame-
ters, retaining height, water levels, loads and stiffness of the structure from the start.
The results of the deformations in the different load steps of approach 1, 2 and 3 may directly
be compared and checked with the critical deformation according to the Serviceability
Limit State (SLS).
The second and third approaches are considered to be preferred as the first approach is
sensitive to errors and is considered to be laborious, and the fourth approach results in
conservative estimates of the loadings conditions and does not allow for a SLS verification
other than with a separate calculation. As approach 3 is not always available only approach
2 is described into more detail.
Approach 2
For checking the embedment depth of the retaining wall, the bending moments, normal
forces and shear forces in the retaining structure and the anchor forces, the forces after
294
Quay walls
strength reduction need to be applied. For that reason the strength reduction needs to be
applied up to the point that the obliged partial safety factor with respect to the material
strength of the soil is reached i.e.
– 1.25 for Reliability Class 2

– 1.30 for Reliability Class 3
The approach on how to obtain the correct partial factors when using strength reduction
procedures is described in Section 6.5.
The strength reduction procedure will give results for forces such as bending moments,
normal force and anchor force in the (ULS) for a specific load combination.
Apart from checking the ULS Forces according to the method described above, these
forces need to be checked against the forces that were derived in the representative load
step; before strength reduction multiplied with a factor of 1.2 independent of the Reliability
Class.
The advantages of approach 2 are:
– a better view on the actual displacements that may be expected; as the calculation is
performed with characteristic values for the soil strength
– A more refined design, by application of the strength reduction procedure at the end
of the applicable load combination. The calculated forces will be less conservative
and more realistic compared to Calculation scheme A
Further Remarks
The approach given above demands that calculations are performed both for low design
values for the Soil stiffness and for High design values for the parameters. The more
unfavourable result of the different calculation will be applicable.
The calculation approach 2, as described here must be seen as a compromise between

calculation efficiency and calculation accuracy. For a number of parameters design values
are adopted during all the calculation steps. For the evaluation of deformations in the (SLS)
this approach may be too conservative. For a number of computer programs that may be
considered for the calculations as described above, it is possible to change the parameters
of layers; i.e. stiffnesses in between calculation steps; offering the possibility to perform a
more refined analysis.
Sequence of combinations of loads in calculation

For each design several combinations of loads must be calculated. If possible it is rec-
ommended in the calculation program to start the different combinations of loads from
one and the same phase (e.g. the final construction phase). When this is not possible in
295
the calculation program it is preferred to make separate calculations for each combination
of loads. When the choice is made to perform one calculation with all the combinations
of loads, a sequence in which the moment of the wall is increasing for each following
combination of loads is preferred.
Phase 7) Determine the largest bending moment and fixed moment

Phase 7.1
Determine the largest moment and fixed moment from the governing phase. The largest
value is the design value Ms;d .
Phase 7.2
The design value of the moment Ms;d should be checked with the design value of the strength
of the wall Mr;d according to the material codes: See for steel sheet piles NEN-EN 1993-5
and see for concrete sheet piles and diaphragm walls NEN-EN 1992-1-1.
Phase 8) Check local strains (spring supported beam method and FEM)
Phase 8.1: Shear and Axial forces
Shear and Axial forces on steel profiles (primary and secondary elements) should be
verified according to NEN-EN 1993, part 5.
Phase 8.2: Local buckling of tubes in combined walls
Local Buckling must be verified with the recommendations presented in Section 6.6.6.
Phase 9) Check of anchor force (spring supported beam method and FEM)
Phase 9.1
Sensitivity calculations for the anchor stiffness.
These calculations are only relevant when the stiffness is uncertain. See also the remarks
about this in phase 2. Determine first for which calculation (phase 6) the highest anchor
force is calculated. Calculate the determining anchor force Pmax with the parameters used
and with the 5% upper boundary value of the anchor stiffness. Often an iterative calculation
shall be necessary for the determination of the normative anchor force Pmax .
Phase 9.2
Determine the largest value of the anchor force Pmax resulting from the previous phases
(6 and eventually 9.1).
Phase 9.3
On the value of Pmax determined in phase 9.2 additional factors should be used for the
determination of the design value of the load. For the verification of the strength of the
296
Quay walls
waling, the anchor wall, the geotechnical capacity of the anchor and the vertical bearing
capacity of the sheet pile wall apply a factor of 1.1:
Pd = 1.1Pmax
For the design of the tie-rod/upset end tie rod, including intermediate connections (turn
buckle/coupling sleeve, connection with waling) and anchor blocks (bearing plates/nuts)
on both sides, apply a factor of 1.25:
Pd = 1.25Pmax
The consequences of factors which are not taken along in the calculations of the anchor
load should if necessary be accounted for, e.g.:
– Settlement/Sinking of the soil (see Section 4.9.13 in part 2 of CUR 166)

– For corrosion rates sheet pile wall see Section 8.3.
– For tie rods in salty soil should a corrosion of 3 mm be used over a lifetime of 50 years
– Misuse of waling (see Section 4.9.11 in part 2 CUR 166)
– Influence of temperature (see Section 4.9.12 in part 2 of CUR 166)
Phase 9.4
The design values of the loads should be verified on the design value of the strength.
The stability according to ‘Kranz’ should be verified in case of an anchored wall (see
phase 11.1).
Waling
For the verification of the strength of the waling see NEN-EN 1993-5
Anchor wall, tie rod and geotechnical bearing capacity

The design value of the strength of the anchor wall is equal to the calculated tensile capacity
based on the design values of the soil and geometrical characteristics, in which material
factors are used of table 6 of phase 3.
For the determination of the design value of the strength of the tie rod and the geotechnical
bearing capacity of different types of anchors formed in the soil reference is made to
chapter 7.
Failure of an anchor
For permanent sheet pile walls in RC1 and all sheet pile walls in RC2 and RC3 should be
verified if or at failure of one single anchor the structure has enough distribution capacity
so that not the entire sheet pile wall fails (no progressive failure). In 7.2.2(5)P of NEN-EN
1993 part 5 is specified that for example this verification can be done by proving that the
neighbouring anchors can take over the support. Herewith other partial factors are used,
namely for ‘exceptional design situation’ according to Section 6.4.3.3 NEN-EN 1990.
Then all partial load and material factors are equal to 1.0 and all geometrical increments
297
are equal to 0.0. Anchor failure is verified by the calculated anchor load according to a
SLS-calculation verification of the extreme bearing capacity of the anchor and the waling.
Phase 10) Check deformations

Deformations can be normative in the ULS type B and/or SLS, see Section 2.4.9 of NEN
9997-1.
– ULS type B is reached when the deformations of the sheet pile wall leads to failure
of adjacent structures (for example the collapse of a building).
– The sheet pile deflection found in SLS calculation nr 6.5 leads to an exceeding of the
permissible value for the sheet pile and/or for adjacent structures.
In the terms of reference the permissible deformation should be recorded, including the
limit state (ULS/SLS) for which this is valid. The designed deformation umax should be
checked for the valid value of ulimit
umax ≤ ulimit
Note that the values of umax and ulimit are different for ULS and SLS.
Phase 11) Check other mechanisms

Phase 11.1 Verify the resistance of the ground slice for an anchored sheet pile wall with
Kranz (spring supported beam method and FEM)
Kranz Method
With the Kranz method, the stability of the anchorage is verified on the basis of a deep
straight sliding plane. When tension piles are used, this sliding plane runs from the deeply
positioned shear centre of the sheet piling to the centre or the anchorage area of the
tension member. If an anchorage with an anchor wall is used, the sliding plane of the
deeply positioned shear centre of the sheet piling runs to the underside of the anchor wall.
The groundmass that lies between the sheet piles and vertical through the centre of the
anchorage is loaded with the design value of tensile force of tension member or anchorage
and must be in equilibrium. For this the stabilizing shear forces are based on characteristic
values of soil properties. The equilibrium is verified for a width of 1 metre. Here too, as
for the verification of total stability of the quay, both undrained and drained situations are
considered.
Note: All calculations should be done with representative values of actions and ground
parameters.
The characteristic value of the anchor capacity Rkr;rep from the analysis of the equilibrium
of the ground segment, must satisfy:
1.5Fa;max ≤ Fkr;rep
298
Quay walls
in which:
Pmax is the design value of tensile force per m of tension member or anchor found in
phase 9.2
RKr;b is the maximum available anchor capacity per m according to ’Kranz’, determined
by using characteristic values of the soil properties
See figure 9E of NEN 9997-1.
When anchors are applied the engineer of the sheet pile wall should state the minimum
required length Lapp for the anchor. Hereby the following is valid:
Lapp is the distance measured along the anchor between the retaining wall and the point
of action of the resultant of the shear friction between the anchorage element and the
surrounding soil massive (see Section 9.7.2 of NEN 9997-1.). [the resultant of the resisting
force on the anchorage element]
Fig. 6.41 explains the verification of the stability of the tension pile according to the Kranz
method.
Situation I with short MV-pile
G5
Polygon of actions
δ
E ab
E1 E1 F kr;rep/m1
ϕ
G2 G4
ΣG ΣQ
δ Centre of gravity
G3 of anchorage
Ead
G1 Ead
Q4 Fa
Q3 ϕ4 Clay layer
Q2 ϕ4
Q1
ϕ5
ϕ6
Deep shear centre
sheet pile wall
Fig. 6.41 Example of verification of stability of an anchorage according to the Kranz method.
If a considerable ground water flow occurs in the ground segment under consideration,
the anchor capacity Fkr;b should be determined taking into account unfavourable water
pressures, from the shear centre to the groundwater level, Fig. 6.42.
299
Water pressure on front of earth segment Water pressure on back of earth segment
Phreatic level in holocene

above clay layer
NAP GWL +1.00

-1.50
Resulting water pressure

to be taken into account
Centre of gravity
of anchorage
Clay layer
Deep shear centre Phreatic level in

sheet pile wall Pleistocene sand layer
+0.50
Fig. 6.42 Resulting water pressure in a soil segment for the verification of Kranz stability.
Verification of heave
In tidal areas there is the risk that, relative to the properties of the ground, the shallow semi-
permeable ground layers will heave as a result of the occurrence of resulting water pressure
during dredging of the harbour or dredging in front of the quay wall. Heave greatly reduces
the capacity of the stabilizing soil layer on the passive side of the sheet piles, which is unde-
sirable. Consequently, it is necessary to verify whether there is adequate residual strength
to provide protection against this phenomenon. Verification should be carried out during
the construction phase to determine whether resulting water pressure might occur, which
could lead to heave in the layer beneath the semi-permeable layer. A normative situation
arises with a low free surface water level immediately after dredging free of the quay.
In addition, the situation during the design working life should be verified. An extreme
situation occurs if, after a period with relatively high water levels during which the layer
under the semi permeable ground layer has adapted to the high water levels, an extremely
low free surface water level occurs. The verification consists of an analysis of the vertical
equilibrium of the semi-permeable ground layer in which the vertical forces that act on the
underside of the semi permeable layer are examined. These are the upward directed design
values of the vertical resulting water pressure Vdst;d and the downward directed design
value of the effective weight Gstb;d of the upper layers.
The following conditions of equilibrium must be verified:
Gstb;d ≥ Vdst;d
300
Quay walls
in which:
Vdst;d = γF · Vdst and Gstb;d = γG · Gstb
and
Vdst;d Design value of the upward directed resulting water pressure (destabilising
actions)
Gstb;d Design value of the effective weight of the upper layers (stabilising actions)
Vdst Characteristic value of the upward directed resulting water pressure (destabilising
actions)
Gstb Characteristic value of the effective weight of the upper layers (stabilising actions)
The characteristic values of the resulting water pressures must be determined on the basis
of hydrological considerations during both construction phase and design working life.
Water pressure on water side +5.00
NAP GWL +1.00

-1.50
Layer 1, sand thickness = 2.0m
Design depth -22.00

Design depth
-22.00 Gstb;d1
1 Sand Gstb;d2
2 Clay
3 Sand Vdst;d
Layer 2, clay d = 1.5m
Fig. 6.43 Example of verification of heave.
Software that can be used to calculate two-dimensional steady state groundwater flows in a
permeable stratified subgrade is available. The partial factors for resulting water pressure
γF and effective self-weight γ G are as follows:
• Construction phase: γF = 1.30 and γG = 0.90

• Design working life: γF = 1.50 and γG = 0.90
In Fig. 6.43 is an example shown based on the resulting water pressure in the design
working life situation and the consideration of the vertical equilibrium of the bottum of
the clay layer at a level of NAP −25.50 m.
301
The verification of heave in the service situation is based on:
• Sand layer 2.0 m thick; γsat = 20 kN/m3

• Clay layer 1.5 m thick; γsat = 16 kN/m3
• Characteristic value of the resulting water pressure is based on the water levels of
Figure 6.24 and amounts to 1.5 m
Wd ≥ G d
Wd = γfw · W b =1.50 ·15 = 22.50 kN/m2
Gd = YfG · G b = 0.90 · (2 · 10 + 1.5 · 6) = 26.10 kN/m2
This satisfies the safety requirement in relation to heave.
Phase 11.2: Verify the mechanism piping (spring supported beam method and FEM)
Principle and verification of piping
In fine-grained permeable soils, it is possible that an upward directed ground water flow,
caused by a difference between free surface water level and phreatic levels, may initiate
internal scour on the passive side of the sheet piles. A condition for this is a high ground
water level on the high side of the retaining structure. For the type of quay wall under
consideration, it is assumed that this condition is satisfied as a result of settlement of the
soil under the relieving platform, which causes formation of a continuous longitudinal
fissure.
The phenomenon is found when unfavourable resulting water pressure situations arise,
in consequence of tidal activity. Internal scour occurs when the upward flow pressures
are greater than the vertical effective stress from self-weight in the passive area between
harbour bottom and underside sheet piles; in other words, when the critical flow velocity is
exceeded. The result is that soil particles are washed out of the passive ground layers close
to the bottom of the harbour. This scour process is regressive in character so, beginning on
the bed of the harbour, small channels are formed; these extend via the underside of the
sheet piles to create a link with the open water on the high side of the quay, see Fig. 6.44.
CUR 166 Part 1 Section 3.3.11 gives a rough method to verify the mechanism of piping
according to Lane’s formula for the required seepage length.
Below a comprehensive method is described based on an analysis of the flow of

groundwater below the too of the secondary elements of the combiwall.
Method of Terzaghi
In Fig. 6.45, the method of Terzaghi is used to determine the vertical equilibrium of a
soil segment ABCD. For this the friction forces on the vertical planes AC and BD are
302
Quay walls
-1- -2- -3-
-4- -5-
Fig. 6.44 Development of piping.
∆H
1/2 D
G
B A
D1
D C
m ∆ H γw
Development of resulting
water pressure on C D in
relation to phreatic level in
front of the wall U
Fig. 6.45 Calculation of piping according to Terzaghi.
303
neglected. The flow pressure of the groundwater on plane CD can be determined from
model calculations of ground water flows based on Darcy’s law:
q=k · i
in which:
q volume of ground water flow
k permeability coefficient
i hydraulic gradient
The model is based on the design values of the parameters. The calculation is made with the
aid of a flow net consisting of flow lines and equipotential lines. Software is also available
with which two-dimensional plane steady state ground water flows can be calculated.
The upward flow pressure found from the calculation is: m · H · γw .
There is equilibrium when:
D · (γsat − γw ) ≥ m · H · γw ,
in which:
γsat saturated weight density of the soil
m a factor for hydraulic fall Hworking on plane CD determined from the flow net
H hydraulic fall in metres equivalent to the difference between phreatic level and free
surface water level
D depth in metres of the layer under the bottom of the harbour
A critical situation arises at H that satisfies: D · (γsat − γw ) = m · Hcrit · γw .
m · Hcrit γsat − γw
The critical hydraulic gradient here is: icrit = =
D γw
The verification of piping is based on NEN 9997-1 §10.5. A calculation of the pore
pressures must be used to show that the design value of the normative hydraulic gradient
id does not exceed the design value of the critical hydraulic gradient in sand id;crit in other
words
id ≤ id;crit = 0.5
Combined sheet piling is often used for quay structures with a relieving platform. The length
of the intermediate piles determines the hydraulic gradient. When the harbour is deepened,
various cases of internal scour have occurred that have been caused by intermediate piles
that were too short or by undetected losses of interlock (Section 6.3.5). In this verification
304
Quay walls
it is assumed that no bottom protection has been used. For verifications of piping the
underside of the intermediate pile is considered the underside of the sheet pile wall. A
reduction of 0.5 metre is applied to the design level of the underside of the intermediate
pile to allow for possible deviations in execution.
The two following accidental combinations of loads are considered:
• An unfavourable low free surface water level based on a probability of occurrence

below 5% over the reference period and an unfavourable high phreatic level combined
with an extreme scour of 2.0 m caused by propeller wash
• An unfavourable low free surface water level based on a probability of occurrence
below 5% over the reference period and an unfavourable high ground water level
based on a non-functioning drainage system
For each situation, the design value of hydraulic fall H is equal to the differences in
design values of ground water level and free surface water level. For the determination
of design values of geometric parameters such as bottom depth, ground water and free
surface water level, see Section 6.6.5.
Verification of piping
To illustrate the calculation for the verification of piping with an intermediate pile in the
accidental combination of loads described above, see Fig. 6.46.
The basic assumptions are as follows:
• Situation 1: scour of 2.0 metres, combined with an intermediate pile which is 0.5
metre short, hydraulic fall Hw;d = 2.50 metres
Situation with 2 m scour Situation with drainage no longer

functioning properly
∆ Hw;d = 2.5m ∆ Hw;d = 3.5m

∆ wswl = 0.5m ∆ wswl = 0.7m
0.5 0.7
i= = 0.33<0.50 i= = 0.20<0.50
1.5 3.5
2.0m scour
3.5m
1.5m
0.5m intermediate pile 0.5m intermediate pile
too short too short
Fig. 6.46 Verification of piping for combined sheet pile wall.
305
• Situation 2: non-functioning drainage system, combined with an intermediate pile that

is 0.5 metre short, hydraulic fall Hw;d = 3.50 metres
The determination of the development of resulting water pressures is carried out accord-
ing to Fig. 6.45. In this, the sheet pile is primarily located in sand and piping may
occur.
The maximum water pressure on the passive side occurs at the bottom of the intermediate
pile, the rise in relation to hydrostatic water pressure amounts to 0.50 metre in situation 1
and to 0.70 metre in situation 2. In situation 1 the design value of the hydraulic gradient i
amounts to 0.33 and in situation 2 the design value is 0.20. This is smaller than the critical
pressure gradient of sand of 0.50 and thus acceptable.
Verification of hydraulic fracture of the soil

Following on from piping, it is also important to carry out a verification of hydraulic soil
fracture which might occur if the upward seepage pressure is too high. As in the case of
piping, the vertical equilibrium of a soil body on the passive side of the sheet piles must
be verified. The soil segment considered lies between the bottom of the harbour and the
underside of the intermediate pile. The width is assumed to be 50% of the depth of which
the intermediate pile penetrates the bottom of the harbour. The design value of the upward
flow pressure Wd must be in equilibrium with the design value of the effective weight of
the soil mass under consideration Gd , see Figure 6.45. The design value of flow pressure is
determined in the same way as given under the heading ‘Piping’. The equilibrium condition
is: γfSW · Wd ≥ γfG · Gd .
The partial factor for the flow pressure γfSW = 1.50. The partial factor for the effective
weight γfG = 0.90 see Table A.17 of NEN 9997-1.
Piping is checked with Lane criteria Section 10.5 of NEN 9997-1
Phase 11.3: Verify total stability (spring supported beam method and FEM)
Verify the loss of the overall stability by means of NEN 9997-1 (for example with the
method Bishop) using the given partial factors per safety class.
For sheet pile walls in primary flood defenses is referred to CUR 166 §4.12 part 2.
Verification of stability
Calculations for the verification of the stability of the quay wall include possible
unfavourable and deep sliding planes. The verification assesses the safety of the quay
wall against sliding along a normative sliding plane. The available verification methods
are based on circular or non circular sliding planes.
306
Quay walls
The minimum requirements to the method to be used for overall stability are:
– The method should allow for analysis of circular and non-circular slip surfaces
– The method should consider at least moment and interslice forces (Bishop and not
Fellenius, Jnabu and other Force equilibrium Methods)
Bishop Method (spring supported beam method)

A calculation method often used is that of Bishop, which is based on a circular sliding
plane. The specification for stability is that the design value of the destabilizing moment
Mad is smaller than or equal to the design value of the resisting moment Mrd . For the
determination of these moments the ground mass is divided into a number of vertical
parts. Summation of the moments round the centre of the circular sliding plane caused by
the destabilizing or resisting resultants per strip yields the driving or resisting moment.
For the calculation principles, see CUR report 166, Section 4.4.3 and Figure 4.63. To find
the most critical sliding circle several circles must be analyzed.
Besides the simple Bishop method the overall stability can also be checked with the
most accurate methods that account for moment and force equilibrium (Spencer and
Morgenstern Price).
In Fig. 6.47, an example of the verification of total stability in a quay structure is given.
Two calculations methods can be considered:
• A total stress approach using undrained shear strength. The shear strength is equal to
the design value of the undrained shear strength fundr . The effective angle of friction
ϕ is set at zero
• An undrained analysis using drained soil strength parameters the excess pore pressures
in the cohesive layers caused by infrequent occurring high site loads
The vertical surcharges and the weights of the ground to the right of the centre of the
assumed sliding circle form the destabilizing forces. The resistance forces Q and the
weights of the ground left of the centre of the assumed sliding circle act as stabilizing
forces. The verification of the total stability is calculated for the ULS.
Phase 11.4: Check the vertical bearing capacity of the quay wall
The ULS should be verified by means of chapter 7 of NEN 9997-1 be aware of the specific
properties of the sheet pile wall.
For the calculation of the vertical load component of the anchor, the anchor load Pd
calculated in phase 9 should be used. The calculation method for the vertical bearing
capacity in sand layers is given in CUR 2001-8 and for silty, peat and clay layers is given
in chapter 5 and in Section 4.10.9 of part 2 of CUR 166.
307
M
308

M and R from normative circle of sliding
Rw
ith
min
imu
ms
afe
Surcharge
ty
q
2
q1
+5.00
GWL +1.00
NAP 1 Fill sand Fill sand
-1.50 ϕ1
-6.00
Q1
ϕ2
2 Fine silty sand s
G
3.5:1
Combi-wall Q2 3
Fine sand with very
many silt layers
s
Holocene
sand
MV-pile
Q3
3.5:1
Contract depth
4:1
4 Silty sand s
1:
Design depth -22.00

1
Q4.2
ϕ4 ϕ3 -24.00
-26.00 5 Loamy clay
-25.50
ϕ4 Q5.2 Concrete pile Q 5.1 ϕ 5 6 Coarse silty sand
Pleistocene
ϕ5 Q 4.1 sand
ϕ6
-33.50 s
ϕ6 ϕ6
Q 6.3 Q 6.1
Q 6.2
Fig. 6.47 Verification of total stability of a quay wall according to Bishop.

Quay walls
As mentioned in phase 2 for the determination of the wall friction angle δ an external
vertical load component on the sheet pile wall can have an influence on the direction of the
soil pressure. The angle δ can swap signs, which can have a large influence on the force in
the sheet pile wall. See elsewhere this section.
Phase 12) Construction aspects

When there is reason to, instructions should be given in the design report for the installation
of the sheet pile wall. Hereby one could think of:
– Special precautions to be taken during installation of the sheet pile wall (like water
jetting or pre-drilling see lessons learned in chapter 12) to reach the required depth
when a solid soil layer is present in the subsoil.
– Special precautions to reduce vibration and/or noise nuisance for the environment
when sensitive structures are in the neighbourhood.
– The (pre)stressing of anchors.
Besides this the monitoring during execution should be mentioned in the design report.
Depending on the sheet pile wall structure and the surroundings one could think of:
– Vibration measurements
– Sound measurements
– Deformation measurements
– Measurement of the hydraulic head and/or water pressure in the different soil layers.
Phase 13) Verify choices

Verify the normative starting points, the determining of the parameters, the calculation
scheme and the embedment depth, as for during the phases of the action plan, changes are
made in relation to the original starting points and assumptions. As mentioned before, it
can be necessary that the design of the sheet pile wall is an iterative process.
For the choice of the material different aspects are essential, like the cost price in relation
to the type of structure, the aimed safety level and the esthetic requirements. More specific
material properties which influence the choice are:
– The water or soiltightness of the final wall in relation to the function of the structure;
– Strength and deformation behaviour;
– Influence of wall friction and the difference of materials;
– Execution;
– Method of installing;
– Sustainability and possible measurements (coating, cathodic protection).
309
References
6.1 CUR-publication 166, Sheet pile structures, ISBN 90 376 0036 X, CUR, Gouda,
The Netherlands, 6th edition 2012 (part 1 and 2) in Dutch only.
6.2 Schaik, C.N. van, Diepwaterterminal op de Maasvlakte te Rotterdam, ontwerp
zeekade, Polytechnisch Tijdschrift Civiele techniek 1990 nr. 2.
6.3 Smits, M.Th. J.H. en L.J. Buth, Eurocode komt er aan! Geotechniek nummer 3,
juli 2001.
6.4 Tol, A.F. van, Betekenis van de Europese regelgeving voor de funderingstechniek,
Geotechniek 6e jaargang, Special funderingen nummer 1, oktober 2002.
6.5 Eindrapport probabilistische analyse damwandconstructies, Gemeentewerken Rot-
terdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1997.
6.6 Grave, P. de, Validatie partiële factoren uit probabilistische analyse damwand-
constructies, Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft, The Netherlands, 2002.
6.7 Maritime Works Recommendations ROM 0.5-05, Actions in the design of
Maritime and Harbour works, Dirección General de Puertos y Costas, Madrid
Spain, 2008.
6.8 Cursusdictaat CGF1 “Grondmechanica en funderingstechniek”, Elsevier
opleidingen & advies, Zwijndrecht, The Netherlands, 2002.
6.9 CUR-rapport 2001-4, Ontwerpregels voor trekpalen, ISBN 9037604811, CUR,
Gouda, The Netherlands, 2001.
6.10 Broug, N.W.A., Verband tussen spanning en niet lineaire vervormingen in de grond.
Polytechnisch tijdschrift/C nummer 2 1987.
6.11 Mayne P.W en F.H. Kulhawy “K0 – OCR- relations in soil”, ASCE-Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering Vol. 108 number GT6 june 1982.
6.12 Korff, M., Aantrekkelijk vernieuwde rekenregel trekpalen, Geotechniek nummer
3, juli 2001.
6.13 CUR 2001-8, Bearing capacity of steel pipe piles, ISBN 9037601618, CUR, Gouda,
The Netherlands, 2001.
6.14 Senders M. “Open stalen buispalen”, Geotechniek nummer 1, januari 2001.
6.15 Parent, M.G., Ontwerp Kademuur E.E.C.V. Otar nummer 2, 1983.
6.16 CUR 1991, Veiligheid van damwandconstructies, Onderzoeksrapportage deel
I Rapport GD CO-316980/12 juli 1991 CUR, Gouda, The Netherlands,
1991.
6.17 Gijt J.G. de, Vrijling J.K. (1999), Collegedictaat Waterbouwkundige kunstwerken,
kademuren, CTwa 5315, Technische Universiteit Delft.
6.18 Gijt J.G. de, Brassinga H.E. (1989), Prediction Methods for Cone Resistance after
Excavation Marina 1989, Southampton.
6.19 Gijt J.G. de, Dalen J.H. van, Sijberden H.L. Proefbelastingen op de Maasvlakte
(1995) Funderingstechnologie 4e jaargang nr 2 december 1995.
6.20 Grave P. de, Gijt J.G. de and Vrijling J.K. (2003), Comparison of deterministic and
semi-probabilistic quay.
6.21 Seismic design guidelines for port structures, Balkema, Netherlands, 2002.
6.22 CUR-publicatie 109, Veiligheid van bouwconstructies, een probabilistische
benadering, ISBN 90 212 60530 CUR, Gouda, Nederland, 1982.
310
Quay walls
6.23 NEN 9997-1:2011/C1:2012 Geotechnical design of constructions. This is a compi-

lation of NEN-EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design, NEN-EN 1997-1/NA
National Annex: 2008 and Additional rules for NEN-EN 1997-1:2011.
6.24 CUR 231 Handboek diepwanden ISBN-978-90-376-0526-6: CUR Gouda, Neder-
land, 2010.
6.25 NEN-EN 1990-1 +A1+A2/C2 nl Basis for structural design.
6.26 NEN-EN 1991-1 Loads on constructions.
6.27 NEN-EN 1992-1 Concrete constructions.
6.28 NEN-EN 1993-1 Steel constructions.
6.29 TAW LR139 Leidraad kunstwerken, Technische Adviescommissie voor de Waterk-
eringen, Delft, mei 2003
6.30 Broeken M.L., Sijberden H.L and Gijt, J.G. de. Uitbreiding containerkade
Rotterdam, Land & Water, oktober 1992.
6.31 Wolters, H.J. (2012) Reliability of Quay Walls, MSC Thesis Probabilistic Finite
Element Calculations of Quay Walls.
6.32 Verheij, H. J. and Hoffmans G.J.C.M. (1997) Scour Manual P-DWW-96-120.
6.33 Blokland, T.: Bodembeschermingen belast door schroefstralen: Huidige ontwerp-
methode, 16 January 1997
6.34 EAU 2012, Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses “Ufereinfassungen” Häfen and
Wasserstrassen (Recommendations of the committee for waterfront structures
harbours and waterways), Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, Germany, 2012.
6.35 Kool. J., Gijt, J.G. de, Groenewegen L., EACEF 2013, Singapore.
6.36 Wolters H.J., Bakker k.J., Gijt, J.G. de, EACEF 2013, Singapore.
6.37 Doauri M., Gijt, J.G. de. Upgrading techniques for quay walls IABSE 2013,
Rotterdam.
6.38 Roubos A.A., Gijt de J.G., IABSE 2013, Rotterdam.
6.39 Gijt, J.G. de, Vinks R. Costs of quay walls including life cycle concepts, MTEC
2011, Singapore.
6.40 Gijt, J.G. de, Costs of quay walls EACEF 2011.
6.41 Maas T., Gijt, J.G. de, Dudok van Heel D., Comparison of quay wall designs in
concrete, steel, wood and composites MTEC 2011.
6.42 Gijt, J.G. de, Vrijling J.K., Uncertainties with quay wall design, Tagungsband
hafenbautechnische Gesellschaft 2009.
6.43 CUR-report 250 “Construction & Survey Accuracies” for the execution of dredging
and stone dumping works, 2013.
6.44 OCIMF, Mooring Equipment Guidelines 3rd edition
6.45 Schanz, A., Vermeer, P.A., Bonnier, P.G. The hardening soil model: formulation
and verification, Beyond 2000 in computational Geotechnics. International Plaxis
symposium.
6.46 Brinkgreve R.B.J. et al., Plaxis manual, Material modelling.
6.47 Peters, D.J., SBRCURnet, Local Buckling tests on Tubular Piles, Evaluation report,
27 August 2013.
Links:
http://www.puertos.es/en/programa_rom/rom_05_05_en.html
311
Quay walls
Chapter 7
QUAY-ELEMENTS
Quay walls
Contents
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.2 Pile foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

7.2.1 Precast concrete piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.2.2 Piles cast in situ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
7.2.3 Steel tubular piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
7.2.4 Steel H-piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
7.3 Sheet pile wall systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

7.3.1 Standard sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.3.2 Combined sheet pile wall systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
7.3.3 Diaphragm walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7.3.4 Precast concrete sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7.4 Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

7.4.1 Horizontal anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
7.4.2 Tension piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7.4.3 Anchors with a grout body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.4.4 Corrosion aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.5 Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

7.5.1 Capping beams for sheet pile walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.5.2 Hollow structures, cylindrical beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.5.3 Superstructures with relieving platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.5.4 Connection with the foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.5.5 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
7.5.6 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
7.5.7 Shear connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
7.6 Transitional structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

7.6.1 Transition between an inclined sheet pile wall and a vertical
sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.6.2 Corner solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
7.6.3 Connections to existing structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
7.6.4 Transitional slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
7.7 Berthing equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

7.7.1 Bollards, capstans and recessed bollards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
7.7.2 Quay ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Quay-Elements
7.8 Other berth details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

7.8.1 Edge protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
7.8.2 Cable channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
7.8.3 Recesses for functional services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
7.8.4 Fendering and fenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
7.8.5 Other finishing aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
7.9 Drainage systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
7.10 Crane tracks and rail structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

7.10.1 Loads and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
7.10.2 Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
7.10.3 Foundation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
7.10.4 Rail structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
7.11 Bottom protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

7.11.1 Scouring and general measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
7.11.2 Materials and structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
7.11.3 Design of bottom protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
7.11.4 Design of slope protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
7.11.5 Linking up with the combi-wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
7.12 Instrumentation for data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

7.12.1 Inclinometer tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.12.2 Strain gauges on anchors, sheet pile walls and piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.12.3 Load measuring devices for anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.12.4 Piezometric gauges to monitor excess water pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.12.5 Optic glass fibre technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
316
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Chapter 7
QUAY-ELEMENTS
7.1 Introduction
Quay walls consist of elements, all of which are highly important to the overall functionality
of the quay. Every structure is only as strong as the weakest link, so it is important to pay
close attention to every detail of the main structure. Not only the cost plays a role in this, but
also the feasibility of the construction and requirements in relation to accuracy, robustness
and design life. In view of the great length of quays, with their many recurring elements,
good reproducibility is important. Aspects relating to construction materials are described
in Chapter 8.
7.2 Pile foundations

Pile foundations are most often found in quays with relieving platforms and open berth
structures. The most important function of a pile foundation is to create the bearing capacity
and stability of the quay. The requirements that derive from this include those relating to
bearing capacity, strength, stiffness, constructability and the capacity to bear loads from
imposed deformations. Furthermore, the earth retaining structure itself fulfills a bearing
function and is considered as a foundation element.
When a pile trestle with inclined piles is used the piles act as tensile or bearing piles. Piles
with a purely tensile function are considered in Section 7.4 under the heading anchorages.
The use of inclined bearing piles results in a reduction of the horizontal load on the
anchorage.
For the calculation of bearing capacity the following standards and guidelines apply:
• Bearing piles: EC 1997-part 1 or NEN-EN 9997 Ch.7

• Tension piles: CUR 2001-4, ‘Design rules for tension piles’ (in Dutch)
• Open steel tubular piles: CUR 2001-8, ‘Bearing capacity of steel pipe piles’ (in
English)
The following sections provide an overview of most frequently used foundation elements
and the most important characteristics of their use in quay walls. A more complete general
review of pile systems is given in Chapter 9.
317
Quay-Elements
7.2.1 Precast concrete piles

General properties and applicability
Prefabricated concrete piles have shaft dimensions up to 500 × 500 mm2 . The design value
for bearing resistance rises to approx. 4,000 kN and maximum pile length is 35 metres.
The piles are usually prestressed, with concrete compressive strength of at least C55.
In principle piles can be driven at any angle, but in practice slopes of less than 3:1 are
seldom encountered because of the demands this places on pile driving equipment. In the
Netherlands precast concrete piles are the most commonly used type, for reasons of both
economy and quality. For reasons of drivability increasingly also vibro piles are applied.
The use of prefabricated concrete piles is sometimes restricted by the following

circumstances:
• Heavy pile driving work as a result of a dense pile group and the requirement for a
great penetration depth. The latter may be necessary in order to remain outside the
area of the active wedge of the earth retaining structure. Heavy pile driving may lead
to extra pile breakage and damage to the pile head
• The need for very long piles, especially when building from the water side
Possible measures to prevent or reduce these problems include:
• Equipping the pile with a central jet pipe and jetting into the layers with poor bearing
resistance during pile driving or making use of pre-drilling (Figure 7.1)
PVC ø40
Steel bend
Screw thread
Base of concrete pile
Bore ø8
Bore ø10
PVC ø40 Bore ø8
Bore ø10
Fig. 7.1 Prefabricated concrete pile with central jet pipe.
318
Quay walls
• Extra care in detailing of the pile head reinforcement and during pile driving
operations, including timely replacement of the driving helmet lining (Figure 7.2)
• Pre-drilling
• Application of vibro piles
• Application of diaphragm walls
500
Stirrup 2 ø8-150 or
500
Stirrup 1 ø8-50
4 ø16 + 4 ø20
For tension piles
2000
Stirrup 1 ø6-100
Stirrup 1 ø6-200
Shaft
Fig. 7.2 Example of pile head reinforcement in prefabricated concrete pile.
Suitability as tension piles

In principle, prefabricated concrete piles are very suitable to bear relatively high tension
loads. The amount of reinforcement and the level of prestressing must be in line with the
anticipated load. A pile head reinforcement of corrugated reinforcement steel B500B is
used to transfer the tension load to the superstructure. The pile head reinforcement must
extend far enough to provide a good transfer of forces to the prestressed cross-section.
Because piles sometimes cannot be driven to the required depth it is customary to make
bars 3 to 4 metres longer. By using bars of two lengths, it is possible to prevent too great
a discontinuity in the pile at the ends of the bars, and attendant the risk of cracking or
breaking the pile.
The dimensions of pile head reinforcement must include sufficient reserve for incidental
moments and for tensile loads resulting from imposed loads. Imposed deformation caused
by negative friction, for example, can lead to greater tensile loads than the analysis of the
equilibrium would indicate. When tension piles are placed on the rear side of the relieving
platform, settlements in the surrounding earth can lead to bending moments in the piles
(Figure 7.3). If the bending moments are too large, unacceptable crack formation may
result. In such cases steel piles should be preferred. Experience has shown that some crack
319
Quay-Elements
formation in concrete piles is acceptable and that crack widths are reduced due to creep
effects. This can be taken into account when the crack widths are checked.
Fill
Earth pressure
Earth
susceptible
to settlement
Imposed
deformation
Fig. 7.3 Tension piles loaded by
horizontal earth
pressures.
7.2.2 Piles cast in situ

Because prefabricated piles are difficult to obtain outside the Netherlands, piles cast in
situ are often used. On the basis of qualitative aspects and required high bearing resistance,
displacement pile systems are usually used. These include:
• Vibro-piles: design value of bearing capacity ranging from 3,500 to 5,000 kN

• Franki-piles: design value of bearing capacity in compression up to 4,500 kN and
bearing resistance in tension up to 1,750 kN [7.3]
• Auger grout piles: design value of bearing capacity up to 12,500 kN (with temporary
bentonite lubrication) [7.3]
• Diaphragm wall panels/barette piles used as bearing elements
These pile systems are usually preferred to prefabricated concrete piles for foundations
when it is difficult to drive the piles into the soil. In Germany various types of displacement
piles with a greater or lesser degree of soil displacement and varying in dimension from
0.5 to 3.0 metres are used.
When auger grout piles are used it is necessary to take the following into consideration:
• The axial spring stiffness is relatively low, especially for the larger diameters where
there is no soil displacement
• The inclination of the pile is limited to a gradient of 6:1
• Risk of piping in the building pit when the ground level is below the level of the
hydraulic head of the deeper lying earth layers
320
Quay walls
In some systems bentonite lubrication can be introduced on the outside to reduce drilling
resistance.
7.2.3 Steel tubular piles

Steel tubular piles have the following advantages and disadvantages. They are:
• Considerably more expensive

• Easier to drive in heavy soils and in soils where there may be obstacles
• Less durable, although this can be compensated by additional steel thickness. This
also improves drivability
• Can absorb big moments and deformations
The bearing capacity of tubular piles is strongly dependent on the occurrence of plugging
and on the presence of a footplate or closed end. The design value of the bearing resistance
can vary between 1,500 and 10,000 kN. Piles with either open or closed ends are used. The
bearing capacity of piles with open ends increases as a result of plugging. This happens only
with deep penetration into the consolidated sand layer. For the bearing capacity see [7.29].
To improve the stiffness, durability and bearing capacity, piles with an open end can be
filled with concrete. While the pile is being emptied for the concrete filling, relaxation of
the soil may occur in and below the pile tip. In the past, for some projects this has led to
low bearing resistance and big vertical deformations. Reinforced concrete plugs are used
to link the steel pile to the concrete superstructure. These are described in 7.5.4.
7.2.4 Steel H-piles

Sheet pile manufacturers have developed a type of pile that consists of an H-profile, the
tip of which can be widened. This widening is achieved by welding an H-profile section
on each side of the H-profile with the flanges together. As a result, two boxes are created.
Some degree of plugging occurs in the tip. In a test on the Maasvlakte [7.1] plugging was
tested and an ultimate bearing capacity of over 6,000 kN was determined. This type of pile
is also manufactured with a base plate welded onto the tip of the pile (Figure 7.4). Such
piles are used in Belgium and elsewhere.
319 1800
HP 320/147
936
Foot plate
620 300 20
Fig. 7.4 Detail of testpile of H-pile with widened tip.
321
Quay-Elements
In Bremerhaven a variant in which high-pressure grout is injected into the tip has been
used. This ‘PH-tension pile’ has high stiffness and in tests reaches a design value above
3,000 kN for the bearing resistance [7.10].
7.3 Sheet pile wall systems

The primary function of a sheet pile wall is to retain earth. Moreover, it must be sufficiently
soil tight to prevent washing out of soil. The requirements for sheet pile wall systems,
therefore, are related to: strength, stiffness, interlock sealing, drivability and durability.
Four main systems are distinguished:
• Standard sheet pile walls

• Combined steel sheet pile wall systems
• Diaphragm walls
• Prefabricated concrete sheet pile walls
7.3.1 Standard sheet pile wall

Standard sheet pile wall systems are used for retaining heights up to a maximum of 10 to
12 metres. The maximum section modulus is 4800 × 103 mm3 per m1 wall. This type of
sheet pile is hot rolled. There are two main types of sheet pile: Z-piles and U-piles; these
are described in Chapter 9.
For Z-piles, the interlocks are placed in the extreme fibres of the profile. Because of this
no shear forces have to be taken up by the interlocks and they have maximum action in
bearing the bending moment. For U-piles the interlocks are placed in the neutral axis.
When these are used as triple piles for the intermediate piles in combi-walls the advantage
is that a big system width can be applied.
The asymmetrical shape of U-piles causes the phenomenon of double bending. This was
shown in the sheet pile wall test in Rotterdam [7.17] and is described in [30].
With double piles, the intermediate interlocks are linked by means of punching, continuous
welding or intermittent welding. These piles are shop-made and can transfer a shear force
of 100 kN with a movement of 5 mm. The usual distance between the punchings is 400 mm.
Reduction to 240 mm is possible for double piles and to 330 mm for triple piles [32]. In
situations with U-piles and changing moments, smaller distances between punchings may
be required. If the shear connections are welded, it is necessary to add a corrosion allowance
onto the weld that is equal to the corrosion allowance on the sheet pile wall.
For low retaining heights, canal banks and similar situations, cold formed sheet piles can
be used. These piles are usually manufactured as double piles and have an unusual type of
interlock.
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Quay walls
7.3.2 Combined sheet pile wall systems

With higher retaining heights, when heavy structures are needed, combined sheet pile wall
systems are used (see Figure 7.5).
Double PSp-profile
Land side Land side

PSp-profile
Sheet pile wall Sheet pile wall

Z-profile Z-profile
Built up Tubular pile

box pile
Land side
Land side
Double or triple Double or triple

U-type sheet pile U-type sheet pile
Double H-profile
Land side Land side

H-profile
Sheet pile wall Sheet pile wall

Z-profile Z-profile
Fig. 7.5 Combined sheet pile wall systems.
Combined sheet pile wall systems consist of stiff primary elements that are driven at fixed
distances from each other. The space between these elements is later filled by secondary ele-
ments consisting of standard sheet piles. The secondary elements (intermediate piles) may
be shorter than the primary elements. The primary elements have both a retaining function
and a bearing function for vertical loads. The intermediate piles serve only to transmit earth
and water pressures to the primary elements and their contribution to the section modulus
is small. During their installation intermediate piles should possess sufficient flexibility
to accommodate positional deviations of the previously driven primary elements.
From an economic point of view, based on bending resistance, the change from a single
sheet pile wall to a combi-wall lies at a section modulus of approx. 3600 × 103 mm3 per
m1 wall. For the various implementations, dimensions and material aspects of combined
sheet pile walls, reference is made to Chapter 8.
Combi-walls are used because they have:
• Economic advantages
• High stability
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Quay-Elements
• High stiffness
• High bearing capacity
Often tubular steel piles are used as primary elements. The tubular piles can be made from
rectangular plates in two ways: with a spirally welded seam or with a longitudinally welded
seam. In tubes with a spirally welded seam, the pile surface projects slightly outwards along
the seam. This causes a slight outward bulge in the welded-on interlock where it crosses
the spiral welding seam so that it is not entirely straight. Therefore it is always necessary
to grind off the over thickness in the position of the bead. During piling a pile with a
spirally welded seam tends to rotate. The rotation of the tubular pile is prevented by a
guiding frame; see also Chapter 9. Figure 7.6 shows a detail of a welded-on interlock with
tolerances. To prevent loss of grip of interlocks great care must be taken in selecting the
size and quality of the weld.
Min. seam thickness
of weld = 6
t
min. penetration = 2
Bevel the profile 42 ± 2
before welding Note:
5 45° Tolerance between centre of interlock
and centre of tubular pile
45
0
R1
25 ± 1
34 ± 1
±10 mm
R4
Centre of tubular pile =

R7 Centre of interlock
.5
R1
Extra thickness of spiral welded seam,

25 ± 1
45
17 ± 2 to grind off at interlock area
Dimensions depend on type of interlock and type of sheet pile
Fig. 7.6 Interlock welded on tubular steel pile in combi-wall.
A double or triple sheet pile is usually used for the intermediate piling. Because of arch
action, the earth pressure on intermediate piles is low. In practice, it appears that piles with
punched interlocks and a wall thickness of 10 mm can withstand an excess water pressure
of 40 kN/m2 when U-shaped piles up to a width of 2.10 m, or Z-shaped piles to a width of
1.40 m are used.
Strength to be checked according to Eurocode 3 part 5, piling.
When constructing steel pile walls it is important to prevent the occurrence of interlock
damage between the sheet piles during installation. The word ‘installing’ used expressly
here because all too often ‘driving’ has led to trouble. The following instructions on
installation can be given:
• The weight of the pile must be in accordance with the ground conditions
• A special installation sequence must be followed for combi-walls. High requirements
are set for the dimensional stability of the primary elements. The use of a guiding
frame is stipulated
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Quay walls
• Vibration is strongly preferred to pile driving with a hammer

• The installation of a driving guide provides extra grip and limits risk of the pile running
out of the interlock (Figure 7.7)
• The use of interlock sensors permits process monitoring during installation (Figure 7.8)
Only over the bottom

400 mm of the sheet pile
60 ° Rounding
r=5
30
15
16 ± 1
36
Tubular pile
Sheet pile
Fig. 7.7 Detail of driving guide for interlocks.
Land side
Interlock
sensor
Sheet pile
Tubular pile
Protection cap Fig. 7.8 Interlock sensor.
7.3.3 Diaphragm walls

Arguments for the use of diaphragm quay walls are:
• High durability when exposed to seawater
• Capacity to bear big vertical loads and to transfer these to the substrata
• Little hindrance from obstacles such as erratic boulders in the substrata (only for walls
with thicknesses larger than obstacle size)
• Less noise during construction
• Vibration during installation is limited
• Very long quays can be constructed
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Quay-Elements
Points needing special attention for diaphragm walls are:

• Their durability is highly dependent on the quality of the construction, homogeneity
of the concrete, and dimensions and density of the concrete cover
• In view of the quality of the surface in the tidal zone, standard formwork and compacted
concrete should be used
• Soil tightness of the construction joints
• Monitoring and control of the protective concrete cover on the steel reinforcement
Chapter 8 describes provisions to facilitate installation of Cathodic Protection at a later
stage.
Flat diaphragm walls are usually used for relatively low retaining heights or for deep
diaphragm walls in combination with relieving platforms. Thickness varies between 0.50
and 2.00 metres. The width of the panels ranges between 2.50 and 7.20 metres (Figure 7.9).
In projects abroad (e.g. Egypt and Iran) structures with T-shaped cross sections have been
constructed.
Fig. 7.9 Diaphragm wall thick 1.2 metres for Maasvlakte 2 quay.
This figure illustrates how the reinforcement cage has been designed to optimize the flow
of concrete from the tremie pipe to the cover zone. The alignment of the bars in three layers
made it possible to create a clear spacing of 200 mm.
7.3.4 Precast concrete sheet pile wall

In 1997, a precast concrete sheet pile was reintroduced onto the Dutch market under
the name ‘Spanwand’. This concrete sheet pile is U-shaped like a standard steel sheet pile,
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Quay walls
Anchoring
Land side
3.50
0.80
Pouring sequence
1
3
3.50
Fig. 7.10 Special type of diaphragm wall for loads with high bending moments.
the strength of which is comparable to that of a steel sheet pile with a section modulus
in the range up to 2400 × 103 mm3 . The effective width per U-shaped element is 1.00 m.
Piles are supplied in lengths up to 23 m.
A precast concrete sheet pile wall has high durability and high vertical bearing capacity,
which makes it suitable for use in situations where a long operational lifetime is required,
in aggressive environments and when there are high vertical loads. Concrete sheet pile
walls are used not only in culverts, tunnels, abutments, and underground car parks, but
also in small quay structures. In order to avoid erosion of the soil, special attention must
be paid to installation and to joint sealing. The concrete sheet pile is preferably installed
by vibration and possibly by driving. To soften the soil during installation, jet pipes are
cast into the element. In 2002, high strength fibre-reinforced self-sealing concrete for use
in a Spanwand was developed and tested in the port of Rotterdam [7.14].
7.4 Anchorages
Anchorages are the supports of earth retaining structures. The bearing load, termed anchor
force, derives from the loads for ground and water pressure and other external loads on the
earth retaining structure. The anchorage transfers these loads to the earth behind it or to
deeper earth layers that possess bearing capacity. The anchorage must satisfy requirements
relating to strength, stiffness, reliability, feasibility and durability.
Anchorages are divided into three main groups:
• Horizontal anchorages: bar anchors, cable anchors and screw anchors

• Tension piles: steel tubular piles, H-piles and MV-piles
• Anchors with a grout body: grout anchors and screw injection anchors
The tensile capacity is expressed as Fa,max = maximum design value of the tensile strength
in the direction of the tension element. For the three systems these are:
Horizontal anchors: 100 to 4,000 kN

Tension piles: 100 to 9,000 kN
Anchors with a grout body: 300 to 3,000 kN
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Quay-Elements
When choosing between these types of anchorage it is necessary to take the following into
account:
• Horizontal anchorages and tension piles at inclinations of less than 45◦ have the
greatest stiffness (however, there are also reductions of stiffness, see also 7.4.1:
prestressing)
• Horizontal anchorages are mainly used in sandy ground
• Horizontal anchors showed to lead to large horizontal deformations under cyclic load-
ing behind the anchor screen and should therefore not be used at bulk or break-bulk
quays
• Existing structures, paved areas, excavations and drainage
• Anchors with a grout body that are made of prestressed steel have low stiffness, require
good protection against corrosion, careful and skilled execution and usually have to
be prestressed
• MV-piles and anchors with grout injection; the tensile capacity is highly dependent
on the quality of the execution of the work. It is recommended that tests should be
made. With grout and screw injection anchors it is customary to test every anchor.
Connection with the sheet pile wall structure

A critical detail is the connection of the anchorage to the structure. The following aspects
play a role in this:
• Extra corrosion: due to transition from a protected environment surrounded by con-

crete to an environment that is not protected, and due to the presence of oxygen-rich
water close to a drainage box (see also 7.4.4)
• Bending moments and large shear forces caused by differences in settlement
• Loads caused by imposed deformations, such as negative friction, are higher than
those of the assumed equilibrium
For these reasons, extra care must be taken in the detailed design of the connections
between anchor and sheet pile wall.
The effects of imposed settlements on the axial force in anchors are described in chapter 6.
7.4.1 Horizontal anchorages

Bar anchors
These are round steel bars with diameters up to 6.5 (165 mm) and steel qualities up
to St 500 (yield stress = 500 N/mm2 ). The bar ends have a screw thread and may be
increased in diameter to compensate the weakness caused by the screw thread. The details
of anchorages, including couplings, hinges and end fittings, can be found in the catalogues
of manufacturers.
GEWI anchors are bar anchors made from a higher quality steel and built up from ribbed
bars of steel quality B500B. The diameters of the bars vary between 16 and 75 mm. The
rolling of the ribs increases the yield stress to 670 N/mm2 and the tensile strength to
800 N/mm2 .
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Quay walls
Cable anchors
Cable anchors are usually composed of strands of high strength steel (FeP 1670–1860). The
anchors have at least a double protection against corrosion, see Figure 7.11. The unbonded
composite prestressed cables are built up from 17 strands of 0.62 (15.7 mm). Each strand
consists of seven wires covered with grease and packed in an HDPE-sheath that is at least
1.2 mm thick. The cables are inserted into HDPE-sheathing tubes. After prestressing, the
space between the sheath tube and the strands is injected with grout.
Injection mortar 900

HDPE tube
ø125 7.1
Pretensioning strand
ø15.7 FeP 1860
Space filled by
compressible material
Fig. 7.11 Detail of the anchoring of a prestressed steel cable anchor.
Connection between anchor and sheet pile wall

When connecting an anchor to the sheet pile wall structure it is necessary to take into
consideration the differences in settlement. Usually the soil with the anchor settles with
respect to the more deeply founded sheet pile wall. It is necessary to avoid the anchor being
overloaded by shear forces and bending moments. In the detail of the prestressed cable,
Figure 7.11, a trumpet shaped socket is made under the cable. This socket is filled with a
compressible material. For bar anchors a hinged connection is used and an extra hinge is
placed at a distance of approx. 2 m from the sheet pile wall structure; see Figure 7.12.
ca. 2.0
Tilting plate Hinge

connection
Fig. 7.12 Detail of hinged anchor

connection of an anchor with
a sheet pile wall.
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Quay-Elements
Prestressing
To prevent excessive deformations it is recommended that all types of anchors should
be prestressed. The phasing and level of prestressing have an important influence on the
magnitude of the final anchor force. The deformation needed for the development of the
stability mechanism and soil creep must be taken into account. Therefore it is recommended
that prestressing should be performed to a higher level than is specified by the calculation
in case simple models (not FEM) are used. An indication of this is 80% of the calculated
anchor force in the serviceability limit state.
Screw anchor
The screw anchor is a light type of anchor that is mainly used for wooden sheet piles
and light sheet pile structures. A screw anchor consists of a threaded steel bar. Because
the anchor is screwed into place very little excavation is necessary. A screw anchor has a
maximum tensile strength of 300 kN.
7.4.2 Tension piles

Vibro-piles, prefabricated concrete piles and similar piles are discussed in Section 7.2.
The types of pile considered here are:
• MV-piles
• Steel tubular piles
• Steel H-profiles
MV-piles
MV-piles, (Müller Verfahren piles) were developed in Germany. In 1982 the need arose
for heavy tension elements for the quay walls to be constructed on the Maasvlakte in
Rotterdam. A number of pile types were tested with respect to drivability and tensile
bearing capacity. As a result, a Rotterdam variant of the MV-pile was developed, the
‘bakjes pile’, which has a tray, the ‘bakje’ around the pile tip. The pile consists of an
H-profile that has a ‘bakje’ on the steel flange of the pile foot, (Figure 7.13). A grout pipe
is fixed along the entire length of the flanges and holes are made in the pile flanges close
to the point. When grout is injected into these ‘bakjes’ the entire steel profile is encased in
grout. An important characteristic of this method is that the pile driving resistance remains
limited compared to the type with a big foot that is extended on all sides. The MV-pile
exhibits very stiff behaviour and has high tensile strength, but it has limited resistance
to torsion. Pile tests up to 9100 kN have been successfully executed (Containerterminal
Euromax, Maasvlakte).
Steel tubular piles and H-profiles
When open steel tubular piles are used to act as tension piles in sand it is necessary to drive
them deep into the bearing layer.
Comparison of tensile capacity

The tensile strength is directly proportional to the pile shaft friction determined from
the factor αt and the cone resistance. The example in Table 7.1 gives an impression of
330
Quay walls
H-profile
Grout
Grout pipe
Steel tray
Fig. 7.13 The principle of the MV-pile with adapted tip.
the relation of the tensile strength of various types of pile. The comparison was made
in accordance with [7.28], a penetration of 15 m in sand, with a cone resistance of
qc = 15 MPa.
Table 7.1 Comparison of tensile strength for three types of pile.

Profile Tube ∅ 601/12.5 HP-360 × 109 MV-pile MV-pile
(closed tip) (HP 360 × 152) (He 600B)
W (kg/m) 185 109 152 212
Circumference (m) 1.95 1.43 1.86 2.20
αt (Dimensionless) 0.007 0.004 0.012 0.012
Rt (kN) 3,071 1,287 5,022 9,100
In which is:
W Weight of steel profile per m1

Circumference Circumscribed circumference
αt Coefficient for the shaft friction for tensile load
Rt Representative value of shaft friction in kN in a sand layer with cone
resistance qc = 5.0 MPa at a length of 15 m
Results of load tests show a similar picture:

• Compression test on tubular piles ø 610 mm with closed foot in over consolidated
glacial clay in the port of Delfzijl: ultimate load 1,400 kN
• Tension test on H-profiles Pst 500/136 in over consolidated glacial clay in Delfzijl:
ultimate loads 1,100 kN
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Quay-Elements
• MV-piles Rotterdam in consolidated Pleistocene sand: for several test loads, the failure
loads exceeded 9,100 kN [7.8]
Installation
Drivability is more critical for tension piles than it is for bearing piles, because usually
a greater penetration into the bearing layer is necessary. For steel tubes and H-profiles
this leads to a bigger profile than would be needed on the basis of tensile force alone.
Piles with a steel casing, such as Vibro-piles and Franki-piles, can be driven more deeply
than prefabricated concrete piles. It is strongly recommended that a pile driving analysis
should be carried out.
Connection to sheet pile wall structure or superstructure

The connection between the tension pile and the superstructure is a critical detail. Deforma-
tion of the earth behind the structure causes earth loads on the pile thus creating moments
and transverse forces on the connection. The magnitude of these loads depends on the
degree of settlement and the position of the pile in relation to the ground surface or reliev-
ing platform. These loads are considerable, especially when the connection of the pile is
made at a great depth below the surface level.
A connection in the form of a hinge is considerably better than a fixed-end. When big
loads or settlements are anticipated, the use of a double hinge is a satisfactory measure
(Figure 7.14).
–2.50
Double
hinge
3:1
4:1
48
°
Tubular pile ø610 12.5 mm

c.t.c. 2.50 m
Fig. 7.14 Connection with double hinge in the Handelskade, Delfzijl.
The connection must be designed with adequate safety. This means using values above
the representative value of the bearing resistance of the pile in order to take into account
imposed deformation. In this manner, fracture of the anchor, resulting in progressive failure
of the entire quay structure can be prevented.
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Quay walls
7.4.3 Anchors with a grout body

Grout anchors
Grout anchors have tensile strength that lies between 300 and 1,300 kN for bar type anchors
and 2,000 kN for strand type anchors. Tensile strength is obtained by injecting grout under
high pressure. For this the anchor body must be placed into non-cohesive earth with
sufficiently high density. When anchorages are placed in poorer earth relaxation will
occur and this reduces the stiffness and bearing capacity.
Screw injection anchors (e.g. schroefgrout, Jetmix, Titan, Leeuw anker)

The design value of the tensile strength of screw injection anchors varies between 400 and
3,000 kN.
Whether grout anchors or screw injection anchors are chosen depends on the following
considerations:
• In principle both systems are anchored in dense sand layers
• Higher requirements are set for grout anchors because of the induced stresses
• The prestressed steel in grout anchors is very susceptible to corrosion and should be
completely protected by double protection. This protection must also remain intact
during installation
• A critical part of the screw injection anchor is the connection. It is advisable to carry
out pulling tests to verify this.
Figure 7.15 shows a detail of an anchorage with a screw injection anchor in a concrete
capping beam with a trumpet shaped lead-in.
Low shrinkage
mortar
Protecting cap
Corrosion Screw injection
resistant anchor
compound Polyurethane
foam
Tilting plate
Bearing
plates
Trumpet shaped
steel tube
Fig. 7.15 Connection of screw injection anchor.
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Quay-Elements
7.4.4 Corrosion aspects

Corrosion of the anchor in the ground depends on the acidity and the salinity of the ground
and the position of the anchorage above or below the phreatic level. In sand or when the
anchorage is permanently under water, lack of oxygen usually limits the corrosion. In these
conditions for ordinary steel a corrosion rate of 0.012 mm per year is often assumed [32].
Corrosion rates are considerably higher in aggressive environments, peat and contaminated
types of soil. Eurocode EN1993-5: 2003 ‘Piling’ gives values for sheet pile walls and piles.
These values can be considered as characteristic values for average corrosion. Because bar
steel anchors often are more susceptible to local corrosion it is advisable to use a value of
0.06 mm per year.
With the exception of high strength prestressed steel, the most efficient way to pro-
tect anchors against corrosion is the application of extra steel thickness, the ‘corrosion
allowance’. It is impracticable to apply coatings because they may be damaged during
installation of the piles. The coatings are difficult to apply in the positions of anchor-
ages and hinges. For anchors in a sandy, pH-neutral environment and a lifetime of 50
years, it is recommended that a corrosion allowance of 3.0 mm be added. This allowance
leads to an increase of 6 mm (ca. 0.25 inches) in diameter. Extra corrosion can occur
in oxygen-rich zones close to the sheet pile wall and more especially near drainage
boxes.
Screw injection anchors can be protected against corrosion in two ways: hot dip galvanizing
and by using additional steel thickness as a corrosion allowance. A common solution is
to add a corrosion allowance of 3.0 mm, augmented by hot dip galvanizing of the upper
sections. In view of their great susceptibility to corrosion, it is necessary to use a double
protection against corrosion (see 7.4.1) for cable anchors made of high grade steel FeP
1670–1860.
7.5 Superstructures
The superstructure is the visible part of the quay and has the following functions:
• Covering the soil retaining structure

• Dispersal of non-uniform loads and the distribution of loads over anchoring elements
• Forming the quay surface with edge protection
• Relieving platform
• Supporting the rail structure and provision of space for other services such as drainage
pipes and cables
• Positions for berthing facilities and other quay equipment
• Earth retaining over the height of the superstructure
• Traffic bearing
• Load bearing floor for transshipment equipment
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Quay walls
Transitional structure.
335
Quay-Elements
Tip of MV-pile.
Cast steel saddle.
336
Quay walls
7.5.1 Capping beams for sheet pile walls

The smallest kind of superstructure is the sheet pile capping beam, which can be made of
steel, but for quays is usually made of concrete.
Steel capping beam

In this case, the only function of the capping beam is to serve as a covering profile.
Preformed profiles are available for this purpose. Extra heavy welding work is necessary
for the placing of bollards. Steel sheet pile capping beams are used for small earth retaining
structures and quay walls.
Capping beams made as massive concrete beams

The beam usually fulfils the function of a horizontal connection and, depending on the
dimensions, is suitable for spreading loads, placing bollards, and supporting wooden
fendering. Usually the capping beam is cast in situ, although there are also systems with
prefabricated U-type elements that are linked by cement.
Figure 7.16 shows the different types of capping beam. If vertical loads or moments,
such as those in the positions of bollards or under crane tracks, have to be transferred to
tubular piles, the transfer of actions can take place via a steel ring or via welded vertical
reinforcement bars. The ring can be welded onto the pile in the workshop before the piles
are driven. Sometimes rings are required on several levels.
Rough
surface
Strips welded
Steel sheet in situ
pile wall
Steel cover profile
Welded ring
(if required) Concrete plug
Welded on
starter bars
Steel sheet In situ weld Reinforcement Tubular pile

pile wall cage
Concrete capping beam Concrete capping beam

on single sheet pile wall with plug in combi-wall
Fig. 7.16 Sheet pile wall capping beams.
7.5.2 Hollow structures, cylindrical beams

These structures have a considerable capacity to spread loads and to distribute both vertical
and horizontal bearing resistances. The vertical front wall is less susceptible to collision
damage and a fender system is attached to it.
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Quay-Elements
7.5.3 Superstructures with relieving platforms

Various types of quay walls with relieving platforms are discussed in Chapter 3: Main types
of quay walls. The function of the relieving platform is considered in Chapter 6: Design.
This type of superstructure provides the maximum capacity to spread loads and distribute
bearing resistance, especially if the structure is heavy and cast in situ. If the superstructure
lies above water, prefabrication is an obvious solution. Figure 7.17 shows such a quay wall.
3.35
Prefab slabs
0.50
1.00
NAP
Prefab beams
–0.50 1:2 –2.45
–4.00 seepage
cut-off wall
Fig. 7.17 Cross section of the quay wall at Eemhaven, Rotterdam.
The quay floor is constructed by using prefabricated beams covered by prefabricated

slabs. A stiff floor is achieved by casting an in situ top layer onto these elements. Such
prefabricated structures are vulnerable to collision damage.
7.5.4 Connection with the foundation

The connections between steel capping beams that serve as covering profiles and the sheet
pile wall are usually not robust enough to transfer any significant actions.
Concrete capping beams are connected to the sheet pile wall by reinforcement bars or
anchors welded to the sheet pile wall. The connection between a concrete capping beam
and a combi-wall is made by casting a reinforced concrete plug with a length of 1.5 × the
pile diameter into the tubular pile. To transfer axial forces, one or more a steel rings are
welded to the pile, as shown in Figure 7.16. This can also be achieved by means of welded
reinforcement bars.
For structures with a relieving platform a hinged support consisting of a cast iron saddle
is used, see Figure 7.18 and Chapter 6. When such a solution is used the superstructure
may tilt up if there is a collision, which may result in the anchorage ceasing to function.
The eccentric support leads to a reduction in the bending moment of the sheet pile wall.
338
Quay walls
It is usually necessary to thicken the tubular pile wall under the saddle by inserting plates
or by increasing the wall thickness of the upper part of the tubular pile.
500
Bores for
reinforcement
element
600
Cast steel Underside of
concrete slab
Concrete
Tubular pile plug
locally strengthened
Cross section Top view
Fig. 7.18 Detail of supporting structure with steel saddle.
7.5.5 Drainage
To prevent the formation of puddles, the gradients of concrete pavement must be at least
1%. When determining the gradient the anticipated rotation of the quay deck must be taken
into account. For sheet pile walls with a concrete capping beam the rotation is equal to the
rotation of the upper end of the sheet pile wall.
Depending on the type of goods stored, the water should be collected and treated before it
is discharged into the surface water or sewer. Drainage sinks must be robustly constructed,
with ample over-capacity because of the presence of debris on the quay pavement. Because
drainage systems often become blocked, it is necessary to ensure that good maintenance
of the system is possible.
7.5.6 Joints
In most cases expansion joints are included in quay walls. The distance between the joints
is 30 to 40 m. There are also examples of concrete structures without expansion joints, but
in these cases crack formation resulting from shrinkage and variations in temperature is
limited by the use of additional longitudinal reinforcement or the use of steel fibres [7.39].
The following factors play a role in the decision on whether or not to use expansion joints:
• Possibility to limit cracking to an acceptable extent

• Consequences of cracking: water tightness and durability requirements
• Limited possibility of stress distribution via joints
• Risk of damage to joint structures
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Quay-Elements
No high requirements are set for joints on the land side. The joint must be soil tight and
remain so, even with limited deformations. Joint sealants must be flexible enough to permit
deformations of 10 to 15 mm in the direction of the joint and 5 mm at right angles to it.
Some types of joint are shown in Figure 7.19.
Sealant Sealant
2-layer Rubberoid
Stainless steel
20
20
plate
Synthetic profile
Bolt
Polypropylene
geotextile
Earth side Earth side
Fig. 7.19 Joint sealants at the landside: Synthetic profile (left); Steel sealing plate (right).
The type of joint structure in the quay surface is determined by the following factors:
• Type of traffic on the pavement, including wheel pressures and wheel areas
• Mechanical loads caused by equipment such as shovels
• Requirements of watertightness
• Extent of deformations with a distance between joints of 30 to 40 metres, including
hardening shrinkage of the concrete, which usually does not exceed 20 mm
• Shape, hardness and caustic properties of spilled transshipped material
The steel plate in Figure 7.20 can also be replaced by HPDE or equivalent material.
An example of damage to a quay with open joints is damage caused by ore pellets: the
pellets get into the joint and expansion of the ore pellets causes cracking and chipping of
the pavement.
7.5.7 Shear connectors

Shear keys or dowels are used to transfer and spread loads on the foundation elements or
anchors, Figure 7.21a, b, and c.
From damage that has occurred to quays, it appears that good detailing and dimensioning
of concrete and reinforcement is important. Covering the corners with compressible mate-
rial should prevent the corners from breaking off. The compressible material must continue
over a horizontal distance of 2.5 × the concrete cover. For the shearing mechanism it is
recommended that there should be a ratio of less than 1:2 between depth and height of
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Quay walls
Synthetic material profile

to be glued with epoxy resin
Angle steel
5
Alternating
cams
Sealant
20 mm thick
5 20 5
Fig. 7.20 Expansion joint in quay deck.
Concrete shear key Steel expansion dowel

– Steel outer tube ø356.6 14.2
length 340, with cover
– Steel inner tube ø323 20
length 840
Joint Compressible material
20 50 mm thick
500 350
Spread a 2 mm thick
layer of asphalt bitumen
Bevelled edge on upper and lower
20 20 surfaces
4 20 – Space between two tubes filled with
ball bearing grease
– Fill tube beforehand with concrete
b
Compressible Double stainless steel expansion dowel
100
material – Several dowels per cross-section of concrete

20 mm thick
15
ø42
Bevelled edge
20 20 20
300 280
10
20 ca.400
120
50
20
a c
Fig. 7.21 Joints with concrete shear keys (left) and steel dowels (right).
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Quay-Elements
the shear key. When dowels are used it is necessary to take into account high concentra-
tions of reinforcement around the dowels. Concrete shear keys permit very little rotation.
For large rotations steel dowels are used.
7.6 Transitional structures

Transitional structures are required when there are changes in the inclination of the sheet
pile walls, angles in the quay wall or connections with existing structures. The struc-
tures must be sufficiently strong, guarantee stability and soil tightness and be feasible to
construct.
7.6.1 Transition between an inclined sheet pile wall and a vertical sheet pile wall
For the installation of the transitional structure between inclined and vertical sheet pile
walls the usual solution is to use spline sheet piles or wedge shaped sheet piles. During
installation, the pile may have a tendency to deform. The deformation can be counteracted
by jetting while installing the pile or by pre-boring. If the work is executed in a building pit
or when there is excess water pressure, this may lead to piping. To prevent piping, bentonite
injections are applied during installation of the sheet pile wall. To obtain a sufficient density
of the fluid, the bentonite can be made heavier by adding barites or fly ash.
Grout U-profile with

connector tapered interlock
20.16:1
Vertical
10.06:1
Welded on U-profile
6.68:1
6:1
6:1
Tapered interlock a
Top view
Lateral view Detail
Fig. 7.22 Transition between an inclined wall and a vertical wall in a combi-wall.
The difference in inclination is distributed over several tubular piles. Welded onto each
side of every tubular pile is a U-shaped profile to which a tapered interlock is welded.
To prevent rotation of the tubular pile and piping during installation a heavy bentonite
fluid is injected at the foot of the pile in a channel that has been formed by ‘bakjes’.
342
Quay walls
7.6.2 Corner solutions

At angles in a quay wall forces act 3-dimensionally and the stability of the entire area of
influence must be taken into consideration. For an anchored sheet pile wall structure an
economic solution is obtained by using horizontal anchors that are at an angle of 45◦ to
the sheet pile wall. The load component in the plane of the sheet pile wall should not be
neglected. This load must be transferred to the anchor wall via a securely attached waling
over a relatively great length. The sheet pile wall is thus loaded in two directions at right
angles to each other. It is recommended that the distance over which inclined anchors
are used should be limited to a maximum of 75% of the retaining height. The calculation
method for this is given in [30]. For corner solutions see [32].
7.6.3 Connections to existing structures

To accommodate future extensions of structures with a relieving platform, it is recom-
mended that the quay wall should be enlarged by 4 m, while under construction, which is
half the width of a pile frame. If excavation is required for a future extension it is neces-
sary to consider whether an earth retaining structure lateral to the quay is required. If the
phreatic level must be lowered or work carried out at high tide, cut-off walls of adequate
length to prevent seepage underneath or behind the wall should be installed.
Demolish concrete
capping beam
Extension
at this point
Existing
Extension
Existing Welded on
interlock
Welded on
interlock Angle profile
Graded gravel to 1.0 m

below the design depth
Hammerhead
bolts
Fig. 7.23 Connection between sheet pile wall and existing structure.
7.6.4 Transitional slabs

If there are big differences in settlement between the pile-supported structure and the
adjacent area, transition slabs are used. These are also used for pile-supported landside
crane tracks.
7.7 Berthing equipment

Berthing facilities include bollards, capstans, recessed bollards and quay ladders. The
facilities must satisfy requirements with regard to strength and safety in use.
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Quay-Elements
7.7.1 Bollards, capstans and recessed bollards

Bollards are used for mooring and for warping ships.
Their capacity depends on the following factors:
• Size of the ship and area that is exposed to wind

• Wind force
• Layout of berth and quay with bollards
• Wave action and currents
The Table 7.2 below gives a rough indication of the hawser forces to be taken into account,
[EAU 2012].
Table 7.2 Indicative Hawser forces.

Loaded displacement in ton (DWT) Hawser force in kN representative values
<10,000 300
<20,000 600
<50,000 800
<100,000 1,000
<200,000 1,500
<250,000 2,500
>250,000 >2,500
Generally for final designs the mooring forces should be calculated on bases of loads
on moored ships caused by wind, waves and passing ships. In critical cases a mooring
simulation performed by a specialized consultant is advised.
It is necessary to take into account the direction of the hawser, usually an angle of between
0◦ and 180◦ in the horizontal plane and up to 60◦ in the vertical plane.
To prevent extensive damage to quays as a result of over loading, bollards can be equipped
with an easily replaceable pin, which breaks under a failure load and thus limits the damage
to other parts of the quay. It should be noted that the breaking pin has sufficient capacity
for strain to prevent the overloaded bollard from initiating brittle failure and causing a
dangerous situation, the so-called catapult effect. For quays with quarter ramps for Ro-Ro
vessels, bollards can be made in such a way that they are easy to remove or can be lowered
into the quay. This requirement can be included in the terms of reference.
The dimensions of the bollards should be such that sufficient hawsers, (at least three),
can be easily attached and released. They should also be big enough to prevent hawsers
from being damaged by sharp bends or transitions, while the structural parts along which
hawsers can run should be rounded off. Various suppliers have introduced standard bollards
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Quay walls
Fig. 7.24 Heavy type of fixed bollard capacity 2400.
onto the market. These include types cast in the concrete structure with a tubular shaft and
types that are fixed by cast-in anchors. Figure 7.24 gives an example of a bollard with
anchor bolts.
For marine quays where several large ships can be berthed next to each other, it is recom-
mended that double bollards should be used (that is 2 bollards next to each other). In this
way it is possible to avoid two ships mooring on the same bollard, which would hinder
the release of hawsers. Or it prevents too large spreading of hawsers over the quay length
resulting in sub optimal and therefore less safe mooring situations. So in general the use
of double bollards is strongly advised.
Storm bollards
In addition to bollards along the quay edge, storm bollards are placed at a greater dis-
tance behind the face of the quay. These make it possible to place the hawsers more
effectively when there are strong winds. The storm bollards are often mounted on steel
tubular piles or built on big embedded concrete foundations. Because of their location,
these storm bollards could be an obstacle to the use of the quay area and are occa-
sionally omitted. In the Port of Rotterdam storm bollards are removed and new quays
will not have storm bollards because the operational disadvantages are considered to be
dominant.
Capstans
Capstans can be used to haul in heavy hawsers. These are also used on dolphins and
mooring facilities for oil jetties. Many terminal operators use mobile winches.
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Quay-Elements
Bollard recess with mooring ring

For inland shipping it is important that bollards can be reached within the arm’s length
of the skipper. For this reason the bollards or mooring rings must be at various levels.
Figure 7.25 shows a bollard recess and mooring ring with a breaking pin with a capacity
of 300 kN.
720
720
730 615
Breaking pin
475
110
120
Anchors M64
Fig. 7.25 Bollard recess with a capacity of 300 kN.
7.7.2 Quay ladders

The following requirements are placed on quay ladders:
• Width approx. 500–600 mm

• Bottom rung 1.00 m below low water
• Distance between rungs 300 mm
• Distance between rungs and structure minimum 200 mm
• Slip-resistant rungs
Ladders must be protected against collisions. This is achieved by placing the ladder directly
beside a fender or by fixing fender piles on each side. Because small pilot boats are also
moored against the ladders and ropes are tied to the rungs of the ladder, the structure should
be able to function even when strongly deformed. Figure 7.26 shows a quay ladder made
with square rungs and protected by hardwood fender piles.
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Quay walls
200
Dilatation
joint
600
Steel box girder
Slotted
hole Rubbing strip
300 300 UHMW-PE
1200
Fig. 7.26 Quay ladder with steel fender piles covered with HDPE plates.
7.8 Other berth details
7.8.1 Edge protection

The edge profile of the superstructure is required to provide:
• Protection for quay and hawsers from damage during transshipment

• Rounding off for the guidance of hawsers
• Visual indication of the edge
• Elevated rim to prevent items or people from slipping off the quay
A solution used in Rotterdam is the edge profile also termed ‘Kantenschutz’, which is
shown in Figure 7.27. Other solutions include a cast-in quadrantal profile mounted on
small supports or a hardwood or synthetic edge beam.
150
Bore ø10 mm for injection
Inject with low and venting c.t.c. 1 m
shrinkage mortar
40
150
Strip anchors
Fig. 7.27 Edge protector.
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Quay-Elements
7.8.2 Cable channels

The power cables supplying electricity to rail-mounted harbour cranes usually lie in cable
channels.
Two main types can be distinguished:
• Open channel, with or without a synthetic lining

• Channel with a flexible cover system
Figure 7.28 shows an example of a cable channel for a large container quay.
860
800
Gradient
Angle steel 680 10 mm/m
PVC Drain
Fig. 7.28 Cable channel.
7.8.3 Recesses for functional services

Recesses are made in quays to accommodate the following services:
• Crane power supplies

• Electricity supplies
• Drinking water
• Communications
• Drainage water
• Inspection
• Sewers
• Bunker oil
7.8.4 Fendering and fenders

To protect the quay and ships from damage during berthing, the quay walls are equipped
with fendering or fenders. During berthing the moving ship must be brought to a halt
by absorbing the kinetic energy of the ship. First, the pros and cons of rigid or flexible
structures is discussed.
Rigid structures, fendering attached to the quay walls

Rigid structures consist of a facing attached to the quay wall in the form of hardwood
or synthetic vertical fender piles and horizontal beams. In such a structure the energy of
348
Quay walls
berthing is absorbed by deformation of the quay structure and of the ship itself. Because
these deformations are limited, the forces can reach very high values. The resilience of
the quay and the fendering must be high. Unexpectedly, in Rotterdam there are many
good functioning deepwater quays with such structures. A possible explanation for this
is that the appearance of these rigid structures leads to more careful berthing operations.
The water cushion between ship and quay also absorbs some of the energy, while in the
harbours of Rotterdam berthing conditions are usually favourable owing to position, wind
and currents.
Tropical hardwoods are traditionally used for wooden fendering; see NEN 5493 ‘Quality
requirements for hardwoods in civil engineering works and other structural applications’.
Since environmental objections to the use of tropical hardwood have arisen, there is increas-
ing use of steel and synthetic products, such as HDPE and UHMW-PE. The products vary
from beams made of extruded PE to wear strips made of recycled plastics that are mounted
on concrete, steel or hardwood. Synthetic fendering cannot be used if static electric loading
may take place, with the associated risk of explosions.
bollard 1500 kN
5.25
4.85
3.80
2.75
1.525
G.H.W. 1.26
–0.30
N.A.P.
G.L.W. –0.71
–2.00
Steel box structure Steel box girders SECTION

with UHMW-PE strips with UHMW-PE strips
Fig. 7.29 Rigid fendering with steel fender piles and horizontal beams covered with UHMW-PE strips.
Some quays, especially those for inland shipping, have no fendering system and the captain
must put his own rubber (tires) or wooden fenders overboard. In such cases, the quay front
is made as a flat wall reaching down to the lowest freeboard height above low water. The
flat wall can be made of concrete or by welding steel plates between the piles of the steel
sheet pile wall [32]. A further development of this quay type for rough usage is described
in next chapter.
It is important that the structure can withstand vertical and horizontal loads from protruding
parts of ships. Wooden fenders must be strongly bevelled. Because wooden fendering is
often damaged it is important that the mounting is made in such a way that replacement
is easy.
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Quay-Elements
SFRHPC (Steel Fibre Reinforced High Performance Concrete) facing

A further development of fender systems for ore/coal barges is used in the design of EMO
berth M5/M6 in 2011.
For this quay wall an integrated concrete fender system was developed using a SFRHPC
shell in the front face of the quay wall. This quay wall is used by coal barges which
are famous for their destructive capacity and cause much maintenance to conventional
structures as explained above.
The shell structure consists of precast SFRHPC slabs which are incorporated in the front
wall of the Quay wall. This material combines high strength with high resistance to wear
and tear and this combination makes it the ideal product to make a quay barge proof.
The fender system is designed and patented by Van Hattum en Blankevoort.
The structure also reduces construction cost, maintenance and due to the smaller gap
between quay and ship it reduces also the spill of coal during transshipment.
Fig. 7.30 SFRHPC shell EMO coal quay Rotterdam.
The specifications of the shell are:
– High strength concrete in strength class C90/105 and exposure class XS3
– Steel fibres of drawn wire >75 kg/m3
– Ordinary reinforcing steel: single mesh
– Rough surface with protruding reinforcement at the back side for integral connection
with the structural concrete wall
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Quay walls
In order to prevent damage to the sea vessels that also will berth at this quay UHMWPE
plates are mounted at a 10 m interval.
80 370
Steel fibre
concrete
1%
+5.20
50
250
1%
Rebar
670
Ø8-100
SFRHPC
shell
80
Contact reinforcement Anchors
SFRHPC M16
Ø8-200/300 shell Rubbing strip
UHMW-PE 890
Recess
Fig. 7.31 Details of SFRHPC shell EMO.
Flexible fenders
Flexible structures absorb the energy of the berthing ship, so they need to have a relatively
high deformation capacity. Usually elastic fenders made of synthetic or natural rubber
are used. Other flexible systems based on the elastic deformation of steel and hydraulic
fendering systems are not discussed in this chapter.
Various types of rubber fenders are available in a variety of sizes. Their often non-linear
elastic behaviour largely depends on the geometry of the rubber body. The material itself
undergoes relatively big elastic deformations. Even after many loads, the rubber profile
returns to its original shape. Various types of synthetic rubber, in various ‘softness grades’
are used. Attention must be paid to the fact that the rubber may behave stiffer with age.
Depending on the type of rubber, it is necessary to take into account that the deformation
capacity will be reduced by 10 to 15%. In the design guidelines such as EAU, PIANC
and British Standards, a safety margin on the design berthing energy in which the aging
effect has already been taken into account is recommended. EAU [32] and PIANC [7.21]
recommend a safety factor of 1.25 to 2.0. Information on fendering systems is given in the
above-mentioned literature.
7.8.5 Other finishing aspects

Pavements
For the finishing of quay decks the following options exist:
• Monolith finishing by means of a power float machine to make a smooth surface

• Creating a rough surface by means of brushing
• Strengthening of the surface by adding hard types of stone such as chippings and
lonsicar
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Quay-Elements
• Finishing with epoxy slurry layers against aggressive substances such as fertilizers
• Fibre reinforced concrete deck or top layer
Guard rail/crash barrier

If other traffic uses the quay, a guardrail or crash barrier must be placed on the waterside
edge.
7.9 Drainage systems

There are two types of drainage system:
• Drainage systems to reduce the excess water pressure and lower the phreatic levels on
the landward side
• Drainage systems to consolidate compressible earth layers, in combination with load
increases for example by landfill or site loads
Reduction of excess water pressure

Drainage systems drain off precipitation and restrict excessive water pressure behind the
earth retaining structure. In tidal areas in particular, this is an important design aspect,
which should be taken into account when economizing on the dimensions of the water
retaining structure. It is very important that the drainage system is well maintained during
the lifetime of the quay and thus retains its function. The functioning can be threatened by
damage to the system caused by settlement, fouling, silting, blocking or jammed non-return
valves. Figure 7.32 show two examples of a drainage system with a non-return valve.
T-piece 45°
HDPE flexible corrugated
drain ø125 (int.)
not perforated
Detail of top view
Polypropylene filter cloth

325 gr/m 2
MHW HDPE flexible corrugated
drain ø250 (int.) perforated
Gravel 5/30
Steel
ca. 800
tube MLW
Rubber ball
ø100 Non-return ca.1500
valve
Fig. 7.32 Drainage boxes with non-return valves in a tidal area.
352
Quay walls
For quays with relieving platforms the drainage box is placed at the end of the relieving
platform. This is the position with the maximum effect on the retaining structure.
Consolidation of compressible soil layers

If the quay is backfilled on weak compressible earth, initially high excess water pressure
will develop, followed by large settlements. The excess water pressure leads to very high
pressures on the retaining wall, which will dissipate only after a very long period. The
installation of vertical drainage can considerably reduce the water pressures and settlement
can also be accelerated to such a degree that the area can be used after only six months.
Vertical drains can be made as sand drains or from synthetic material. Drains are usually
installed in a triangular grid at distances of 1 to 2.5 m. Vertical drainage permits the excess
water pressure to dissipate both upwards and downwards in the sand fill. Such solutions
should not be used when the soil is contaminated.
7.10 Crane tracks and rail structures

7.10.1 Loads and boundary conditions
Crane foundations support the tracks of rail-mounted cranes. The representative value of
the vertical load of harbour cranes varies between 300 and 1800 kN/m1 , see also Chapter 5.
In addition to vertical loads, there are also horizontal loads, these being 10% to 15% of
the vertical load [32]. These loads include the weight of the crane and the hoisting load,
wind load and dynamic loads from crane movements and tilting while moving.
For the design it is necessary to decide whether to integrate the foundation of the crane in
the quay structure. The choice depends on the following aspects:
• Ownership and management

• Location of the crane rail:
Waterside crane rails are usually situated in the area of influence of the sheet pile wall
structure. Deep foundations and integration with the sheet pile wall or quay structure
is the obvious choice. Landside crane tracks provide more design freedom and usually
independent foundations are used. However, possible anchors or tension piles should
be taken into account
• Future modifications:
Independent crane tracks provide more flexibility with respect to future requirements
7.10.2 Tolerances
Usually crane tracks must satisfy strict tolerances in all three dimensions. These tolerances
are much stricter than usual for concrete structures. The tolerances are set by the crane
supplier and are given in NEN 2019. It is very important to agree on realistic, achievable
and unambiguous tolerances in the terms of reference like Australian standard AS
1418.1-2002 Cranes, hoist and winches, part 1 General requirements.
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Quay-Elements
Adhering to very strict values will also lead to many discussions and unnecessarily expen-
sive structures. A distinction must be made between dimensional tolerances, constructional
tolerances and operational tolerances. Operational tolerances are derived from the sum of
dimensional tolerances, constructional deviation and the deformations of the crane track in
the service phase. Depending on the method used to construct the crane, for the operational
tolerances according to [32] the following values can be used:
• Height of rails in longitudinal direction: 2 to 4 mm per m1

• Height of rails in relation to each other in the transverse direction: max. 6 % of track
width
• Difference in inclination of rails in relation to each other: 3 to 6 mm per m1
These operational tolerances include constructional tolerances. The tolerances have an

important influence on the foundation method.
Because of the tolerances on the rail alignment it is recommended to use a hinge in the
crane legs and adjustable rail.
7.10.3 Foundation methods

Spread foundations
Spread foundations are only considered when the substratum has sufficient bearing
capacity and is not susceptible to settlement.
The simplest spread foundation consists of a structure that is built up from the following
parts:
• Foundation of stabilized sand, rubble or riprap

• Ballast bed of quarry stone
• Hardwood, concrete or steel sleepers
• Rail structure
For heavier cranes, continuous reinforced concrete beams are usually used. The crane track
is designed as an elastic beam on elastic foundation in which both the stiffness of concrete
structure and bed influence the actions in the cross section. The bearing resistance and
settlement should be verified.
Also cyclic effects have to be considered. For a modern containerterminal at Maasvlakte

Rotterdam this resulted in following considerable compaction requirements:
Average Re > 100% and min. Re > 97%
Equivalent cone resistance average > 18 MPa and minimum value varies from 7.5 (top) to
16 Mpa.
354
Quay walls
The compaction has to extend into deeper soil layers (4 times the foundation width), see
Figure 7.33.
Crane girders can be equipped with joints and shear connectors, but can also be constructed
as a continuous reinforced concrete beam. In the latter case extra longitudinal reinforcement
Fig. 7.33 Landward crane-girder BAVO Maasvlakte containerterminal.
355
Quay-Elements
must be used to control cracking that may result if deformation is prevented. The level of
the rail structures must be sufficiently adjustable.
Foundation on piles
Crane tracks are founded on piles when the bearing resistance or deformation properties of
the subsoil are inadequate. It is important that the transfer of loads takes place outside the
sphere of influence of the earth retaining structure. Various types of pile can be used for
the foundation. Waterside crane tracks demand special attention to the imposed horizontal
deformations that arise from the deflection of the sheet pile wall.
In the design calculation the crane track must be modeled as an elastic beam on elastic
supports in which both the stiffness of the concrete structure and piles influences the forces
in the cross-section. If the pile-supported crane track lies within the sphere of influence of
the quay structure, the horizontal loads will also exert an influence on the quay structure.
For crane tracks on weak substrata it is recommended that pairs of inclined piles should be
installed in a transverse direction. Sufficient reinforcement must be used in the pile heads
to absorb the moments from the imposed deformation.
7.10.4 Rail structures

The rail structure should form the optimum combination of rail profile, supporting material
and subsoil conditions. The main types of rail structure are:
• Rails supported at intervals on bedding plates

• Rails on continuous elastic supported plate
• Embedded rails
Rails supported at intervals on bedding plates

Foundations on local bedding plates are used for the lighter structures. The rail profile
is supported by steel plates, 600–1,000 mm centre-to-centre, which, after adjustment, are
embedded in high quality poured mortar.
Rail UIC60
Intermediate Rail clamp

layer Bedding plate
Anchor
c.t.c. 750 mm
M20 250
Under grouting
Fig. 7.34 Rail structure locally support

on bedding plates.
356
Quay walls
Rails on a continuous elastic-supported steel plate

The rail profile is supported via a neoprene insulating plate on a continuous steel plate
under which high-quality mortar has been poured. The structure is fixed by drilled and
glued anchors see Figure 7.35.
Rail PRI85R
Rail clamp
Intermediate layer Continuous bedding plate
Anchor M20 300
Under grouting
Fig. 7.35 Rail structure with

continuous elastic
support.
Embedded rails
In Figure 7.36 the rail profile is entirely embedded in an epoxy-based elastic material.
The structure is eminently suitable for rails that are countersunk in the quay surface.
Filling up of the channel restricts the accumulation of debris. The cast-in PVC tubes save
on the cost of filling material. Cost savings may be achieved by setting high tolerances for
the rail channel dimensions. The rail structure is not adjustable.
2-component 50
epoxy resin
Rail PRI85R
40
164
PVC-Tube
Fig. 7.36 Embedded rail in channel,
embedded in epoxy resin.
When drilled-in anchor bolts are used the possibility of drilling through the reinforcement
should be prevented. It is recommended that a space should be kept free of longitudinal
reinforcement at places where the anchors are to be installed. This can be achieved by taking
a centre-to-centre distance for the anchors equal to that of the transverse reinforcement. For
these systems it is important that the underlying concrete is strong enough and is pretreated
in such a way that a good bond is formed between mortar and base.
7.11 Bottom protection

7.11.1 Scouring and general measures
Owing to developments in independent berthing without the assistance of tugs, ships are
increasingly equipped with powerful bow and stern thrusters. As a result, the flow velocities
to which the harbour bottom is exposed are considerably higher than those caused by natural
currents and the scouring of the bottom in front of quay walls is enhanced.
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Quay-Elements
The strongest erosion occurs in places where ships always berth in the same position,
such as Ro-Ro terminals and ferry berths from which vessels move with high engine
power. Combi-walls, with their shallow piling depths for the intermediate sheet piles, are
susceptible to scouring. The scouring in front of the quay is often initiated by groundwater
flows. These can cause sand to flow underneath the intermediate sheet piles. Once a
channel is formed, the erosion will very rapidly increase. In a short period this process,
termed piping, can result in many cubic metres of sand being lost when water levels are
exceptionally low. To prevent this erosion bottom protection should be installed.
The geometry of the quay structure also influences the impact of propeller jets:
• By moving the earth retaining structure back, as in open berth quays, an accumulation
basin is created, which reduces the susceptibility of the structure to erosion [7.19] and
[7.15]
• Slopes and banks of open berth quays are more difficult to maintain, so higher
requirements must be set for design and installation of bottom and bank protection
• With an inclined sheet pile wall the attack on the structures is reduced owing to the
development of an upward flow [7.19]
The decision to use bottom protection and the extent of this protection are influenced by
the following factors:
• The anticipated erosion load caused by the flow generated by ships propellers
• The susceptibility to erosion of the subsoil: grain shapes and size, composition and
bottom roughness. For example, consolidated clay layers are not very susceptible to
erosion
• The margin between contract and design depth: in some cases a big margin is taken to
accommodate a future increase in contract depth. As a result bottom protection may
not be necessary
• The maintenance dredging and frequency of monitoring the bottom depth
• The design of the bottom protection: on economic grounds, some damage should be
acceptable
When the design depth is being established these factors should be taken into account.
The width of the bottom protection in front of the quay wall is determined by the following
criteria:
• Area of the propeller jet load, usually extending 0.75 times the ship’s beam from the
front of the quay.
• The width of the passive wedge of the ground in front of the sheet pile wall, which
must be covered by the bottom protection
An alternative to the use of bottom protection is to increase the dredging margin. In such
cases the dredging margin must be increased to a maximum scour hole depth that is equal
358
Quay walls
to the anticipated erosion depth. This solution is chosen if it is necessary to design the
quay structure for future greater contract depths. Because the necessary dredging margin
is difficult to calculate, such an approach must be combined with extra monitoring of the
bottom level in the operational phase.
7.11.2 Materials and structures

For bottom protection, depending on the flow velocity on the bottom, the following mate-
rials can be used: riprap on geotextile, [7.23] and [7.27], pattern-grouted riprap with
colloidal concrete or bitumen [7.24], or asphalt mattresses [7.25].
Various types of material can be used for slope protection, including riprap, pitched stone,
basalt or concrete blocks [7.26], and riprap with asphalt mastic or asphalt mattresses. The
choice of materials also depends on wave attack, flow velocity, environmental aspects and
the requirements of the terminal operator and manager of the quay.
7.11.3 Design of bottom protection

In general, the installation of a riprap bottom protection is easy. In the Netherlands, lime-
stone from Belgian quarries is usually used. This quarry stone has a density of 2650 kg/m3
and is supplied in standard grades. For bottom protection a stone weight of 10–60 kg is
needed for a bed current of ub < 1.5–2.5 m/s. With greater velocities, ub < 1.8–3.3 m/s the
required stone weight is 60–300 kg. Depending on the required size in the top layer, several
layers of quarry stone may be needed to build up a good filter structure in order to prevent
the bottom material from being washed out. Calculations must be made according to the
soil filter rules. The filter layer usually consists of sand-tight geotextile. The geotextile
must lie as flat as possible on the bottom in order to prevent local washouts, subsidence
and damage. An accepted method is to use fascine mattresses, which consist of bundles
of fascines attached to a strong geotextile. The mattress is sunk onto the bottom as an
extended carpet. The standard-grade stone of 10–60 kg can be placed directly on top of the
mattress, followed by the next grade of 60–300 kg and possibly heavier grades. For further
details, reference is made to the available literature [7.27].
When bed currents, caused for instance by highly turbulent propeller jets, exceed approx.
3.5 m/s, the required block weight is >1–3 ton. In these cases it may no longer be feasible
to use quarry stone. As an alternative, asphalt mattresses or quarry stone that is pattern-
grouted with asphalt-bitumen or colloidal concrete should be used.
For all types of bottom protection, both permeable and impermeable layers can be con-
structed by fully or partly permeating the riprap with asphalt or colloidal concrete. Owing
to the lower modulus of elasticity, the use of asphalt results in a more flexible structure
than a bottom protection using colloidal concrete. Asphalt mattresses are prefabricated
on land and then submerged on site. Special attention should be paid to overlapping at
the joints. Colloidal concrete must be cast under water and for this special equipment has
been developed. An impermeable or semi-permeable bottom protection should be heavy
359
Quay-Elements
enough to remain in place when pressure differences arise. Possible scouring of the bottom
material along the edge can lead to instability of the bottom protection. A ‘falling apron’
[7.23] or a bottom protection extended over a certain distance may provide a solution.
7.11.4 Design of slope protection

The choice of a specific type of slope protection depends on:
• The gradient of the slope: when cotg α < 2.5–3 stability problems may occur for
pitched stone and asphalt mattresses. Hydraulic open structures (with open joint
area >12%) perform better.
• The wave heights: for a pitched stone revetment, the permissible wave height depends
on the structure of the slope; the significant wave height Hs may never exceed 2
to 3 m
• The return flow over the slope
• The requirements of the terminal operator
• The location of the slope in relation to the quay wall
The most frequently encountered slope revetment under quay walls consists of riprap
because it is easy to place and, if damaged, easy to repair. As in the case of bottom
protection, the riprap can be placed on a granular filter or on a geotextile. As in the case of
a vertical quay wall structure, at the foot of the slope a bottom protection can be installed.
7.11.5 Linking up with the combi-wall

A critical part of a bottom protection is the junction with the quay structure. This position
is often almost inaccessible and is exposed to additional loads caused by the return flow
of the bow thrusters. Figure 7.37 shows an example of this.
Quarry stone
Combi-wall
layer thickness 0.5 m
Toe protection
mattress Gravel
Fig. 7.37 Detail of bottom protection at the jetty of P&O North Sea Ferries, Rotterdam.
360
Quay walls
7.12 Instrumentation for data collection

Data collection is an aid to following the behaviour of structures over time. There are four
reasons for monitoring:
• To study specific design aspects or to verify the schematization and the design
philosophy. For example, the height of the earth pressure, arch action, calculation
parameters, strength, stiffness and settlements
• To optimize future designs. An example is the measurement of the negative skin friction
of a concrete pile. If the negative skin friction can be determined more accurately, the
design can be more efficient
• Monitoring and control of the terminal operators requirements with regard to the
effects of deformations and deflections of the structure
• Monitoring and control of the safety of the quay
Data collection can be important for the determination of the remaining lifetime or the point
in time at which measures must be taken to counter corrosion. If for any reason loads on
the quay wall are increased, monitoring results are essential to give a well-founded advice.
Points of attention in the design and installation of measuring equipment:
• When designing, consider as carefully as possible what objectives must be reached

and choose the most appropriate means to achieve this
• Pay attention to reliability and feasibility of the equipment
• Provide extra protection and supervision to prevent damage during the construction
phase
The measuring instruments used include inclinometers, strain gauges on anchors, sheet
piling and piles, sensors for anchors and piezometric gauges to monitor phreatic levels in
relation to excess water pressures. To carry out deformation measurements bolts can be
cast into the concrete and used as measuring points.
7.12.1 Inclinometer tubes

These tubes are used in sheet piles, the tubular piles of combi-walls or in the groundmass
directly behind a sheet pile wall structure. By comparing the measured results with the
calculated deformations and movements, a good impression of the stress conditions in the
structure can be obtained. Their use in concrete piles placed within the zone of influence of
a sheet pile wall structure provides insight into the degree of imposed deformation on the
concrete piles. The inclinometer tube is a square steel profile welded into the pile in two
positions perpendicular to each other. The deformation can be measured in two directions
with the aid of an inclinometer running in the tube and taking readings at every metre.
Inside the inclinometer tube also a SAAF can be installed, see 7.14.5.
7.12.2 Strain gauges on anchors, sheet pile walls and piles

With the aid of strain gauges, material stresses in the structure can be measured directly.
Besides common strain gauges, wire strain gauges can be used. Wire strain gauges are
361
362
Quay-Elements
A B C
4400 4500 5000 2550
Deformation bolt Deformation bolt near

near dilatation joint dilatation joint
5.200 NAP Junction box
Pre-cast pit
HDPE Ø160/6.2 (IPE) HDPE Ø160/6.2 (IPE)
Inclinometer Measurement device

PE Ø110 6.3 anchors
tube
Drainage box
Cable protection casing Ø50 Screw grout anchor
Protective tube Ø 150 Protective tube Ø75

–1.000 NAP
–2.000 NAP
Protective tube Geodetect

with piezometer Standpipe with settlement device
piezometer
–4.500 NAP
Inclinometer tube
Fig. 7.38 Cross-section of EMO quay M5/M6 Mississippihaven – Rotterdam measuring equipment.
Quay walls
more reliable, especially in the long term. It is important that the strain gauges in a cross
section are distributed round the diameter in such a way that incidental moments are
leveled out.
7.12.3 Load measuring devices for anchors

Sensor cells are placed next to an anchor plate. The sensor consists of a screw jack or
pressure gauge. By just releasing the anchor plate it is possible to measure the anchor
force accurately.
Load sensor
Load plate Anchor plate
Pretensioning
strand
Protection cap Grease
Fig. 7.39 Sensor on cable anchor.
7.12.4 Piezometric gauges to monitor excess water pressures

The hydrostatic head in the soil layers is determined by piezometric gauges. With these
gauges water pressures can be monitored to check deviations of the water pressures used
in the calculation.
7.12.5 Optic glass fibre technology

New developments in measuring technic are usage of optic glass fibre technology such as:
– SAAF (Shape Accel Array Field) or similar cables/matrasses to be used for check of
deformations and early warning in case of delocked sheet piling. The flexible cable
can be layed under a relieving floor over the length of the quaywall and problems can
be localized by reading in an control room.
– SAAF also can be used as inclinometer in the sheet piles, combi wall or anchors.
In case of hollow bar anchors (e.g. grout injection anchors) the SAAF can be used to
check the position of the anchor
– TPC (Total Pressure Cell) for measuring of soil pressures
– Anchor load devices to measure anchor forces using electronic strain gauges or based
on vibrating techniques
– Tilt devices to check rotation of quay structures
363
Quay-Elements
References
7.1 Gijt J.G. de, Dalen J.H. van, Sijberden H.L., Proefbelastingen op de Maasvlakte,
Funderingstechnologie 4e jaargang nr. 2/December 1995.
7.2 Conrad, P., Kaimauer konstruktionen in Spundwandbauweise aus Norddeutschland,
SMM’92 Conference SEA 2000.
7.3 Stichting Bouwresearch, Funderingen, dec. 2000.
7.4 Schmidt, Wilhelm, Überlegungen zu lastansätzen und Konstruktionsmerkmahlen
beim Kaimauerbau, Sonderdruck aus HANSA 7 und 8, Hamburg, 1992.
7.5 Parent, M.G., Container Terminal Maasvlakte, Cement 1984, nr. 7 (II).
7.6 Horst, H., van der, van Schaik, C.N., Gijt, J.G. de, Ontwikkelingen in ontwerp en
uitvoering van kademuurconstructies in Rotterdam, Symposium Waterbouwdis-
puut, TU Delft, 8 mei 1992.
7.7 Gijt, J.G. de, H.E. Brassinga, Diepwaterterminal op de Maasvlakte, geotechnische
aspecten, PT civiele techniek, nummer 2, april 1990.
7.8 Schaik, C.N. van, Diepwaterterminal op de Maasvlakte, Ontwerp zeekade, PT
civiele techniek, nummer 2, april 1990.
7.9 Roelfsema, R.E., Diepwaterterminal op de Maasvlakte, Ontwerp bewerkingskade,
PT civiele techniek, nummer 2, april 1990.
7.10 Conrad, Peter e.a., Statische und dynamische Probebelastungen beim Bau der
Containerkaje Bremerhaven Nord, Bautechnik 1 und 2/1984.
7.11 Gijt J.G. de, H. van der Horst, P.J.M. Heijndijk, C.N. van Schaik, Quay-
wall design and construction in the port of Rotterdam PIANC bulletin
No 80, page 62–71.
7.12 Parent, M.G., Moderne kademuren in Rotterdam, Cement 1990 nr. 4.
7.13 Aerts, F., De Noordzeeterminal in Antwerpen, Cement 1996, nr. 4.
7.14 Jansze, W., M. Peters, C. van der Veen, Application of High Strength Fibre Rein-
forced Self Compacting Concrete in Prefabricated Prestressed Concrete Sheet
Piles, Publicatie Spanbeton B.V., Koudekerk aan den Rijn.
7.15 Dücker, Hans, Ideenwettbewerb zum Bau einer Kaianlage im Hamburger Hafen,
Häfen & Wasserstrassen, HANSA 131. Jahrgang 1994, nr. 3.
7.16 Salazar Riviera, J.R., Brassinga, H.E., Rapportage proefbelastingen van MV-palen
Swarttouw Zee- en Bewerkingskade Maasvlakte Rotterdam, Adviesrapport nr. 88-
066/C, Gemeentewerken Rotterdam.
7.17 Kort, D.A., Rotterdam sheet pile wall field test, CUR rapport 207, 2002.
7.18 Aerts, F. e.a., The North Sea Terminal, Infrastructure in the Environment, April
1997.
7.19 Dücker, Hans P. e.a., Kaimauerbau Erfahrungen und Entwicklungen, Sonderdruck
aus HANSA 7 und 8, 1992.
7.20 Brassinga, H.E., Nieuwe rekenregel voor trekpalen, Land en water nr. 12/1998.
7.21 PIANC, ‘Guidelines for the design of Fenders Systems: 2002’.
7.22 Pot, P.J., C.N. van Schaik, Delfzijl krijgt nieuwe handelshaven, Land + Water
nummer 10/1997.
7.23 CUR 169, Manual on the use of Rock in Hydraulic Engineering, CUR/Ministerie
van Verkeer en Waterstaat, 1995.
364
Quay walls
7.24 CUR 197, Breuksteen in de praktijk, CUR/Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat,

2000.
7.25 Rijkswaterstaat, Communications on the use of asphalt in hydraulic engineering
Den Haag, 1985.
7.26 CUR 155, Handboek voor dimensionering van gezette taludbekledingen,
CUR/Ministerie van verkeer en waterstaat, Gouda, 1992.
7.27 CUR 174, Geotextielen in de waterbouw, Gouda, 1995.
7.28 CUR 2001-4, Ontwerpregels voor trekpalen, Gouda, 2001.
7.29 CUR 2001-8, Bearing capacity of steel pipe piles, Gouda, 2001.
7.30 Vorm, P. van der and Heijndijk, P.J.M., Gijt, J.G. de, Rotterdam meet combiwanden
onder water, Land en Water, Rotterdam, Oktober 1993.
7.31 Weijde, R.W. van der, and Heijndijk, P.J.M., Nordijk, A.C., Kleijheeg, J.T.,
Scouring by ship propellers, tracing, repair, prevention, 10th International Harbour
Congress, Antwerpen, 1992.
7.32 Gijt, J.G. de and Heijndijk, P.J.M., Installation experience with combiwall systems
in the port of Rotterdam, 11th Harbour Congress Antwerpen 1996.
7.33 Bats, M., and Schepers, H.M., Vervormingen aan kademuren meten en berekenen,
Land en Water, June 1990.
7.34 Verheij, H.J. and Blokland, T., Bogaerts, M.P., Volger, V., van der Weijde, R.W.,
Experiences in the Netherlands with quay structures subjected to velocities created
by bow thrusters and main propellers of mooring and unmooring ships.
7.35 Blokland., T., Bodembeschermingen belast door schroefstralen, Huidige ontwerp-
methode, Ingenieursbureau Havenwerken, project: IH01.030, versie 1, 16 januari
1997.
7.36 PIANC, Guidelines for the design of armoured slopes under open piled quay
walls, Report of Working Group No. 22 of the permanent Technical Committee II,
Supplement to Bulletin no. 96, Brussels, Belgium, 1997.
7.37 Broos, E.J. van Schaik C.N and Huitema, S. Innovative rigid concrete fender system
reduces life cycle cost – COPRI PORTS 2013.
7.38 Broos, E.J. Kronemeyer J. and Schaik, C.N. van Innovatieve kadeconstructie voor
kolenoverslag EMO Maasvlakte – Cement 2013.
7.39 Joint-free quay walls in high performance concrete: a feasibility study, master
thesis 2007, TU Delft – D. Dudok van Heel.
7.40 AS 1418.1 Cranes, hoist and winches, part 1 General requirements.
365
Quay walls
Chapter 8
MATERIALS
Quay walls
Contents
8.1 Concrete and concrete technological aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

8.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.1.2 The origin of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
8.1.3 Composition of concrete mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
8.1.4 Execution and curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
8.1.5 Degradation and protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
8.1.6 New developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.1.7 Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
8.2 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

8.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
8.2.2 Steel technology: chemical and physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
8.2.3 Standardization of types of steel and designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
8.3 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

8.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
8.3.2 Electrochemical corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
8.3.3 Local corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
8.3.4 Risks and consequences of corrosion to sheet piling of quay
walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
8.3.5 Management strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
8.3.6 Measurement protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
8.3.7 Corrosion degradation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
8.3.8 Corrosion protective measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Quay walls
Chapter 8
MATERIALS
8.1 Concrete and concrete technological aspects

8.1.1 Introduction
After soil, concrete is probably the most widely used construction material. Since the
beginning of the twentieth century the use of concrete has assumed enormous proportions.
Today it is hardly conceivable that innumerable infrastructure works could be constructed
without concrete, and quay walls are no exception. The reasons for the use of concrete can
vary greatly. At the beginning of the twentieth century when concrete was first used to
build quays, this was because they could be built more quickly. Before that time quay walls
were built up from a fascine dam, wooden piles and a masonry superstructure (Chapter 2).
First, the caisson concept was chosen for concrete quay walls; after that, at least in the port
of Rotterdam, in many cases a change was made to quay walls with a high foundation. For
these the superstructure can be designed as an L-shape, a box girder or a variant of these.
In addition to the development of structural concepts in concrete, it was also possible

to detect developments in the concrete itself. These developments were not specifically
designed for quay walls and were primarily driven by experience and increasing insight
into the general behaviour of concrete. Still, there are also aspects relating to the nature
of concrete technology that are especially important for hydraulic structures; it must be
remembered that these structures often have relatively large dimensions. From the points
of view of concrete technology and construction, one is dealing with mass concrete, or
in other words concrete structures of such dimensions that during the hardening phase
special measures are required to prevent large temperature differentials and the associated
cracking. The limit for mass concrete is a thickness of about half a metre for the elements.
Furthermore, it is necessary to take into account that concrete is often exposed to a very
aggressive environment. Sulphates may cause the deterioration of quay walls on the coast
and the penetration of chloride ions may lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. It is also
necessary to take into account very heavy mechanical loads, such as highly concentrated
loads caused by cranes and other heavy equipment, and high friction forces generated by
manoeuvring vehicles.
8.1.2 The origin of concrete

Concrete as a composite
Concrete consists of various components that must be mixed in the correct proportions
and then processed and finished. The mixing takes place in concrete batching and mixing
plants and the processing in a factory or on the construction site. The main components are
371
Materials
the aggregate (gravel and sand), cement and water. Additives may be used to improve the
workability of the concrete. Cement is by far the most expensive component. To a limited
extent, it can be replaced by materials such as fly ash or powdered limestone. It is not for
economic reasons alone that additives are used; they can also be used to promote more
favourable behaviour of the concrete during the hardening process.
Figure 8.1 shows various levels at which the concrete used in quay walls can be observed.
Depending on the roles of those involved in the design, construction or exploitation of
a quay wall, their interest will be primarily focused on the levels that are distinguished.
These levels certainly cannot be considered separately. The final performance of a quay
wall depends on the performance at all the levels that are distinguished.
a. Quay wall in Rotterdam b. Surface cracking caused c. Internal micro-cracks caused d. Micro structure ettringite
by ASR-reactions by bending needles
Fig. 8.1 Observation levels for concrete structure: macro, submacro, meso and micro level.
Composition of cement paste and concrete – porosity and permeability

Concrete is a composite in which aggregate grains are cemented to each other by a matrix
of cement paste. The strength of concrete is determined by the strengths of the aggre-
gate, the cement matrix and the boundary layer between these. Cement paste is a porous
matrix that consists of a reaction product, termed gel, the still unhydrated cement, and
some remaining water. This remaining water is contained in the capillary pores in the
concrete. The volume of water and non-reacted cement in the concrete depends on the
composition of the original mixture and on the degree of hydration. With a water/cement
factor (WCF) of 0.4, theoretically there is sufficient water for all the cement to react.
About 60% of the water is chemically bonded and the remaining 40% is physically bonded
and is found in the very small gel pores. Figure 8.2 shows the distribution of the var-
ious components from which concrete is made for two sequential phases in the setting
process.
When all the cement reacts one speaks of a hydration rate of α = 1.0. In practice with a
WCF of 0.4, complete hydration is almost never reached because the distribution of the
water in the fresh mortar always shows some degree of heterogeneity. The excess water is
found in the big capillary pores in the concrete paste. If these capillary pores are linked to
each other they can create a transport path for aggressive substances that might penetrate
372
Quay walls
Hydration product Gel pore
Non-hydrated
cement
Capillary water
Low hydration rate High hydration rate

Open pore system Closed pore system
Fig. 8.2 Schematic representation of the microstructure with distribution of pore water in sequential
stages in the setting process. Left: Low degree of hydration with open capillary pores.
Right: High degree of hydration with closed capillary pores.
into the concrete. With an eye to the durability of the structure, it is necessary to try to
mix the concrete in such a way that an open capillary pore system cannot develop. A
low WCF and a high degree of hydration are important for this. Figure 8.3 represents
the maximum attainable degree of hydration αmax and the minimum necessary degree of
hydration to guarantee a closed capillary pore system αclosed represented as a function of
the WCF.
max
Evaporation
Hydration rate
Leaching
closed
Degradation
Penetration
Water-cement factor microstructure
Fig. 8.3 Maximum attainable degree of hydration αmax and minimum necessary degree of hydration
αclosed to guarantee a closed pore system (left, according to [8.25]) and drying out of concrete
(right).
From the graph it can be seen that with a WCF greater than 0.5 a closed capillary pore
system cannot be expected.
373
Materials
Heat development
During the reaction of cement with water and formation of the pore system reaction heat is
released. Because of the heat capacity of the concrete and the rather low heat conduction
coefficient, the concrete tends to retain the heat. This causes the temperature of the concrete
to rise. Thermal gradients over the cross-section of the concrete and differences between
the temperature of the hardening concrete and surroundings can cause stresses and crack
formation. To prevent this the heat development and temperature differentials must be kept
as low as possible.
The amount of heat released with full reaction of the cement and the rate at which this
heat is released depend on the type of cement. The potential heat released varies between
350 and 450 kJ per kilogram of cement. If this heat is released and is not carried away
into the environment, this can lead to a rise in the temperature of the concrete of 50◦ C
to 60◦ C. If Portland cement is used more heat is released than when blast furnace slag
cement is used. Portland cement also reacts more quickly, so for mass concrete structures
blast furnace slag is preferred. By replacing cement by fly ash or powdered limestone or a
combination of binding agent and filler, the heat production per kilogram of binding agent
can be further reduced. Fly ash reacts much more slowly and later than cement and, with
the cement, ensures that the pore system is closed.
8.1.3 Composition of concrete mixtures

Like other types of structure, quay wall structures must satisfy requirements relating to
workability, strength, stiffness and durability. The costs, including those of anticipated
maintenance, play a role in this. It has already been indicated that often very large concrete
structures are involved and that attention must be paid to the heat development during the
hardening process. During the construction of quay walls external influences must also
be considered. For quay walls on inland waterways the minimum Environmental Class 3
applies (NEN-EN 206-1: Class XD). In a marine environment sulphate induced corrosion
and chloride-penetration must be taken into account and Environmental Class 4 (NEN-EN
206-1: Class XS) or higher must be used. Heavy traffic loads and friction forces demand
that the concrete has a high resistance to wear.
Because the construction of quay walls often involves very large volumes of concrete, for
economic reasons it is necessary to keep the cement content per cubic metre of concrete
as low as possible. Low cement content reduces the maximum temperatures during the
setting phase. This is possible because for the often-massive structures, strength is seldom
a problem, but for reasons of durability it is not possible to go below a minimum cement
content, unless the cement can be replaced by an adequate filler. A high cement content
and a low WCF are not prerequisites for getting a high strength. From the point of view of
durability the WCF should not exceed 0.5. Once the environmental class has been chosen,
the minimum cement content and the maximum WCF are fixed in accordance with the
stipulations. In the Netherlands, to reduce the rate of penetration of chloride ions into
the concrete blast furnace slag cement, or a combination of this with Portland cement, is
often chosen. Blast furnace slag cement produces concrete with a closed pore structure
374
Quay walls
that vigorously restricts the penetration of aggressive substances. To ensure that a low
diffusion coefficient is attained the amount of blast furnace slag must not fall below a
certain minimum that is given in Figure 8.4.
2
Diffusion coefficient D (cm2/year)
0 Fig. 8.4 Effect of slag content of cement on the

0 20 40 60 80 diffusion coefficient for chloride-ions.
Slag content of cement (%) WCF = 0.6 [8.23].
In addition to resisting the penetration of chloride ions, the high density promotes resistance
to other forms of deterioration. If no blast furnace slag is available or if Portland cement
is chosen for other reasons, a high-density concrete can be reached by the addition of
silica fume.
8.1.4 Execution and curing

Temperature and strength development in relation to the curing time
The composition of the mixture must be attuned to the structural design and the method
of pouring. The structural design determines the position of any expansion joints that
may be required. The expected deformations caused by temperature and shrinkage may
determine the segment length and the inclusion of shrinkage joints. The segment length may
also follow directly from the length of the formwork, the available pouring capacity and
the permitted or desired construction time. When the concrete mixture has been selected,
there are still a number of other parameters that may influence the construction rate and the
quality of concrete work. The construction time is mainly determined by the development of
the strength and the related time for removal of the formwork. The development of strength
can be followed by measuring the temperature of the hardening concrete and determining
either the maturity or the degree of hydration as function of the measured temperature.
The maturity is a measure for the strength from the dimension degree-Celsius-hour [◦ C h],
and is calculated from the measured concrete temperature during the hardening period
according to [8.24], [8.26] and [8.28]. With the aid of a calibration graph that is prepared
in advance in a laboratory, and which shows the relation between the maturity or degree
of hydration on the one hand, and the strength of the mixture in view on the other hand,
the strength of the concrete on the site can be determined.
375
Materials
Prevention of cracking
From the durability point of view, it is advisable to prevent crack formation during the
early phase of setting. Cracks can form if there are big temperature gradients or dif-
ferences in temperature between various structural elements during construction and the
associated deformations are entirely or partly prevented. In practice, if they are satis-
fied, the temperature criteria used to assess the risk of cracking will guarantee that the
structure remains crack free, at least during the setting phase. The differences between
the temperatures of various structural elements that are cast at different times may not
exceed 15◦ C. The difference between the temperature in the core and at the surface of a
cross-section must remain below 20 to 25◦ C. Measures to fulfill these requirements may
relate to the type and amount of cement to be used and the pouring temperature of the
concrete mixture. In general, it is advisable to use the lowest possible pouring tempera-
ture. This may result in a conflict with the requirement to meet a specific construction
rate. In winter it may be necessary to heat the concrete mixture to ensure the development
of the desired strength. Alternatively, in cold periods it may also be possible to use rapid
hardening cement.
The above-mentioned temperature criteria for the assessment of the probability of crack
formation do have a few disturbing shortcomings. They express neither the degree to which
the occurrence of thermal deformations can be prevented, nor the contribution to stress
development caused by non-thermal hydration-induced shrinkage. For this reason they are
increasingly substituted by stress criteria (see also Section 8.1.6).
Concrete curing
The quality of the protective cover on the steel reinforcement is crucial to the durability of
concrete structures. The cover must prevent corrosion of the reinforcement. Good quality
cover implies the use of a dense concrete. This is made by using a concrete mixture with
a low WCF, while ensuring that the degree of hydration is as high as possible. To obtain
the closed pore structure the use of blast furnace cement is recommended. A condition for
the attainment of a high degree of hydration is the presence of water. Premature removal
of formwork and exposure to dry air and wind can draw off moisture from the still-setting
concrete and exert an unfavourable influence on the hydration process. Rapid cooling and
evaporation from the surface at an early stage can cause thermal and shrinkage stresses
and possibly micro-crack formation.
To avoid micro cracking the concrete must be cured for as long as possible. ‘Give it a
week’ is a rule of thumb that clearly expresses the desired period of curing. However, this
often conflicts with the desire to achieve a specific construction rate, despite the fact that
good curing is essential for the quality of concrete. A well-known method used to prevent
premature drying-out is the use of a curing compound. A curing film is sprayed onto the
concrete, which, for a limited time, will prevent evaporation of water from the concrete.
Insulation blankets provide a good means to reduce the risk of cracking caused by big
thermal stresses.
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Quay walls
Resistance to wear
Good concrete curing is also important for surfaces that will later be subjected to heavy
traffic loads and thus need high resistance to wear. In low quality concrete, the cement
matrix erodes very rapidly and the aggregate is dislodged from the matrix. With concrete
B35, which is a concrete with characteristic cube compression strength of 35 MPa (NEN-
EN 206-1: C30/37), or higher and good curing, good wear resistance may be assumed
[8.19]. A good quality concrete surface can be obtained by covering the concrete with
wet burlap immediately after pouring. Plastic sheeting also works well and a combination
of wet burlap covered by plastic sheeting is even better. Finishing by power trowelling
the surface of the concrete contributes to the formation of a closed surface. When power
trowelling is used the surface must be quickly protected against the evaporation of water.
8.1.5 Degradation and protection

Mechanisms causing degradation
A few forms of degradation have already been mentioned in the discussion about the
determination of the composition of concrete mixtures. Well-known phenomena such as
carbonation, chloride-penetration, sulphate attack and freeze-thaw damage that are con-
sidered in the assessment of the lifetime of a concrete quay wall are treated in the same
way as for other structures that are exposed to similar conditions. Perhaps damage caused
by de-icing salts, and in some cases chemical fertilizers, may have to be considered sep-
arately, although these damage mechanisms may occur in other structures in a similar
way. Detrimental effects caused by chemical fertilizers may occur on storage and tranship-
ment sites. For a description of damage mechanisms and remedies see [8.27] and [8.47].
Recently Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) has given much reason for concern. For a long
time it was believed that ASR did not cause problems in the Netherlands. However, since
1990 a considerable number of cases ASR-damage have been recorded, many of which
involve structures made with Portland cement. These cases have led to increasing attention
being paid to this type of damage. To prevent the effects of ASR it is necessary to exercise
stringent control of the properties of aggregates, to use blast furnace slag and to ensure
that a low water-cement factor is adopted.
The degradation processes, which are generally both physical and chemical in character,
are temperature dependent. The higher the temperature, the more rapid the reactions. In
addition, as a rule a higher temperature is also linked to thermal stresses. Thermal stresses
in the outer zone of a structure can give rise to micro cracking in the concrete cover and
thus speed up the degradation process indirectly. Wind can cause rapid drying of the outer
zone of the concrete, which can also lead to stresses and micro cracking and a reduction
of the resistance against the penetration of aggressive substances. In tropical waters and in
warm and dry areas quay walls made of reinforced concrete require extra attention owing
to the rapid penetration of chlorides resulting from combined actions of diffusion and
capillary forces. When chloride ions reach the reinforcement, corrosion of the steel may
start. Since the volume of corrosion products is many times greater than that of the original
metal, the concrete cover may spall off and the reinforcement will be directly exposed to
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Materials
the environment. In such cases repair is possible but expensive. The concrete behind the
reinforcement usually also has a high chloride content and must be removed in order to
guarantee a satisfactory repair. This corrosion process takes place mainly in the tidal zone
between HW and LW and in the splash zone immediately above this.
With regard to durability, the Dutch climate can be termed favourable. Variations in the
moisture content of a well-compacted concrete with a well-composed mixture that is
exposed to the Dutch climate are restricted to the outer few centimetres. With a com-
bination of good quality cover and a high reinforcement ratio for crack width control, the
durability of concrete structures is generally ensured.
Protective measures
Since the durability of a concrete structure largely depends on the quality of the concrete,
the aim must be to produce a low WCF concrete that gives a dense cement matrix, limits
thermal stresses during setting and provides good curing. Good results are achieved with
a WCF not exceeding 0.5. With such WCF values, horizontal surfaces may be given a
hydrophobe finish to increase the density of the concrete surface. In essence, hydrophob-
ing is a process in which the application of a water repellent layer makes the surface of the
concrete water repellent. With good quality concrete and adequate cover of the reinforce-
ment, the probability that the carbonation front will reach the reinforcement is very low
and thus the probability of corrosion caused by depassivation of the reinforcement is also
low [8.1].
Under some conditions there may be a real probability of corrosion. A very effective, but
costly, measure against this is to use manufactured epoxy-coated reinforcement or stainless
steel reinforcement. Cathodic protection can also be used [8.10]. When the reinforcement
is corroded ion transport occurs. There is an anode that generates electrons and a cathode
that takes up these electrons. The ions are generated by the reinforcing steel that grad-
ually ‘dissolves’. As long as there is a highly alkaline environment, the reinforcement
will remain passivated and the ions will not enter into solution. If the passivation layer is
damaged, or if many chloride ions are present, the iron ions will enter into solution. With
cathodic protection, the application of an external sacrificial anode prevents damage of
the reinforcing steel. To design cathodic protection it is necessary to understand the elec-
trochemical processes that occur and this is work for specialists. For cathodic protection,
just as for other protective measures, regular inspection of the concrete is still necessary.
‘A crack does not mean damage’

Quite often, when the state of reinforced concrete structures is being assessed, a crack
is recorded as damage. That this is not correct cannot be over emphasized. However, a
crack can be considered as damage if an allowable crack width is exceeded. For quay
walls the durability criterion generally dictates the allowable crack widths. For the Dutch
Environmental classes 2 and 3 this means that the crack width in reinforced concrete may
not exceed 0.2 mm and in prestressed concrete 0.1 mm. If these crack width requirements
are satisfied and there is sufficient good-quality cover, the probability of corrosion of
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Quay walls
the reinforcement is negligible. To attain a finely distributed crack pattern with small
cracks, a relatively high reinforcement percentage is required. Preferably, closely spaced
bars with small diameters should be used. Prestressing of structures can provide a means
of controlling crack formation. It is advisable to make a careful analysis of the effect of
prestressing. If cracking is caused by imposed deformations, prestressing is not generally
a suitable way to control it. Solutions involving partly prestressed concrete, in which a
light prestressing provides a nominal residual compressive stress in the cross-section, in
combination with a substantial surface reinforcement, may be interesting.
Protection of concrete in tropical waters

Of course, extra measures to increase protection against any type of chemical of physical
degradation have a price. However, the cost will usually turn out to be much lower than
the extra costs that result from a crisis during the serviceability stage, when the quay may
possibly be out of use for a considerable time while large-scale repair works are being
carried out.
Possible measures to prevent the premature failure of the structure include:
• Efforts to achieve concrete with a closed pore structure. The rate of chloride-
penetration is largely determined by the permeability of the concrete and using dense
concrete can prevent or postpone many problems.
• In aggressive seawater it is advisable to use a thicker concrete cover than usual, because
the time needed for the chloride to reach the reinforcement is determined by the
thickness of the concrete cover.
• The reinforcement can be provided with cathodic protection that is effective as long as
everything functions as planned. The maintenance of a cathodic protection system is
always a point of concern, especially in countries where maintenance does not enjoy
the highest priority.
• The choice of the type of cement also affects the durability of the concrete: it is already
well known that blast furnace slag cement scores higher than ordinary Portland cement
and that ordinary Portland cement performs better than theAmerican sulphate-resisting
variant that is so frequently used in the USA for structures that are exposed to seawater.
Deterioration of concrete caused by sulphates may be troublesome, but in warm saline
waters chloride is the dominant source of problems.
• Portland cement can also be used to obtain concrete with a dense structure and high
resistance to chloride penetration, but only, for example, in combination with very
fine fillers like silica-fume.
8.1.6 New developments

Curing control systems
In 1976 Van der Winden [8.21] concluded an article about hardening of concrete with the
remark that “It would be nice if the temperature development in hardening concrete could
be simulated numerically.” Now, almost 30 years later, it is possible to predict not only
temperature developments, but also temperature stresses. With an adiabatic heat curve in
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Materials
the concrete mixture, which is the heat development in a completely thermally isolated
environment, and the thermal boundary conditions as input, the temperature fields in
hardening concrete can be determined to an accuracy of 3 to 4◦ C. The ability to predict the
development of strength, thermal stresses and risks of cracking by numerical simulation
makes it possible to control the hardening process during both the design and construction
phases. During the last two decades of the twentieth century, with the aid of acquired
practical experience and insight into the hardening processes, curing control systems were
developed [8.9]. An interesting application of a curing control system was based on the
construction of a quay wall for a container terminal [8.4]. With the aid of a curing control
system the temperature of the concrete during hardening of the superstructure of a quay wall
was continuously recorded and controlled. To satisfy the specified temperature criteria, a
cooling formwork, an innovative alternative for the frequently used cooling of concrete
with cast-in cooling pipes, was used. The cooling was controlled by temperature stresses
instead of differences.
New types of concrete

New developments in the field of concrete technology that might contribute to improve-
ments during the construction of durable quay walls are also being examined. In this
context the development of self-compacting concrete is of interest [8.6] and [8.30]. The
great advantages of this concrete are the constant quality and good cover on the rein-
forcement, even in places that are not easily accessible for poker vibration. The fact that
a considerable amount of fly ash is used in many self-compacting mixtures contributes
to heat reduction during the hardening process, thus mitigating the thermal stresses and
probability of cracking at an early stage.
Certification
Improved insight into the hydration processes and the availability of curing control systems
provide an opportunity to monitor the first phase of the lifetime of a concrete structure
in detail and possibly to control this. During construction of the piers for the Øresund
bridge in Denmark, the progress of the setting process in various places in the structure
was remotely monitored and, via cooling of the concrete, controlled in such a way that
variations in temperature remained within specified limits. All the data about the hardening
concrete are thus recorded. Based on all the information gathered in this way a ‘certificate
of origin’ can be made for a structure [8.18] and [8.29]. This certificate may play an
important role in the assessment of the quality of the structure during the hardening process
or immediately after the removal of the formwork. It can also serve as a starting point for
setting up maintenance programmes for the structures in question. Built-in sensors record
the temperature during hardening of the concrete and can provide information about the
processes that occur in the concrete later. These sensors also offer promising prospects for
the future.
8.1.7 Projects
A brief survey of three existing quays gives an impression of the different mixtures used for
quay walls. These are two projects in the Rotterdam region and one in Antwerp, Belgium.
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Quay walls
Quay wall for inland navigation, Hartelkanaal [8.15]

The 260 m long inland shipping quay on the Hartelkanaal was built in 1983. The quay is
a box shaped structure. The concrete quality used was B30 (C25/30), made with Class
A (CEM III/B 32.5) blast furnace slag cement with a cement content of 325 kg/m3 and
WCF = 0.55. For the floor and pavement, the slump was 60 mm and for the walls 100 mm.
A concrete pump was used to handle the concrete.
Quay wall Amazonehaven [8.4] and [8.5]

Between 1995 and 1996 a 2600 m long quay wall was built in the Amazonehaven. An
important part of the quay wall is a box-shaped superstructure. The average thickness
of the base slab of the box structure is 1.25 m, with a wall thickness of 0.70 m and a
deck of 0.60 m. The concrete is strength class B35 (C30/37). The aim was to produce a
concrete mixture with a low cement content by using super-plasticizers. The construction
was executed with tunnel formwork with a cycle time of one week for a 20 metre long
segment. To prevent cracking during the hardening process a cooling formwork was used
to cool the concrete (see subsection 8.1.6).
Quay walls, Verrebroekdok, Antwerp [8.17]

Between 1997 and 2000 a 2.5 km long L-type quay wall was built in the port area of
Antwerp. In total 500,000 m3 concrete was used. The base slab varied in thickness from
2.5 m to 4.8 m, with a width of 17.5 m. The wall thickness was reduced from 5.4 m at the
bottom to 2.9 m at a height of 20.5 m. The maximum particle diameter of the aggregate
was 40 mm. Initially CEM III/B 32.5 was used. The curing time for this mixture was so
long that the formwork pressure would become too high so a switch was made to CEM
III/B 42.5 and after this, once again to fly ash-modified concrete CEM V42.5, 325 kg/m3 .
Per cubic metre, 45 kg reinforcement was used.
8.2 Steel
8.2.1 Introduction
A short summary of types of steel commonly used and the quality standards set in the
Netherlands follows. Great attention is paid to the aspect of durability. Various corrosion
mechanisms that have recently aroused interest are discussed, including microbiological
corrosion and accelerated low water corrosion (ALWC). The protective measures used to
combat corrosion, including coatings and cathodic protection, are also considered.
8.2.2 Steel technology: chemical and physical properties

Unlike concrete, steel is a simple construction material that consists mainly of the element
iron (Fe). The most commonly used construction steel contains only a small percentage
of other elements. The most important of these are carbon (C), silicon (Si), manganese
(Mn), sulphur (S), phosphorous (P) and nitrogen (N). In the manufacture of pig iron in a
blast furnace these elements remain in the iron as impurities after extraction of the iron
from iron ore. Small, carefully controlled amounts of these impurities can improve the
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Materials
quality of the metal and make it more suitable for various purposes. During the steel
production process various impurities are reduced, or possibly other alloy elements are
added, although in large amounts these elements have a detrimental effect on the quality of
the steel. Too much sulphur, for example, causes high temperature brittleness and loss of
ductility at high temperatures; too much phosphorous causes low temperature brittleness.
Construction steel must be sufficiently ductile to protect the structure from sudden failure
without warning when overloaded.
As well as the chemical composition, manufacturing processes such as heating, cooling

and rolling also play an important role in relation to the physical properties of steel. Steel
is granular in structure and this structure can be influenced by means of temperature vari-
ations and rolling processes. By these means various types of steel, with different strength
and yield criteria can be manufactured. It is beyond the scope of this book to go more deeply
into steel technology; more detailed information can be found in the literature [8.33].
8.2.3 Standardization of types of steel and designations

Sheet pile profiles [8.46]
All parts of sheet pile walls produced in the Netherlands must satisfy quality standards
and technical terms of delivery. In addition to the designation of strength class, minimum
yield point and minimum tensile strength, the size tolerances are important. These include
variations in plate thickness, deviations from straightness and interlock tolerances and
are stipulated to some degree in standard terms of delivery. The Dutch standards (NEN)
for steel and steel products are in strict accordance with the EuroNorm and are therefore
designated as NEN-EN standards. In the Netherlands steel sheet pile wall profiles and
special H-profiles must be manufactured in accordance with EN 10248 Parts 1 and 2. In
these, the technical terms of delivery and the measuring tolerances are described. Tables 8.1
and 8.2 give an overview of the most common types of steel.
Table 8.1 Steel qualities according to NEN-EN 10248-1. An overview of mechanical

properties of hot rolled steel for sheet pile profiles.
Designation EN 10248-1 Category Minimum Minimum Minimum strain
With Material EN 100201) yield point tensile strength with an original
symbols number ReH in Rm in measured length
√
N/mm2 2) N/mm2 2) of L0 = 5.65 S0 A%
S 240 GP 1.0021 BS 240 340 26
S 270 GP 1.0023 BS 270 410 24
S 320 GP 1.0046 BS 320 440 23
S 355 GP 1.0083 BS 355 480 22
S 390 GP 1.0522 QS 390 490 20
S 430 GP 1.0523 QS 430 510 19
1)
BS – steel for general use; QS = high quality steel
2)
The values in the table are valid for test bars in the longitudinal direction for the tensile test
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Quay walls
Table 8.2 Overview of previous national terms that are still in use within Europe.
Designation Material German national symbol Former national term for
according to number according to BMV B 5126 France England Belgium
EN 10248-1 (TL-Stahlpundbohlen) NFA-35-520 BS-4360 Circulaire
590-2
S240GP 1.0021 StSp37 F240SP 40A PAE250
S270GP 1.0023 StSp45 E270SP 43A PAE270
S320GP 1.0046 E320SP PAE320
S355GP 1.0083 StSp S E360SP 50A PAE360
S390GP 1.0522 F390SP PAE390
S430GP 1.0523 E430SP PAE420
General purpose structural steel and steel tubular piles [8.33] [8.46]
The NEN-EN 10027 (1993) gives two ways to designate steel:
• NEN-EN 10027-1: the application (basic symbol) in combination with the mechanical
and/or physical properties: S355JG3 (see the explanation below);
• NEN-EN 10027-2: the chemical composition, with the old ‘material number’, for
example: 1.0570.
For design and construction, the first term is the most important. The symbols used are
explained by the following example:
Steel type: S355J2G3
S = Construction steel;
355 = Minimum guaranteed yield point (N/mm2 );
J2 = Designation of notched bar impact strength (J) at a testing temperature (2);
G3 = Designation of other characteristics (see NEN-EN 10025).
Tubular profiles are designated according to NEN-EN 10210 by the letter H, for example:
S355J2H.
Notch impact values: J = minimal 27 (J) Testing temperature: R= ±20◦ C

K = minimal 40 (J) 0 = 0◦ C
L = minimal 60 (J) 2 = −20◦ C
4 = −40◦ C
On technical drawings the basic symbol S355 usually suffices. However, the certificate
of delivery must record the full specifications. It should be noted that the designation of
the minimum yield point is valid for plate thickness up to a maximum of 16 mm. Thicker
plates always have a lower yield point. With a wall thickness of 16 to 40 mm, the minimum
yield point is 10 N/mm2 lower and for walls thicker than 65 mm a further 10 N/mm2 lower.
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Materials
For more information, see NEN-EN 10210 and NEN-EN 10025. This is also important
when steel tubular piles are used in combi-walls.
Terms and symbols used for steel grades sometimes lead to confusion. The cause of this is
historic. Steel products were traditionally and are currently provided by different countries,
each of which has its own national standards and designations. Within the European Com-
munity efforts are being made to harmonize these standards. Here too, the designations
have been modified over the years. In current practice, different designations are still used
for steels of the same quality and type. It is not at all unlikely that the designations in the
Euro Standards will change again in the future. Table 8.3 presents a comparison of the
most commonly used types of construction steel in current use. Bouwen met Staal reg-
ularly publishes changes in the annual ‘GIDS Staalbouw’, (Guide to Steel Construction)
from which Table 8.3 is also taken [8.33].
Table 8.3 Comparison of frequently used designations for construction steel.

EN 10025 EN 10025 Germany France UK Belgium
(1993) (1990) DIN 17100 NFA 35-501 BS 4360 NBNA 21-101
S235JR 1.0037 Fe 360 B St37-2 E24-2 – AE 235-B
S235JRG1 1.0036 Fe 360 BFU USt37-02 – – –
S235JRG2 1.0038 Fe 360 BFN RSt37-02 – 40B –
S235J0 1.0114 Fe 360 C St37-3U E24-3 40C AE 235-C
S235J2G3 1.0116 Fe 360 D1 St37-3N E24-4 40D AE 235-D
S235J2G4 1.0117 Fe 360 D2 – – – –
S275JR 1.0044 Fe 430 B St44-2 E28-2 43B AE 255 B
S275J0 1.0143 Fe 430 C St44-3U E28-3 43C AE 255 C
S275J2G3 1.0144 Fe 430 D1 St44-3N E28-4 43D AE 255 D
S275J2G4 1.0145 Fe 430 D2 – – – –
S355JR 1.0045 Fe 510 B – E36-2 50B AE 355 B
S355J0 1.0553 Fe 510 C St52-3U E36-3 50C AE 335 C
S355J2G3 1.0570 Fe 510 D1 St53-3N – 50D AE 355 D
S355J2G4 1.0577 Fe 510 D2 – – – –
S355K2G3 1.0595 Fe 510 DD1 – E26-4 – AE 355 DD
S355K2G4 1.0596 Fe 510 DD2 – – – –
EN 10210 EU 25-72 Germany France UK Belgium

(1994)
S235JRH 1.0039 Fe 360 B St37-2 E24-2 – AE 235-B
S275J0H 1.0149 Fe 430 B St44-3U E28-3 43C AE 255-C
S275J2H 1.0138 Fe 430 D St44-3N E28-4 43D AE 255-D
S355J0H 1.0547 Fe 510 C St52-3U E36-3 50C AE 355-C
S355J2H 1.0576 Fe 510 D1 St52-3N – 50D AE 335-D
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Quay walls
Steel tubular piles (possibly with welded interlock profiles) are supplied in accordance
with EN 10219-1 and -2 (DIN17120). In these standards the technical terms of delivery are
described. Steel qualities and size tolerances are in accordance with EN 10025 (DIN 17100
and DIN 2458).
Higher quality steel, according to the standard American Petroleum Institute (API), 5L, is
also accepted. The usual steel qualities for tubular piles in combi-walls vary between steel
with a yield point of approx. 345 N/mm2 and steel with a yield point of approx. 485 N/mm2 .
The quality designations are X50. X55, X60. X65, X70. For example:
API 5L X70
The minimum yield point is given after the X in 1000 psi (pounds per square inch;
1 psi = approx. 0.0069 N/mm2 ), thus multiplying the number 70 by 6.9, gives a yield
point of 483 N/mm2 . Here too, it is necessary to take into account a reduction in the yield
point for thicker walls. The supplier of the steel should be consulted about this.
8.3 Corrosion
8.3.1 General
Like other materials, the structural steel used in sheet pile walls is subject to deterioration
caused by corrosion. Corrosion is deterioration of a material caused by chemical or elec-
trochemical reaction with environmental components, as a result of which the properties
of the material are lost. In practice, the process is usually called rusting. A characteristic
is that this deterioration always starts on the surface of the material. If there is no ques-
tion of greatly increased temperatures, the corrosion process is caused by electrochemical
reactions that occur when moisture is present on the surface of the steel and the pro-
cess is therefore termed ‘wet corrosion’. Corrosion processes in which a direct chemical
reaction between metal and oxygen takes place without the effects of moisture or atmo-
spheric humidity only occur at a relevant rate when temperatures are high. However high
temperature corrosion does not occur in quay walls.
Electrochemical corrosion processes can be divided into two main groups. These are
‘uniform corrosion’ or ‘general corrosion’ in which the rusting is evenly spread over the
surface, and ‘local corrosion’, in which the rusting is concentrated in specific places on
the surface. In practice, local corrosion in particular often leads to serious damage, because
there is often a rapid local corrosion rate of a character that is difficult to predict.
In this section, the background to electrochemical corrosion is explained, after which the
general corrosion of quay walls and forms of local corrosion will be discussed. Finally,
protective measures and developments in this area will be considered.
8.3.2 Electrochemical corrosion

If wet electrochemical corrosion occurs damage is caused by two types of electro-chemical
reaction on the surface of the steel: oxidation reaction and reduction reaction. With
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Materials
oxidation reaction, otherwise termed metal dissolving reaction, metallic atoms enter into
solution as metal ions, while electrons remain in the metal. In steel, the iron (Fe) dissolves
as follows:
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e− , metal dissolving reaction for steel
This metal dissolving reaction, the basis of the corrosion process, can only occur if the
electrons remaining in the metal can be carried away; otherwise the negative charge on
the metal will cause the metal-dissolving action to stop. The electrons are removed from
the surface by a cathodic reaction. In corrosion processes on steel quays this is termed the
oxygen reduction reaction:
O2 + 2H2 O + 4e− → 4OH−
Both these electrochemical reactions proceed at the same rate: all electrons that remain
in the metal as a result of the metal-dissolving reaction are removed by the reaction with
oxygen and water. Thus, water takes part in the reactions that occur. Moreover, the removal
of the reaction products proceeds via water. Therefore, electrochemical corrosion can only
occur if the surface of the steel is wet. This may be the case if the steel is underwater, if
there is splash water, or if condensation gives rise to an invisible thin film of moisture on
the surface.
Fig. 8.5 The effect of corrosion on a steel quay wall.
Uniform corrosion
The general corrosion rate of steel sheet pile walls is usually given as the reduction in
plate thickness of the parent material per unit of time and is expressed in mm/year. The
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Quay walls
corrosion rate is determined by the amount of oxygen that is available on the surface of
the metal, the oxygen reduction reaction and the quality of the oxide layer that forms on
the surface. The latter refers to the protective action of the oxide as a barrier between steel
and a corrosive environment.
The rate of corrosion of steel sheet pile walls and combi-walls depends on various factors.
As a result of the number and complexity of these factors, to date, even when the local
conditions are known, it is not possible to make an accurate quantitative estimate of the
corrosion rate. To give at least some idea to the designer and the operator of the quay, in
many ports statistical investigations have been made to determine the average corrosion
rate for steel sheet pile walls and steel piles. International design guidelines and codes,
such as the German EAU and the British Standards for Maritime Structures provide some
insight into this (Table 8.4). These guidelines must be used with great care. To include
the effects of local conditions it is advisable to use figures derived from experience with
existing quays in the immediate environs of the intended project. The most important factor
for the corrosion rate of sheet pile walls is the vertical position in relation to the waterline.
Usually significant differences in corrosion rate are distinguished in a vertical direction
in four to six attack zones. Table 8.4 gives an overview of the values taken from BS 6349:
Part: 1984, Table 22, and the EAU 2012.
Table 8.4 Corrosion rates in seawater (taken from BS

and EAU).
Zone (see Figure 8.6) Corrosion rate in mm/year
BS 6394 EAU 2012
Average Average Maximum
Atmospheric zone 0.10 0.01 0.01
Splash zone 0.14 0.03 0.07 + 4 mm∗
Tidal zone 0.09 0.03 0.07 + 2 mm∗
Low water zone 0.20 0.07 0.30
Underwater zone 0.08 0.03 0.07 + 2 mm∗
Bottom 0.01 0.01 0.01
*Reduction in thickness after the first two years.
EAU 2012 does not give a table, but includes a number of graphs for average and maximum
corrosion rates in freshwater and in seawater (North Sea and Baltic) from which the values
in Table 8.4 are derived. Most conspicuous is the great difference between the values
given by BS and EAU for the atmospheric zone. The EAU considers the corrosion in
the atmospheric zone negligible in comparison to that in the wet zones, but at the same
time warns that higher values may be found in an aggressive environment, for example,
where there is moving salt laden air, or the use of de-icing salts or the transhipment of
aggressive cargoes.
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Materials
The other values are reasonably similar, at least if the average values of the BS are compared
with the maximum values of the EAU. The EAU appears to consider that the corrosion
layer of the early years performs an insulating action. With a lifetime of 40 to 50 years, the
results are about the same, although for the low water zone the EAU gives a 50% higher
corrosion rate than the BS.
Figure 8.6 shows data from investigations of various other projects [8.39]. From this it
appears that corrosion is especially high in the splash zone (0.15–0.40 mm/year). This is
the result of the combination of moisture, very rapid access to oxygen and the presences of
a thin protective oxide due to the highly changeable conditions. In the other zones the cor-
rosion rate generally varies between 0.05–0.25 mm/year. The slow inflow of oxygen to the
part that is embedded in the ground results in lower corrosion rates (0.02–0.05 mm/year).
A condition is that no local corrosion occurs, because in that case the corrosion rate would
be considerably higher in the area affected.
Uniform corrosion
Atmospheric zone Atmospheric zone 0.05–0.10 mm/year
Splash zone 0.15–0.40 mm/year

Splash zone
HW spring tide
HW
HW neap tide
Tidal zone Tidal zone 0.10–0.25 mm/year

LW neap tide
LW Low water
zone Low water zone 0.10–0.25 mm/year
LW spring tide
Underwater zone Underwater zone 0.05–0.20 mm/year
Speed of corrosion Bottom 0.02–0.05 mm/year

(Sea) bed
Fig. 8.6 The average corrosion rate depending on the zone in which the corrosion occurs [8.39].
The rate at which general corrosion takes place also depends on other factors. An example
of these is the influence of contaminants creating a more corrosive environment. The
protective action of the oxide that forms on the surface is weakened. In contaminated ports
an increase in the corrosion rate can be expected. The development of biological growth
on steel also has an effect, although initially this may limit the rate of corrosion because
the organic material forms a barrier to the oxygen. However, the development of oxygen
deficient, rotting processes and, as a result, H2 S, under the biological growth on the surface
388
Quay walls
of the metal will reduce its protective action. The nett-effect will usually be that biological
growth increases corrosion.
In addition to the environmental effects that have been mentioned, the quality of the steel
used is also important. In particular, the type, quantity and number of impurities in steel
are determinants. Purer types of steel can build up a better protective oxide layer, so that
the general rate of corrosion is somewhat lower, but the effect of alloys on the general
corrosion rate of steel in seawater is very small.
8.3.3 Local corrosion

Usually it is relatively easy to estimate uniform corrosion rates on steel quays. More-
over, with a limited number of wall thickness measurements the condition can be followed
throughout the service life. Local corrosion is a different case. This corrosion is concen-
trated in specific places in which the corrosion rate may be very high. Because of the
diversity of the mechanisms, large number of influencing factors and local character of the
corrosion, it is often difficult to predict the occurrence of local corrosion and to estimate
its stage.
There are many mechanisms that can cause local corrosion. In general, it can be assumed
that for steel quays inhomogeneous situations in the environment, the occurrence of stray
currents, or links with metals that have a different electrical potential can give rise to
problems. It is characteristic that the metal dissolving reaction can only proceed rapidly
on relatively small surfaces, while the oxygen reduction reaction occurs over the entire
surrounding surface. In this way the corrosion is localized, while the total rate is not reduced,
but often even accelerates, so that in a relatively short time unacceptable reductions in wall
thickness may be created. The types of local corrosion that are most important for steel
quays are microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC), accelerated low water corrosion
(ALWC), stray current corrosion, erosion-corrosion and galvanic corrosion.
Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)

On steel quays in saline water, in due course biological growth establishes itself. After
even a few hours this leads to the formation of slimy bio-films formed by bacteria. As
time progresses these films are joined by bigger organisms on the surface, resulting in
anaerobic conditions on the surfaces of the metal in which sulphur reducing bacteria
(SRB) can develop. These SRB convert sulphur compounds into sulphides, forming H2 S.
The environment in these places can become locally very acid and aggressive, causing rapid
pitted corrosion. In the area round the pitting, with ample oxygen, the oxygen reduction
reaction will dominate and the corrosion will remain small. Actually, the process is more
complex, but further details are not given here. Other mechanisms and types of bacteria
can also lead to MIC, but sulphide-forming resulting from SRB is the most common. Local
corrosion rates can increase very greatly as a result of MIC. Values of many millimetres per
year have been recorded on steel. On walls, however, corrosion rates of around 1 mm/year
are generally more usual. For quays, MIC is often designated as ALWC, which is a form
of MIC found around the low water zone.
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Materials
Accelerated Low Water Corrosion (ALWC)

In the Netherlands some striking damage that can be attributed to Accelerated Low Water
Corrosion, (ALWC) has been recently detected, examples being found in the ports of Den
Helder, Vlissingen-Oost and Rotterdam. In neighbouring countries, especially England,
Germany and Denmark, this phenomenon has been known for longer. In fact, ALWC is a
form of MIC that occurs on steel quays in or around the low water zone.
The most probable mechanism for ALWC derives from sulphur reducing bacteria (SRB)
that flourish in the environment without oxygen under the biological growth on the quay.
This involves that part of the quay that is in continuous contact with seawater. With their
metabolic process SRB convert sulphur compounds into sulphides. This activity takes
place under and in the low water zone.
In the part above this there is much less biological growth. The surface of the steel will
therefore have a high oxygen content as a result of which primarily Sulphur Oxidizing
Bacteria, SOB, are found. The SOB are oxygen-loving bacteria that convert sulphides into
a sulphurous acid that is also corrosive.
The specific feature of ALWC is that in the transition zone where both SRB ands SOB
flourish a closed sulphur cycle develops, with increased activity from both types of micro
organism. After all SRB and SOB feed each other with the products that they excrete and
via these products both make a big contribution to making the environment of the surface
of steel more corrosive. In some areas in and around the low water zone this can lead to
greatly accelerated corrosion rates. With some degree of regularity corrosion rates of 1 mm
per year and perforations are encountered in quays after only 20% of the design service life.
Stray current corrosion

Another mechanism that also quickly gives rise to damage is related to stray currents.
If, for example, as a result of an earth leakage from electrical installations, an electric
current escapes from the wall, rapid corrosion of the steel will occur at that point. In the
steel wall itself the transport of the charge takes place via electrons. In the seawater this
proceeds via ions. On the interface between quay and seawater, with the transition from
electron transport to ion transport, a metal dissolving reaction is initiated. Apart from
arising via earth leakage, stray current corrosion can also be initiated by the cathodic
protection installation of a ship. If the cathodically protected ship’s hull is not electrically
linked to the steel quay, the protection current of the cathodic corrosion protection of the
ship can run partly via the steel quay. This is shown in Figure 8.7. Stray current corrosion
can proceed very rapidly and in a few years can produce holes in the steel quay.
Erosion-corrosion
The corrosion rate of steel in seawater is highly dependent on the current conditions.
A higher flow condition or turbulence increases the supply of oxygen and thus leads to
more rapid corrosion. In extreme conditions the protective oxide on steel may be partly lost
owing to the abrasive action of seawater containing solid particles. This process is termed
390
Quay walls
Rapid corrosion caused

by stray current
Quay
Protective currents
Fig. 8.7 The principle of stray current corrosion caused by the cathodic protection installation of a ship.
The protective current from the corrosion protection system runs partly via the quay: where the
current leaves the quay there is severe corrosion.
erosion-corrosion. Near quays, erosion-corrosion can be induced by propeller jets close to

the bottom, which in combination with sand and silt, give rise to high erosion-corrosion.
Galvanic corrosion
In many cases the combination of different metals or alloys leads to corrosion problems.
Every alloy takes a specific charge condition with regard to seawater; this is the corrosion
potential. The metal with a higher corrosion potential is designated as ‘noble’ and the
one with lower potential as ‘base’. When alloys with a clear difference in potential are
in electrical connection with each other and in contact with seawater, the connection will
cause the baser metal to dissolve more rapidly. This is the reason why direct contact between
steel and, for example, stainless steel or a copper alloy is not an option.
Differences in corrosion potential can also develop over time when different types of steel
are used in combi-walls in which tubular piles are used for strength and sheet piles are used
to retain earth. In such cases, these relatively small differences between noble and base
metals increase the risk of local corrosion. However, this also depends on other factors.
In short, differences in potential here stimulate local corrosion that, in fact, also has other
causes. As yet there are no guidelines on the combination of types of steel that should be
avoided in view of galvanic effects.
In galvanic corrosion, potential differences caused by the types of alloy, (noble and base)
are linked. The origin of potential differences can also be found in the environment. A steep
gradient with regard to the salt content (a layer of fresh drainage water above a saline water
layer) may also cause accelerated corrosion round the saline/fresh interface.
391
Materials
8.3.4 Risks and consequences of corrosion to sheet piling of quay walls

From the information obtained with different types of corrosion that may occur to sheet
piles or combi walls as part of a quay wall shows that this can have great implications,
risks, for present and future functionality.
With time, local aggressive types of corrosion can cause threat to soil retention of the sheet
pile, giving a risk for outflow of soil. The result is sagging or even differential settlement
of the adjacent buildings.
Reduction of wall thickness caused by corrosion decreases the local profile strength, which
may lead to an unacceptable structural safety factor.
Depending on the amount of reduction of the profile, it is possible to repair this location
with very expensive reinforcement of the sheet pile profile.
This repair measures are mostly performed under water level. If the reduction of the profile
is too large such that welding of reinforcement is no longer possible, one must consider
the construction as lost.
The corrosion rates and types shown in the tables, give a reasonable idea of the risks that
may occur but it is certainly insufficient for a sound basis for management strategy for
quay walls in ports.
The increasing awareness that corrosion on steel sheet piles may imply the lower limit for
the actual expected life span, requires a strong need for a standard of approach and actions
with this aspect in quay wall design.
The right actions to assess the effects of corrosion to sheet piles requires a systematic
measurement programme with evaluation moments to interpreter the data and try to forecast
the structural strength of the quay wall in the near and long time future.
8.3.5 Management strategy

To develop a management strategy for quay walls, it is essential that sufficient investigation
is carried out at locations where not only the influence of the local conditions is important,
but also the difference between configurations of the quay walls.
In prioritization of research and measures, it is important to base it on the exploitation
value of the quay as well as the duration of the contract which has been agreed with the
operator of the quay.
In certain cases, large difference may arise in the types of corrosion at quay walls while
experiencing the same circumstances and configurations.
In most cases, it concerns the main elements as with tubular piles of combined walls, of
which different types of corrosion are able to strengthen each other.
High residual stresses in tubular piles by the manufacturing process, and use of steel
different species at combi walls are all responsible for increased corrosion.
The presence of local sulphate reducers below the low-water line (ALWC) sometimes may
lead to locally extremely high corrosion rates.
From extensive experience and research of the behaviour of corrosion in several Dutch
seaports, it is found that combi walls with piles under maritime conditions, a cathodic
protection should be applied directly in all cases.
This is the consequence of the result of predictions, which in most cases give a (much)
shorter life span than designed.
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Quay walls
Despite the quantity of data available on corrosion types and rates that should give security
for a quay, the risk for deviations is high.
The best strategy for the maintenance management of port infrastructure therefore is an
individual monitoring of each quay wall.
Insufficient knowledge of the corrosion behaviour of a quay wall due to inadequate
inspections, may lead to severe major disillusions for the asset manager.
Especially with quay walls (combined walls) in salt water, the number of active types of
corrosion cannot be predicted in advance with sufficient reliability.
In addition, the property of reinforcement of concurrent corrosion types needs to be
adressed.
Not only salt water but also an acidic peat soil or contaminated soil can lead to corrosion,
while a higher temperature can also lead to a higher corrosion rate.
Therefore, it is recommended to perform an investigation into corrosion on the landward
side for sheet piles in peat lands.
In the Port of Rotterdam, a lot of research has been and is performed on the corrosion
behaviour of quay walls by location in the port (salt, brackish), situating, functionality and
configuration. The presented graphs in Figure 8.8 and 8.9 are based upon this.
To apply these graphs for the Netherlands and Belgium, they are validated with data of
quay walls in ports in the southwest and the north east of the Netherlands. These results
are shown in graphs (Figure 8.10–8.13).
As a reference for the corrosion behaviour, all results are compared with reference lines of
corrosion according to Table 4-2 of the EN1993-5 (Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures;
Part 5: Piling).
The EC3-lines are derived from measurements of quay walls in both brackish and salt
water in which distinctions are made between the corrosion in the splash zone and the
whole underwater part.
In the graphs, the corrosion underwater is shown by the black solid line and the corrosion
in the splash zone by the dotted line.
Also the standard corrosion curves are included as a basis. These standard curves are
applied as basic corrosion scales used in the KMS- model of the Port of Rotterdam
Authority.
In the midst of these curves in the form of triangular symbols, the results of the average
measured corrosion of quay walls in the port of Rotterdam are shown. In Figure 8.8, these
are the 13 quay walls in saltwater conditions.
The year of the inspections on the time axis is related to the average measured corrosion
on the vertical axis.
In Figure 8.9 are the “EC3-curves” for fresh and brackish water compared with 23 quays in
the port of Rotterdam under similar conditions. Shown in Figure 8.10–8.13 are the results
of the quay walls from the mentioned other quay walls in the Netherlands.
The conclusion that can be drawn from this data is that the variation of the corrosion rate
of the quay walls investigated is relatively large and they are significantly higher than
indicated by the data presented by EAU, BS and Eurocode.
In terms of the entire quay wall length in the Port of Rotterdam, these different aspects are
correlated with the observed trend in the corrosion behaviour. These trends form the basis
for the design aspects for new quay walls.
393
Materials
Fig. 8.8 EC3 (salt water) versus Rotterdam.
Fig. 8.9 EC3 (brackish water) versus Rotterdam.
394
Quay walls
Fig. 8.10 EC3 (salt water) versus South West Netherlands.
Fig. 8.11 EC3 (brackish water) versus South East Netherlands.
395
Materials
Fig. 8.12 EC3 (brackish water) versus North West Netherlands.
Fig. 8.13 EC3 (salt water) versus North Netherlands.
8.3.6 Measurement protocol

The investigation of corrosion behaviour of the quay begins with the setup of a represen-
tative method of an overall measurement protocol that, in principle, consists of measuring
the profile thicknesses that are directly related to the critical locations along the profile.
396
Quay walls
The vertical measurements consider the variations of corrosion over the length of the quay
combined with horizontal measurement levels. Considering the depth, the zones that are
given in Tables 5.2 and Figure 5.3 need to be taken into account.
For each zone, sufficient monitoring points must be defined to observe the trends in
corrosion behaviour over the depth.
At the intersection points of the vertical and the horizontal measurement levels, measure-
ments on site should be made through analogue ultrasonic thickness gauge and compared
with strength properties of the tubular piles for the soil density.
In addition, a number of cleaned parts of the sheet pile needs to part to a surface analysis.
The surface analysis consists of an estimation of the local aggressive corrosion, also called
pitting. This pitting is expressed in percentages of the surface concerned.
With sufficient number of inspection areas, the percentage of pitting depths and varia-
tions can be taken into account to determine the average measured wall thickness. The
representative wall thickness of the profile is the equivalent of the measured residual wall
thickness and weighted pitting.
8.3.7 Corrosion degradation model

A corrosion degradation model for sheet piling can be easily created based on acquired
experiences such as:
• Parabolic shape of the corrosion behaviour;

• Linear relationship between wall thickness and strength reduction (provided that
measurement is performed on the correct position of the profile).
The corrosion curve of Figure 8.14 shows the position of either the average corrosion
or equivalent of the average corrosion + pitting in the point of tangency to the parabola.
This point on the parabola can be extrapolated to a desired time.
Safety year
Average equivalente
of inspection
corrosion 1.5
Corrosion Extrapolated Safety Maintenance phase 1

[mm] corrosion after 1.3
50 years
Maintenance phase 2
Year of
1.2
inspection
Maintenance phase 3
Year Year of First holes in

inspection sheetpile
CORROSION CURVE DEGRADATION CURVE
Fig. 8.14 Relation between corrosion and strength reduction.
397
Materials
It is recommended that the measurement data on which the corrosion curve is based, is
to be regarded per depth zone since the benchmark area at which the maximum moment
occurs, does not necessarily needs to coincide with the zone of most corrosion.
The degradation curve of Figure 8.14 shows the corrosion curve numerically related to a
degradation line for the strength of the element considered. The intersection of the fixed
position line by the time of admission and the degradation curve provides the residual
value for the structural safety.
To give an impression a design safety of 1.5 correlates with a residual safety of 1.28 at
admission.
The structural safety is divided into zones and also represents an administrative phase on
which an inspection regime with specific actions can be based.
In the example a fixed position line is also added at a time at which possible initial hole
formation is started. This is to be determined by measurement of maximum pitting depth
together with the correlating corrosion speed extrapolated to the time of zero wall thickness.
It should be mentioned that the model shows the safety correlated regarding bending.
The influence of a normal force in the cross-section from a possible load in the presence
of a superstructure resulted from either an axial load or a sloped anchoring should be
considered separately or can be discounted as a factor.
8.3.8 Corrosion protective measures

Measures should be taken to protect walls. In practice, it appears that a combination of
unfavourable factors leads to premature corrosion problems. Therefore it is advisable to
take a broad approach. The choice of the desired protection level should be based on
the required service life, the chosen maintenance strategy and a risk and cost analysis.
Some protection measures are briefly reviewed below. It is also worth mentioning that
various protection techniques are undergoing development. These include electrochemical
techniques, metallic covering layers, special organic coatings and inspection techniques.
Coatings
Coating systems have proved their value in the protection of steel against general corrosion.
Usually the situation becomes more complex if there is a risk of local corrosion. In that case
the protective effect of paint is only temporary. The protective effect of a coating is largely
based on the application of a barrier between metal and sea. Corrosion-resistant pigments in
the paint provide further protection. The use of a zinc-rich primer is usually recommended.
There are a number of extremely important aspects to the coating of profiles for quay walls.
First comes the wear and impact resistance of the coating system. This is important for
the limitation of damage during both construction and use of the quay. In addition, it is
important that the system is tolerant with regard to conditions of application (also with
a view to repair works) and, if applicable, can be combined with cathodic protection.
398
Quay walls
Often an epoxy coating is used on steel that has been coated with a commercial primer,
for example a zinc silicate primer. For this it is important that an adequate layer of some
hundreds of micrometers is applied.
Application of coating systems on a sheet pile construction as part of quay walls require
some points of consideration:
• On position of the locks is a strip will be kept clear of coating that, when buildings
are constructed in the dry, should be updated afterwards. On wet sheet piles applied
in the wet, the strip keeps free of coating.
• Coating has a limited life span (5 to 15 years), that is why this gives no protection
for the entire reference period of the quay wall (e.g. 50 years). During dredging or
maintenance dredging, the probability of local damage is high.
• When applying an epoxy coating system, a locally accelerated corrosion can take
please at locations with imperfections of the coating.
• In case of a water-cutting configuration, the most economical solution is to coat the
dam wall till underneath the low-water line and to protect the rest with a KB.
• Also, there is the possibility to provide the entire sheet piling of a coating (up to 2 m
into the soil) in combination with a KB. In this case, a calculation will be made through
an interaction between both systems during a desired reference period.
• An alternative solution for new buildings could be a steel sheet pile underneath the
low-water line which connects to a concrete superstructure.
Cathodic protection
By reducing the electro potential of a steel quay wall, which is the charge level of the steel
in relation to seawater, the steel can be protected against both general and local corrosion.
This is cathodic protection (CP). There are two ways to achieve this reduction of potential.
First sacrificial anodes can be attached to the steel quay; these are blocks of a base alloy
that can be mounted to conduct an electric current in the quay wall. These sacrificial
anodes are usually made of zinc or aluminum and they protect the steel by accelerated
solution of themselves. Periodic inspection and replacement is necessary. This is termed
passive CP.
Another method employed to protect the wall uses a rectifier installation and inert anodes
that are not themselves consumed. This is called active CP. Here the electro-potential of
the steel is reduced via an imposed current. In this case the initial costs are higher than
those for passive CP. From the point of view of costs, in the long term active CP is more
interesting for bigger structures. For quays however, a big disadvantage is that problems
with stray current corrosion from ships can arise.
Passive CP (sacrificial anodes) provides a solution to prevent ALWC and MIC. The com-
bination of cathodic protection with a coating system has the advantage that the protective
currents required are smaller. In addition, a coating in the splash and tidal zone also
provides protection during the time when CP does not provide any protection.
399
Materials
Until present, a KB through transformed impressed current (from AC to DC) has limited
application at quay walls which is partly due to the relative unfamiliarity with this system.
In addition, at D&C-projects there is reluctance to take this KB system into consideration;
on the one hand because of the design risks and, on the other hand, because of the less
transparent cost.
The necessary energy for this system can be derived from green power whereby, in the live
time cycle, a high score in sustainability could be reached.
Pilot projects show that a good KB-design in combination with the necessary energy
facilities such as installation spaces and facilities for cables, may be a serious economical
alternative compared to a sacrifice KB-system.
In addition, the market in the field of the applicable electronics and the development of the
manufacture is capable of fabricating very compact systems with far-reaching efficiency
and economy.
From the point of sustainable building, this system deserves more attention with the
principals (EMVI-criterion), engineers, builders and operators of quay walls.
Drawing up design guidelines with sample calculations and price comparisons may provide
more accessibility, resulting in more awareness.
KB on diaphragm walls
The application of an active cathodic protection at diaphragm walls, shall with the current
state of art not be directly necessary due to the large coverage on the main reinforcement
and use of high-quality concrete types.
Although the construction of a quay wall is carried with grate care, there always remains
risks for initial corrosion development.
In principle, the risk of corrosion is greater reinforcement bars on site of interlocks which
can lead to possible links with the rear reinforcement.
Another risk for corrosion is a possible reduction in the coverage as a result of strong local
irregularities in the decking and interlock.
With the design and construction of the diaphragm wall, it is strongly recommended to
make the reinforcement of the quay wall electrically continuous over the entire surface and
measure it per panel.
The connection of reinforcement of the panels should also be tested for continuity to ensure
that the entire quay wall is electrically continuous.
Preventive aluminium sacrifice anodes

As a preventive measure for corrosion of exposed reinforcement, it is recommended
to insert a steel plate in the submerged part of the apron at regular intervals of the
panels.
The steel plate must be connected to the reinforcement so it can subsequently be connected
with a cable which can be attached to a sacrifice-anode.
The sacrifice-anode can be connected to the concrete diaphragm wall. This will/initiate
establish the galvanic action between steel and aluminium because of the closed electric
circuit.
400
Quay walls
KB with impressed current

If frequent monitoring shows, that the main reinforcement is rapidly reduced such that the
risk of corrosion apparently occurring in an early stage, then the possibility to apply a KB
with impressed current can be considered.
In this situation a number of options are available such as drilling of titanium anodes or
fixation of titanium mesh behind the shot concrete of diaphragm wall.
Corrosion allowance
The steel can be manufactured with a corrosion allowance, which is a reserve or over-
thickness that is unnecessary with regard to the maximum mechanical loads. Elements with
greater moments of resistance and moments of inertia than is strictly necessary according
to the strength calculation are used. This also limits the deformation of the structure. To
this end, an estimate of the corrosion rate during the lifetime of the project must be made.
This approach can be followed for uniform corrosion. With a high risk of local corrosion,
supplementary protection techniques are required.
Development of new protection measures

In the area of techniques to protect against local corrosion of steel quays, there is much lack
of clarity and, in the area of ALWC in particular, various developments are underway to
improve the control of this problem in the future. The same goes for inspection techniques
and risk analyses.
Unfortunately, at present there is still no good method available to predict the occurrence of
local corrosion, and in particular of ALWC and MIC. For the time being it is recommended
that a CP system, possibly in combination with a coating, should be used in places where
local corrosion has been previously detected. In practice, it appears that a well-designed
and maintained CP-system can prevent ALWC and other types of local corrosion. As an
alternative it is possible to consider regular intensive inspection of sheet pile walls. It may
be possible to introduce CP at a later date. In this case, during the building process it is
necessary to ensure that there are facilities for the installation of a CP system at a later
date. It must be clear that the risk of failing to detect local corrosion in time depends on
the effectiveness of the inspections.
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8.22 Braam, C.R., e.a., Betonconstructies onder temperatuur- en krimpvervormingen –
Theorie en Praktijk. Betonpraktijkreeks 2, 1996. 225 p.
8.23 Betoniek 6/6 1983, Permeabiliteit. ENCI, ’s-Hertogenbosch.
8.24 Betoniek 6/20 1984, Gewogen rijpheid. ENCI, ’s-Hertogenbosch.
8.25 Braam, C.R., e.a., Ontwerpen en dimensioneren van vloeistofkerende constructies.
Betonpraktijkreeks nr. 4, 2001.
402
Quay walls
8.26 CUR-Aanbeveling 89 Maatregelen ter voorkoming van betonschade door alkali-

silicareactie. CUR, Gouda, 2002 (met achtergrondrapport).
8.27 CUR-rapport 167, Duurzaamheid van beton in agrarische milieus. CUR, Gouda,
1993.
8.28 NEN 5970, Bepaling van de druksterkteontwikkeling van jong beton.
8.29 Rostam, S, Performance-Based Design of Structures for the Future. IABSE
Symposium, Rio de Janeiro, p. 55–68, 1999.
8.30 CUR-Aanbeveling 93, Zelfverdichtend beton. CUR, Gouda, 2002 (met achter-
grondrapport).
8.31 Taheri, A., Durability of Reinforced Concrete Structures in Aggressive Marine
Environment, PhD Thesis, Delft University Press, 1998
Steel
8.32 Verburg, W.H., (Over)spannend staal, deel I: Basisboek, 3e druk, Staalbouwkundig

Genootschap, Rotterdam, 1996.
8.33 Boer, J. de, Benaming constructiestaal, artikel uit “Bouwen met Staal”, Nr.125,
1995.
8.34 Overduin, L. en J.J.W. Gulikers, Aantasting Materialen: Microbiologisch
Beïnvloede Corrosie (MIC), rapportnummer: BSRAP-R-02009, Bouwdienst
Rijkswaterstaat, 2002.
8.35 Gulikers, J.J.W., Kathodische beschermingssystemen voor stalen damwanden.
Rapportnummer BSW 99-04, Bouwdienst Rijkswaterstaat, 2000.
8.36 Minger, C.G., Corrosion prevention by protective coatings. National Association
of Corrosion Engineers, 1440 South Creek Drive, Huston, Texas 77084, USA,
1984.
8.37 BS 7361, Cathodic Protection. Part 1, 1991.
8.38 Morgan, J., Cathodic Protection, (second edition), National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, 1440 South Creek Drive, Huston, Texas 77084, USA,
1993.
8.39 Wilms, M.E., A. Suurmond, W.M. Bos, TNO rapportage CA00.9027, 2000.
8.40 Moulin, J.M., Protection methods of steel sheet pilings against accelerated
low water corrosion. Conf. Proceedings Eurocorr ’99, European Federation of
Corrosion, 1999.
8.41 Gehrke, T., R. Karius, W. Sand, Low-water corrosion on steel piling structures
caused by MIC, Conf. Proceedings Eurocorr ’99, European, 1999.
8.42 Christie, J.B., Accelerated low water corrosion – a practitioner’s perspective,
Aberdeen Harbour Board, UK/PIANC Congress, Sydney, September 2002.
8.43 Kumar, A. & L.D. Stephenson, Accelerated low water corrosion of steel pil-
ings in seawater, Corps of Engineers, USA/PIANC Congress, Sydney, September
2002.
8.44 Damme, L. van & W. Vrelust, Continuous fight against ALWC: an evaluation, Min-
istry of the Flemish Community, Belgium/PIANC Congress, Sydney, September
2002.
403
Materials
8.45 Beitelman, A., Application parameters for arc spray metallized coatings, U.S. Army
CERL, USA PIANC Congress, Sydney, September 2002.
8.46 Foekema, G.A.M. Staalkwaliteiten (7e druk), overzicht van eigenschappen en aan-
duidingen van staalsoorten en staalkwaliteiten volgens de geldige Europese en
nationale voorschriften. Uitgave: Bouwen met Staal, Rotterdam 2000.
8.47 Bijen, J.M.J.M., Durability of Engineering Structures. CRC Press, Cambridge, 262
p., 2003.
404
Quay walls
Chapter 9
CONSTRUCTION
Quay walls
Contents
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

9.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.2.2 Design appraisal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.2.3 Design, optimization and alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.3 Construction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

9.3.1 Method of construction from the water side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.3.2 Method of construction in a dry building pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.4 Layout of the construction site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
9.5 Surveying of the construction site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.6 Environmental boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

9.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.6.2 Drivability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.6.3 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
9.7 Foundation and substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

9.7.1 Retaining wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
9.7.2 Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
9.7.3 Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
9.8 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

9.8.1 Main types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
9.8.2 Concrete structural elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
9.8.3 Concrete work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
9.8.4 Details of the superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
9.9 Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
9.10 Fill behind the quay wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
9.11 Dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
9.12 Scour protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Construction
9.13 Auxiliary structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

9.13.1 Installation of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
9.13.2 Formwork and supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
9.14 Quality control and quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

9.14.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
9.14.2 Construction tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
9.14.3 Monitoring and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
9.15 Completion and acceptance of the works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

9.15.1 Recording construction work and its environs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
9.15.2 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
9.15.3 Conveyance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
408
Quay walls
Chapter 9
CONSTRUCTION
9.1 Introduction
The construction of a quay wall is a technically and logistically complex process, so it
is very important to make thorough preparations for the work. It is necessary to make
choices with regard to the purchase, transport and processing of the various construction
materials. The phasing of the planning and construction processes must be well defined as
a basis for the deployment of numbers and types of workers, as well as for equipment. It
is also necessary to investigate what supplementary works must be carried out, including
the necessary paving, site accommodation, energy facilities and surveillance. For the
construction of quay walls, the choice of the equipment for installation of the foundation
for the earth retaining wall is an essential factor.
All choices must be directed towards obtaining a product that satisfies the stipulated
requirements against the lowest project cost. The work must be organized in such a way
that the construction risks can be properly managed. This chapter describes the most
important constructional aspects and at all stages explains the relationship with the design.
Although the term ‘quay walls’ covers a number of types of structure, including block
walls, L-walls, caissons, cellular walls, sheet pile walls, diaphragm walls and jetties, this
chapter is devoted exclusively to sheet pile wall structures and relieving structures. A brief
description of other types of structure is given in Chapter 3.
9.2 Design
9.2.1 General
Although this chapter focuses on the construction of quay walls, the design aspects also
play an important role, in particular the relation between design and construction. The
role of the contractor in the design process is closely related to the form of the contract.
Broadly speaking, forms of contract vary between the traditional specification model, in
which the contractor exerts no influence on the design and bears no responsibility for it,
and Design & Build contract, where the contractor is responsible for the design or, going
a few steps further, the Design, Build, Finance, Operate & Maintain contract, in which the
maximum influence and design responsibility lies with the contractor.
9.2.2 Design appraisal

If a design is provided by or on behalf of the client, the contractor assesses the feasibility
of the design. In some cases, this can lead to modifications in the design. Within this
409
Construction
framework it is also important to realize that the contractor has a duty (under Dutch law)
to warn of errors or omissions in the stipulated construction and method statements, in so
far as these can be reasonably determined by the contractor (see also UAV 2012) [9.1].
If the contractor is responsible for the design, adequate coordination with the disciplines
involved in construction is essential during the design process.
9.2.3 Design, optimization and alternatives

Every effort must be made to optimize the design, with the objective of submitting a tender
with the most favourable price/quality ratio. This entails paying attention to planning, con-
struction phasing, logistics, the use of equipment and materials. With the traditional form
of contract incorporating the client’s specifications, this can lead to alternative proposals.
The contractor can also propose alternatives after the award of the contract. In some cases,
the implementation of these proposals may lead to financial, quality and other advantages
for both parties.
9.3 Construction methods

9.3.1 Method of construction from the water side
When it is necessary to construct the quay in and above water, the work is carried out
from the water side. The use of this method is determined by the design, the construction
site and the constructional aspects. If the construction level of the foundation is above
the water line, mostly the chosen method is construction from the water side with the
aid of floating equipment. Depending on the shape, planning and specific local condi-
tions, a reinforced concrete superstructure can then be prefabricated. With construction
from the water side, floating equipment is used to install the sheet pile wall, foundation
and anchorage. Sometimes one or two pile rows can be installed by using shore-based
equipment, if necessary by temporarily lowering the ground surface level. In very dif-
ficult conditions, such as those with strong currents, high waves or considerable swell,
it is possible to work above the quay from the foundation that has already been laid or
from auxiliary equipment consisting of temporary bearing piles with beams and a road
deck for the equipment. The size and weight of the foundation elements play a part in the
determination of the equipment to be used. In some cases, this leads to the use of floating
equipment.
With regard to the working method, the necessary equipment and determination of the con-
struction risks, the contractor must analyze statistical data on water levels, wave heights
and the direction and velocity of currents for the construction period in question (Chap-
ter 4). For projects on the coast, in large estuaries and at sea there may be high risks of
damage to works and equipment. Stipulations made in the interest of local shipping traffic
may also affect the execution of the project. For example, if the use of anchors and anchor
cables is not permitted this determines the mode of work and the type of equipment that can
be used.
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Quay walls
9.3.2 Method of construction in a dry building pit

General
To construct on a dry site it is necessary to prepare a dry building pit and to lower the
phreatic level artificially. In most cases, work proceeds from an existing ground surface
level. Sometimes a dry site is created by using earth fill to form a working platform.
For the construction works it is important that the building pit fulfils the following
requirements:
• The site must be protected from the ingress of surface water

• It must be possible to lower the phreatic level at the site
• If it lies on a shipping route the building pit must be protected against the risk of
collision
The dry building pit can be contained within a dike, a sheet pile wall, or combination of
these elements.
Drainage
Various drainage systems can be used to bring the phreatic level within the building pit to
the desired level and to maintain this level:
Open drainage: pumping from open sumps

An open drainage system is primarily suitable for dewatering a building pit in clay or peat
layers. In this type of soil, an open drainage system functions to a depth of approx. 2 m.
If the soil in the building pit consists of sand, the maximum possible reduction in the
groundwater level is 0.5 m.
Horizontal drainage
With horizontal drainage, the drains are laid at a depth of a maximum of 5 m under the
ground surface. These drains are connected to a pump. Horizontal drainage is primarily
suitable for permanent drainage and for the temporary drainage of large areas where a
uniform lowering of the phreatic level is required.
Well point drainage

Three variants of well point drainage can be distinguished: closed vacuum drainage, open
vacuum drainage and deep-well drainage:
• Closed vacuum drainage is used in highly permeable soils. With this method, it is
possible to reduce the phreatic levels by approximately 4 m. With the closed method,
the suction tube is also the filter tube.
• Open vacuum drainage is used when the soil does not consist of permeable layers
over the entire height of the building pit. With the open method, the suction tube is
mounted in a perforated casing. In this way, a maximum reduction in phreatic level of
411
Construction
around 6 m is attained. Both open and closed systems use a common header pipe that
is connected to one or more pumps.
• With deep well drainage, the pump is suspended at the bottom of the filter. The capacity
of such a pump well is many times greater than that of vacuum drainage.
Figure 9.1 gives the range of the various drainage systems, in relation to the permeability
of the soil.
26 26
24 24
22 22
Deep well
20 drainage 20
Diaphragm wall
18 bottom injection 18
Reduction in phreatic level in m
Multiple stage
16 drainage 16
14 Gravity drainage 14
12 12
10 Vacuum drainage 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
Single
2 drainage 2
Open drainage
0 0
2
Hydraulic 3
permeability : k 1·10 m/day 1.10 1.101 1 10 100 1000
Clay Silt Fine sand Coarse sand Fine gravel Coarse gravel
Fig. 9.1 The range of the various drainage systems [9.20].
Return drainage
If the effect on the phreatic level in the surrounding area must be maintained within a
defined range, a return drainage system can be used. When return drainage is used, the
water is injected into the ground again via wells at some distance from the building pit.
9.4 Layout of the construction site

In most cases, an area close to the site of the actual structure is made available to the
contractor, who will layout the site to suit the construction methods. The construction site
will usually contain:
• Site offices for contractor and supervisor

• Storage facilities
• Water and power supplies
412
Quay walls
In some cases, it is necessary to provide facilities for specific preparatory activities; for
example a carpenter’s workshop, reinforcement and bending plant, paint shed, construction
yard and possibly also a concrete batching and mixing plant. Naturally, preliminary works
are necessary. Depending on the condition of the site and the quality of the underlying soil
layers, it is sometimes necessary to take special measures to guarantee the stability of the
site roads. Site clearance may include stripping topsoil, soil improvement, the provision
of a stabilization layer, and the use of steel spreader plates or reinforcement of the soil.
With regard to the location and accessibility of the various facilities, it is very important
to coordinate the construction phasing and other activities on and around the construction
site. Sometimes it is unavoidable that rearrangement is necessary during construction. With
regard to the facilities introduced onto the construction site, throughout the entire construc-
tion period it is necessary to ensure that optimum and safe use of all facilities can be guar-
anteed. On completion of the works temporary facilities must be removed, the construction
site must be cleared and cleaned and, if possible, returned to its original condition.
9.5 Surveying of the construction site

Pegging out coordinates and survey lines is skilled work that is carried out by surveyors. If
possible, the coordinates must be linked to the triangulation system of the national topo-
graphical service, so that the relation with the coordinates as defined in the design is clear.
The client is responsible for the first order dimensioning. The contractor is responsible for
the subsequent dimensioning derived from the primary survey and for maintaining first
order dimensioning.
9.6 Environmental boundary conditions

9.6.1 General
It is important that accurate and complete information about environmental boundary
conditions is available in time, including the nature of the soil, geotechnical and geohy-
drological data, water levels and wind data, current and wave data and flora & fauna data.
It is the responsibility of the contractor to ensure that all relevant information is available
to him throughout the entire construction period.
If the contractor is of the opinion that the necessary information is lacking, the client must
be informed and measures taken to rectify this situation. This can be done, for example,
by means of desk study or by making supplementary investigations. The investigation may
involve field studies such as penetration tests, drilling, density measurements, and water
level, wind, current and wave measurements. These may be combined with laboratory
investigations such as the determination of weight density, cohesion, angle of internal
friction, permeability and grain size distribution (Chapter 4).
9.6.2 Drivability
When quay wall structures are under construction the installation of the bearing and retain-
ing elements is vitally important. The question of how these elements can be brought to the
413
Construction
required depth must be answered at an early stage. This affects the choice of equipment,
pile driving production, planning and costs. The aspect of risk management is an important
factor. There are good, reliable calculation rules for the installation of single elements, but
for the linked elements of combined walls the methods of prediction are more limited.
The original soil structure is changed by the installation of the elements of the foundation
and the ability to drive or vibrate the succeeding foundation elements can be influenced to
such an extent that problems may arise during execution of the work.
Sometimes it is necessary to take measures to reduce the resistance of the ground during
installation. This may be achieved by predrilling over part of the length of the pile, or
by loosening the soil with the aid of a jet pipe during installation. Such measures should
always be carried out in close consultation with the design engineer. Possible effects on
the surrounding area must be taken into consideration.
9.6.3 Stability
The stability of the supporting soil in consequence of the installation of the elements
is another important aspect to be considered. The effects of compaction may cause non-
uniform settlement that will affect the stability of the overlying soil layers. This may affect,
for example, not only the equipment being used, but also adjacent structures or parts of
the structure that have already been completed.
For a grain structure at critical packing density, excess water pressure can cause liquefaction
in a sand layer of several metres, which reduces the effective stress. Vibration during
impact driving or vibratory driving of piles may cause increased excess water pressure,
and spontaneous changes in the grain packing, as a result of which liquefaction occurs.
This may lead to loss of stability in soil layers and higher horizontal soil pressure, because
the soil then behaves as a viscous fluid. It is obvious that this can have undesirable and far
reaching effects on the execution of the work. Possible measures that may be taken include
improvement of stability by using gravel columns that rapidly drain away the excess water.
By measuring the water pressure while the work is in progress, it is possible to assess
the degree of reduction of effective stress and the risk of liquefaction. Based on this, the
working methods can be adapted. Pile driving work on slopes demands special attention.
The choice entails the use of a high frequency vibrating block, which reduces the risk of
instability of the banks.
9.7 Foundation and substructure

9.7.1 Retaining wall
The retaining element, and sometimes also the bearing element of a quay wall, consists
of sheet piling or a combined wall. For some structures a cast in-situ concrete diaphragm
wall is used.
There are many types of prefabricated sheet pile wall. To start with, a distinction can
be made between the types of material used, such as steel, wood, concrete and synthetic
414
Quay walls
material. Wood and concrete are usually used for small sheet piling works, bank protection
works and quays with a low retaining height. The use of synthetic material is still very
limited and may soon give rise to problems with installation, while the limited stiffness of
the material also hinders its large-scale use. For most quay structures, steel sheet pile wall
profiles such as cold formed or rolled U, Z, or H straight web profiles, tubular profiles or
combinations of these are used.
U and Z profiles are installed as single, double or triple elements. The multiple elements
are usually assembled in the factory. The piles are mechanically threaded and fastened by
crimping or welding. The choice of the configuration is prompted by the design and the
feasibility of its use. For U-profiles it is important to specify the exact configuration, (i.e.
convex side in front or at the back). For double piles the use of S or Z shaped profiles
must be specified. For some Z-profiles soil is prevented from blocking the interlock by
ensuring that the male edge of the interlock is always on the leading side of the pile that
has already been installed, Figure 9.4.
Each sheet pile wall system has specific characteristics relating to the installation process.
Most commonly used sheet pile wall profiles and the full H profiles and tubular profiles
(Figure 9.2) have a nominal interlock margin. Superposition of these margins may lead to
U-profiles
Z-profiles
H-profiles
Straight web-profiles
Tubular-profiles
Fig. 9.2 Wall profiles.
415
Construction
Combined wall of single H-pile and intermediate piles of

double H-profiles
Combined wall of double H-piles and intermediate piles of

double Z-profiles
Combi-wall of open tubular piles with intermediate piles of

double U-profiles
Combi-wall of open tubular piles with intermediate piles of

triple U-profiles
Fig. 9.3 Combined walls.
Pile driving
direction
Male edge of interlock
Fig. 9.4 Direction of pile driving for Z-piles.
deviations in the positions of the sheet piles. This may lead to problems with dimensioning,
but such problems do not arise with combined walls (Figure 9.3) because a pile-driving
frame is used to position the primary elements. Double H-profiles and tubular piles exhibit
stiff bending and torsion behaviour and this restricts deviations during the driving process.
Plug formation may have a negative influence on the drivability.
416
Quay walls
The links between the prefabricated piles are formed by the interlocks, which have soil
and water retaining properties. The dimensional stability of the interlocks during and
after installation is the basis for the serviceability and durability of the sheet pile wall
and thereby of the entire quay wall. If the interlocks are damaged during the installation
process, gaps may be formed between the piles and differences in water pressure may result
in the back fill being washed out. The gaps may subsequently appear after the quay wall
has been dredged free. The width of the interlock opening can vary from a few millimetres
to several decimetres.
• Causes of interlock damage:

• Pile driving in highly resistant soil
• Pile driving in stead of vibrating
• Grip of interlocks inadequate
• Overheating of interlocks
• Distortion of interlocks resulting from deviation of the tip of the element
• Obstacles, such as stones and wood, in the subsoil which deflect or damage the tip of
the element
• Deflection of the pile that has already been installed to such an extent that next piles
cannot follow it
In recent years, interlock sensors have been used (Chapter 7). During the driving process,
these give a relatively reliable indication of whether the interlock has lost grip. If, with the
aid of this system, an interlock opening is detected during the driving process, a correction
can be made by extracting and re-driving the pile or by replacing it. If this is not possible,
a cut-off can be made by installing sheet piles or by grouting a large area of soil behind
the gap in the piles. Sometimes it is necessary to make a repair by driving piles from the
waterside.
Repairs to interlocks can be made later by welding steel strips or plates that can be strength-
ened by horizontal beams. It is also possible to use clamps, shot bolts and hammerhead
bolts. In order to prevent washing out of soil during dredging free or when repairing
interlock damage, grout injection must be carried out in advance of the repair work or
a deep well drainage system must be installed behind the sheet pile wall. An interlock
opening that has been partly dredged free must be repaired as quickly as possible, before
low tide, because a large amount of soil might suddenly flow out from behind the sheet
pile wall at low tide. This can be done by vibration, jetting or predrilling. It is very
important that the installation method is as adapted as closely as possible to the local
conditions.
9.7.2 Piles
The choice of the pile system to be used depends on the requirements formulated in the
design and on the specific construction conditions. Table 9.1 gives an overview of the most
commonly used types of pile system.
417
Table 9.1 Overview of the most commonly used pile systems.
Pile type/ System name Pile shape Soil Soil Installation Tension Bearing Inclination
material displacement removal method up to
1 Timber Timber pile Round X Driven X 3:1
2 Prefab a Reinforced Square X Driven X X 3:1
concrete concrete pile
b Built-up pile, Square/round X Driven X 5:1
or coupled pile
c Prestressed Square, right-angled X Driven X X 3:1
concrete pile
d Prestressed Round, hollow X Driven X X 3:1
concrete pile
e Euro pile Round, hollow X Screwed X X 3:1
3 In situ a Vibro pile Round X Driven X X 3:1
concrete b Franki pile Round X Driven (Internally) X X 3:1
c Fundex pile Round X Screwed X X 3:1
d Fluidization Round pile X Vibration fluidization X X 6:1
e Grouted Round screw pile X Screwed X 4:1
f Tubular Round screw pile X X Screwed X X 4:1
g Auger grout Round pile X Drilled X X 5:1
h Diaphragm wall pile Variable X Excavated X X None
4 Steel a Steel tubular pile Round, open or closed X Driven X X 1:1
b Steel tubular pile Round, open X X Pulsed X X None
c Tubex pile Round X Screwed X X 1:1
d Steel H-pile H-shaped X Driven X X 1:1
e MV-pile Variable (post grouted) X Driven X X 1:1
5 Combination piles: Prestressed prefabricated concrete elements placed in the steel casing of the pile systems 3 a, b, c, d, f, g and h
6 Casing piles: Concrete piles cast in situ with permanent casing of the pile systems. 3 a, b, c, d, and g
Quay walls
9.7.3 Anchorages
Usually it is necessary to secure the wall by installing an anchorage.
Types of anchorage:
• Direct anchoring with anchor tie rods or tendons and anchor walls, or anchor piles,
pile trestles, screw anchors, screw injection anchors, grout anchors or tension piles
• Indirect anchoring by means of the concrete superstructure or relieving platform
The choice of type of anchorage is governed by the geometry of the structure, construc-
tion method and composition of the subsoil, the surroundings, design aspects and the
construction conditions.
Anchor walls and anchor piles

Anchor walls are more or less vertical concrete, wood or steel plates. Steel walls composed
of sheet piles are usually used for larger quay structures. Single steel piles can also be used
instead of walls. Anchor walls and anchor piles are connected to the front wall by steel
anchor tie rods or prestressed anchor cables. If constructed from the water side the anchors
must be installed on a supporting structure.
When anchor walls are being installed the resistance in the upper soil layers is mobilized
and it is necessary to carry out soil improvement. The sand fill between the anchor plate and
sheet pile wall must be introduced in layers and, if necessary, the soil must be compacted.
The method and phasing of the installation of the anchor walls and the soil improvement
must be planned in consultation with the design engineer.
Pile trestle systems

A pile trestle is made up of linked bearing and tension piles. The piles are inclined at an
angle that depends on their actions and the chosen pile system. The link is accomplished
by means of a steel or concrete structure. In some cases, the anchor force is transmitted
from the sheet pile wall to the pile trestle by means of a concrete floor. If piles cross each
other in the subsoil, extra attention must be paid to their positioning. For piles that cross
each other above ground level, the pile driver must be able to pass between the piles that
have been driven previously.
Screw anchors
This system consists of a 250 to 500 mm diameter steel screw that is attached to an anchor
rod. The maximum tensile force is mobilized at a depth of approx. 12 times the diameter of
the screw and 3 to 6 m under the ground surface. In loosely packed sand the tensile force of
the anchors can be increased by using the full power of the vibrating compactor. However,
in closely packed sands this vibration might cause relaxation, resulting in reduced capacity.
The tensile force of this type of anchorage is low and it cannot be used for big retaining
heights.
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Construction
Screw injection anchors

A screw injection anchor consists of a spiral drill that is attached to a thick-walled steel
tube. The maximum length of the screw element is 1 m and the grout body is 5 to 10 metres
long. The diameter of the threaded section is 150 to 350 mm. In sand, during the screwing
process a grout mixture is pumped through the jet openings of the drill section to form a
grout body. The penetration of the anchor is held at approx. 50% of the displacement that
is associated with the pitch, causing a scraping effect that ensures good mixing of the sand
and grout. Usually such a system is used in deeper sand layers. The anchors are installed at
an inclination of 40◦ to 50◦ . If the upper layers of the soil are of good quality, the anchors
can be installed at angles of 15◦ to 20◦ .
Grout anchors
A grout anchor is a high-tensile anchor rod, or composite cable in a casing, in a grout
mixture that has been injected under high pressure. In this grout body, the actual anchorage
is 3 to 6 m long and is placed in a sand layer. Like screw injection anchors, grout anchors
can be installed at an angle of 40◦ to 50◦ . Grout anchors are usually installed by driving
a coupled tubular section to the required depth and at the desired angle with the aid of a
rapid percussion hammer. The tube has a diameter of approx. 100 mm and a sacrificial
point. After driving, the tube is rinsed with water and filled with grout and the anchor
rod, or composite cable is introduced. The tube is partially withdrawn and the point is
released (sacrificial point), after which the upper side is closed and the pressure on the
grout is increased to 1 to 2 N/mm2 . The tube is now slowly withdrawn over the length
of the anchor section. After a setting time of at least seven days, the grout anchors are
prestressed step-by-step up to a force that is equal to the design value of the anchor force
and then reduced to between 75% and 90% of this value.
Tension piles
A distinction may be made between tension piles that are installed with or without soil
displacement. Open steel tubular piles and H-profiles are not soil-displacing elements.
Driven or screwed closed steel piles and driven concrete piles are considered to be soil-
displacing piles. MV-piles are in the latter category. With the MV-pile system, a grout
layer is introduced around the pile during the driving process. Such a pile system requires
considerable space for the pile driving equipment.
The capacity of screw anchors, screw injection anchors, grout anchors and MV-piles,
can be tested by introducing a test load on the anchors. The objective of such tests is to
determine the maximum tensile capacity and deformation behaviour of the type of anchor
in question in a representative soil layer. The tests are sometimes carried out at the design
stage. Based on the results of the tests, the design can be modified. With the above types
of anchors a verification test must be carried out for each anchor. For MV-piles these may
be done at random. These tests must be seen as acceptance tests that show that the specific
piles or anchors satisfy the stipulated requirements.
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Quay walls
9.8 Superstructure
9.8.1 Main types
The main types of concrete superstructure:
• Rectangular beam in cross-section

• L-shaped cross-section with floor and wall
• Box-shaped beam with floor, front and rear walls and a deck, usually extended at the
rear of the floor as an extra relieving platform
• Beam frames or longitudinal beams only, with high lying slab structure.
When these are constructed from the water side often prefabricated beams and slabs
are used.
• Superstructure on caissons, cellular elements, cofferdam, block quay wall or L-wall
on a spread foundation
9.8.2 Concrete structural elements

Floor
Reinforced concrete slabs vary in thickness between 400 and 1800 mm and are sometimes
tapered. The width varies from several metres up to 30 metres. They are cast on a non-
reinforced concrete blinding. The length of the segments varies between 20 and 40 metres.
If the superstructure is linked directly to the sheet pile wall, the positions of the expansion
joints should correspond with a sheet pile interlock. From the point of view of safety, when
constructing in a dry building pit, the blinding on the front of the sheet pile wall must be
attached to the construction floor by rebars to prevent parts of the blinding from becoming
detached and causing damage in a later phase. Provision can be made in the blinding to
fix the formwork for the sides of the floor.
Walls
The walls of the superstructure may be vertical or inclined. It is more difficult and more
expensive to construct inclined walls. The thickness of walls varies between 400 and
1500 mm, while the height varies between a few metres and 10 metres. The expansion
joints correspond with those of the floor and are 20 to 40 m apart. For higher walls, caisson
walls and L- walls on spread foundations, sliding or climbing formwork may be used. For
thicker walls the heat of hydration inside the concrete may cause unacceptable cracking.
Measures must be taken to prevent excessive cracking during the hydration process when
the strength of the concrete is low (Chapter 8). The formwork is often made of sheet panels
mounted on a girder structure, or a mobile system. A mobile tunnel formwork may be used
for box shaped cross-sections. Walls and deck, and possibly cantilevered elements, can
be poured at the same time. In the front wall, provisions must be made for the mounting
of bollards, fenders and ladders and for feeding and discharge through pipelines for the
electricity supply, water, sewage disposal and drainage, as well as access openings to
permit inspection and maintenance.
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Construction
Deck
The thickness of the deck can be up to 1000 mm and the width may vary from a few
metres to 8 or to 10 metres. Here too, the length of the segment is 20 to 40 m. Recesses
are created and local strengthening is added in the deck for the mounting of bollards,
crane rails and drains. On the front and rear sides, and sometimes along the crane channel,
edges are protected by steel profiles. The installation of reinforcement for the deck is more
complicated and labour intensive than the same operation for the floor and walls. Bearing
in mind the allowable tolerances of the front of the quay, the deck and the crane rail, careful
dimensioning is essential. Under some conditions it is possible to omit expansion joints.
This affects the reinforcement and detailing and may also influence the action of forces in
the foundation.
Rear crane beam

Usually this beam is made without expansion joints, so it is necessary to include shrinkage
strips. The beam can be cast in a standard mould with a segment length of approx. 15 metres.
The length of the shrinkage strips, approx. 1.5 metres, is determined by the required length
of the overlap of the reinforcement steel. The segment length can be adjusted to the standard
length of the reinforcement bars. If strict stipulations are made regarding the finishing of
the upper surface of the crane beam, a 20 mm thick finishing layer of synthetic resin can
be applied.
9.8.3 Concrete work

The most obvious feature of the construction of quay walls is their great length. This
provides an opportunity for standardization and demands an industrial approach to the
processes involved. In order to take advantage of this, it is important to consider this
aspect when making the design. Points that deserve attention are:
• Minimize the area of formwork in relation to the volume of concrete

• Do not include transverse walls or local configuration changes in the design
• Make all the sections the same, i.e. no changes in the cross-section throughout the
length of the quay wall, making standardization possible
• Optimize the reinforcement: design by using simple bar shapes, restrict the number of
bar types and preferably use prefabricated mesh reinforcement and cage reinforcement
• Place parts such as bollards that must be cast in position on standard locations within
the sections
• Design expansion joints in a logical place in the quay wall so that the section length
fits in with the construction method
For optimization of a construction process in which standardization is possible, the

following aspects are important:
• Use a method based on an industrial process

• Casting lengths (the dimensions of the segments) should be chosen in such a way that
they can be made within the stipulated time
• Anticipate a repetition effect
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Quay walls
Based on these principles, it is important to choose a feasible cycle time. A weekly cycle is
often chosen for the construction of quay walls. Every week one segment of the concrete
structure is finished. The weekly cycle is as follows:
• One day: form stripping and framing

• Two (or three) day(s): bending and installation of reinforcement
• One day: pouring concrete
• Three (or two) days for initial hardening
The aim will be to complete the work in four working days. This gives time for other
work, while allowing enough time for hardening of the concrete. If the construction of the
concrete structure requires more than one casting, for example, a floor and walls, it is still
possible to achieve a segment per week cycle. During the one-week cycle various parts of
different segments are cast.
Learning effect
First operation takes 4 hours / regression factor 0.80
Time in hours
Number of operations
Fig. 9.5 Relation between the time needed and the number of operations.
With regular repetition of the same operations, a routine will be developed and the process
will run more quickly. This is called the learning effect.
The learning effect is expressed in the relation:
D2n = Dn
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Construction
in which:
Dn = Time needed for the operation with n operations

D2n = Time needed for the operation with 2n operations
= Regression factor, by means of which the effectiveness of the learning
effect is expressed.
Depending on the type of activity and the specific environmental factors the value of
lies between 0.65 and 0.90.
An example:
If an operation takes 240 minutes the first time, with a regression factor of 0.8 the operation
will take only 192 minutes the second time. By the fourth time, the operation should take
only 154 minutes, (Table 9.2 and Figure 9.5).
Table 9.2 Learning effect with a regression factor 0.80.

Operation Time needed in minutes
1 240
2 192
4 154
8 123
The result of the industrial process is that the construction of a quay wall follows a clear
sequence and runs smoothly. All phases in the construction are carried out sequentially.
This is clearly shown in Figure 9.6: from the driving of the tubular piles for the combi-wall,
the driving of the foundation piles, the casting of the floors, the casting of the walls and
the deck up to and including of the earth fill of the building pit. The art of construction is
to keep this sequence running. However keep in mind that to obtain a smooth construction
train with substantioal benefits, the length of the quay wall has to be at least 500 m and
preferably over a kilometer [9.22].
Reinforcement
In the strict planning of the construction of the concrete structure, the reinforcement is
important. The installation of reinforcement requires time, which will be limited, especially
if installation of the reinforcement begins after the erection of the formwork. In this case,
the reinforcement is part of the critical path and therefore crucial to the success of the plan.
For quick and efficient execution of the work, the following matters are important:
• When possible the reinforcement should be prepared before the formwork is erected.
This can be done for floors and walls, for which the bending of the reinforcement does
not depend on the formwork, Figure 9.7
424
Quay walls
Fig. 9.6 Overview of the construction site.
• The reinforcement of bearing elements, for example a deck, can only be carried out
when the formwork has been put in place. If the reinforcement of the walls has been
prepared in advance, only the reinforcement of the deck is critical. That is an amount
of work that can be completed within the planned schedule
• Meshes must be wide enough to accommodate the passage of the poker vibrators
• Numbers and types of rebars to be limited
It is also possible to limit the time needed to install reinforcements by using prefabricated
reinforcement. The ready-made reinforcement can then be placed within the formwork.
The disadvantages of this method of working are mainly that the size, weight and limited
stiffness of the prefabricated elements will necessitate the use of a crane to position these
elements. Reinforcement consists mainly of steel grades B500B with bar diameter from
∅16 mm to ∅32 mm.
The reinforcement is prefabricated in a steel bending plant and must be approved by the
supervisor on the basis of bending schedules. In this plant, the bars are cut to length and
bent. Here too, reinforcement elements of limited size can be made. The steel bender
and the main contractor can propose practical adaptations, but all such changes must be
approved by the design engineer.
The reinforcement material is taken to the site by road freight trailers and lifted into
position by cranes. Larger reinforcement cages can sometimes be transported over water.
425
Construction
Steel fixers bring the reinforcement into position according to the reinforcement drawings
and within the stipulated tolerances, requirements and standards.
It is essential that the reinforcement remain in position during pouring and compaction of
the concrete. For this purpose binding wire or supports and spacers made of concrete or
synthetic material are used. Supports for large or heavy reinforcements may be made from
light construction steel, for example UNP-profiles.
If the reinforcement steel has to be stored it must be kept clear of the ground surface.
Concrete pouring
The concrete work of quay walls is no different from that of any other such work. The
points deserving particular attention for any good concrete work also apply to quay walls
and for this reason are not discussed in detail here. More suitable sources of information
are available, including: NEN-EN 13670 [9.2], NEN-EN 206-1, NEN 8005 [9.3], Concrete
Book (in Dutch) [9.4]. Naturally, it is necessary to make a pouring plan for the concrete.
Various matters are described and set down in the pouring plan, such as the composition
of the mixture, methods of pouring and compaction, choice of the construction joints,
curing and time for removal of formwork, finishing of horizontal surfaces and control of
hardening. A number of these subjects are briefly explained.
Composition of the mixture

In the design, the basic principles for composition of the mixture, strength-class and
environmental class are defined. Considerations such as the environment in which the
quay wall must be built, for example saline water, play a large role in this. The choice
of cement, CEM III/B can be specified (Chapter 8) in the design. These are considered
basic principles for the construction. Usually the choice falls on certified concrete, the
quality of which is guaranteed by the issue of a certificate. In addition to the strength and
environmental classes that are set down in the design, there are also construction aspects
that are important for the composition of the mixture. These include workability of the fresh
concrete, development of strength and also matters such as pouring method and timing.
Points of interest:
• The reinforcement must be accessible for the fresh concrete: this influences the choice
of the plasticity range
• The mesh of the reinforcement determines the aggregate size
• If a concrete pump is used for pouring, the proportion of fine particles in the mixture
is important
• If pouring takes a long time or the transport distance and thus time between concrete
plant and construction site is long, a retarding agent may be needed to maintain the
desired workability of the mixture
• When heat development must remain within a specified range a superplasticizer may
be used
426
Quay walls
In addition to these points, the composition of the mix must be related to the strength
and environmental classes. For a good mixture, in which all the points are considered, the
expertise of the concrete batching and mixing plant is essential. An example of a typical
mixture composition that is used is:
Strength class: C28/35

Cement type: CEM III/B low-heat blast-furnace cement
Environmental class: XS3/XD3
Plasticity range: 2
Maximum grain diameter: 4/32 mm
Process: concrete pump
Additives: superplasticizer
Processing method
The processing method indicates the way in which the fresh concrete is brought to its
intended position. For large-scale pouring operations, a concrete pump must be used. For
small pouring operations, a concrete bucket can be used. For large scale-pouring operations,
several alternative methods are possible. Figure 9.7 shows that a grab was used for the
pouring of the quay wall of the Verrebroekdok (Belgium). The fresh concrete was carried
Fig. 9.7 Verrebroekdok, Belgium.
427
Construction
to the site by truck mixers emptied temporarily into containers and transferred into the
formwork by grabs with a capacity of 2 m3 .
The choice of pouring velocity is important to the working method. The pouring velocity
and plasticity range, the slurry temperature and the environmental temperature, determine
the formwork pressure, see NEN-EN 13670 [9.2]. The formwork pressure must not rise
higher than initially determined, or for which the formwork is designed. A point of interest
is the use of new types of concrete such as self-compacting concrete. No clear formwork
pressure data is available for these mixture compositions, so care should be taken when
choosing the design formwork pressure. In any case, it is safe to base this on the hydrostatic
pressure. Special attention should be paid to the installation of concrete slurry under
horizontal steel surfaces, such as steel corner edgings and edge protection profiles. To
avoid the danger of cavities, the air must be able to escape from the space under these
horizontal surfaces.
Finishing and subsequent curing

Often the finishing of concrete is based on power trowelling to make a smooth surface.
With this method, if used with vacuum dewatering, a dense surface that is very resistant
to wear can be obtained. After the finishing, to obtain good dense concrete the surface of
the concrete must be given further curing. This subsequent curing ensures that water is
contained in the concrete for as long as possible and remains available for the reaction with
cement (8.1.4). Often a curing compound is applied on the surface of the concrete after
finishing to reduce evaporation. By this means the water for the reaction is retained. Other
options for good subsequent treatment include covering with plastic sheeting or keeping
the surface wet. For surfaces within formwork, the simplest way to carry out subsequent
curing is to leave the formwork in place.
Removal of formwork
There are two criteria for the removal of formwork. The first involves the strength of the
structure, the second the curing. Both criteria are explained.
Formwork can be removed if the structure is sufficiently strong to bear its own weight.
The strength required for the removal of formwork should be indicated on the drawing and
should be at least 14 N/mm2 (structural formwork, NEN-EN 13670 [9.2]). If no strength
for the removal of formwork is given on the drawing, this can be calculated by using the
strengths given in the table in the NEN-EN 13670 for example removal of formwork B35
with a strength of 33 N/mm2 . If the formwork is also used for curing, it can be removed
when the requirement for curing has been satisfied. If the specifications do not stipulate
different requirements, the NEN-EN 13670 referring to CUR Recommendation 31 [9.6]
can be followed. This requires curing until 50% of the final strength is reached. For B35,
a strength of 17.5 N/mm2 is required.
The development of strength in the structure is usually measured by using the weighted
maturity of the concrete. To measure the changes in temperatures, thermocouples are cast
428
Quay walls
in the concrete. The temperature changes are converted to indicate the maturity of the
concrete. The strength of the concrete at any particular time can be read from a maturity
graph. The concrete plant makes a ripeness graph for each mixture (Figure 9.8).
0.600
0.700 0.700
internal
external
Setting time in hours
Slurry temperature in °C
Measurement 14 MPa
Fig. 9.8 Relation between setting time and temperature of the cement mixture.
In principle, the formwork can be removed if two requirements are satisfied: that is if the
measured strength is higher than the strength required for the removal of the formwork
and the curing has also been completed. If the measured strength is lower than the strength
required for the formwork, the formwork must not be removed. If this is done, the structure
will fail. A dilemma arises if the measured strength is higher than the required strength for
removal, but does not satisfy the requirement for curing. In that case, the formwork may
be removed if separate arrangements are made for curing.
Within the strict planning for construction of the quay wall, time is set for the removal of
formwork. This is necessary to realize the construction cycle time. However, the devel-
opment of strength in concrete depends on the outside temperature and is more rapid at
higher temperatures. In summer, it is not difficult to attain sufficient strength to remove the
formwork. In winter, problems may arise in relation to the right time to remove formwork.
This is clearly shown in Graph 9.8. At all seasons the required strength of concrete must
be reached within the stipulated cycle time.
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Construction
A number of possible ways are available to control the development of strength:
• Steel formwork can be insulated. The rate of heat loss from steel formwork is very
high, as a result of which the development of strength is delayed. With insulation, for
example by using PUR, heat is retained in the concrete so the strength develops more
rapidly
• Exposed concrete surfaces such as decks can be insulated. In fact, this is the same
solution as mentioned above, but here it is for surfaces without formwork
• A solution that is frequently used is to adapt the composition of the mixture to winter
conditions. From the point of view of durability, the type of cement chosen is often
CEM III/B. At low temperatures, this mixture has slow strength development. When
part of this type of cement is replaced by 10 to 20% CEM I 52.5, the mixture hydrates
more rapidly and is less sensitive to low temperatures
If a winter mixture is used it must be remembered that:
• The mixture has a different strength development rate. The maturity graph must be
modified
• The addition of CEM I will reduce the slag content of the mixture. This may cause a
problem if used in a saline environment for which the use of CEM III/B is stipulated
• This mixture is suitable for use at low temperatures. If this mixture is used in summer
problems may arise because the workability decreases more rapidly.
In both summer and winter it is necessary to avoid a temperature shock when removing the
formwork. Temperature shock occurs if the concrete is much warmer than the environment
at the time when the formwork is removed. The surface of the concrete cools too quickly
compared to the core, which leads to cracking. Usually this is superficial crack formation
and will disappear on further cooling.
Control of hardening
In Chapter 8 it has already been indicated that massive structures heat up during the
hardening period and this may lead to cracking. From the point of view of durability,
this cracking is undesirable and must be prevented. That is why cooling is required for
many structures. It is necessary to calculate temperature and stress developments during
setting. In this way it is possible to determine whether cooling is necessary and, based on
these calculations, the cooling rate can be dimensioned. The aim is to control tensile stress
between the core and surface to an acceptable level, resulting in a structure without cracks
after the setting phase.
Cooling pipes can be used to cool the concrete. These are pipelines, made of steel or
synthetic material, that are cast in the concrete. During the first few days after the pouring
cold water is pumped through the pipes. This water ensures that the temperature rise in
concrete and the differences in temperature between core and external concrete are reduced,
leading to lower stresses.
430
Quay walls
An alternative to the use of cooling pipes is the cooling box. For the cooling box, the
cooling elements are included in the formwork. This gives better access during concrete
pouring, and makes the process less critical. Another advantage of the cooling box is that
the temperature in the wall is more even, so the distribution of stresses is more favourable.
The cooling box was used for the first time in the construction of the quay wall of the
Amazonehaven, Figure 9.9.
Fig. 9.9 Cooling box.
9.8.4 Details of the superstructure

A brief chronological summary of the details of the superstructure in their construction
sequence follows.
• Connections for emergency outlets for the site sewerage through the sheet pile or
concrete structures. To avoid calamities these outlets are equipped with a shut-off valve.
• A continuous drainage layer under, behind or on the quay floor. HDPE drainage
pipelines with non-return valves and with discharge pipes through the front of the
quay wall are installed in the drainage layer. These require frequent maintenance.
• Cast steel saddles with welded anchors. These are placed on the front of the box piles
or tubular piles of the combi-wall with the aid of a crane. To maintain the hinge action
they are positioned by making a tack weld.
• Pipelines and tubes. These are extended from the sheet pile wall and the foundation
piles to permit various measurements such as those of inclination, material stresses,
temperature and corrosion.
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Construction
• Facilities for earthing the crane. These are extended from the foundation.
• Steel ladders with brackets. These are mounted with anchors that are cast or glued, or
mounted onto the sheet pile wall with supports.
• Bollard recesses, or bollards for inland shipping, on the front of the quay.
• Wooden or rubber fenders with steel suspension structures attached by anchor bolts. If
accurate dimensioning of the anchors is required, gauge plates must be used. In view
of possible movement of the formwork, a coupling sleeve is attached to the end threads
of the anchors.
• Steel cover seatings equipped with anchors containing covers for sockets for the fol-
lowing facilities: potable and wastewater, electric power and telephone, water drainage,
inspection and measurement.
• Protection of the edges of the deck by means of steel angle profiles and special half
round profiles on the front that are anchored in the concrete. Spaces under the steel
profiles are subsequently injected to obtain a good connection with the concrete.
• Bollard anchors. These are placed with the aid of box shaped steel gauge plates. The
cast steel bollard is mounted with socketed foot, which is placed over the anchors
and under grouted. After setting, the anchors are prestressed with the aid of a torque
wrench. The countersunk nuts are covered by a bitumen product. Often pins that break
when overloaded are used to prevent pulling out of the anchors and damage of the
concrete structure.
• Facilities for the crane track on the quay wall; crane rails on foundations, on cast steel
supports or continuous steel bedding plates secured with glued-in anchors. The posi-
tions of the anchors that are to be drilled-in are kept free from reinforcement, forming
reinforcement free zones. If the crane rail lies in a channel this is drained by ∅50 mm
PVC-tubes, on a dry bulk terminal draines should be bigger or better avoided. In addi-
tion storm anchoring points and strut plates for the pad jacks of the cranes are positioned
at regular distances. Impact buffers are placed on the ends of the crane rail. Sometimes
a continuous channel is made in the quay wall for the power cables of the cranes.
• Often it is necessary to take into account specific facilities for the quay equipment such
as drinking water, fire hydrants, lighting and nautical equipment such as an approach
system.
Lighter steel structures are usually attached to the formwork or reinforcement manually.
Heavier structures are installed by a crane, possibly with the aid of temporary structures
in order to adjust them. Special attention must be paid to conservation and inspection.
The prevention and repair of damage are considered in Chapter 8.
9.9 Monitoring
Sometimes monitoring systems are required in, under or behind the quay wall. Monitoring
can be used
• To compare groundwater levels with the harbor basin waterlevel. In this way the good
working of the drainage can be checked.
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Quay walls
• Pressure cells in the terrain to try to monitor the surface load. This is difficult because
the user will almost certainly know where these cells are.
• Glass fibre string to monitor the stability of the soil undernead the relief floor. This
provides the most early warning of damage in the front wall and loss of soil. Damagae
can be avoided. This glass fibre should be operational before dredging starts.
• Traditional measuring bolts for deformation survey.
• Inclinometer casings for ShapeAccelArray/Field (SAAF)
• Anchor pressure cells to registrate wether the anchors are temporariliy overloaded
or not
Especially glass fiber is a challenge in the building pit of a quay wall, the fibers are
vulnerable to damage and should be buried just under the relief floor.
Inteligent monitoring requires a place to collect the data, which effectively means that
a small building is required on site with power, data, preferably a glass fiber internet
connections and airco to keep the computer cooled. You need space for this little building
ore integrate it with facilities build by the uaser of the terminal. The building should be
easily accessible for the maintenance department.
9.10 Fill behind the quay wall

Usually, after the construction of a quay wall it is necessary to backfill the land behind the
quay wall. Table 9.3 gives an overview of fill methods.
When construction has taken place in a dry building pit, filling is carried out from a
level just above the phreatic level, whether or not this level is controlled. All temporary
drainage installations, auxiliary roads, auxiliary sheet pile walls, construction and demo-
lition residues and similar materials must first be removed. If necessary, restoration work
must be carried out on the drainage system and the concrete work. To minimize final set-
tlement, subsoil and fill compaction must be optimal. If possible, excavated soils must be
reused in the work. A vibrating roller or vibrating plate compactor is used for compaction
during the placement of layers that are about 0.50 m thick. The average compaction rate
must be 98%, but the minimum must not fall below 93% (Proctor density). An additional
compaction requirement is a minimum cone penetration value, for example, 4 N/mm2
(MPa) and an average of 5 N/mm2 . If the top sand layer is used as a foundation layer for
roads or site paving, supplementary requirements must be set. For example, sand in a sand
bed conforming with 22.06.03 RAW 2010 [13]. See also EAU 2012 Tables E175-1 and
E175-2 [32]. When construction takes place from the water side, the first phase of the fill
takes place underwater.
Depending on the foundation system, it may be necessary to compact the sand that has
been imported. Two methods of compaction can be distinguished:
• Surface compaction
• Deep compaction
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434
Construction
Table 9.3 Overview of various fill methods.
Equipment Work method Advantage Disadvantage Points for attention
Suction • Gravity • Highest production • Large volumes in one place • Space for navigation, water depth
hopper discharge • Settlement occurs • Subsidence of site
dredger • Acceleration of settlement by • Subsidence of quay wall or movement
vibration, for example, is very of anchorage
expensive
• Rainbowing • High production • Contamination of surroundings • Rainbow location hopper
during storms • Navigation space fill < > sheet pile wall
• Pressure on quay wall • Possible remaining load in hopper
• Pumping via a • Controlled application and well • Stand by costs during loading of • Possible remaining load in hopper
diffuser balanced dispersal the hopper
• Smooth bed after application
• Pumping via a • Controlled application and well • Stand by costs during loading of • Coordinate layer thickness and surface
spray pontoon balanced dispersal the hopper with production
• Smooth bed after application • Possible remaining load in hopper
• Pumping via a • Compaction requirement satisfied • Stand by costs during loading of • Coordinate layer thickness and surface
traditional if process water is limited the hopper with production
pipeline • Controlled application and well • The creation of a thick fluid • Possible remaining load in hopper
balanced dispersal behind caisson that may cause • Discharge of process water
them to move
Barge • Pumping via a • Controlled application and well • Adequate supply of fill material
unloading diffuser balanced dispersal • Delivery distance
suction • Smooth bed after application
dredger • Pumping via a • Controlled application and well • Coordinate layer thickness and surface
spray pontoon balanced dispersal with production
• Smooth bed after application • Adequate supply of fill material
• Delivery distance
• Pumping via a • Compaction requirement satisfied • The creation of a thick fluid • Coordinate layer thickness and surface
traditional if process water is limited behind caisson that may cause with production
pipeline • Controlled application and well them to move • Possible remaining load in hopper
balanced dispersal • Discharge of process water
Sand • Pumping via a • Controlled application and well • Type of material at the extraction site
extraction diffuser balanced dispersal • Delivery distance
dredger • Smooth bed after application
• Pumping via a • Controlled application and well • Coordinate thickness of layer and area
spray pontoon balanced dispersal of discharge site with production
• Smooth bed after application • Type of material at the extraction site
• Delivery/distance
• Pumping via a • Compaction requirement satisfied • The creation of a thick fluid • Coordinate thickness of layer and
traditional if process water is limited behind caissons that may cause discharge site with production
pipeline • Controlled application and them to move • Possible remaining load in hopper
dosed dispersal • Discharge of process water
Dry earth • With conveyor • Low production • Height of upper side of quay wall in
moving belt or grab • Small reach of conveyor belt relation to conveyor belt or crane
or crane boom boom length
• Influence of weather and swell • Tidal range
• Water depth in relation to spud poles
Quay walls
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Construction
With standard surface compaction a depth of 0.5 to 1.5 m can be reached when a vibrating
roller is used. Therefore compaction must be carried out above the groundwater level. For
large fill projects, fill and compaction are carried out layer by layer. If surface compaction
is not adequate for the deeper, loosely-packed soil layers, deep compaction techniques
should be used. There are two methods for deep compaction:
• Vibro-flotation or Rütteldruckverfahren (Rütteln)

• Hammer compaction (developed by Ménard)
Vibro-flotation
With vibro-flotation a vibrating element is inserted into the ground. This vibrating element
consists of a approx. 4.5 m long cylindrical tube in which hydraulic or electric motors that
drive a set of eccentrically driven weights are mounted. This causes the tube to vibrate at
a specific frequency. A water jet is used to insert the tube.
Rütteldruckverfahren
Compaction by Rütteldruckverfahren is carried out by means of resonance vibration. For
this a hammer-type vibrator is used to insert a special metal profile into the ground. The
vertical structure of the profiles converts the vertical vibrations of the hammer vibra-
tor into horizontal vibrations that cause the compaction. With this method the vibration
engine remains above the ground surface. The advantages of this method are: higher avail-
able capacity, ability to treat larger areas, greater vibration amplitude, and no need for a
water jet.
Both methods work only in non-cohesive soils. Moreover, there must be a reasonable
degree of permeability. With low permeability it takes too long to obtain a good rate
of compaction and the method is not economic. For this reason it is often stipulated
that the maximum amount of fine particles may not exceed 10%. The compaction rate
that can be obtained depends primarily on the type of soil, the degree of saturation, the
initial density and the grain distribution. To assess the effectiveness of this method the
grid for the centre-to-centre distance between the compaction points must be determined
experimentally.
Hammer compaction
For hammer compaction a ram weighing 8 to 17.5 tons is used, with a height of drop of
5 to 20 metres. Several blows are given at each compaction point. The shock waves thus
generated cause compaction and in this way compaction can be achieved to a depth of 6
to 7 metres. After compaction, cone resistances of 8 to 10 MPa can be reached.
Sand that meets the standard for fill material in accordance with article 22.06.01 of the
RAW 2010 [13] should be used. In fresh water areas desalinated sand must be used. In the
Netherlands the fill material must meet the stipulations of the Dutch Building Materials
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Quay walls
Soil removal by dredging in front of quay wall.
Decree. For the various fill methods, the required equipment and the advantages and
disadvantages of each method see Table 9.3.
9.11 Dredging
There must be a minimum water depth in front of the quay wall. This means that before
the quay wall comes into use The material in front of the quay wall must be dregded to the
contract depth. For the various dredging methods, equipment needed and advantages and
disadvantages see Table 9.4 and reference is made to the Hydraulic Fill Manual [9.21].
9.12 Scour protection

In many cases it is desirable or necessary to install protection on the bottom of the harbour
in front of the quay wall over a certain width. This is to prevent the scouring of the bed
material by natural currents or currents generated by ship propellers to such an extent
that the bottom level is lowered to unacceptable depth, thereby necessitating more than
average maintenance. The various methods of scour protection, with their advantages,
disadvantages and points of attention are given in Table 9.5.
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Construction
Table 9.4 Overview of various dredging methods.
Equipment Work method Advantage Disadvantage Points of attention

Cutter • Dredge free layer by layer • High production • Cannot dredge up to the quay • Possible settlement of area
suction • Level bottom finish structure behind the quay wall
dredger • Remaining strip must be dredged
with a different dredger
• Deeper disturbance
Backhoe • Dredge free layer by layer • Dredging up to the quay wall • Production • Type of material excavated
(Floating) • Clean the sheet pile wall • Easy to plan divers for • Excavation depth • Length of spuds in relation
recesses by jetting with a inspection of quay walls • Finishing tolerance of bottom to depth of water
fixed jet pipe on a rod • High production • Problems of reach at great depths
• In most cases with clay or peat
the remaining must be removed
by divers
Grab crane • Dredge free layer by layer • Dredging up to the quay wall • Production • Type of material excavated
(floating) • Easy to plan divers for • Penetration of the bottom • Length of spuds in relation
inspection of quay walls • Finishing tolerance of bottom to depth of water
• Clean the sheet pile wall • In most cases with clay or peat • Length and guidance of
troughs by jetting with a jet pipe the remaining must be removed jet pipe
freely suspended on a steel wire by divers
via a guide
Divers • Clean the sheet pile wall • Cost difficult to estimate • Diving depth
recesses by using a high • Type of material excavated
pressure reaction jet • Direct transport of
excavated material or
allowing it to settle on the
harbour bed Clean
shovel well
• Inspect the wall after partial • Wrong planning reduces the • Extra cost of excavating to
dredging production or increases standby the level of the interlocks
costs of the excavation equipment
Table 9.5 Overview of various methods used for bottom protection.
Type Advantage Disadvantage Points of attention

Fascine mattress + • Structure differs from that of • Placing the fascine mattress is a • With the use of fascine mattresses the
riprap or rubble filter structure without a relatively expensive solution connection with the quay wall must always
fascine mattress • Weather influences during the placing be made with colloidal cement or poured
• Less rubble needed than when of the fascine mattresses mastic asphalt
there is without a fascine mattress • If it is placed before the quay wall • Environment and positioning depth for the
is finished the protection may be determination of the right equipment
damaged by spuds or anchors • Extent, pressure force and step length of the
• If it is placed after the quay wall spud poles in order to determine the extent
is finishe dscout holes might occur of possible damage
next to the final tubular pile • Layer thickness of rubble as counter weight for
the toppling of the quay wall
Filter structure • Good resistance to weather • Layers structure of various types of • Layer thickness and extent of discharge area
influences during installation material, with the associated finishing in relation to production
tolerances per type of stone • Installation of filter layers
• Thick total layer
Fibrous open • Thin heavy protection layer • Heave after installation of the bottom • Size of asphalt mattresses
stone asphalt protection • Casting seams
• Connection with sheet pile wall • Depth of water
structure
Colloidal concrete • A perfect connection with quay • Risks of heave after installation of the • Location of concrete pump and associated
wall structures bottom protection transport
• Influence of weather and swell • Coordination of fall height of the concrete
during installation and the swing velocity of the hose of the
concrete pump
• Coordination of the type of colloidal cement
Quay walls
and the type of concrete pump
• Checking by divers
• Pore size of the rubble for the determination of
the volume of colloidal concrete
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Construction
9.13 Auxiliary structures

9.13.1 Installation of elements
Supplementary equipment is needed to insert elements into the ground by means of jet-
ting, jacking, vibration or driving. This supplementary equipment is often specific and
sometimes complex. It is important that the elements to be installed are placed in the
correct position and, if relevant, correctly aligned. When constructing a sheet pile wall
that consists entirely of sheet piles a fixed guide waling is used, while for a combi-wall a
pile driving frame is used. To drive single piles in water a pile-driving frame with a square
gauge (passe-partout) can be used. When driving in water the guide frame is placed on a
floating pontoon, jack-up platform or traverse.
Fixed guide waling

Usually fixed guide waling consists of two steel profiles that are attached to each other,
between which the sheet piles are positioned and driven or at least pre-positioned. The
waling is 12 to 16 m long and is moved as the work progresses. In some cases the waling
may have a different shape.
Fig. 9.10 Fixed guide waling.
Pile driving frame

A pile-driving frame is a steel structure within which the primary elements of a combined
wall (tubular or H-piles) are positioned and driven. The shape of the guiding structure
is such that the interlocks can pass through and twisting of the piles during driving is
prevented. The pile-driving frame is made for 5 to 10 piles and is 12 to 20 m long. The
sequence of work is as follows: the first and the last pile in a frame are measured and
carefully placed in position. The frame is then placed over these two piles and fixed.
Next, the piles in between these are alternately positioned and driven. When the frame is
full it is removed and, after the positioning of the following end pile, it is repositioned.
Subsequently the intermediate piles can be successively placed and driven.
Fig. 9.11 Pile driving frame.
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Quay walls
Pile driving frame
Passe-partout
A passe-partout is a special pile-driving frame that is usually used when driving in water.
This structure is attached to the jack-up platform, thus creating a fixed position. When
mechanically or hydraulically adjustable guide frames are used piles of various sizes
can be installed. In this way it is possible to work under difficult conditions. When
two passé-partouts are used, one above the other, inclined piles can be installed very
accurately.
Floating pontoon
When working from the water, the pile driver is placed on a pontoon. The pontoon is moved
into the correct position and securely moored with a four point anchoring system or by
using spud piles.
Jack-up platform
In specific environmental conditions, such as swell and waves and extreme variations in
water level, a jack-up platform is used. This is a pontoon supported on spud piles. The
platform can lift itself out of the water by means of hydraulic jacks. This can create a very
stable position from which accurate positioning can be attained.
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Construction
Traverse
A traverse is a platform on which a crane travelling over the already installed sheet pile
wall and piles is mounted.
Fig. 9.12 Jack-up platform with passe-partout.
9.13.2 Formwork and supports

When quay walls are under construction custom-built formwork must be made for the
great lengths involved. Formwork is designed by specialist companies. For this custom-
built work, the specific constructional aspects can be taken into account. Because the
formwork will be used many times, it must be very sturdy. Preferably, it should be possible
to set up the formwork without the use of hoisting equipment and this process should
have low labour requirements. For these reasons a mobile formwork or one that can slide
horizontally with the aid of sledges or sliding tracks is often chosen.
Owing to the strict planning schedule for concrete work, there is little time for handling
the formwork. Therefore, formwork is often equipped with hydraulics to speed up these
processes. After removal of the formwork it must be repositioned at the location of the
following section. In order to be independent of the use of a crane, a formwork has its own
means of moving. After repositioning, the formwork is adjusted to the correct height by
jacks. The jacks remain in position so that the formwork does not move when the concrete
is poured and during setting.
The formwork ensures that the concrete acquires the correct shape. This necessitates that
the formwork is strong enough and dimensionally stable and that it can withstand the
442
Quay walls
pressure of the fresh concrete during the pouring process. For large construction heights,
the forces may be very high so the formwork is a steel structure that can withstand these
forces. The imposing construction work of Figure 9.13 is the auxiliary structure for the
construction of the quay.
Fig. 9.13 Mobile formwork.
When quay walls are constructed as caisson or L-walls on spread foundations to heights of
25 to 30 metres, climbing or sliding formwork is used. To prevent delays in the production
process, even after much use there should be little damage to the formwork. Sometimes
standard formwork systems can be constructed by using standard panels. These may be
made of wood, steel or synthetic material. The choice is partly determined by the number
of times that the formwork must be re-used. Wooden formwork can be used 10 to 20 times
and steel or synthetic material up to 100 times. The plates are usually made of Betonplex,
(i.e. an 18 mm thick multiplex plate with a surface layer of polished synthetic resin).
The formwork is designed and calculated according to standards and stipulations; a choice
must be made between safety classes 1, 2 and 3. The horizontal concrete pressure can reach
approx. 80 kN/m2 . Such advanced types of formwork are made by specialist companies.
The formwork must be so smooth and dimensionally stable that, after setting, the surface
of the concrete meets the required surface criteria (see Section. 16.2.2 of NEN 6722:2002
for further details [9.2]). To prevent the formation of cavities, openings must be made
in the formwork. There must also be provision for the assembly of the various parts to
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Construction
be cast into the formwork. The installation of form-spacers and tie bolts should be kept
to the minimum because this is labour intensive for both placing and removal of the
formwork.
Fig. 9.14 Box structure quay wall.
In winter, in order to influence the setting temperature, insulation material can be applied
to the formwork. In summer, formwork with a cooling system can be used. In order to
remove the formwork without damage, special lubricants must be applied to the formwork
before it is used. These lubricants must not discolour the surface of the concrete (see also
CUR 97, Formwork lubricants) [9.7].
Upper surfaces steeper than 1:2 must also be shuttered. The term permanent formwork is
used if it is more economical not to remove the formwork or if it is not removed owing to
inaccessibility. Blindings and prefabricated concrete plates that form no part of the con-
struction can be considered permanent formwork. Hard synthetic foam in sheet form and
of minimum weight density 30 kg/m3 is often placed in the construction joints. Sufficient
anchorage must be installed to prevent lifting. The formwork may be removed only after
the required bearing strength has been reached. If no values are given or required, NEN-
EN 13670 ’Execution of concrete structures’ [9.2] is applicable. The required minimum
average cube compressive strength for the removal of formwork must be: 15 N/mm2 for
C12/15, 25 N/mm2 for C20/25, 35 N/mm2 for C28/35, 37 N/mm2 for C30/37, 45 N/mm2
for C35/45 and 55 N/mm2 for C55/65.
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Quay walls
The strength during setting may be determined by using one of the three following means:
• Setting test with controlled temperature according to NEN 5989 [9.8]

• Weighted maturity method according to NEN 5970 [9.9]
• Setting test according to NEN 5988 [9.10]
For quay walls in the Rotterdam area a form-removal bearing strength of ≥14 N/mm2 is
taken for walls, and ≥20 N/mm2 for the deck. To prevent damage during the removal of
formwork, projecting corners must be beveled, with chamfered edges of a minimum of
20/20 mm. The bearing strength for the removal of formwork can best be determined by
using the weighted maturity method according to NEN 5970 [9.9]. Sometimes to prevent
a possible cold shock or drying out of recently exposed concrete, it is desirable to leave
formwork on for a longer period (see 9.8.3).
9.14 Quality control and quality assurance

9.14.1 General
In order to control the construction process during construction by using inspection and
guidance procedures, it is important to work according to an integral quality control
system.
Within this system one can distinguish:
• Company quality system

• Project quality plan
• Working plans and procedures
• Starting instructions
• Acceptance procedures for the materials at the site
• Reporting and recording of defects and non-conformities
When the specified procedures are followed, there will be a continuous guarantee that the
product meets the stipulated requirements throughout the construction process.
9.14.2 Construction tolerances

In the Netherlands information and requirements are given in the following standards and
guidelines (in Dutch).
NEN 2881 Dimensional tolerances for the building industry. Definitions and
general rules, NEN, Delft, The Netherlands, December 1990.
NEN 2886 Maximum allowable deviations from the dimensions for buildings,
stone/masonry structures, NEN, Delft, The Netherlands, December
1990.
NEN 2887 Maximum allowable deviations from the dimensions for the survey of
the construction site, NEN, Delft, The Netherlands, December 1990.
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Construction
NEN 2888 Maximum allowable deviations from the dimensions for the
positioning of bearing structures for buildings, NEN, Delft,
The Netherlands, December 1990.
NEN 2889 Concrete elements, maximum allowable deviations from the
dimensions, NEN, Delft, The Netherlands, December 1990.
NEN 3682 Inspection of dimensions for the building industry. General
rules and advice, NEN, Delft, The Netherlands, 1990.
NPR 3685 Tolerances for the dimensions for the building industry.
Instructions and examples of the calculations, NEN, Delft,
The Netherlands, April 1995.
CUR-rapport 66 Tolerances for concrete work, CUR, Gouda, The Netherlands, 1974.
ROK 1.0 Guidelines for the design of concrete works, Bouwdienst
Rijkswaterstaat, The Netherlands 2011 + erratum 1.1 21-5-2012.
A few terms from the standards are defined below:
Target dimension: Theoretical design dimension of a product.

Measured dimension: Actual measured dimension of a product.
Dimensional deviation: Difference between target dimension and measured
dimension.
Dimensional tolerance: Allowable dimensional deviation.
Manufacturing tolerance: Allowable dimensional deviation on delivery.
Survey tolerance: Allowable dimensional deviation of the pegging
out of the construction site.
Adjustment tolerance: Allowable dimensional deviation with regard to the placing
and realignment of a product on the construction site.
Positioning tolerance: Allowable dimensional deviation with regard to the final
position of a specific point of a product in relation to the
theoretical, position. This is the resulting tolerance of
manufacturing, survey and adjustment tolerance.
Independent tolerances may not simply be added together. The final positioning tolerance
is the root of the sum of the squares of the separate tolerances:

Thus: Te = (Ti2 + Tu2 + Ts2 )
in which
Te = Positioning tolerance
Ti = Manufacturing tolerance
Tu = Survey tolerance
Ts = Adjustment tolerance
In NEN 2889 [9.11], ‘Concrete elements’, the maximum allowable tolerances are defined
for curvature, bending, warping and angularity. For connecting structures, the mutual
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Quay walls
dimensional deviations may be too large. This can also apply to spaces and elements to
be cast in. In such cases, it is possible to apply a reduction factor. The choice of very low
factors can considerably increase production costs.
If systematic errors or random errors are not detected during inspections, this may lead
to high costs and a delay of the works. Maximum allowable dimensional deviations are
usually greater than expected. Usually, in quay walls the dimensional deviations of the
concrete are between 10 and 30 mm. It is important that during the design the positioning
tolerances of the various parts of the structure are taken into account.
The accuracy of the dimensioning depends on:
• The workmanship of the survey team

• The measuring method used
• The accuracy of the measuring instrument, which must satisfy laws governing weights
and measures
Good dimensioning allowing maximum allowable positioning tolerances begins with the
drawings. Requirements are:
• Correct choice of centre lines and reference grid

• Continuous dimensioning with closing measures
• Stipulated dimensional tolerances
• Attention to the dimensioning and tolerances at links and adjustment points, paying
extra attention to base planes, adjusting bolts, anchors and steel structures
9.14.3 Monitoring and testing

Within a construction process there are many changing factors that can influence the
planning, quality, costs and possible risks. It is advisable to list these indicators in advance
and to measure and test them regularly. This concerns both environmental factors on which
little or no influence can be exerted, and manageable factors such as product, production
and material data.
Weather conditions
It is necessary to measure temperatures and wind speed regularly in order to assess
workability conditions and the actions to be taken. A rain gauge is used to measure the
precipitation. When working with floating equipment, current velocities, wave heights and
the direction of these, as well as the water levels are continuously measured. Sometimes,
data from a measuring station close to the site can be used.
Drainage
Both the shorter peak flow rates and the total flow rates of the drainage water over
longer periods must be continuously measured. The permit stipulates that the chemical
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Construction
composition of the drainage water to be discharged must be measured. Piezometric gauges

are used to measure phreatic levels in various soil layers.
Foundation elements
Leveling equipment such as laser theodolites, distomat laser range finders, total station,
GPS, measuring tapes, and electronic inclinometers is used to measure positions and
foundation levels. The dimensional variations of foundation elements in the ground and
the displacements occurring after the quay wall has been dredged free, as well as the
displacements due to surcharge, can be measured with the aid of measuring tubes and
inclinometers [9.12].
During installation of the foundation elements the following measurements are carried out:
• Settlement versus the number of pile blows with the associated energy, that is the
effective fall height × the weight
• The penetration rate with the associated parameters of the vibration block
• During installation the impact on the elements is determined with the aid of acceleration
sensors.
• By mounting strain gauges it is possible to determine stresses in the foundation element
during installation and afterwards.
After the quay wall has been taken into service it is still possible to determine the varying
patterns of actions. To determine the limit bearing capacity, static or dynamic load tests
can be carried out on the foundation elements that have been installed.
Interlock sensors (see EAU 2012 [32]) can detect whether the interlocks of the sheet
piles have been damaged during driving. Pre-stressed concrete piles can be measured
acoustically to detect whether serious cracks or pile fractures are present.
Steel and welding work for foundation elements must be measured and tested by:
• Length and thickness measurements during the work (in relation to corrosion
measurements)
• Sampling for tests in the laboratory to determine:
• Tensile strength by means of tensile tests
• Notched bar impact strength by means of notched bar impact tests
• Chemical composition, including tests for carbon equivalent in relation to
weldability
Welds are measured during the work, and ultrasonic and radiographic methods are used
to detect welding defects. Destructive tests on welds are carried out in the laboratory to
determine the yield point, tensile strength, strain, bending strength, notched bar impact
value and hardness.
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Quay walls
Anchorage structures
Steel can be measured and tested in the ways described above. During pretensioning,
force, strain and displacements are measured with pressure gauges, strain gauges and
timers. During the installation of drilled anchors and tension piles, various construction
parameters are measured and recorded, including revolutions per minute, drill moment,
injection pressures and grout use. During the tensioning processes, it is important to mea-
sure the deformations and displacements of structural elements with leveling equipment,
theodolite, stopwatch or other measuring instruments, depending on the degree of accuracy
that is required.
Superstructure of reinforced concrete

The formwork must be measured by using height and distance meters with the desired
accuracy. The most frequently used measuring instruments are: spirit levels, theodolites,
Total stations, distomats, stainless steel measuring tapes, carpenters levels and rulers. After
hardening of the concrete, the dimensional variations of points on the concrete surface must
be determined by measurement and calculation. The diameters of the reinforcement bars
are determined by measuring or weighing, while tensile tests on test bars determine the
tensile strength and fracture surface. The concrete cover is measured by using a ruler or
sliding calipers and, after pouring, an electromagnetic cover gauge is used.
The composition of the concrete, water/cement ratio, cube compressive strength and tem-
perature development in the fresh and setting concrete are monitored ([9.9] and [9.11]).
The plasticity of the concrete slurry used is determined from the slump test. To ensure
that the design criteria are met, various parameters must be measured during cooling.
If in doubt, after removal of the formwork, the concrete cover must be inspected with
electronic measuring equipment. If necessary, the reinforcement must be exposed and
inspected manually.
The length, position and width of cracks in the concrete must be measured. Whenever a
degree of roughness is stipulated for the concrete deck, a roughness measurement must be
made with the aid of a swing pendulum with a rubber block in accordance with RAW 2010
[13]. Repair mortars and injection fluids are tested according to CUR-Recommendations
Numbers 53, 54, 55 and 56 [9.16] [9.17] [9.18] and [9.19]. The tests are described in
NEN-standards with concrete stipulations, CUR-Recommendations and the ‘Betoniek’
magazine.
Measurements
The deformation measurements must be carried out at the earliest possible stage, the ‘zero
measurement’. In this way, the influence of the fill of the building pit and the effects during
and after the free dredging can be monitored. The shearing pins of the detachable bollards
can be tested in a tensile strength tester. The tensile strength of the glued in or cast in
anchors can be tested with the aid of a jack. To record the crane loads on the quay, strain
gauges can be installed on the legs of the cranes.
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Construction
Conservation
Measures taken to monitor the paintwork:
• Measuring the air temperature in the immediate surroundings of the paintwork

• Determination of the dew point by measuring the temperature of the area to be painted
• Testing the bonding of the paint system (RAW 2010) [13]
• Corrosion resistance of the paint system (RAW 2010) [13]
Filling of the building pit

It is necessary to assess the compaction of the soils by using a manual penetration apparatus,
standard penetration tests or Proctor test. It is also necessary to measure the chloride
content of the soil. In the Netherlands, when there is a risk of contamination leaching tests
in accordance with the Dutch Decree Soil Quality are required.
Measurements and monitoring of dredging

Inspection of the dredging work:
• Volumes, production, operation cycles

• Surveying, sounding
• Inspection of the quay wall and sheet pile wall recesses
Measurements and inspection of scour protection

The inspection comprises:
• Sounding each layer

• Checking the fascine mattresses and geotextiles
• Examining the riprap and rubble
9.15 Completion and acceptance of the works

9.15.1 Recording construction work and its environs
After completion of the construction of a quay wall, the quay structure and its environs
must be recorded by the following means:
• Technical inspection with reports and photos. Defects, shrinkage or other faults that
fall under the contract must be remedied by the contractor. If the defects are such
that they do not prevent the use of the quay wall, the repair can be carried out in the
maintenance period
• Measurement of the depth of the water in front of the quay and on both sides of the
slopes. The measurement of the level of the area behind the quay
• Surveying the front and rear sides of the quay wall with precision instruments in the
position of the joints and the ends of the quay. Connected structures must also be sur-
veyed. This is termed the zero measurement. It is best to express all the points in terms
of the national coordinate system with a maximum dimensional deviation of ≤5 mm
450
Quay walls
• Taking zero measurements for all the facilities that are attached to the quay wall
• Recording all deviations from the stipulated dimensions, materials and calculations
that have occurred during construction
This revised as-built information is the take-over certificate of the quay wall. If the client
sees these measurements as the contractors obligation they must be incorporated in the
contract.
9.15.2 Documentation
All the documents that are important to the structure must be systematically ordered. They
must be available in both written and digital forms, according to the agreements made with
the client.
The most important data are:
• Terms of reference
• Investigation reports and advice including geotechnological reports
• Design basis and reports
• Permits with associated conditions
• Contract documents
• Inspection and testing reports
• Certificates
• Maintenance term, obligations and guarantees
• Work administration (quality assessment/quality control documents)
• Taking over certificate stating the date on which the works were substantially completed
in accordance with the contract and have satisfactorily passed any tests prescribed by
the client on completion
• As-built drawings
It is of essential importance that all relevant changes and deviations are shown in the
contract documentation and drawings. At the same time, it is desirable that inspection and
maintenance advice and conditions for the use of the quays are drawn up.
9.15.3 Conveyance
As soon as the client has approved the work and the final statement at completion is
found to be correct, the work can be taken over by the owner. If an organization for the
future maintenance and an operator for the terminal are known, it is very important that
maintenance and the operator participate in the final statement at completion. Procedures
for final statement and conveyance. Agreements for the archiving and management of the
various documents must be made. Amongst other things, this involves the time for which
the documents must be retained, the authority to issue data from these documents and in
which way later changes and supplements can be handled.
451
Construction
References
9.1 Uniforme administratieve voorwaarden voor de uitvoering van werken 2012

(UAV 2012), SDU, Den Haag, Nederland.
9.2 NEN-EN 13670:2009 ‘Execution of concrete structures’.
9.3 NEN-EN 206-1: 2001 ‘Concrete – Part 1: Specification, performance, produc-
tion and conformity’ NEN 8005:2008 ‘Nederlandse invulling van NEN-EN 206-1:
Beton – Deel 1: Specificatie, eigenschappen, vervaardiging en conformiteit’.
9.4 Betonpocket (ENCI/Mebin), Den Bosch, The Netherlands.
9.5 CB 19, Uitvoering van betonconstructies (ENCI media), Den Bosch, Nederland,
2000.
9.6 CUR-Aanbeveling 31, Nabehandeling en bescherming van beton, Gouda,
Nederland, 1993.
9.7 CUR 97, Ontkistingsmiddelen, Gouda, Nederland, 1979.
9.8 NEN 5989, Verhardingsproef met temperatuurregeling, Delft, The Netherlands.
9.9 NEN 5970, Methode van gewogen rijpheid voor de bepaling van de druksterkteon-
twikkeling van jong beton, Delft, The Netherlands.
9.10 NEN 5988, Verhardingsproef, Delft, The Netherlands.
9.11 NEN 2889, Betonelementen. Maximaal toelaatbare maatafwijkingen, Delft,
The Netherlands.
9.12 Bats, M., and H.M. Schepers, Vervormingen aan kademuren meten en berekenen,
Land en Water, juni 1990.
9.13 Lambe, T.W. and R.V. Whitman, Soil Mechanics, MIT, 1969.
9.14 Winterkorn, H.F. and H.Y. Fang, Foundation Engineering Book, 1975.
9.15 Tomlinson, M.J., Pile design and construction practice, 1994.
9.16 CUR-Aanbeveling 53, Spuitbeton en gespoten cementgebonden mortels, Gouda,
9.17 CUR-Aanbeveling 54, Betonreparatie met handmatig aangebrachte of gegoten
cementgebonden mortels, Gouda, The Netherlands, 1997.
9.18 CUR-Aanbeveling 55, Betonreparatie met kunstharsgebonden mortels, Gouda,
9.19 CUR-Aanbeveling 56, Injecteren van scheuren in beton-constructies met kunsthars
injectievloeistoffen, Gouda, The Netherlands, 1997.
9.20 Gijt, J.G. de, Ontwerp, begeleiding en controle van bemalingswerken, 1983, lezing
voor het Gemeentelijk Bouw- en Woningtoezicht Den Haag.
9.21 CUR publication 244 Hydraulic Fill Manual (in English), published by Taylor and
Francis, 2012.
9.22 Broos, E.J., (2010) Design & construct contract for a deepsea quay wall in the Port
of Rotterdam, case study Brammenterminal, Port Infrastructures Seminar 2010.
452
Quay walls
Chapter 10
COSTS
Quay walls
Contents
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.2 Cost estimate system according to CROW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.3 Estimation of the construction costs on the basis of indices . . . . . . . 459
10.4 Estimation of the engineering costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
10.5 Risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Quay walls
Chapter 10
COSTS
10.1 Introduction
In addition to a technical assessment of quay wall designs, a financial assessment must
also be carried out, giving the owner the opportunity to choose one of the alternative
designs. The financial assessment should provide insight into the total investment costs,
operational costs, and maintenance and demolition costs. In this way the owner obtains a
picture of the optimum price/quality relation. Various methods can be used to determine
the costs of projects. CROW has developed a cost estimate system for the civil engineering
sector. Within this sector this is the most accepted way of assessing costs [10.1]. For the
estimate of the engineering costs the guidelines of the Royal Institution of Engineers in
the Netherlands (KIVI NIRIA) and for the consulting engineer the guidelines of (DNR) are
followed [10.2]. Moreover, many organisations have collected dimensionless parameters or
indices that are based on data of the costs of previous projects. Both methods of estimating
are used. Which method is chosen depends on the phase of the project and the associated
uncertainty and required specifications. Obviously the choice is also dependent on the
available data.
During the project identification indices are used and indices can also be used during the
preliminary design phase for the first assessment of the design variants. In the latter phase
some costs must be estimated on the basis of quantities. For this it is necessary to investigate
the implementation in greater detail, including the use of equipment, production, formwork
and availability of construction sites.
All construction projects bring risks and this is also true for quay walls. One method that
can be used to provide insight into the risks and the distribution and control of risks is the
RISMAN-method [10.3].
10.2 Cost estimate system according to CROW

The cost-estimate system developed by CROW can be used for every project phase, if
the basic principles, the agreements and requirements of the owner and the basic design
drawings have been recorded. Table 10.1 gives an overview of the cost estimate. For this
a distinction is made between the construction costs, real estate costs, engineering costs
and additional costs.
It is important that the employer and the contractor make clear agreements about what is
understood by ‘contingencies and ‘margin’ at every stage in the project. The construction
costs can be estimated deterministically and probabilistically. With the probabilistic method
457
Table 10.1 Investment model.
458
Quay walls
a probability distribution in which all the data is statistically processed is made for prices
and quantities.
10.3 Estimation of the construction costs on the basis of indices

For a first estimate of the construction costs it is important to have access to some indices.
Based on these indices, especially during the planning phase and the development of
alternatives, the construction cost can be determined so that a rough comparison can be
made between the alternatives.
From the analysis of these indices it appears that the cost per m1 retaining height are as
follows [10.4]:
€100,000
€90,000
€80,000
€70,000 y = 670.45x1.2729
Costs per m’ (€)
€60,000 R2 = 0.5707
€50,000
€40,000
€30,000
€20,000
€10,000
€0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Retaining height (m)
Fig. 10.1 Costs in relation to retaining height (2008).
The retaining height is the difference between the design depth and the height of the ground
surface behind the quay structure. This table does not include the costs of engineering,
bottom protection, fendering and dredging in front of the quay.
Depending on the type of structure, a further division into cost of materials used and
labour costs can be made. For a combi-wall with a reinforced concrete superstructure in
the Netherlands the distribution of costs shown in Figure 10.2 can be taken as a rough
estimate.
459
Costs
Labour
Equipment 25%
(Fuel and
depreciation)
15%
Concrete Reinforcing steel Steel

10% 10% 40%
Fig. 10.2 Distribution of costs as a percentage of the construction cost for combi-wall structures with a
concrete superstructure.
It is interesting to see which factors influence the level of the construction costs. Figure
10.3 shows the most important factors with their influence on the construction costs.
Difference in
water level
3% Crane load
Soil conditions 2%
12% Site load
8%
Retaining height
75%
Fig. 10.3 Influence of various factors on the level of construction costs.
From this figure it appears that the retaining height of the quay structure exerts the biggest
impact on the construction costs. It is remarkable that the structure of the subsoil has only
a limited influence on the construction cost. This is because the structure of the subsoil is
taken into account when the type of quay wall is being selected.
The margin will vary according to the phase in which the cost estimate is made. This holds
for the margins for:
1. Nominal contingency of the direct costs and indirect costs

2. Nominal contingency of additional costs and
3. The margin on project contingencies
In the table below a guideline for the percentages of the margins of (1), (2) and (3) to use
in the cost estimate is given.
460
Quay walls
Table 10.2 Percentage of contingency costs per construction phase.

Project phase 1 (%) 2 (%) 3 (%)
Planning phase 10–20 10–20 30
Preliminary design phase 10 10 15
Design phase 5 5 10
These percentages are based on evaluation of the cost of the works after completion and holds for
the Netherlands. This means that setbacks, additional works, and other contingencies are included.
10.4 Estimation of the engineering costs

The engineering costs are determined by planning the number of hours taken for the
products and services to be delivered. The estimate of the engineering costs is assessed
against the guidelines of the current DNR [10.2].
The DNR distinguishes the following phases during a project:
• Investigation
• Preliminary design
• Final design
• Preparation of specifications
• Tendering procedures
• Detail engineering work
• Implementation
• Completion and construction liability
Construction phase
Detail engineering 10% Completion and
15% defects liability period
5%
Tender procedures
5% Preliminary design phase
20%
Specification phase
20% Final design phase
25%
Fig. 10.4 Distribution of engineering costs per phase according to DNR. The project identification is
not included.
Figure 10.4 shows the distribution of the costs for engineering according to this guide-
line in each phase of the project. It should be noted that for the implementation phase
clear agreements must be made about the way in which the daily supervision
461
Costs
(intensive/non-intensive) will be carried out. Moreover the DNR distinguishes a fee that
is related to the construction costs, Table 10.3.
Table 10.3 Relation between construction cost and engineering.

Construction cost € Engineering percentage (%) of the construction cost
100,000 5.1
250,000 4.6
500,000 4.3
1,000,000 4.0
1,500,000 > 3.9
The percentages for the supervision can vary greatly from project to project. This depends
on the sensitivity, degree of technical difficulty and duration of the project. This means
that the percentage for supervision will vary between 2% and 4% of the construction cost.
10.5 Risk analysis

Once a project has been started it should be completed within the available time and the
available budget and satisfy the stipulated quality requirements. So the crucial point is good
management of the project. For both employer and contractor it is important to estimate
in advance the most important risks that the project may run. In this way they have the
option to insure themselves against damage that may occur during the construction period
and they can find out about all the necessary permits and the time that is needed to obtain
these.
The RISMAN-method, a method for risk analysis, provides the employer and contractor
with insight into the most important risks of the project [10.3]. This method also makes clear
who is liable for any loss or damage to the works. It is only possible to take responsibility for
risks that one can influence. The distribution of risks between owner and contractor must
be made clear before the start of the project. It is important to determine the risk profile per
phase of the project and to indicate the consequences of these risks for the following phase
of the project. For long running projects it is important to re-assess the risk profile regularly
and, if necessary, to take corrective measures. A risk analysis runs through the phases from
identification to completion. On the basis of risk analysis management measures can be
taken to reduce risks.
Project identification
In the identification phase the final result of the project has not yet been exactly defined.
No plan or estimate is available at this time. For this reason in this phase a risk analysis is
unlike that in the other phases. The decisions that are made during this phase carry possible
risks that may emerge at a later stage in the project. However, risk management in this
phase is useful as it promotes the right decisions in the organisation of the project.
462
Quay walls
Investigation and preliminary design phases

One of the risks in the preliminary phase is failure to complete the plan or starting memo-
randum within the stipulated time. If the results are unsatisfactory this may lead to delays
or extra costs at a later stage of the project. Risk management in the preliminary phase is
directed to the management of:
• Political aspects, such as decision-making and changes in government

• Social aspects, such as the influence of pressure groups and the media
• Project organisational aspects, such as shortage of capacity in the project team
Risk analyses in this phase can also be used to support the decision process when choosing
between several alternatives.
Planning and final design phase

In this phase the terms of reference are formulated as well as the memorandum of the
boundary conditions. The quality of these products is especially important in the
determination of the risks in a later phase.
Risks in this phase are:
• Project organisational aspects, such as shortage of capacity within the project team
• Additional requirements of the owner, which necessitate the elaboration of new designs
• Problems with the adaptation of zoning schemes
• Permits that are delayed
In the planning and final design phases the contract between the project organisation and
the owner comes into being. The risk analysis indicates the reliability of the cost estimate
and planning to the owner. On the basis of this, a plan of activities is agreed between the
owner and the consulting engineer and a budget, termed ‘the disposition’, is provided.
After performing the risk analysis for this phase and defining the risks for contractor and
owner, a form of contract can be chosen. It is possible to consider a traditional method
in which the consulting engineer commissioned by the owner draws up the specifications
and instructions for tendering and invitations to tender. The contractor to whom the tender
is awarded carries out the work under the supervision of the consulting engineer.
However, it is also possible to use other tender procedures (see Chapter 5):
• Design and Build (D&B), also termed Design and Construct (D&C)
• Design, Build and Maintain (DBM) also termed Design, Construct and Maintain
(DCM)
• Design Build Maintain and Finance (DBMF), also termed Design, Construct, Maintain
and Finance (DCMF)
• Public Private Partnership (PPS)
• Best Value Procurement (BVP)
463
Costs
Specification phase
In the specification phase the project organisation determines for which risks the contract-
ing parties are liable. Risk management in the specification phase is primarily directed
towards the risks in the construction phase and contributes to the determination of the most
suitable contract stipulations.
Tender phase
The measures taken to manage the risks in the tender phase are essential for the management
of time and money throughout the tender procedure. It is important to be able to estimate
the risks of each tender. An agreement to manage these risks should be reached with
the contractor. The risk management in this phase primarily concerns procedures for the
selection of the tenders:
• Assessing implementation risks for each tender in order to be able to make a good
choice
• Careful treatment of the tendering procedure to prevent claims from tendering parties
• Prevention of delays during the actual tendering procedure
• Clear distribution of risks between contractor and owner in the contract documents
Construction phase
In the construction phase the accent of risk management lies primarily on the risks that
may occur during the technical implementation of the project and on the management of
the contract.
The risks in this phase relate to:
• Cooperation between employer and contractor
• Quality and capacity of employer, consulting engineer and contractor
• Unexpected cables and pipelines or other obstacles
• Calamities such as the flooding of a building pit or the collapse of a crane
• Complex logistics in the construction process
• Soil conditions
• Meteorological conditions
• Social conditions (wars, rebellions, strikes)
Service phase
At the beginning of the service phase the responsibility for the result of the project, and
thus the risk management, is transferred from the project team to the operator and manager
of the quay. The operator is confronted by risks that may derive from the choices that were
made in the previous phases.
Possible risks:
• Disappointing exploitation revenue

• Shorter structural lifetime than was planned
• Higher maintenance costs than planned
• Need for functional adaptations.
464
Quay walls
References
10.1 CROW, Publicatie 137, Verbeterde en geactualiseerde versie van de Stan-

daardsystematiek Kostenramingen (SSK). (3e druk), standaardsystematiek voor
kostenramingen in de GWW, CROW Ede, Nederland 2010.
10.2 DNR 2011, (De Nieuwe Regeling) The New Rules, Legal relationship client-
architect, engineer and consultant, BNA and NLingenieurs.
10.3 Kennisnetwerk risicomanagement, Het Risman-proces: Risicomanagement voor
infrastructuurprojecten, Gouda, Nederland 1998.
10.4 Gijt JG. de (2010) A History of quay walls PhD 2010 TUDelft.
465
Quay walls
Chapter 11
MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF

QUAY WALLS
Quay walls
Contents
11.1 From reactive to active management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471

11.1.1 Current management practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
11.1.2 The need for change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
11.1.3 An improved management method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
11.1.4 The functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
11.2 The quay wall as a system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
11.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

11.3.1 Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
11.3.2 Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
11.3.3 Costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
11.3.4 Lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
11.4 Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

11.4.1 Risk analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
11.4.2 Risk-matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
11.4.3 Maintenance strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
11.5 Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

11.5.1 Visual observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.5.2 Determination of interlock damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.5.3 Scouring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
11.5.4 Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
11.5.5 Specific threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
11.5.6 Future use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
11.6 Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487

11.6.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
11.7 Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

11.7.1 Loss of soil through interlock openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
11.7.2 Loss of soil through gaps caused by collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
11.7.3 Loss of soil caused by gaps resulting from serious corrosion . . . . . . 491
11.7.4 Loss of soil caused by piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
11.7.5 Loss of thickness of steel caused by corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
11.7.6 Scour caused by propeller jets, and tidal action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
11.7.7 Corrosion of the concrete followed by corrosion of the
reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Management and maintenance of quay walls
11.8 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
11.9 Contribution, conveyance and feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
470
Quay walls
Chapter 11
MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF

QUAY WALLS
11.1 From reactive to active management

This chapter first outlines current reactive management that is based on experience. Reac-
tive management reacts to damage, complaints, defects of parts and deviations from the
original situation, and only after this does it take the necessary action. Next the need
for changes and transition to more pro-active management is considered. In pro-active
management a number of quality objectives are set and the quay walls are modelled and
analysed with regard to threats related to obsolescence and overloading. Finally a set of
measures in the form of inspections and preventive or corrective maintenance activities is
prepared and included in a management plan.
Based on this plan, during the service phase specific inspections or measurements can
be carried out and the results assessed. Where necessary preventive measures based on
the qualitative objectives or the standards deriving from these can also be taken. Besides
maintaining the quay wall to a sufficiently high standard, in view of growth in the flow
of goods, and size of ships and cranes, when the time comes for major maintenance,
the manager must also consider whether the functionality of the quay and its elements is
adequate and will continue to be so.
11.1.1 Current management practice

As in many other ports, in Rotterdam the present management of quay walls is an
operationally-focused concept that is based on historic growth for which no detailed
description is available. This has developed over the years via ’trial and error’ or ‘once
bitten twice shy’ mechanisms. In other words, the concept has been gradually adjusted
as a result of learning the lessons deriving from big and small cases of damage, and also
adapted to new technical possibilities. This concept comes down to simply repeating the
steps of Figure 11.1.
Once or twice a year there is a periodic inspection that is usually carried out from the
water side. This inspection is primarily concerned with damage, deviations and defects in
the visible operational part of the quay walls, such as wooden fendering, rubber fenders,
bollards, mooring pins, front kerbs, ladders, ladder hand grip, handrails and kerbs. This
type of inspection is the functional or functionality inspection, because it is specifically
focused on those parts that are of direct importance to the operation of the quay. At the same
471
AIMS
+ CAPACITY! (Not complete and/or not explicitly
Just sufficient to collect data, historically developed standards)
to assess this via evaluation
systems and if necessary to
translate it into measures
?
Assessment of the actual state
of the system with the aid of an
evaluation mechanism
INFORMATION MEASURES
(Often damage or deviations)
MODEL
To predict the effect of the
measure to some extent
Actual state at
element-level Directly on the system
SYSTEM
Environment (Including changes over time)
Fig. 11.1 The operational loop in a reactive management model.
time some attention is often paid to abnormal use. For common everyday damage, such
as splintered wooden fendering or twisted ladder hoops, the inspector immediately reports
what repair measures should be taken. Other damage must be assessed by the technical
manager. During this inspection, damage that is clearly visible in the area behind the quay
structure must be reported so that a further technical inspection can be made, for example
for cracks, loose or spalled off concrete cover and rusting reinforcements.
In addition, there is a technical inspection that is either carried out regularly (once per five
or ten years), or only in response to reports. Reports of damage are received as a result of
the technical inspection or via port patrol boats and complaints from quay operators. The
technical manager is responsible for these inspections that are intended to determine the
cause and extent of the damage and possible repair measures. The incidental inspection
has a specific character and is based on questions from the manager. For example, it
may involve a detailed investigation into the condition of the wooden foundations of old
quay walls, caustic damage to joints caused by chemical fertilizers, the condition of the
anchorage, an old repair to a sheet pile wall, the phreatic level or the depth of a scour hole
in front of the quay. Often it is necessary to employ divers to carry out these inspections.
Periodic special inspections and/or measurements include:
• Checking the thickness of the steel sheet pile walls or combi-wall structures. Divers
carry out inspections on representative quay structures, once every five years.
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Quay walls
• Checking the weight of sacrificial anodes of cathodic protection on combi-wall struc-

tures. Divers carry out inspections on representative quay structures, once every five
years.
• Soundings of the depth and inspection of the bottom protection in front of the quays
with the aid of a vessel with multi-beam side scan sonar. These take place up to ten
times a year.
• Deformation measurements (x, y, z) of all the separate 20 to 40 m long quay sections.
These serve as an overall annual or biennial check by surveyors.
Occasionally such measurements can also be carried out on a specific quay wall or group
of quay walls in response to an incident or mishap. Damage inspections may also be carried
out and recorded by a damage expert who is called in to assess more serious damage that
may be reported by the person responsible for it or by others. These cases of damage
go beyond normal wear and tear and are caused by collisions, crashes, spillage, fire or
overloading.
Based on historically developed standards, all these types of damage can give rise to
unacceptable situations as a result of which management measures must be taken in the
form of detailed inspections, repair measures or partial replacements and/or improvements.
In some cases the operator may be given a warning or the use of the quay may be subject
to monitoring, or even placed under temporary restrictions. This series of management
measures is also often based on experience and historical developments, in other words
“this is how we do it here”.
To proceed through all these types of inspection and to take the required measures, the
management must at least possess information about the area that the manager is responsi-
ble for in relation to the extent, type, age, size, type of material, previous repair measures,
and the costs of these. This information must support the manager’s decisions with regard
to: what is to be managed, where it is, the original properties, what has happened over the
years and what all this may cost. Often the set of data consists only of a filing cabinet full
of design drawings and specifications.
The manager must also possess an adequate budget and the capacity to carry out inspections
and maintenance. The budget and capacity are also often historically determined. In view
of the growth of the area, aging and the increasing use of quays, the question of whether
these are sufficient remains.
11.1.2 The need for change

The nature of the historically grown procedure that is described above is corrective for parts
or elements. This implies that repair activities arise mainly from deviations, defects, dam-
age or local losses of function that have already occurred. These are detected by periodic
inspections, technical or specific measurements or directly from complaints of the opera-
tors about settlements, deformations cracking and fractures. This corrective maintenance
on element level therefore often results in preventive maintenance at system level before
473
loss of function for the entire quay wall occurs. This maintenance usually goes in tandem
with some deformation, inconvenience or delay for the operator and extra repair costs.
There are a number of reasons why this traditional, experience-based management is no

longer entirely satisfactory. These stem from the fact that the system itself, the operator,
the manager of the system and even the environment change over time.
• Because of increasingly rapid changes in organisations, whether on not in combina-

tion with job-rotation amongst the personnel, the employment of temporary staff and
subcontracting of work, the accumulation, processing and transmission of experience
is in itself an increasing problem. This can be only partially compensated by ICT,
quality assurance and knowledge management.
• It cannot be simply assumed that the non-visible parts (parts that are inside, underwater
or under the soil) will continue to function throughout the service life of the quay wall
without maintenance; for example, clogging of geotextiles filters may occur.
• Rapid changes in use are not catered for in the traditional management concept, but in
the meantime might well lead to major direct and indirect consequential damage. For
example the increased propeller power of the bow thrusters of ships causing aeration
and scouring by sand, the bigger wind catching area of ships and heavier loads caused
by double stacking of containers, leading to increased loads on the quay.
• Changing use of materials can lead to new, as yet unknown, forms of corrosion, such as
stress corrosion in prestressed anchorages, ASR-corrosion of concrete when different
aggregates are used, galvanic action between steel of different qualities in a combi-wall
or flapping by thin asphalt bottom mattresses.
• Through the increasingly sophisticated designs, in which even 3D-effects and com-
binations of loads can be probabilistically incorporated, the hidden margins for the
management are unfortunately also smaller. This in itself may not be a problem, as
long as those concerned are aware of what this more intensive management implies.
• For a limited number of threats the failure of one element is not compensated by
resilience within the system, but either immediately or in the short term also leads to
failure at system level. Consider for example holes in the combi-wall that may lead to
unexpected settlements or even major subsidence of the ground level.
• The safety of quay walls is no longer only an abstract idea from the design phase;
increasingly often in cases of damage to equipment or personal injury, the manager
will be confronted by claims for negligence, for example for not having a management
plan, or for culpable behaviour such as not following the management plan.
• The availability of quay walls is also a progressively more important factor. After
all, the activity around quay walls is increasingly characterised as a 7 × 24 hours
economy in which “time is money”. Therefore nowadays quay walls are more sensitive
to disturbances caused by partial or temporary loss of function during inspections
and/or maintenance.
• If a manager is to gain access to an adequate budget, a well-founded plan must be
presented to the political decision makers, covering costs over time, preferably on the
basis of costs during the entire service life of the quay or, even more widely, to include
all the damage and operator’s costs for delays.
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Quay walls
11.1.3 An improved management method

Thus, there are sufficient reasons to no longer base the management on past experience
alone. Past experience gives no guarantee for the future. It is necessary to move towards
an explicit management concept in which the quay wall to be managed must be modelled
and analysed in advance. This involves using a theoretical model to find a balance between
the more explicit activities (by the management of critical elements) and the more implicit
activities. In practice, for the less critical elements these balances are obtained via trial
and error.
For a procedure that is better supported, the manager can use the system-analysis to model
and analyse the quay wall as a manageable system. For this the relations and changes over
time within the system must be more systematically involved. Next, the manager can use
organisation science to base the system on more general management concepts [11.1].
These set five minimum conditions for the management of a changing system, and thus
also on the management of a quay wall.
In order to control a process at the very least attention must be paid to:
• Objectives
• Models
• Information
• Measures
• Capacity
The objectives form a set of system conditions required by the manager; the desired
situation, especially with regard to qualities such as safety, serviceability and durability
and in relation to costs. The models present a number of simplified representations of
the actual system from which a manager gains insight into the sequence of the normal
functioning of a quay wall, the future changes or the threats within and outside the system,
the consequences of these on the objectives and the effects of possible measures. This
information provides a set of data, specifications and drawings, and historical data, while
more recent inspections indicate the actual state of the quay wall. The measures are possible
actions that influence the system directly and that are sufficient to reach the desired situation
from the actual situation. The capacity is the staffing and budgetary power that must first
be in place in order to prepare and carry out the management in this more active way.
In the following sections the system description and the minimum conditions are detailed
and, when necessary, supplemented for the management of a quay wall as an important
system within the entity of the port structure, and as a link between the modes of transport.
11.1.4 The functionality

The maintenance of the quality of a given quay structure against specific costs, is the
main action of the functional manager, who, however, is increasingly sooner and more
often confronted by the fact that growth in the activity of the operation can scarcely be
475
absorbed by the ‘elasticity’of the existing quay wall. Only by substantial modifications that
make big encroachments into the original design, such as greater depth, heavier bottom
protection and higher crane loads, can the future requirements be satisfied. In cooperation
with the developers and users of the port, the manager must consider whether the costs
associated with the necessary maintenance and laborious alterations balance the gain in
service lifetime and extra income that is generated.
Very soon a second alternative in the form of an entirely new quay wall will enter the
picture. The cost of this will certainly be much higher, but it may also provide improved
functionality. In time this also leads to extra profits over a much longer anticipated service
lifetime. Although this type of ‘renovation construction’ may give rise to discussion about
whether it falls within the area of the management of quay walls, this consideration must
play a role in the background of every fundamental maintenance decision.
The reverse may also be true, since the desired functionality of older quay walls in urban
areas may be so much reduced with regard to the original functionality, that the maintenance
of the existing quay wall is probably much more expensive that its entire replacement by
a simple sheet pile wall or even a slope.
11.2 The quay wall as a system

In this section a quay wall is described as a clearly defined system with a number of
functions that is built up from a number of mutually related elements and as a system that
is subject to change over the years.
The primary objective of a system, and thus also a quay wall, is to fulfil its functions, in
other words to contribute to the greater whole. In contrast to other linear infrastructure
such as roads, waterways or railways, the functions of a quay wall as a transport node are
extremely varied. Because a quay wall is the ‘turntable’within the entire port infrastructure,
on which the arriving goods are transferred from one mode of transport modality to one
or more other modes, a quay wall also forms a boundary between land and water.
As a system, a quay wall contributes to the following functions:
• Berthing of ships alongside the quay wall and their departure

• Occupation of berths by ships during normal operations and in storm conditions
• Transhipment of goods
• Storage of goods on the quay wall
• Transport of goods on the quay wall
• Delimitation of navigational and land areas
• Retaining of high water levels
In the horizontal direction a quay wall is an elastic supported beam that is built up from a
number of subsystems, (quay sections) each in the order of 40 m long. These are attached
476
Quay walls
to each other by elements such as horizontal and vertical shear connectors in the concrete
structures, a continuous combi-wall and joint transitions.
In the vertical direction a quay wall is often built up from a number of subsystems, these
being a foundation that again consists of a combi-wall, plus tension and/or bearing piles
supporting a concrete superstructure. The superstructure often consists of elements such
as a front wall, a quay deck, an intermediate wall with front crane rail, a relieving platform
and sometimes also a horizontal anchorage.
Behind the quay wall there is often a rear crane rail that sometimes forms part of the
anchorage. In front of the quay wall there is usually bottom protection consisting of granular
filter material, stone asphalt mats or block mats.
In addition to the purely hierarchical distribution or decomposition of the quay wall system
into subsystems, there are also aspects related variations between these elements them-
selves. First spatial relations (what is adjacent to what?), but also what relates to functional
relations (what looks after what, bears what or protects what?). For the distribution of
unequal soil and crane loads the horizontal and vertical shear key or dowel constructions
between the quay sections are important. A further functional decomposition of these sub-
systems into elements, sometimes with multiple functions, is important to the manager for
risk analysis. Risk analysis has already been described in Chapter 10.5.
Another important aspect is that the quay wall system can change over time. First the
strength of some elements themselves may deteriorate through aging, for example, cor-
rosion of the steel augmented by harmful microbiological effects, chloride penetration
and alkali-silica reactions in the concrete, clogging of the filter structure or defects in the
non-return valve, wear on the fendering and erosion of the bottom protection. But also over
time, the operation of the quay, and with this the loads, can change as a result of changes
in the flow of goods, and new generations of ships, cranes, vehicles and stacking heights.
The environment of the system can also change. Consider a corrosive environment with
saline water instead of fresh water, a bigger tidal range as a result of a different flushing
regime, the spilling of caustic substances during transhipment, the movements of berthed
ships caused by passing shipping traffic, overloading of bollards by larger hawser angles
and higher mooring forces resulting from pre-tensioning via self-tensioned winches.
11.3 Objectives
This section describes the objectives of the management of quay walls. Briefly these are:
‘sufficient functionality and sufficient quality against minimum whole-life-costs in the
remaining service lifetime’. Whether the functionality still meets the increasing functional
requirements is primarily the responsibility of the functional management. The control
of the quality of the structure in question is largely the task of the technical manager.
To this end the quality objectives, such as adequate safety, serviceability, availability and
477
durability must first be formulated. Next these quality aims are translated into an inspection
and maintenance plan, with, where possible, specific intervals, standards and measures.
In places where the functional and technical requirements have already been described
in the design phase, the manager can simply take these as the starting point. Where they
are lacking or no longer up to date for existing quay walls an actualization manoeuvre is
needed to bring them up to date and crystallize them.
AIMS
+ CAPACITY! Sufficient functionality and quality
To set aims, to model the system, against minimum whole life costs
to generate information, to assess
this and if necessary translate these STANDARD
into measures
?
Based on the aims at system level or
previously defined standards at element
level, assess the actual and expected
states of the system or of the critical elements
INFORMATION
on the actual state MEASURES
Element/system/environment
Further
analysis
Expected state MODELS Potential
of element To simulate system behaviour measures
and/or system Scenarios
Actual state of element Chosen DATA

and/or system Actual measures
Environment SYSTEM Management plan (ISO)
(incl. changes over time)
Fig. 11.2 Active management model.
11.3.1 Functionality
Functionality is the degree to which infrastructure is able to fulfil its functions and thus
to satisfy the stipulated functional-requirements. This functionality is primarily related to
the original functions and functional requirements, but over time can relate to the require-
ments of subsequent operators or even to the intended future functions plus functional
requirements.
The following functions of a quay wall have already been mentioned:
• Berthing and berth occupation by ships: type, dimensions, and propeller power
• Transhipment of goods, usually with the aid of a crane: type, wheel load
• Storage of goods on or immediately behind the quay: sort, height, and distance
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Quay walls
• Transport of goods on the quay: traffic category

• Separation of land and water, including the retention of soil and water
The gradual decline in the functionality of a quay wall is only sporadically caused by the
deterioration in the quality of the infrastructure itself that can lead to axle load problems,
wheel load problems or depth restrictions. Usually a reduction in function occurs as a result
of gradually increasing wishes or requirements by the operator, more loads, bigger ships,
more capacity and heavier cranes. Sometimes the new user-requirements are lower than
what the quay could originally provide. For example when shipping shifts to the coast and
former seaport may become an inland port or later even take on the function of a yacht
harbour.
11.3.2 Quality
Quality is the degree to which the infrastructure is able to fulfil its functions and thus to
satisfy a number of quality requirements. These are primarily the original requirements set
by the designer that over time may be adjusted to the requirements of the terminal operator,
manager or company.
The quality requirements for a quay wall can be further subdivided as follows:
• Adequate safety of the entire structure and also of its parts

• Adequate availability for the users, such as shipping and transhipment companies
• Adequate serviceability for cranes, energy supplies for ships
• Adequate durability for the investor and also for the company
• Ecological soundness or better sustainability
• Adequate visual amenity; this is especially important for city ports
The quality objectives must be translated into actual inspection and maintenance proce-
dures via mathematical models. This entails the identification of critical parts, setting of
inspection frequencies and a measure for standards and preventive or corrective measures.
In this way the quality objectives can also be attainable at operational level. Where the
functional and technical requirements have already been correctly described during the
design phase, the manager can simply take them over as the starting point and put them
into practice. If they are lacking, or outdated for existing quays it is necessary to bring
them up to date.
It is possible to express adequate safety for a quay wall in terms of minimum thickness
of the sheet piling, maximum dimensions for scour holes, a maximum variation in water
level, a maximum storage height, and maximum crane loads or area loads.
Adequate serviceability can be ensured by setting requirements for the waterside of the
quay in relation to matters such as unevenness of the fendering, ensuring that there are
no projecting bolts or loose parts, such as ladders, and by setting maximum requirements
in relation to the flattening, displacement or wear of rubber fenders. On the surface,
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requirements may be set relating to the roughness and flatness of the quay deck, limitation
of rut formation, minimum slope, maximum horizontal deformation and variations in
deformation.
Adequate durability implies the setting of specific requirements for corrosion rates, so
that soil tightness and strength are sufficient in the long term, or on the rate of chloride-
penetration, so that the corrosion of the reinforcement, the propagation phase, only starts
to occur towards the end of the anticipated lifetime.
For new quay walls ecological soundness can certainly be translated into reducing the use of
hardwoods or minestone if they contain leachable contaminants. For greater sustainability,
requirements can be set relating to the use of renewable materials, the use of energy and
the recyclability of construction materials, parts of structures or even entire parts of the
quay wall. For the best ways of reusing materials the ‘ladder van Lansink’ or the improved
‘Delftse ladder’, Figure 11.3 can be consulted. This ladder shows the best sequence for the
handling of material deriving from demolition and waste products.
The ten steps
Prevention of waste production
Reuse of the entire structure
Reuse of the structural elements
Reuse of the demolition material
Recycling of waste material
Immobilisation with useful applications
Immobilisation without useful applications
Incineration with energy generation
Incineration
Disposal
Fig. 11.3 The Delftse ladder.
This is not a fixed sequence; priority is allocated on an individual basis and depends on
economic lifetime [11.5].
Visual amenity is primarily important when the quay plays a significant role in forming
the image of a company or city. In the case of old quay walls in urban areas in particular,
basalt walls, cobblestones, and plants such as wall ferns determine the image.
480
Quay walls
11.3.3 Costs
This section considers costs that can be both directly and indirectly expressed in terms
of expenditure that must be introduced now or later into the anticipated life during con-
struction, management, use, and finally demolition or recycling of the infrastructure. If all
these construction-related costs during the life span are included they are termed life-cycle
costs. If, during stagnation, the possible extra costs or loss of income of the user and similar
costs are included, the term whole-life costs is used.
Depending on the current life phase of the quay wall this may be:
• Investment costs: development, design, real estate, implementation, construction,

engineering and additional costs
• Inspection costs: preparation, execution, processing and storage
• Maintenances costs: preparation, execution, supervision and costs of delay
• Other management costs, including data management and acquisition of permits
• Renovation costs, such as large-scale maintenance, including the costs of temporary
replacement
• Costs of adaptations and improvements
• Demolition, disposal and recycling costs
• Risk, i.e. probability and consequences with regard to safety
• Probability and consequences with regard to lack of availability (possible claims)
• Probability and consequences with regard to reduced serviceability
• Probability and consequences with regard to shorter service life
• Probability and consequences with regard to extra environmental drawbacks
• Probability and consequences with regard to a poorer, or even neglected, visual amenity
11.3.4 Lifetime
Lifetime is primarily the design life, and in Rotterdam the normal design life for quay walls
is fifty years. This is usually desired by the client in the terms of reference, and, where
possible, translated by the designer into structural properties. During the use of the quay
it may emerge that after a much shorter service life the terminal operator/owner may find
that the functionality of the quay is no longer satisfactory and request an improvement or
complete replacement. After several years it might also become clear to the manager that
the quality of the quay in question can only be maintained against very high costs, or that the
costs of improving the functionality of the quay are higher than the costs of replacing it. In
both cases the technical or structural lifetime is in question and, in fact, these are based on
economic grounds. Finally it may happen that the expenditure on the quay does not match
up to the advantages of its future use, in which case one can speak of the economic lifetime.
Whether there is sufficient functionality and quality can be determined by drawing up an

economic balance between extra investment and increasing income from quay dues and port
dues or between extra management costs and decreasing risks. These can also be imposed
by external regulations, or by internal guidelines. Determining whether the functionality of
a quay wall still satisfies the increasing functional requirements is a task of the functional
481
manager, often in consultation with the commercial department. Safeguarding the quality
of the structure is primarily the responsibility of the technical manager.
11.4 Modelling
An indication of how a quay wall can be modelled and analysed as a system is given, so
that threats to critical parts in the form of aging or overloading at element level can be
determined in advance. This also includes the translation of these threats from element
level to system level. All this must be worked out for specific types of quay walls in
which the basic events such as corrosion, chloride-penetration, ASR, overloading, washout,
insufficient bearing soil, are based partly on local experience and partly on more theoretical
knowledge and experience elsewhere. Later the model can also be used to anticipate the
positive effect of a possible measure.
Usually a manager does not wish to see the quay wall only as a ‘black box’, and does not
wish to be in charge of an incoherent assembly of parts. If, rather than waiting passively
for things to happen, the manager wishes to take a proactive role, a number of models
must be available; these are simplified impressions of reality. With the aid of these models
firstly insight is gained into the normal working of the structure, then into the behaviour of
elements over time, plus the deviations in use and the associated risks to the total system
of the quay wall. Finally models provide the possibility to investigate the risk reducing
effect of potential measures, as well as their contribution to the lifetime costs.
Consequently, there must be a model of the quay wall as a structure, in other words, what
are the functions of the structure, what are elements of the structure and what are the normal
actions. Various matters have already been considered in the system description in previous
chapters. Much of this knowledge is, or was, available to the designer, but the manager
can find it later from drawings, technical and functional decomposition and calculations.
11.4.1 Risk analysis

Next a risk analysis model is needed in order to detect in advance what might go wrong
with the quay wall in question and what the most critical elements or threats may be. These
are reproduced in a risk matrix. For this it is necessary to investigate:
• What precisely might go wrong with the critical elements over time, according to an
obsolescence model
• What inspection and maintenance measures would be effective, according to an
inspection and maintenance model
• Which of these is the best, based on a life-cycle-approach, or even better a whole-life-
cost-model
In order to trace the critical elements or threats in a structured way, means such as fault
and event trees can be used. With fault trees one proceeds top down by starting from an
undesired top-event, for example it being impossible to berth safely, and investigating what
482
Quay walls
basic or starting events, such as the failure of overloaded bollards, can contribute to this.
With event trees one works from the bottom up by starting with an event, for example, a
rusted anchor bar, and proceeds to find out the consequences that might follow.
Although a quay wall is a structure with a limited number of elements, this risk-analysis
is still reasonably complex (Figure 11.4). That is because at system level there are many
functions; the system itself has some multi-functional parts (for example the combi-wall),
because there are several threats such as overloading and obsolescence, and because the
manager aims to fulfil several partly overlapping quality objectives.
11.4.2 Risk-matrix
To permit this analysis to converge on a limited number of really critical parts/mechanisms,
a risk matrix can be set up in which per starting event a relative estimate of the probability
of its occurrence and the consequences is made. In Figure 11.5 this is shown for the risk
in the management phase of an old quay wall.
When this risk-analysis is used to show the primary contributions it is then possible to model
the threat in greater detail as a process over time, in other words over loading or reduction
in strength. If, for example, this is the overloading of bollards, it is necessary to look at
ships of increased dimensions, thus mass, wind load surface and berthing configurations.
If the decline in strength results from corrosion of the combi-wall, the precise causes and
rate of corrosion must be investigated over the entire height and length of the wall.
11.4.3 Maintenance strategy

When the possible effects arising over time and place are considered in detail, inspection
and maintenance measures should be generated. These are designed, on the one hand, to
determine the risk reducing effect and, on the other hand, to calculate the associated costs.
In principle, three basic strategies are available for the maintenance: Failure Depen-
dent Maintenance (FDM), Use Dependent Maintenance (UDM) and Condition Dependent
Maintenance (CDM). If for example, for CDM, intricate inspections are carried out with
high frequency and high quality techniques and the structure is declared unfit according
to a relatively strict standard, the chance of unexpected loss of function and possible sub-
sequent damage may well be small, but the costs of all these inspections plus costs of the
preventive measures and loss of lifetime can still make for a relatively expensive scenario
compared to other strategies such as UDM, or FDM.
In the calculation of these alternative scenarios, the calculated or actual interest has a
considerable effect on the results, in the sense that as expenses or risks lie further in
the future, they count for less in the market value at the moment of decision. For these
calculations a variety of computer models provide support, but the main alternatives must
also be calculated separately.
483
484

QUAY WALL
IS
UNSAFE
Sudden extreme settlement Quay section has sudden Quay section has sudden Position of bottom Berthing facilities
or gaps behind the quay wall extreme vertical deformation extreme horizontal protection in front of suddenly fail
deformation the quay is too high
Hollows under the Support fails owing to Bollard

Shallow is
partially coherent failure of one or Several anchors fail
not detected suddenly fails
pavement more piles
Vertical dowel Horizontal Bottom protection Cross section

Washing out and further link fails dowel link fails is not stable is corroded
subsidence of the non
cohesive soil
Passive soil Current load caused Fatigue
pressure is by lateral propellers of shearing pin
Holes in the Piping under insufficient is too high
sheet pile wall sheet pile wall
Extreme erosion of Current load caused

Abrasion
bottom protection by main propeller
of the central pin
is too high
Holes caused Interlock Exposure of Collision Seepage
by corrosion repair fails interlock caused length
opening by ship is too short
Stone diameter Over loading
is too low during mooring
Deepening Undetected
Deepening Sheet pile Specific gravity
of the bottom interlock
of the bottom too short of the stone
opening
is too low
Fig. 11.4 Risk analysis for the quality requirement ‘Safety’.

RISK MATRIX IN THE MANAGEMENT PHASE OF AN OLD QUAY WALL
Type of risk Cause Possible consequence Risk Corrective Preventative
Technical Social Probability Consequence Risk measure measure
Subsidence at surface Leakage under the wooden floor Settlement directly behind quay (Part of) quay out of use 4 4 16 Apply filter cloth Renovate quay
level Seepage via relieving floor Settlement behind relieving platform Temporary unsafe situation 4 4 16 Install sheet pile wall Install sheet pile wall
Poor functioning of drainage box Flooding on site 2 4 8 Repair drainage system Check drainage outlet
Overloading (hor. equilibrium) Repair pavement Piezometric gauges (measure water level)
Deformation of quay wall Exceedence of variable load Damage to quay wall Quay wall lifetime shorter 3 2 6 None Regular deformation measurement
(horizontal plane) Strict monitoring of variable load
Breaking of anchor tendon caused Weakening of structure (Part of) quay out of use 1 2 2 New anchor tendon/ restore Random excavating and inspection
by corrosion or slip of tension pile slip of tension pile of anchor tendon
Damage to wooden parts Rotting of wood and/or Increasing deformation Safety of bearing structure Commission expert technical
biological damage decreases assessment of the wooden
Piles Weakening of structure Unsafe situation resulting from 1 2 2 Install new piles structural elements
Beams Weakening of structure sudden local settlement 1 2 2 Replace capping beams
Floor Settlement behind the quay 1 2 2 Make soil tight floor or
protective cover
Damage to bollard Too many hawsers on the bollard Bollard pulled out Nautical problems 1 1 1 Repair or replace bollard Strict control of berthing
Hawser angle too big Bollard pulled out Ships go adrift 1 1 1 Repair or replace bollard Strict control of berthing
Use of steel hawsers Cutting into bollard (Part of) quay out of use 1 2 2 Replace bollard Regular inspection
Fendering, damage to Wear through use Shorter lifetime Mooring restrictions on ships 1 1 1 Replace fendering/fender pile Regular inspection
fender pile and waling Biological damage Weakening of material (Part of) quay out of use 1 1 1 Conservation Regular inspection
Overloading by berthing ships Fendering does not function Economic losses 2 1 2 Repair fendering Strict control of berthing
Quay wall unprotected
Damage to fascine dams Biological damage Settlement Unsafe situation 4 4 16 Piping, install cut-off pile wall Monitor the position of the fascine dam
Erosion by bow thrusters
Weathering of joints in Erosion resulting from wave Weakening of wall None 3 2 6 Renovate joints Inspect joint
basalt walls laction Loss of stones If necessary fill joints
Corrosion of berthing Damp and corrosive environment Shorter lifetime for berthing Financial impact 1 3 3 Repair of restore quay Install coating or galvanise
equipment + bolts etc. Poor quality steel equipment (ladders, rails etc.) Reduction of safety equipment
Deepening/siltation of Currents or propeller jets Damage at construction depth None 4 2 8 Add fill Check
bottom in front of quay wall Fascine dam unstable Repair bottom protection Add bottom protection
Fig. 11.5 Risk matrix for an old quay wall in the serviceability phase.
Quay walls
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11.5 Information
Possible ways to determine the present state of parts or subsystems of a quay wall include:
one-off visual inspection, periodic visual inspection, one-off measurements and continuous
monitoring. This section considers how the information should be interpreted and translated
in order to come to a conclusion about the current quality at system level. Historical
information also plays a role in this, including the design drawings, the accepted situation
on completion of the works, together with the possible record of the works on completion,
as-built drawings, revised drawings and earlier inspections and maintenance. It is important
that the recording of all this data is well arranged: the fixed quay wall data, the variable
condition-information derived from inspections and the maintenance status plus costs.
11.5.1 Visual observation

Until recently the data was mainly obtained from visual observations made during periodic
inspections of the parts visible above water and ground surface of a quay wall and recorded
on paper or in a database. This data relates primarily to damage, deviations and defects in
parts, such as hardwood fendering and rubber fenders, which shipping uses directly when
berthing and which may be subject to rapid wear.
During or as a result of this inspection, visual information can also be obtained about the
rear of the quay wall structure, in the form of visible cracks, damage and rust stripes. As a
result of wisdom accrued from past experience, data is currently collected from parts that
have appeared to be critical or threatened.
11.5.2 Determination of interlock damage

Sudden settlements behind the quay have often already provided supplementary informa-
tion about the underwater parts. Such settlements were caused by the disappearance of the
soil via undetected interlock openings and via holes in the sheet pile wall caused by colli-
sions or corrosion. Supplementary information is needed in the form of video pictures and
measurement data, for example of thickness of the sheet pile wall. This can be obtained by
a diver using ultrasonic instruments or by measuring with a sliding calliper or micrometer
after sample plates have been cut out.
11.5.3 Scouring
Scour holes caused by the screw wash of bow or stern thrusters or propellers in front of
quay walls resulted in periodic measuring of the bottom protection for all quay walls in
Rotterdam. In the past these holes have led to piping and sudden settlements. Periodic
sounding, first along survey lines between 25 and 50 metres apart, but currently covering
the area with the aid of a multibeam sonar, permits the early determination of scour and
after a few measurements also the rate of scour.
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Quay walls
11.5.4 Deformations
In addition to the above, a number of more hidden threats to critical parts, such as slip or fail-
ure of anchorages, excessive differences in water levels, failure of lateral shear connectors
or surcharges that are too high, may be detected via the periodic measurement of deforma-
tions. For this reason, for each quay section it is necessary to periodically determine whether
there has been any translation and/or rotation. Because such deformations may derive
from many causes, for big deformations it is always necessary to carry out supplementary
investigations and measurements into the real causes and the actual condition.
11.5.5 Specific threats

In addition to these general measurements of quay walls that are initiated on the basis of
experience, new or more specific threats may emerge from the risk-analysis for a specific
quay wall. The manager would like one-off or periodic information about these.
When the risk-analysis indicates that concrete in salt water may impose a risk to lifetime,
or that the high quality prestressed steel anchorage is a critical part that is threatened by
corrosion, or that the vertical concrete shear connectors are threatened by higher crane
loads, crack formation and corrosion of reinforcement and that the consequences of this
could be considerable, it is necessary to collect more information about these specific
parts. This can be done, for example, by first measuring the thickness and the density of
the concrete cover of the reinforcements, in so far as this is not known from inspection
and testing on completion of the works. In a later phase the chloride content is determined
and still later the corrosion potential. Even later, existing small damage can be detected
by means of electro pulse or magneto-flux techniques.
How much information is required to produce a reliable view and thus, for the manager
to make a responsible choice depends on the extent of the population, the variation in the
degradation process and the remaining margin.
11.5.6 Future use

If it is not so much the quality, but primarily the functionality of a quay wall that is under
threat, the need for information will also be directed towards developments in its future
use. Is there any growth in the sector in question and does that lead to an increase in this
specific flow of goods? Is there already growth in the relevant type of ship, with increasing
dimensions and propeller capacity? Is this growth also expected to continue in the future
and what will the restrictions on this growth be over ten to twenty years? Consider the
sudden levelling out in the growth of super tankers in the past and the present rapid growth
of container ships.
11.6 Assessments
Two types of assessment are involved. First it is necessary to assess whether future, thus
anticipated, changes in the conditions, plus the environment of the quay wall may lead
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to failure to satisfy the quality and functional objectives. Risks that might be expected
must be balanced against risks reducing the need for measures in the form of periodic
inspections and preventive maintenance measures.
Later, in the operational management phase, the actual state that appears from inspections
must be assessed and, where necessary, controlled by means of preventive or corrective
measures. For this lower quality requirements may sometimes be placed on existing quay
structures than those set during the design phase, because it is possible to know more
about the actual loads and strength. The economic optimum between the cost of measures
and the risks may differ from that found during the design phase because there is often a
restricted remaining service life.
For every quay a number of specific threats follow from the overall risk-analysis. Usually
there is a combination of expected loss of strength and overloading of parts that may also
become critical for the quay wall in its entirety. Consider corrosion of the combi-wall,
chloride-penetration of concrete, corrosion of anchor rods or prestressed cables, clogging
of filter structures, too strong propeller jets and thus deepening of the unprotected bottom or
bottom protection directly in front of the quay wall. For existing quay walls the information
obtained from previous inspections, measurements or soundings can probably be used. By
means of a Bayesian update, a more accurate statistical representation of the rate, average
and dispersal rate by which the obsolescence process can proceed can be obtained and thus
also of the time at which the state may become critical.
On the basis of this risk-analysis, the manager must evaluate whether and with what
frequency inspections, or possibly preventive maintenance measures, must be set in motion
to reduce risks. The costs of these inspections and maintenance measures also play a role.
These must be weighed against the calculated effects. These effects are risk reductions, in
the sense of a safer, more serviceable, more durable and more environmentally friendly
quay wall.
It is possible to consider whether to carry out some supplementary inspections, such as

periodic thickness measurements of the combi-wall, for example once every five to ten
years, measurement of chloride-penetration in the concrete, random excavation and visual
inspection of an anchor tendon, or measuring with the aid of pulse techniques, certainly
when this involves vulnerable prestressed cables. Other measures that may be considered
include using divers to inspect non-return valves in some places or indirect measurements
of differences in water level with the aid of piezometric gauges, certainly where load and
strength are critical, and the visual inspection of some critical shear key or dowel structures.
Preventive measures to put an end to risks that are either already or will soon become
too great can be considered. These include the application of cathodic protection to a
combi-wall, hydrophobing of the surfaces of concrete, re-pressing of prestressed cables,
the application of heavier bottom protection, replacement of shear connectors structures
between sections to bear the crane load, and the application of soil tightness measures for
leaking quay platforms.
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Quay walls
After processing and interpreting the rough data from the inspections, the manager will have
to assess this in order to find an answer to the question of whether quality and functionality
are currently satisfactory. In addition, this information must be used to obtain an updated
idea of the quality and desired functionality that can be expected in the near future.
11.6.1 Example
The mass of raw data about corrosion measurements that has been randomly assembled in
the longitudinal direction of a quay wall and over the width and the height of individual
sheet piles must be processed to create a two dimensional corrosion profile over the height
of the sheet pile wall or combi-wall. This corrosion profile can be expressed as an average
value and dispersion associated with a physical logical distribution function, for example
lognormal, and can differ for flanges, web and corners. When, via trend-analysis, it appears
that there is a strong variation in the longitudinal direction of the quay wall, the making of
more corrosion profiles can be considered.
When the manager is concerned about the quality ‘safety’, at number of heights the current
minimum cross-section, for example the 5% characteristic value, should be converted to a
minimum strength and be assessed against the loads and load combinations to be expected
there.
Based on regulations and on economic grounds, often much smaller margins can be
accepted for the maintenance of sheet pile structures than for new structures. On the
one hand, because there is often a shorter remaining lifetime and because more is, or
could be, known about the actual strength, such as profiles and material properties and
the actual load combinations. On the other hand, because the costs of adaptations in the
management phase are proportionally higher than in the design phase, so a different cost
optimum emerges (Figure 11.6).
Design Other
rules risks
Economic
optimum Economic
Costs Costs optimum
Risk Risk
Probability of Probability of
Maintenance failure (Pf ) Investments failure (Pf )
102 103 104 105 102 103 104 105
Fig. 11.6 Shift of economic optimum in existing structures.
If in the assessment of an important quality such as safety, it appears that this is only just
adequate or is already unsatisfactory, and thus that fundamental measures are required
in the short term, the functionality must be included in the assessment. If it is necessary
489
to modify the quay wall within a few years because of an unexpected major change in
use, it is not advisable to make considerable and thus long term investments. The use can
change owing to big growth in volume or dimensions of shipping, or merely because of a
reduction in port activities leading to possible filling in of the harbour. This may lead to
the establishment of companies with a different character or to residential use.
Before each inspection, stipulated rejection standards can be defined for each type of
element so that the manager does not need to make this type of decision every time new
information becomes available. By this means the translation of the information acquired
into measures to be taken can be accelerated. This can be recommended for the more
routine matters with limited consequences. The problem with determining the rejection
standards in advance is that these will be rather conservative in nature because not all
conditions can be predicted and calculated in advance. With regard to the less frequently
occurring situations, with financial consequences a made-to-order assessment, in which
all the margins are exploited, will therefore continue to be necessary.
11.7 Measures
Alternative measures for a number of known threats, such as soil loss via interlock openings
or gaps caused by collisions or corrosion, piping, weakening of combi-walls by corrosion,
and bottom scouring, are discussed in this section. The time at which the measures should
be applied is also considered: pro-active, preventive or corrective, as well as the positive
effect of these on the condition of the quay wall and the associated global costs. The pros
and cons of these alternatives in relation to effectiveness and efficiency are also considered.
Because a manager is directly responsible for the infrastructure, the main attention has
always been primarily directed towards the structures themselves. This means that the
condition and corrective repair of damaged or weakened parts must be determined, as
well as the need for preventive maintenance of parts that will be threatened in the future.
In addition, the manager must also keep in view the load aspects and, where appropriate,
the user. After all differences in use, unexpected use, unpredicted increases in use or war
risk (and/or risk of civil commotion/piracy/seizure) may lead to total overloading, whether
or not intentional. In combination with a reduction in strength, this can also lead to an
unwanted situation.
Often the manager does not have the right tools to determine the deviations in load. How big
are the hawser forces and angles or how high may the storage be? It is even more difficult
to take effective measures because the manager has less control over the users than over the
structure. With a leased quay wall, where the company handles a specific type of vessel on
the quay, it may be possible to come to an arrangement with the operational manager about
berthing procedures, hawser configurations, the cranes used and the storage method. If a
quay is used as a public wharf, the options are much fewer in number, although there are
still some, including the use of equipment such as current velocity recorders, radar stations
and cameras. Measures against known threats are discussed in the following sections.
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Quay walls
11.7.1 Loss of soil through interlock openings

By using interlock sensors during construction it is possible to determine to quite a high
degree of accuracy whether the sheet pile might run out of an interlock. If that happens,
the decision can be made to withdraw the pile or to repair it later. Because with reasonably
good management of the pile driving process the chance of interlock damage is reduced,
not all the piles are fitted with a sensor. It is sufficient to place a sensor every three to ten
piles as a random process check; alternatively, they may be used only for more difficult
pile driving or vibration activities, such as tapering walls in bends and at end points.
After installation and dredging-free of the wall, divers can be employed to inspect whether
there is interlock damage in the visible part. In such cases, openings can be repaired by
welding or shot bolting a steel plate in front of them and filling the remaining gaps with
grout, or by covering them with sufficient stable gravel.
If deepening is carried out later, the same mode of work can be followed. If there is
incidental temporary local scouring caused by ships propellers, it is more difficult to
detect this in time from diver’s inspections. This may mean that the flow of water washes
out soil from behind the sheet pile wall. This in turn may lead to settlement progressing
until local settlement can be seen at surface level or, if the quay deck is very coherent, to
the formation of spaces beneath it and sudden serious settlements. In the latter phase the
manager can take only corrective measures: this means that the hole is closed off, the leak
is sought and, if it is found, it is closed and the lost fill is replaced before the quay deck is
repaired. In many cases the source of the leak cannot be found or cannot be repaired, so a
soil-tight geotextile or soil-tight sacks are placed in the hope of restricting or preventing
further loss of soil, after which the hole is filled and the deck repaved.
An entirely new, more preventive option is to monitor the settlement of the soil via con-
tinuous settlement measurements behind the wall, for example, by means of a fibre optic
cable introduced during the construction or later by means of horizontal drilling.
11.7.2 Loss of soil through gaps caused by collisions

If the collision is not reported, even if it is possible to use divers at the location, searching
for these gaps is ‘like looking for a needle in a haystack’ for the divers. Here too, after gaps
or settlements on the ground surface become visible only the purely corrective measures
remain, or perhaps more preventive measures if continuous measurement via the fibre
optic cable method indicates extreme settlements.
11.7.3 Loss of soil caused by gaps resulting from serious corrosion

If the corrosion of the sheet pile wall occurs evenly, does not progress too rapidly, and is
carefully measured reasonably frequently (once every five to ten years), timely measures
can be taken to retard or to stop the process. If, in fact, one of these conditions cannot
be fulfilled, sometimes in places with maximum corrosion, gaps may occur even after
ten to fifteen years. These gaps are difficult for divers to find and the above-mentioned
491
corrective actions are the only remaining measures. Here too, the use of fibre optic cables
as a detection system makes possible more preventive maintenance.
11.7.4 Loss of soil caused by piping

If the hydraulic gradient over the sheet pile wall is greater than the critical hydraulic
gradient and no sand-tight filter is present on the outflow side, sand-transporting springs
can form under the sheet pile wall. Measures available to the manager include the reduction
of the hydraulic gradient, for example by improving the drainage or pumping and/or by
increasing the seepage distance by fill of the scour hole. But here too, the occurrence of
piping is difficult for divers to detect and corrective maintenance after settlement of the
ground surface is almost the only option, unless fibre optic cables are used to detect the
settlement in time.
11.7.5 Loss of thickness of steel caused by corrosion

It is well known that when unprotected steel structures are exposed to moisture and oxygen
they start to corrode. For a number of years it has been known that corrosion can be locally
very aggressive deep under the water level owing to a combination of influences such
as oxygenation and sand blasting caused by bow and stern thrusters and galvanic action
between steel of varying qualities, microbiological deterioration and saline-fresh water
effects. In the design phase proactive measures can be taken, such as using profiles with
an adequate corrosion allowance if the corrosion rate is not too high, or the use of concrete
diaphragm structures instead of steel combi-walls.
However, diaphragm walls also have their problems in the form of soil leakages, in which
case it is necessary to choose between a diaphragm wall and a combi-wall with preventive
measures. Pro-active measures in the construction phase include spraying on an aluminium
coating or the application of cathodic protection by means of installing sacrificial anodes
in the shape of aluminium blocks, or impressed current.
During the management phase too, the application of a cathodic protection is a preventive
measure that can be taken in combination with the application of a protective coating. The
coating is usually applied under water and for this the use of a habitat or small building pit
provides a solution. The coating considerably reduces the area of the metal that is exposed
and thus the current that is required.
If reduction in thickness has proceeded so far that even after recalculation the strength
is not sufficient, the only corrective measures that can be taken are welding on strength-
ening plates or even strengthening profiles. After this cathodic protection can prevent
further deterioration of the existing steel structure and certainly also corrosion of the
newly installed steel. If the decrease in thickness has progressed to such a degree that there
are also holes in the sheet pile wall, corrective measure will also be needed to prevent
the loss of soil. This can be achieved by applying custom made closing plates, by grout
injections into the soil behind the sheet pile wall or by bolting on flat plates and placing
gravel in the spaces behind them.
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Quay walls
11.7.6 Scour caused by propeller jets, and tidal action

To limit scour of the bottom, pro-active measures must be taken during the construction
phase:
• A few metres extra design depth, so that local deepening in the order of up to five
metres is acceptable. This over depth can possibly be used later for the berthing of
larger vessels if bottom protection is applied.
• The immediate application of bottom protection. This can take the form of a two or
three-layered granular filter of riprap, a block mat on geotextile or a stone asphalt mat
with riprap.
During the management phase too, it is still possible to apply one of these types of bottom
protection as a preventive measure. However, the quay wall is not available for operation
during construction. Again, later during the management phase, owing to the increased size
of ships there is often only limited space available for the bottom protection, so that only
the much more expensive and fragile 0.15–0.25 m thick stone asphalt mats can be used.
If there is no space available, or if it is even necessary to deepen the harbour because of

a big increase in the draught of vessels, the injection of the area just in front of the quay
may provide a solution, but there is still a risk of soil leakage.
As a corrective measure, after the detection of deepening by means of sounding, hollows

can be filled with material such as gravel, mine stone or blast furnace slag. These materials
must be sufficiently heavy to remain in place, but at the same time sufficiently fine to keep
the underlying bottom material in place.
11.7.7 Corrosion of the concrete followed by corrosion of the reinforcement

There are a number of reasons why the protective action of the concrete cover against
corrosion of the reinforcement may be inadequate. For example the thickness or density
of the cover may be inadequate or there may be localised serious cracking. In the design
phase, simple pro-active measures can be taken to prevent this, such as the stipulation of
sufficient cover (at least 50 mm), with sufficient crack distributing reinforcement in places
with stress concentrations.
In the construction phase measures taken include using a type of cement that is durable in
seawater, inspection to ensure correct cover, and good sealing and curing, plus possibly
cooling when new concrete is poured onto old concrete. When the quay is ready, many
simple preventive measures are still possible, including hydrophobing of the surface of
the concrete and injecting grout into shrinkage cracks that are too wide. It is much more
difficult to take preventive measures during the management phase if it should appear that
the rate of chloride-penetration is too rapid and corrosion of the reinforcement is expected
within the service life. In this case, cathodic protection is an effective but expensive
option. During the management phase, if the reinforcement is so corroded that flakes of
the concrete cover scale off, the only satisfactory corrective measure is a combination of
493
local repairs and cathodic protection. However, local repair of the damaged cover often
leads to new damage or ‘patchwork’ beside the repair.
Usually the later in the lifecycle the measures are taken, the more expensive they are; going
from pro-active, via preventive to corrective measures involves an estimated increase of
costs by a factor five. On the other hand, of course, the difference in the cash value is
somewhat lower because the expenditure on the corrective measure comes much later than
that of the preventive measure.
In addition to the above-described maintenance measures to ensure the safety and durability
of the quay structure, much small-scale less planned maintenance of parts that are directly
important to the serviceability is important. This includes local repairs or the replacement
of wooden fendering, fenders, ladders, brackets and guard rails that are damaged as a result
of wear or over loading.
Finally, after weighing the costs of the above-mentioned inspection and maintenance mea-
sures against their risk-reducing effect for each separate quay structure in a given specific
situation, a set of preventive or corrective inspection and maintenance measures can be
derived. With the more routine measures these will form the complete management plan.
11.8 Implementation
The implementation of the chosen measures is primarily a question of good relations
between the price and quality of the measures to be carried out; thus taking a marketing
approach and types of contract. It is increasingly necessary to consider the availability
requirements of terminal operators as well as requirements related to terminal labour,
environment and durability. The implementation of maintenance projects is similar in
many ways to that of new building projects, but there are a few characteristic differences.
The first difference is the uncertainty with regard to the precise nature and extent of the
repair work, because the degree of corrosion cannot always be determined from the visual
inspection. Only when the structure is exposed and entirely open can an accurate picture
of what must be done be formed. Depending on the type of contract, this can lead to extra
risks for the contractor or to additional work for the client.
For the manager, on site maintenance also entails inspection, as a result of which more
insight is acquired into the conditions and the aging mechanisms. If inspection, preparation
for maintenance and supervision are contracted out to different parties this synergy is more
difficult. When the maintenance is to some extent repetitive in character, and similar to
that required in other places, contractors can build up experience and therefore give a more
reliable quotation for the work.
A second difference is formed by the much more stringent boundary conditions during the
execution of the works. After all, a quay wall is in use during the execution of the work.
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Quay walls
There is also a question of the effects of tidal action and currents. All this can lead to delays
for the contractor and, if these are not catered for in the contract, this leads to more costs
for the client.
A third difference is that much maintenance work must be carried out from, or even
entirely under water, as a result of which normal supervision often fails. In order to assess
the quality of the work done it is necessary to have independent expert divers or remote
controlled underwater vehicles that are equipped with cameras, sensors and jets available.
11.9 Contribution, conveyance and feedback

In this section the contribution of the manager of the quay to the construction of a spe-
cific new quay wall is considered, including the hand-over procedures for the new quay
and the task of the manager in relation to the feedback of more general lessons to the
developers/designers of quay walls.
After a number of years a manager who has managed a large number of different types of
quay walls is able to evaluate the type of maintenance that is required by different types of
quay walls and the maintenance that will be needed during the lifetime of the quay wall.
Thus, on a global level indices can be developed, for example, per type, and be expressed
in terms of unit of length and unit of time or rather better, in costs per retaining area and
unit of time. Maintenance can also be standardised as a percentage of the development
costs per year. On the level of parts, after a number of years it may also be clear which
parts give the best price/performance in relation to lifecycle-costs.
When new quay walls are being designed it is advisable to base the principle choices on
this sort of experience and associated figures during the preliminary design phase. Later,
in the detailed design phase, use must be made of the experience and indices on the level
of parts. Unfortunately this does not happen often enough. This is a result of pressure of
time, lack of more alternatives, failure to base decisions on the basis of development costs
rather than on lifetime costs and failure to systematically collect and standardise the data
deriving from experience.
One of the first steps in the collection of this management information is the dataset that
should be given to the manager on completion of the quay wall. This primarily consists of
the specifications and associated drawings plus calculations, but also the as-built drawings,
which show how the quay wall was actually constructed:
• Which sheet piles and foundation piles deviate from the design depth or position
• Where interlock openings have been closed
• Where the concrete cover was inadequate
• Which deformations have occurred during dredging free of the quay wall
• What deformations have been measured by a number of sensors
• What tension forces have been measured in the anchorage
• Which suppliers, terms of guarantee and stipulations are relevant
495
Sometimes the tender documents require the designer/contractor to provide the manager
with a concept management plan in which the parts to be managed are specified, including
specific management drawings, and which is accompanied by a draft inspection and main-
tenance plan. After the hand-over by contractor to client, who is usually the developer, the
manager often makes a further inspection to determine the exact condition of the quay at
the time of the hand-over procedure.
Unfortunately, in practice sometimes a number of these steps are omitted, or the necessary
data is incomplete. This is because of:
• Pressure of time; the client wishes to use the quay

• Differing interests: for one party the work is ending while for the other it is just
beginning
• No clear definition of responsibilities
• Insufficient knowledge and capacity of the management
In addition to the previously mentioned feedback on the management costs at quay wall
level or element level, the manager must also be aware of the daily use of the quay by
the client. The manager will have a better idea than the designers in their office about
possible deviations in the use of the quay, for example double stacking of containers or
different types of cranes. Changes in use must be agreed between manager and terminal
operator, but these must also be made known to the designers so that they can evaluate the
quay walls.
References
11.1 Leeuw, A.C.J. de, Organisaties: Management, analyses, ontwerp en verandering,

1997.
11.2 PIANC 31, Lifecycle management of port structures – general principles,
Brussels, Belgium, 1998.
11.3 Toorn, A. van der, Beheer of management van civieltechnische infrastructuur,
1999, Collegedictaat Universiteit-Twente, The Netherlands.
11.4 CUR publicaties 190 en 209, Kansen in de civiele techniek, Gouda, The
Netherlands, 1997 resp. 2002.
11.5 Hendriks, Ch. F., Sustainable constructions, ISBN 9075365438, Æneas, Boxtel,
11.6 CUR-Aanbeveling 72:2011, Inspectie en onderzoek van betonconstructies/
Inspection and testing of concrete structures, Æneas, Boxtel, The Netherlands,
2011.
11.7 PIANC WG 17, inspection maintenance and repair of maritime structures exposed
tot damage and material degradation caused by salt water 1990.
11.8 PIANC Report 103-2008, Life Cycle Management of Port structures.
11.9 PIANC WG 44, Accelerated low water corrosion 2005.
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Chapter 12
LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE

Quay walls
Contents
12.1 You can’t make an omelette without breaking eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
12.2 Soil investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

12.2.1 Economizing on soil investigations often leads to extra costs . . . . . . 504
12.2.2 Be prepared for misleading information when using closed
tubular piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
12.2.3 When determining soil parameters take the design into account . . . 505
12.2.4 Investigation of the existing situation when linking to an
existing structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
12.2.5 Interpolation of soil layers can prove fatal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
12.2.6 Local conditions should determine the nature of investigations . . . . 506
12.2.7 The influence of a quay wall can extend to great depths . . . . . . . . . . 507
12.2.8 Influence of method of construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
12.3 Combined walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

12.3.1 Give the straight web profiles of a composite box pile adequate
buckling stiffness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
12.3.2 The deformation capacity of intermediate piles must be
adequate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
12.3.3 The dimensional stability of intermediate piles must be high
enough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
12.3.4 Accuracy is essential to prevent interlock damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
12.3.5 Vibrating hammer and double jet pipe prevent installation
problems with intermediate piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
12.3.6 Take into account the loads during construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
12.3.7 Vertical loads induce horizontal loads and deformations . . . . . . . . . . 516
12.3.8 The forces on the base plates of closed tubular piles are bigger
than expected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
12.3.9 Pay attention to higher rates of corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
12.3.10 Transmission of forces between the elements of the structure
is essential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
12.3.11 Wedge sheet pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
12.3.12 Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
12.4 Pile foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520

12.4.1 The pile tip must not be influenced by deformation of the soil
or sheet pile wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
12.4.2 Prevent pile driving problems with prefab piles by using
adequate pile spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Lessons from experience
12.4.3 Prevent problems when driving prefab piles by using an

adequate procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
12.4.4 Only drive the last few metres of open tubular piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
12.4.5 The pile head of prefab concrete piles designed for heavy
driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
12.4.6 Reclaimed harbour basins may have very loosely packed sand . . . . 524
12.4.7 Make use of local knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
12.4.8 Foundations in gravel are usually unpredictable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
12.5 Relieving platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

12.5.1 The ground under the relieving platform must develop suffi-
cient shear stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
12.5.2 Base the calculation of deformation behaviour on the entire
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
12.6 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

12.6.1 Prevent high earth loads on anchorages with tension piles . . . . . . . . 527
12.6.2 Ensure that negative skin friction is transmitted to the subsoil . . . . . 528
12.6.3 A good schematization prevent deformations of the anchor
wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
12.6.4 Horizontal anchor in soft soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
12.6.5 Horizontal anchors and (break) bulk terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
12.7 Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531

12.7.1 If possible choose a statically determinate system for the
superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
12.7.2 Good curing restricts shrinkage cracks during construction . . . . . . . 532
12.7.3 Prevent crack formation between structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
12.7.4 Take the necessary care in detailing the superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . 533
12.7.5 Be aware of the accumulation of tolerances in prefabricated
elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
12.8 Berthing equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

12.8.1 Both quay and fendering must be robust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
12.9 Bottom protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536

12.9.1 Bottom protection should be designed for the expected devel-
opments in shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
12.9.2 Scouring in front of the quay can endanger its stability . . . . . . . . . . . 537
12.10 Drainage and dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538

12.10.1 The design of a quay drainage system requires a careful soil
investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
12.10.2 Prevent the flooding of building pits by careful deep well
drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
500
Quay walls
12.10.3 Prevent spring formation and runoff of sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

12.10.4 Stop in time if a central jet pipe is used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
12.11 Deformations of quay structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

12.11.1 Monitoring of siltation under a gravity wall prevents danger-
ous sliding planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
12.11.2 Groundwater under excess pressure must be removed as soon
as possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
12.11.3 The theoretical sliding plane is not always normative . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
12.11.4 Careful positioning and sand tightness are crucial to a block
wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
12.12 Back fill and dredging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

12.12.1 Analyze the loads that occur in each phase of the construction . . . . 543
12.12.2 Take deformations into account when specifying tolerances . . . . . . . 544
12.13 Earthquake zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

12.13.1 In earthquake zones specialist knowledge is required . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
12.14 Working in an aggressive tropical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

12.14.1 Reinforced concrete in warm seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
12.14.2 Take aggressive environments into consideration during con-
struction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
12.14.3 Steel in warm seawater needs extra protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
12.15 Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

12.15.1 Quality assurance and communication are very important . . . . . . . . 549
12.16 Wise use of the quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
501
Collision damage.
502
Quay walls
Chapter 12
LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE
12.1 You can’t make an omelette without breaking eggs

During their professional careers all designers and contractors encounter challenges and
pitfalls and the associated successes and failures and setbacks. It is inevitable that when
new concepts are under development and the boundaries are being extended, unexpected
difficulties will arise. Often it turns out that a carefully thought-out and updated design is
far from always a guarantee for problem-free construction or damage-free serviceability
lifetime.
Over the years a great deal has been learned, not only because there has been a huge
increase in scale, but also because the high costs of constructing made it necessary to
optimize the structure. Many unexpected phenomena were investigated and one by one the
problems were solved by making new structures and by specially adapted ways of working.
As indicated in Chapter 6, first an analysis of various alternatives must be made on the

basis of:
• Construction costs and construction time

• Costs of management and maintenance
• Construction risks
• Robustness, susceptibility to catastrophes and overloading, settlement and imposed
deformations;
• Clear understanding of the interaction of forces in the structure
• Durability
The choice of the structures must be based upon these items.
In this chapter a number of lessons from experience are discussed. Each section gives a brief
description of events that led to the evaluation of the design or construction and indicates
how the problems encountered were solved. After this the lessons that can be drawn from
this experience are recapitulated. When the description is being read it is advisable to keep
in mind the definition of experience that is traditionally used: “Experience is the slowly
growing awareness that however many errors have already been made there will always be
room for new ones.”
503
12.2 Soil investigations

Investigation is often quite wrongly placed at the bottom of the list. It appears that many
problems arise because the preliminary investigation is too brief or carelessly carried out.
A good analysis of the results of the tests is essential. The examples below testify to this.
12.2.1 Economizing on soil investigations often leads to extra costs

The problems caused by inadequate soil investigation usually come to light only when it
is too late. For example only after the installation of a sheet pile screen and the first phase
of the fill operation did it emerge that the sheet pile wall was unstable in an unanchored
situation. Further investigation indicated that the foundation under the fill material differed
from what had been assumed in the design. Although penetration tests were made at
intervals of about 30 m, the soil investigation was not adequate. It appeared that precisely
between two penetrations tests there was an old channel that had later silted up. This was
a clear and conclusive explanation for the problem; but it came too late. Armed with this
knowledge in advance, a better soil investigation would have been carried out.
A second example concerns the design and construction of a new deepwater port in North
Africa. The plan was to build jetties for the loading of gas and oil on the inner side of
the breakwater. Here the water was so deep that the available equipment for offshore soil
investigations could not work at the required depth. To avoid further high investigation costs
it was decided to extrapolate the available information about the nature of the bottom and
the progression of the soil layers. This led to the conclusion that no unusual foundation
problems were to be expected. In fact, during the construction of the first part of the
breakwater large quantities of quarry run and rock armour disappeared in an inexplicable
way. From a later investigation it emerged that the seabed consisted of an old riverbed filled
with tens of metres of soft silt. Eventually the decision was made to shorten the planned
breakwater by about 70 m. After completion of the work it became apparent that changing
the plan had had big adverse effects on the wave penetration. A thorough soil investigation,
in combination with a geological investigation, would have prevented all this trouble.
Lesson learned:
It is of decisive importance that before, or in addition, to the normal investigation, a
detailed investigation is carried out using historical, geological and soil data and that as
much background information as possible is collected.
12.2.2 Be prepared for misleading information when using closed tubular piles
A new quay wall was designed for very heavy loads. This caused the designers to decide to
use closed tubular piles for the quay wall. However vibrating or driving the intermediate
piles to depth was actually considerably more difficult than might have been expected from
the results of the soil investigation. This was caused by the compaction of the soil between
the piles by the installation of the closed tubular piles, so the intermediate piles encountered
extremely high pile driving resistance. The sheet piles ran out of the interlocks and were
crumpled over a certain height. To allow the intermediate piles to thread into position on
504
Quay walls
one side only, pieces of the interlock (ca. 10 cm.) were burnt off. Later it appeared that
this actually contributed to the piles running out of the interlocks. The problems were
finally solved by supplementary soil investigations after driving of the tubular piles, and
a modified installation method for the intermediate piles with pre-drilling and jetting.
Lesson learned:
In-situ results of soil investigations are often inadequate to assess the drivability of closed
tubular piles. As a result of the installation of closed tubular piles, the packing and the
resistance of the foundation in the direct proximity of the pile are considerably changed.
For good pile driving predictions the data of the original soil structure must be interpreted
on the basis of the anticipated compaction.
12.2.3 When determining soil parameters take the design into account
Geotechnical advice on the determination of soil parameters is based on standard tests.
However this can lead to serious problems if the soil investigations and the determination
of parameters are not related to the design. From the design it is known which failure
mechanisms will be considered and which stress and deformation behaviour is important.
The question then is: which stress behaviour will occur and how will a critical failure
plane run? For example under a caisson a direct shear test may provide more reliable
information than the standard triaxial test. These considerations must also be included in
the deliberations.
Lesson learned:
When choosing the soil model, parameters and tests to be carried out, the situation must be
considered in both the construction and the serviceability phases. For this it is necessary
to take into account the orientation of the stress conditions that will actually occur. On this
basis, the tests chosen must be those that most closely approach the anticipated behaviour
for both direction and stress level.
12.2.4 Investigation of the existing situation when linking to an

existing structure
When the quay wall is connected to an existing structure, often the old drawings of these
structures are used. Sometimes, as time progresses, deformations have occurred. Possibly
corrections in height have also been carried out, so that the theoretical height and position
are no longer accurate. The only option is to determine the correct situation by carefully
measuring the existing structure before starting operations. If this is not done, problems
with the linking of the structures may occur during construction.
Lesson learned:
When connections with existing structures are being made these structures must always
be accurately measured. Possible difference in stiffness must be taken into consideration
when the connection between the old structure and the new one is being designed.
505
12.2.5 Interpolation of soil layers can prove fatal

The installation of piles and sheet pile walls into the ground may perhaps be difficult,
but sometimes the opposite is true. In this case the piles settle much deeper than the soil
investigation would suggest. This happened on a site where a large number of open tubular
piles were installed from the waterside; through their self-weight they settled 4 tot 10 m
deep in the soft silt layers that had formed on the irregular rocky bottom. Two causes were
recognized. In the first place it appeared that a much bigger over depth had been dredged.
About 1.75 more was dredged than was given in the design. Moreover the design was
based on the interpolation of soil data from boreholes and penetration tests that were too
far apart. As a result the thickness of the silt layer was not properly recorded.
Welding a length of 2 to 4 m onto each pile solved the problems. Furthermore, it was
decided to compensate the loss of passive earth pressure for the quay by discharging a 1 m
thick layer of riprap in front of the quay wall. To prevent squeezing of the compacted silt,
sand drains were made in the seabed. In this way the consolidation of the soft bottom was
accelerated. By taking these measures more serious problems were avoided.
Lesson learned:
Here too, it appears that the interpolation of soil layers brings great risks. The cost of extra
soil investigations is soon balanced against the risks of having too little data. Moreover, this
project shows that good monitoring of the correct execution of dredging work is essential.
Cone Cone
penetration penetration
Sediment
silt layer
Rock bed
Fig. 12.1 Interpolation of soil layers.
12.2.6 Local conditions should determine the nature of investigations

Although the deep cone penetration test (CPT) is the most frequently used test in soil
investigations in the Netherlands and in many other countries, in many parts of the world
different instruments are used. The deep penetration instrument is a good tool and, in
506
Quay walls
combination with laboratory tests, generates almost all the information that is required for
foundation problems, but it is also an instrument that is only suitable for use in relatively
soft soil. There are many areas where deep penetration instruments cannot be used. In
hard soil it is necessary to use pulse or rotary drilling equipment in combination with
Standard Penetration Tests (SPTs) in order to obtain the desired information. A shallow
seismic investigation often provides an excellent, reliable representation of the nature of
the ground over a wider area. This can be conducted from land or water. The seismic
investigation is combined with a limited number of deep penetration tests. For detailed
information about soil properties and to calibrate the seismic data, supplementary drilling
is necessary. The seismic information shows the soil layers and prevents deviations within
a coarse network of boreholes from going unnoticed.
Lesson learned:
Soil investigations must be suited to the local conditions. Geophysical techniques like
seismic and geo-electrical measurement are of great importance to the interpretation of
penetration tests [12.16].
12.2.7 The influence of a quay wall can extend to great depths

When two new quay walls were under construction great attention was paid to suscepti-
bility to earthquakes, but this led to the settlement behaviour of the deep substrata being
disregarded. The strict American standards were declared applicable to the seismic loads.
Down to a depth of approx. 30 m the substrata consists of weak clay and silt layers. The
quay consists of a heavy combined wall, anchored in an anchor wall. To withstand the high
seismic load, soil improvement was used to ca 1 metre under the foot of the combined
wall. To this depth the clay and silt layers were replaced by gravel and riprap. In this way
the back-fill of the quay was quickly installed to the desired level.
During finishing of the horizontal concrete capping beam and the paving of the area,
very big settlements soon occurred. In a short time the quay wall settled 30 to 90 cm.
The concrete capping beam was seriously damaged; the heavy I-beams distorted and
the expansion joints were 15 cm open. From investigations it emerged that the defor-
mation over the length of the quay walls closely followed the ground profile. Analysis
of the events showed that the great thickness of the fill material of sand and stone
had caused the settlements. The backfill led to settlements in the weak soil layers at
the level of 20 to 30 metres beneath the new ground surface. The design was entirely
focussed on seismic activity, but the settlement behaviour of the deeper ground layers was
overlooked.
The structure itself was greatly over-dimensioned and the flexibility of the design was
sufficient, so the big settlements have not led to extra stresses in the structure. The chosen
solution was to permit the quay to settle for some years until around 90% of the primary
settlement had occurred. The intention is to allow the quay to recover and then to raise it
to the required level, to which end light fill material will be used.
507
Lesson learned:
When a quay wall is being designed, the effects of fill and soil improvement on compressible
soil layers at greater depths must not be neglected, because these can give rise to big
settlements in the area surrounding it.
1.70
2.15
Tie rod
Dredged material
Anchor wall
Combined –3.70
wall Gravel
.5
1:1
–9.15 Dredging line
Stone
–13.50 Silty clay
–17.50
Very weak layers from –18.00 to –28.00
Fig. 12.2 Cross-section of quay wall with soil improvement and backfill founded on weak layers.
12.2.8 Influence of method of construction

In many cases quay walls are built on the existing land and after construction a harbor will
be dredged. In case of a renewal of the harbor, sometimes the new sheet pile wall is placed
into the existing harbor and backfilled. The difference in these execution methods leads to
different behavior of the quay wall.
This can be understood by examining the stress paths of the soil at the passive and active
side of the sheet pile wall. In case of an excavation on the active side the vertical stress
remains the same. In the case of a backfilled sheet pile wall the vertical stress increases. On
the passive side the vertical stress decreases because of excavation, but remains the same
when the backfill method is used. The different stress paths result in a different stiffness
behaviour.
For the design of simply supported or cantilever sheet pile walls the subgrade reaction
method is often used, as shown in Chapter 6.6.3 In this method the soil stiffness is char-
acterised by the subgrade reaction modulus, see Table 6.21. This table is based on the
experience with excavation of building pits.
508
Quay walls
This Table cannot be used in the case of a backfilled sheet pile wall. Using the values
mentioned in the Table 6.21 lead to a substantial underestimate of the bending moments
and anchor forces.
It is advised to use the FEM method when designing a backfilled sheet pile wall. With this
method the correct stiffness behavior at active and passive side can be simulated.
Lesson learned:
When designing a backfilled sheet pile wall then the use of FEM (see section 6.6.4) is
advised.
12.3 Combined walls

The principle of combined walls is described in Chapter 3. The problems of these quay
walls emerge during construction. The examples below illustrate this.
12.3.1 Give the straight web profiles of a composite box pile adequate
buckling stiffness
Increases in the scale of quays in the 1970s led to the use of box-shaped vertical elements:
box piles consisting of two welded sheet pile wall profiles and two straight web profiles.
These were the bearing elements that were introduced into the ground first. Later interme-
diate piles were installed between these manufactured rectangular box piles. These had to
provide the soil tightness of the wall. During the installation of the box piles it appeared
that the corner welds by which the straight web profiles were attached cracked. Investi-
gations indicated that the high transverse stresses in the welds were caused by high loads
during driving. This could be solved by providing the straight web profiles with stiffen-
ers to prevent buckling. The fill welds were also strengthened. Later designs were based
on composite box piles with pre-formed straight web profiles to increase the buckling
stiffness.
Another problem with the use of composite box piles was the dimensional stability of the
foot. To minimize the penetration resistance the foot of the box pile was not fitted with
transverse bracings. The intention of the designer was to install the box pile as deeply as
possible by vibration. In order to achieve the bearing capacity that is required to reach
the necessary plug formation, only the last few metres should be driven. The contractor
proposed the alternative of using a hydro-block with which the piles could be brought to
the required depth in a controlled way. This turned out to be a poor choice. Through the
pile driving and the associated plug formation and stresses in the transverse direction at
right angles to the axis of the pile, the foot of the pile was already deformed to a circular
cross section in an early stage. The deformations of the box piles were so large that the
intermediate sheet piles ran out of the interlocks. Transverse bracing in the foot of the pile
eventually provided a solution. It also appeared that the original concept of using vibration
and then driving the piles for a few metres, which was required for the bearing capacity,
509
was feasible. From measurements made with inclination meters, it appeared that in the
transverse direction the pile foot was deformed by only a few centimetres.
2000
Straight web profile

Weld Weld on head
12 mm thick
650
a=8 and foot end

length 1 m
Original design
Stiffening Preformed straight

plate web profile
1000
Modified designs
Fig. 12.3 Combined wall of built up box piles with intermediate piles.
Lesson learned:
In 1985 these problems were finally overcome when tubular piles could be used for com-
bined quay walls. This was possible because at that time separate interlocks could be welded
onto the tubular piles. With these interlocks a good link can be formed between tubular
piles and interlocks. This solution, which is also called a combi-wall, is both technically
and economically more attractive than composite box piles.
12.3.2 The deformation capacity of intermediate piles must be adequate

When intermediate piles are being installed in a combined wall the distance between the
tubular piles is critical. If this distance is a little smaller or longer than the theoretical
dimension, the sheet piles are compressed or stretched and the interlock friction may
become so high that the pile runs out of the interlock. Small variations in the positions
of the primary elements are almost inevitable. Therefore single intermediate piles are
unsuitable for the greater lengths, since they have insufficient deformation capacity to
follow local deviations. The result is that single intermediate piles run out of interlocks.
For the design it is better to choose double or triple intermediate piles with sufficient
deformation capacity. The intermediate piles are linked to each other and installed as
single units between the primary elements. Applying extra stiffeners to the sheet pile, for
510
Quay walls
Deformed box pile
instance to accommodate an extra interlock, should be avoided because they prevent the
sheet piles from following the small irregularities in the interlocks that exist.
Lesson learned:
Intermediate piles must have sufficient deformation capacity to follow the unavoidable
local displacements of the tubular piles. Double or triple sheet piles can provide this
deformation capacity, applying any kind of stiffener should be avoided.
12.3.3 The dimensional stability of intermediate piles must be high enough

To follow the local positional deviations, intermediate piles in a combi-wall must have not
only sufficient deformation capacity, but also sufficient dimensional stability to prevent
them from running out of the interlocks. This was experienced in the constructions of
a combi-wall for a big quay in which multiple intermediate piles were used to obtain
sufficient deformation capacity. After the installation of the piles damage to interlocks
resulted in many gaps being observed in the sheet piling. Analysis of the damage indicated
that if an intermediate pile bends slightly near the foot it will be more or less ‘launched’
when driven further and it is almost impossible for the system to correct this action. If the
stiffness of the intermediate piles in the lateral direction is low, they will continue to follow
511
the original direction when they are driven further down. If they deviate by a fraction, they
will run out of the interlocks. The dimensional stability must be high enough to prevent this.
Weld a = 6
2-sided
200
Weld a = 6
Both interlocks:
2-sided
Punching (3 per m1) or
chain welds (2200 mm per m1)
2-sided a = 6
1000
100
To be threaded
at staggered
heights
Fig. 12.4 Welding of intermediate piles.
Lesson learned:
It is very important that the bending stiffness of the pile foot of the intermediate piles in
the length direction is as high as possible. On the other hand the welding of intermediate
piles must be limited as much as possible and if welding is necessary it must be carried
out symmetrically, since welding implies deformation. A good compromise is reached by
welding the interlocks of triple intermediate piles on the underside over a height of 1.0 m,
with a weld of 6 mm. For a better distribution of forces at the top of intermediate piles it
is advisable to weld the pinched interlocks with 6 mm welds over a distance of 200 mm.
The piles are then installed as a single unit. To make it easier to install intermediate piles,
the interlocks of tubular piles must be installed at staggered heights of 50 to 100 mm. This
is better than staggering the interlocks of intermediate piles, because the tip of the sheet
pile cannot be burnt off, since that causes cracking. Intermediate piles can find the first
interlock on one side of the tubular pile and then, after dropping slightly, reach the second
interlock.
512
Quay walls
12.3.4 Accuracy is essential to prevent interlock damage

During the construction of a combined sheet pile wall one of the most important points is
the completely accurate positioning of primary piles and intermediate piles. If the sheet
pile wall is not entirely closed, washout and settlements will follow. The difficulty is that
unnoticed interlock damage may occur during the installation process, so it is important
to check for interlock damage. It is even more important to prevent gaps from occurring.
Interlock damage may occur if box piles are deformed or tubular piles may rotate during
installation as a result of inaccurate positioning or too powerful pile driving. As a result,
the installation of the intermediate piles is more difficult and interlock damage may occur.
Lesson learned:
• The sequence of pile driving is important: experience teaches that displacement of
the soil and compaction during driving may cause dimensional deviation. See the
prescribed pile driving sequence in the EAU, [32].
• In all cases, during installation of the piles extra attention must be paid to accurate
positioning. The first few metres are critical, since at this stage it is still possible to
introduce corrections. A pile-driving frame is an aid to very accurate positioning of
piles. A pile-driving frame must always be used for combi-walls. This also prevents
rotation of spirally welded tubular piles.
• Moreover, during positioning of the piles the inclination must be accurately monitored
and controlled during the installation process.
Sheared off interlock.
12.3.5 Vibrating hammer and double jet pipe prevent installation problems with
intermediate piles
Intermediate piles must penetrate sufficiently deep into the bottom to avoid piping. If the
piles do not reach the desired depth expensive measures must be taken to lengthen the
wall by means of a double wall behind or in front of the wall or by grout columns. It is
necessary to think ahead about gearing the weight of the pile not only to the subsoil, but
also to the length of the piles and the capacity and amplitude of the vibrating hammer. If
the pile has too little mass the energy from the vibrating hammer does not reach to the tip
of the intermediate pile. A vibrating hammer must have maximum amplitude and a low
frequency. The shape and dimensions of interlocks of intermediate piles and tubular piles
513
Interlock sensor.
also play a role. Although some free play is necessary for driving, the interlocks must be
firmly engaged. This hold good for light interlocks but even interlocks with a wedge-like
shape may lose grip after a few metres of pile driving or after a few blows, because this
shape may induce the development of extra resistance.
In addition the installation method, driving or vibration, plays an important role. In sandy
soils with high cone resistances the piles are usually installed by vibration until they become
firmly positioned. After this a change is made to vibration with simultaneous jetting at the
interlocks. The stresses are often so high that the interlocks are burnt during vibration. This
can be prevented by using double jet pipes at the interlocks of the tubular pile. Possibly
the interlocks can also be predrilled.
Lesson learned:
Multiple intermediate piles used in combined walls must be installed into sandy soil by
vibration and jetting while making sure that the jet pipe does not extend below the tip
of the intermediate pile. If it is not possible to install the piles any deeper by vibration,
only the last few metres may be driven. If a jet pipe cannot provide a satisfactory result,
pre-drilling may provide an option, especially if there are clay layers and obstacles in the
subsoil. With interlock sensors it is possible to determine whether the links between the
primary piles and intermediate piles are damaged.
12.3.6 Take into account the loads during construction

During construction of the combi-wall in an outer harbour, a break occurred in a number
of tubular piles at the moment that the still-freestanding combi-wall was loaded by high
514
Quay walls
Double jet pipe.
a Width of overlap
b1 a1
b Interlock opening
a2 b2
Grip a1 b2 4
a2 b1 4
Fig. 12.5 Grip of sheet pile interlocks.
waves. These tubular piles were built up from sections with different wall thickness. The
piles had withstood relatively heavy wave forces for a considerable time and a number of
piles appeared to have broken at the position of the butt weld. The causes were:
• Butt welds in an unfavourable position, with high stresses during the execution phase
• The type of weld was unsuited to dynamic loads, as a result of which peaks in the
stresses occurred
515
t1
Inner side of tubular pile
2
30°
1:4
3
30°
t2 Fig. 12.6 Butt weld on tubular pile.
Lesson learned:
During construction it is necessary to take into account the possible loads, including
fatigue of the material. Joints should be placed in a cross section where stresses are low.
It is necessary to ensure that the detailing is carefully carried out.
12.3.7 Vertical loads induce horizontal loads and deformations

Horizontal displacements found on the upper side of bearing sheet pile walls are often
greater than expected from calculations. For a quay with crane rails this might affect the
functioning and maintenance of the crane rails. One of the possible causes is the relatively
weak load settlement behaviour of open tubular piles. In fact, the bearing capacity of open
tubular piles is dependent on both the end bearing capacity and the wall friction on the
inner and outer sides of the pile. The maximum wall friction is developed by settlements
of approx. 10 millimetres. However, the maximum point resistance for failure is reached
only with a settlement of the pile tip of approx. 10% of the pile diameter, which is often
more than 10 centimetres, see Sections 12.4.4 and ref. NEN 9997-1 and [4]. If the bearing
capacity is largely based on plug formation, it is very probable that the maximum wall
friction under normal service load is entirely mobilized. Thus, at that moment the angle of
the active wall friction has become zero. With settlement greater than 10 mm it is even nec-
essary to calculate with a negative wall friction angle. In consequence, the active effective
stress increases greatly. In fact the wall begins to ‘hang on the ground’. If the horizontal
effective stress increases, both the anchor forces and the bending moments increase and
the safety of the stability of the structure is reduced. The first visible signs are horizontal
displacements. The vertical equilibrium is not usually checked in sheet pile wall designs,
but it is recommended that this be done for bearing sheet pile walls in EAU 2012 [32].
Lesson learned:
To limit settlement to a few millimetres, the bearing capacity of an open tubular pile should
derive largely from the wall friction. It is advisable to check the vertical equilibrium and
516
Quay walls
the load settlement behaviour of the wall, taking into account the results of sheet pile wall
calculations.
12.3.8 The forces on the base plates of closed tubular piles are bigger
than expected
In a number of tubular piles with closed tips it appeared that water was enclosed in the piles.
The base plates were welded into the tubular piles to generate sufficient vertical bearing
capacity. From inspections it emerged that in addition to the water in the pile, often soil had
also entered. The base plates proved to be loose inside the pile at a considerable distance
above the underside of the pile. In this case relatively thin plates had been used with
bracing plates welded to the top. The welds were under-dimensioned and poorly executed.
The bracing plates had become loose, and then bulged up in such a way that they could
move up in the pile shafts. Solid base plates of more than sufficient thickness appeared to
provide a solution.
Original design Modified design
Fig. 12.7 Base plate of tubular pile.
Lesson learned:
Modelling and calculation of a base plate in a tubular pile is more complex than appears
at first sight. Heavy and protracted pile driving can cause bending of the base plate and
fatigue of the welds. It is necessary to over-dimension the base plate and welds.
12.3.9 Pay attention to higher rates of corrosion

For a long time the rate of corrosion of unprotected underwater steel structures was under-
estimated. During the last two or three decades an aggressive form of bacterial corrosion
has appeared in a number of seaports. In extreme cases this accelerated low water cor-
rosion’ (ALWC) has led to a loss of thickness of 3 mm/year and more. These values are
much higher than those for which most quay walls were designed. In most cases EAU
2012 [32] values 1996 were used giving an underwater corrosion rate on the waterside of
0.05 mm/year. ALWC occurs in the area between a few metres below LW and the top level
517
of the splash zone. Possible causes are ships making more use of bow thrusters, as a result
of which more oxygen enters the water, and different kinds of steel, while the quality of
the water may also play a role.
Lesson learned:
A higher rate of corrosion than was previously recommended must be taken into considera-
tion. When determining the soil tightness for the intermediate piles it is advisable to use the
highest rate of corrosion, while for the determination of the strength of the bearing elements
the average corrosion rate can be used. It is important to take into account experience in
the area in question. The sheet pile wall can be protected from corrosion by extra thickness,
protective coating, or cathodic protection, or by a combination of these measures.
12.3.10 Transmission of forces between the elements

of the structure is essential
Considerable damage occurred to a container terminal as a result of the combination
of incorrect evaluation of the consistency of the subsoil and incorrect assumption of a
structural relation between the various structural elements. The structure of the substrata
consisted of weak clay and silt layers with thixotropic properties. In such clays the natural
water content of the clay is almost equal to the uppermost plasticity limit according to the
Atterberg limits, which means that it is sensitive to environmental changes, changes from
saline to fresh water and vibrations. Any of these may cause sudden loss of the cohesion
of the soil. The quay consisted of a relatively short steel sheet pile wall. A row of tubular
piles was installed about one metre behind this sheet pile wall. The front crane track was
founded on these steel tubular piles, which were structurally connected to the concrete
capping beam on the sheet pile wall. In this way, according to the designers, the structure
would be similar to a combi-wall. The entire structure was anchored by a series of anchor
walls that were placed one behind the other and which obtained their equilibrium from
the weak subsoil. The maximum surcharge on the quay wall was 80 kN/m. To meet the
strict settlement and deformation requirements it was decided that a relieving platform
founded on piles should be installed between the crane rails. During the installation of
these piles the quay wall began to lean forwards with a maximum horizontal displacement
of ca. 80–90 cm on top of the quay wall.
An analysis of the loads that occurred showed that the pile driving activities had led to
excess pore pressure in the clay, possibly combined with local flows of the clay, thus causing
an extra horizontal action, which the structure could not withstand. It was also concluded
that the foremost sheet pile wall and the tubular piles could certainly not function as a
combi-wall because the connection was inadequate. Moreover it emerged that the series of
anchor walls exerted too much influence on each other, resulting in big deformations. This
can be compared with sheet pile walls placed too close to each other in a cofferdam. The
overturning mechanism was not taken into account in the design. Moreover the anchor
tendon was placed on the upper side of the anchor walls and not in the middle, which
caused big deformations in the anchorage. Later it appeared that the design was based
on model calculations with a framework program in which the behaviour of the soil was
518
Quay walls
incorrectly schematized. Solutions were found for the remaining part of the quay by using
cast in situ concrete piles instead of prefabricated piles as a foundation for the relieving
platform. A pile trestle was constructed over the anchor wall in order to fix the anchor
screen in position.
30.0
0.8 2.5 15.25 3.0 3.0
3.05 Tie rods
ø63.5 +2.45
+0.60
Concrete piles
Steel sheet
350/400
pile wall
7.90
Concrete piles ø450 Pile trestle over
cast in situ anchor wall
3:1
3:1
14.20
20.00
22.00
Steel tubular piles
26.00 25.45
ø1020x11 / ø1220x12
25.25 Steel tubular piles
29.00
ø1020x11/12
Fig. 12.8 Cross-section of quay wall with modifications during construction.
Lesson learned:
Design the structure in such a way that the loads that occur during construction can be
transmitted to the subsoil. Ensure that there is clear insight into the properties and bearing
capacity of the subsoil at various depths.
12.3.11 Wedge sheet pile

Recently a large wedge sheet pile was used to connect a new quay wall perpendicular with
an existing quay wall. Since the combi-wall of existing old quay wall was under an angle,
a wedge sheet pile “spieplank” was necessary to connect both quay walls properly. The
heavy wedge sheet pile was composed with the sheet piles placed in a vertical lay-out
but the entire wedge sheet pile “spieplank” was placed in the direction of the inclined old
combi-wall. The entire area in which the wedge sheet pile would be placed was completely
liquefied. However the wedge sheet pile k did not reached the desired and designed depth.
This was mainly caused by the orientation of the sheet piles. It appeared that is essential
that the sheet piles are placed in the direction of movement. This was not done and this
resulted in dragging a 40 cm thick steel object trough liquefied ground instead of a nicely
shaped profile of 15 mm thickness.
519
Lesson learned:
Wedge sheet piles should always be positioned in the direction of movement
12.3.12 Monitoring
Current practices in Rotterdam is to apply fiber glass monitoring under the relief platform.
This fiber makes it possible to register settlements causes by interlock openings or other
damage at a very early stage. This monitoring system should be operational before the
dredging works start. This increases the safety but also prevent the glass fibers to break as
a result of a leakage of soil underneath the relieving floor of the quay wall.
12.4 Pile foundations

One of the most difficult aspects in the design of both prefab piles and piles cast in situ is
the way in which deformations occurring in the soil and in the quay must be taken in to
account. This is shown by a number of examples.
12.4.1 The pile tip must not be influenced by deformation of the soil
or sheet pile wall
Misplaced economy led to a design with short piles for the construction of a quay. However,
big settlements and horizontal displacements soon appeared towards the waterside resulting
from the pile point being in the wedge of the active soil pressure. Problems arose because
during dredging free, the sheet pile wall settled a little and local relaxation of the soil
occurred. Since the level of the pile points lies in the area that is influenced by the sheet
pile wall, the bearing capacity of the piles was considerably reduced. Horizontal anchoring
with grout anchors and anchors with an anchor wall were used to solve the problems.
Lesson learned:
The pile points of bearing piles must be far enough outside the active wedge of the soil
mass behind the sheet pile wall. This ensures that adequate bearing capacity is retained.
Concrete
Settlement of bearing pile
sheet pile wall
Active earth
pressure
Combined
wall
Fig. 12.9 Cross-section of quay wall with pile tip
in the wedge of the active earth pressure.
520
Quay walls
12.4.2 Prevent pile driving problems with prefab piles by using adequate
pile spacing
During the construction of a large ore quay, problems arose when driving the concrete
tension and bearing piles of the pile trestle system. This system was formed by three or
four rows of bearing piles and 2 rows of tension piles at an inclination of 3:1. To bear the
great loads of this quay, the piles were much heavier and longer than those used in previous
situations, while the space between the piles was less than in earlier designs. Owing to the
concentration of the pile system, the bearing sand layer between the piles was compacted
and pile driving was a very laborious process. Moreover, the concentration of piles and
arching effects of the sand between the piles resulted in the formation of a theoretical
second sheet pile wall screen. In fact, this meant a reduction in the relieving effect of the
relieving platform.
Lesson learned:
The effect of a concentrated pile lay out on the installation of the piles must be taken into
account in the design phase. The spacing within the pile field must therefore be as open
as possible. This can be achieved, for example, by choosing piles with greater bearing
capacity, and placing them further apart. The inclination of the piles can also be modified.
Fictive
screen
Fictive
Arch
screen
action
Pefab
concrete piles
Fig. 12.10 Soil arching between concrete piles of a pile trestle system.
12.4.3 Prevent problems when driving prefab piles by using

an adequate procedure
An incorrect pile driving sequence can cause problems. This occurred during construction
of a quay wall with a reinforced concrete deck above a relatively steep slope. The deck was
mainly supported by vertical piles. During construction the contractor decided to install the
piles in rows in the longitudinal direction of the quay: first the front row, followed by the
second and third rows, and so on. Owing to the local condition of the soil, in combination
with the slope, the piles already installed on the harbour side had too little resistance. As
a result of displacement of the soil, the newly driven piles caused too much pressure on
the first row. Before the uppermost row was reached, the first row of piles was leaning
so far forward that they had to be withdrawn and re-installed. If the reverse pile driving
sequence, from top to bottom, had been followed there would have been fewer problems.
521
Lesson learned:
During construction attention must be paid to the pile driving sequence. The pile driving
resistance, and with this the number of blows, and pile driving time should be reduced.
12.4.4 Only drive the last few metres of open tubular piles
When piles must pass through soil layers with high penetration resistance it is not easy to
install them and, as a result, many projects have reached a state of stagnation. As the pile
driving depth increases, the problem of getting the piles to the required depth also continues
to increase, certainly in firm sandy subsoil. This is true not only for closed tubular piles,
but also for open tubular piles. Pile driving causes compaction of sand around and inside
the pile. This means that the pile driving process becomes increasingly difficult. To prevent
this problem, the pile must be installed as far as possible by using vibration techniques.
To achieve plug formation it is important to install the last metres of the pile by driving.
The plug can resist upward directed forces, thus providing the pile with greater bearing
capacity. According to a general rule of thumb, plug formation occurs in firm sand at a
penetration depth of 8 to 10 times the diameter of the tube see [4] and NEN EN 9997-1.
Lesson learned:
Vibration causes less soil stress round the pile and reduces the negative skin friction. The
last part of the pile must be driven in order to increase plug formation in the pile.
12.4.5 The pile head of prefab concrete piles designed for heavy driving
In many projects prefabricated concrete piles with broken heads are encountered. Driving
piles in the Pleistocene sands with high cone resistances (>20 MPa) can lead to damage
caused by pile driving work with heavy blows and the associated blow count. When concrete
piles receive more than a thousand blows their tensile strength is very much reduced. If
damage emerges it is possible that the pile was too young and not sufficiently hardened. At
the beginning of the hardening process tensile strength develops more slowly than bearing
strength. For heavy pile driving work it is advisable to use concrete piles that are at least
two months old. Other causes of damage may be: inadequate reinforcement in the head,
pile driving that is too heavy or carelessly carried out, the use of the wrong pile hammer
or the filling of the driving helmet being eccentric.
Lesson learned:
The measures needed follow from the causes: make a pile driving analysis in advance.
Depending on the cone resistance, limit pile-driving depths in the Pleistocene to 2 or 3 m.
Give piles extra prestressing to prevent tensile stress if a clay layer is penetrated. Problems
can also be prevented with the aid of jetting with a central jet pipe in the pile, or by pre-
drilling in the Holocene beds. Detailing of the reinforcement of the head must be carefully
carried out and the pile must be at least 28 days old before it is driven. For heavy pile
driving work it is recommended that the piles should be 56 days old.
522
Quay walls
Concrete piles damaged during driving.
Concrete piles with central jet pipe.
523
12.4.6 Reclaimed harbour basins may have very loosely packed sand
For the construction of a new quay a harbour basin was partly reclaimed with sand. During
pile driving for the quay in the recently filled-in harbour serious problems occurred. The
loosely packed sand of the fill was compacted by the pile driving activity. This caused a
settlement of about 8% of the thickness of the layer. For inclined tubular piles this could
lead to a horizontal displacement towards the land side. Horizontal displacements of the
tubular piles amounting to approx. 35 cm were measured.
Lesson learned:
Deep compaction methods must be used to compact loosely packed sand. Only after
sufficient compaction can the piles be driven. Because of the high-density of the sand,
heavy pile driving must be expected. If it is anticipated that pile driving will give problems,
consideration can be given to installing the combi-wall vertically or to using temporary
anchoring to hold the tubular pile in position during driving.
12.4.7 Make use of local knowledge

The relation between soil parameters and drivability is dependent on the local situation.
Therefore it is advisable to consult experts with local experience. By using local knowledge
it is often possible to recognize local problems and thus prevent difficulties. The driving of
piles in the sharp sands of the dunes of the North Sea coast illustrates this. It appears that
it is necessary to use steel profiles of a suitable weight. Knowledge of local conditions at
an earlier stage would have prevented many problems.
Lesson learned:
To determine the drivability local experience is necessary. If this is not available experts
with local knowledge should be consulted.
12.4.8 Foundations in gravel are usually unpredictable

A second example also illustrates the value of local knowledge. The front wall a quay was
founded on short concrete piles to accommodate the expected loads from the crane. The
subsoil consisted of layers of gravel. Because heavy driving was anticipated, steel points
were fitted to the tips of the concrete piles. During driving it appeared that in fact the blow
counts were so low that doubts arose about the bearing capacity. Several test loads were
carried out. From these it appeared that the bearing capacity could be supplied. Better
information beforehand would have saved on costs.
Lesson learned:
It is necessary to acquire local information and ask questions to avoid the need to use this
type of expensive structure with steel points on the tips of concrete piles.
524
Quay walls
12
500
433
Steel
3 mm thick 60°
8
40
12
500
500 Fig. 12.11 Concrete pile with steel

point.
12.5 Relieving platform

With the introduction of the relieving platform new possibilities for increasingly large
structures arose, but it is necessary to be aware of pitfalls. In order to get the schematization
as close as possible to the actual behaviour of the structure it is important to prepare a
scheme in which the various functions can be divided and in which the elements of the
structure have clear functions.
12.5.1 The ground under the relieving platform must develop sufficient
shear stress
A quay with a relieving platform and a retaining height of 26.50 m was constructed on
the seacoast. After construction, regular inspections indicated that after one year the quay
wall had moved 1 to 2 cm forward. Moreover, the quay wall had also rotated backwards.
Further investigations revealed that this had been primarily caused by the influence of
a weak clay layer. A relieving platform is intended to reduce the active earth pressures
on the sheet pile wall. The horizontal earth pressures that act on a hypothetical vertical
plane directly behind the relieving platform are then higher than the earth pressures on
the sheet pile wall. In each horizontal cross-section the differences between the earth
pressures must be provided by shear stresses in the earth. Possible clay or silt layers
can supply the desired shear stresses only after large deformations. This means that both
the horizontal load on the pile system and anchorage and also the moments in the sheet
525
pile wall will be much higher. This problem was finally solved by installing horizontal
anchors.
16.55
4.5
+5.00
+4.00
43.0
NAP N.A.P.
2.50 Sheet pile wall
100:1
PSp 900S
Fictive screen
6:1
7.00
Ea
Sheet pile wall Extra anchoring
PSp 600S
Ead
3:1
3:1
Concrete piles
19.00/ 21.00
21.65 Clay layer
Resultant
shear forces
25.00/ 26.00
33.00/ 35.50
Fig. 12.12 Anchorage installed to ensure horizontal stability.
Lesson learned:
It is necessary to make a stability analysis of a deep lying, almost horizontal sliding plane
to check whether sufficient shear stress can develop in the earth mass under the relieving
structure to achieve the relieving function. If there is a weak clay layer and if the stiff
sheet pile wall is rigid, deformations in the clay layer might not be sufficient to provide
the required shear stress.
12.5.2 Base the calculation of deformation behaviour on the entire system

Problems arose when an existing quay moved forward under the influence of loads. The
quay, consisting of a diaphragm wall with a linked pile trestle system, showed large
continuous deformations. Extensive further soil investigations including water pressure
measurements and numerical calculations showed that there were three causes of the creep
behaviour of the quay:
• In a number of places the soil characteristics were less favourable than had been
assumed and one of the results of this was scouring of the bottom in front of the quay
• The excess water pressure was higher than had been anticipated
• The relatively thick clay layer caused creep strain in the heavily loaded tension piles
526
Quay walls
The problems were solved by installing a series of extra anchorages
Lesson learned:
It is necessary to make calculations in which the quay, relieving platform, pile trestle
system and soil are considered as a single structural system. Although there is sufficient
certainty in the calculation of each separate element of the structure, the system as a whole
reacts differently from the sum of the parts and is often too weak.
+6.00
+2.06
± 0.00
1.45
154mm
Diaphragm
Clay layer
wall
U x av
16.50
23.55
Cross-section of quay wall Measured horizontal deformation
Fig. 12.13 Creep behaviour of the subsoil can lead to considerable deformations.
12.6 Anchorage
Critical points in relation to the anchorage are corrosion and bending of the anchors caused
by earth loads. Anchorages with tension piles can become critical if the skin friction cannot
develop.
12.6.1 Prevent high earth loads on anchorages with tension piles

If tension piles or anchor tie rods are loaded under strain of bending this can lead to
problems. This happens, for example when the soil fill behind the sheet pile wall is placed
after installation of the anchors or tension piles. Through this, considerable earth pressures
act on the anchor rods, and especially on inclined tension piles. High loads on the area
behind the quay can also lead to unacceptable stresses in the anchor rods and tension piles,
often followed by unexpected big displacements. To prevent this, anchor rods and tension
piles must be equipped with hinges. For tension piles this is an expensive solution that
should be avoided whenever possible.
Lesson learned:
If backfill is carried out after construction, tension piles should not be used behind the
relieving platform unless measures are taken to prevent or reduce earth loads on the piles.
527
5.10
3.35 1.75
+5.00
1.50
NAP
Hinge structure
5:1
Combi-wall
MV-pile
12.00
43.5° / 46.5°
17.50
24.50 / 29.00
28.25 / 31.25
Fig. 12.14 Hinge construction in tension pile to reduce earth loads.
12.6.2 Ensure that negative skin friction is transmitted to the subsoil

From deformation measurements of a heavy ore quay it appeared that adverse continuous
horizontal deformations had occurred. Investigations indicated that over the years the
Surcharge by coal and ores.
528
Quay walls
MV-pile with stud shear connectors.
bearing piles had undergone big axial settlements of up to 250 mm. Among other things,
this was caused by the occurrence of negative skin friction on the tension piles that was
much greater than had been assumed in the design. The tension piles were founded above
a strongly compressible clay layer. Because of the heavy loads of ore big settlements
occurred in this clay layer, as a result of which the tension piles were loaded by negative
skin friction. This load was not efficiently transmitted to the subsoil. This extra tensile force
on the tension piles caused extra pressure on the bearing piles. Thus, via the relieving
platform the tension piles became ‘suspended’ from the bearing piles. The settlements
in the clay layer led via the pile trestle to very high loads on the bearing piles. The result
was that the bearing piles were overloaded and unacceptable settlement occurred. The
problems were solved by installing a horizontal anchorage, which relieved the pile trestle
system.
Lesson learned:
A precondition for the use of tension piles above a compressible soil layer is that the negative
skin friction can be transmitted to the subsoil. Therefore it is necessary to investigate
the possibility of the occurrence of settlements, for example, in consequence of high
surcharges. If such settlements are possible the tension piles must be founded in a deeper
529
Ore storage
16.55
4.5
+5.00
43.0 +4.00
NAP NAP
2.50 Sheet pile wall
PSp 600S
Negative skin 7.00
Sheet pile wall friction
Extra anchorage
PSp 600S
Tension pile
6:1
(too short)
3:1
3:1
Bearing
pile 19.00/ 21.00
21.65 Clay layer
25.00/ 26.00
+250mm
33.00/ 35.50
Fig. 12.15 Take over of the anchor forces of the pile trestle by horizontal anchorage.
non-compressible layer. The extra negative skin friction that occurs can then be transmitted
directly to the subsoil.
12.6.3 A good schematization prevent deformations of the anchor wall

When designing the anchor wall it is necessary to be aware of possible pitfalls. Given:
a conventional anchor wall, consisting of horizontal anchors and a vertical anchor plate.
With regard to the phreatic level, in the design the anchor rods are placed above the middle
of the anchor wall. With this eccentric positioning the soil resistance above the anchor
rods was lower than that under the anchor rods. This probably caused the anchor plate
to rotate forward resulting in big horizontal deformations in the sheet pile wall. Further
consideration indicated that the designer had included the soil resistance of the soil above
the anchor wall, as if the anchor wall continued to the ground surface. This is permitted
only if the passive resistance above the anchor wall can be taken up by the shear plane AA
of Figure 12.16. The full theoretical height can usually be calculated as h2 < 1.5 h1 . See
also CUR 166 Section 4.5.5 [30].
Lesson learned:
Within certain limits, it is acceptable to take into account the resistance of the earth above
the anchor wall. At greater depths of the upper side of the anchor wall under the ground
surface level an increasingly greater error is introduced.
530
Quay walls
Wrongly included
in the calculation
Shear plane A A
Fa h2
GWL
h1
Resultant
earth pressure
Fig. 12.16 Schematic anchor wall.
12.6.4 Horizontal anchor in soft soil

Horizontal anchors with a block and screen should not be used in soft soils as this type
of anchor might show very high creep rates and thus large horizontal displacements.
Especially when this type of anchor is cyclicly loaded behind the anchor screen.
12.6.5 Horizontal anchors and (break) bulk terminals

Horizontal anchors are an economical solution. But they are vulnerable to cyclic loading
behind the anchor screen. Cyclic applied loads behind the screen pushes a the screen and
therefore the quay wall towards the sea side. This is especially the case with loads higher
than designed for. This is unfortunately often the case at break-bulk of bulk terminals.
Container terminals provide more certainty due to the maximum allowed container weight
and the maximum stacking height on a terminal.
Secondly, anchor screens should always be placed in proper compacted sand. If good sand
is not available, the horizontal anchor should be avoided.
Lesson learned:
Only use horizontal anchors at container terminals with a densely packed sandy top layer
to place the screen. Never use a horizontal anchor at a break-bulk or bulk terminal.
12.7 Superstructure
The big dimensions of the usually concrete superstructures, combined with the heavy
permanent and variable loads and the often aggressive environment in seaports, make it
necessary to exercise due care in the execution of the concrete work.
531
12.7.1 If possible choose a statically determinate system for the superstructure

It is usually difficult to estimate the stiffness of the structure. More than once this has led
to unacceptably big deformations of the sheet pile wall. If the support of the superstructure
is statically determinate, the load of the foundation elements is independent of the stiffness
of the superstructure. However, this also has some disadvantages, because the distribution
of forces is limited. Choices must be determined from case to case.
Lesson learned:
The distribution of forces in the structure becomes clearer with a statically determinate
system. Moreover the differences in settlement of the foundation elements in the subsoil
can be better accommodated. This can be reached by mounting a hinged saddle on the
water side and a pile trestle support on the land side.
12.7.2 Good curing restricts shrinkage cracks during construction

The hardening process can be a critical factor and therefore must be carefully controlled.
In 1992 during the hardening process of a total of 53,000 m3 of concrete unacceptably
large shrinkage cracks developed. For the concrete the strength class B35 (C28/35) was
used in the environment class 5b. To ensure that the deck could withstand de-icing salt in
winter, environment class 5c was chosen for the top layer. The type of cement used was
blast furnace slag A, with a maximum of 320 kg/m3 . Despite the use of these low heat
cements to limit the hydration heat development and shrinkage as much as possible, the
shrinkage cracks in the deck were unacceptably large. The deck was repaired by applying a
rubber-bitumen cover layer or SAM-wearing course (Stress Absorbing Membrane). With
such a solution it is important to check that the crack does not penetrate through to the
underside of the structure. Water carrying cracks in combination with de-icing salts are
very destructive.
Lesson learned:
The composition and amount of cement, the temperature of the concrete slurry, the
water/cement ratio, the composition of the mixture, the outside temperature, a careful
execution, sufficient reinforcement and degree of curing all determine the final quality
of the concrete. To limit crack formation, cooling, a modified pouring sequence, shorter
casting lengths and more reinforcement can be used.
12.7.3 Prevent crack formation between structural elements

A well-known problem is crack formation between two structural elements. For example,
in the deck of a box structure unacceptably big cracks were detected when the wall and
the deck were poured separately. As a result of too big temperature differences and of
shrinkage during the hardening process, the tensile stresses in the last poured concrete
became too high resulting in crack formation.
532
Quay walls
Finishing concrete.
Lesson learned:
Stress criteria are important. Problems can be prevented by installing cooling systems, by
using a different type of cement (such as low heat blast-furnace cement), by pouring wall
and deck in one operation, or by using crack control reinforcement.
3 rd pouring
2 nd pouring 2 nd pouring
1 st pouring 1 st pouring
Fig. 12.17 Pouring sequence for relieving platform, box walls and deck.
12.7.4 Take the necessary care in detailing the superstructure

Often it is just the ‘little things’ that cause the biggest problems: these include construction
joints, expansion joints, finishing of the deck, wearing courses, degree of compaction,
discontinuities in the cross-section. A well-known example is crack formation and damage
to expansion joints. Cracks can result from incorrect positioning or from improper detailing
of expansion joints in a concrete capping beam on a sheet pile wall. This can be prevented
533
by coinciding the positioning of expansion joints in the concrete capping beam with the
positions of interlocks in the sheet pile wall and disconnecting a part of the sheet pile wall.
This prevents high tensile stresses in the concrete capping beam close to the expansion
joint.
In box structures expansion joints are often fitted with shear connectors to transmit the
transverse forces. Incorrect detailing or careless execution can result in serious damage, but
this can be prevented by making a support plane in the middle of the shear connector that
falls between the stirrups. In this way there are no stresses in the concrete cover, so flaking
of the concrete is prevented. Because of the high forces there is usually reinforcement with
a big diameter in a shear connector. These bars have a large bending radius and thus a
relatively large part of the decking remains without reinforcement. To get further into the
corners, reinforcement bars of small diameter could be added. Imposed deformations can
cause bigger forces in a shear connector than expected. Therefore it is wise to over dimen-
sion the reinforcement. Instead of a concrete shear connector a strong steel dowel can be
cast into the middle of the wall or floor. This too can prevent the problems mentioned above.
Sheet pile
wall
Compressible
material
Joint
Sheet pile
wall
Expansion joint in concrete capping beam
Cement fill Steel tubes
Joint ca.400
10
R = 5d
Reinforcement Joint
Concrete shear key Steel dowel

Shear connectors
Fig. 12.18 Details of expansion joint in concrete capping beam of sheet pile wall, shear key structure
and dowel construction.
534
Quay walls
Lesson learned:
Damage to shear connectors, corners and edges can be prevented by paying extra attention
to dimensioning, reinforcement and the shape of structures.
12.7.5 Be aware of the accumulation of tolerances in prefabricated elements

When various prefabricated elements are used it is necessary to take into account the
accumulation of allowable tolerances. Deviations of several centimetres can occur if the
prefabricated elements, each with its own tolerances, are placed upon each other without
the possibility of adjustment or correction. Because of this, it may happen that elements
assumed to have been placed in continuous contact, touch each other at only a few points,
as a result of which adverse peak stresses develop. Moreover, instead of a continuous quay
being created, many discontinuities might arise, so that the structure is not satisfactory from
an aesthetic point of view. This can be prevented by sufficiently thick supporting material,
construction felt or making a sufficiently thick mortar bed to even out imperfections. It is
better to cast some parts, such as the finishing of the upper surface of a deck, in situ.
Lesson learned:
The cumulative effects of tolerances must be taken into account when using prefabricated
elements. Although these are allowed by the standards, cumulative tolerances can cause
many problems. Sufficient options for adjustment and correction must be built in so that
deviations can be cancelled out, evened out, or otherwise corrected.
12.8 Berthing equipment

Berthing equipment, such as ladders and bollard recesses, berth line protection for the
quay, cable channels, fendering and fenders, is more vulnerable than might be assumed.
Details of this quay equipment must be carefully designed and constructed.
12.8.1 Both quay and fendering must be robust

In practice, during berthing manoeuvres the impacts of ships on a quay and berthing
equipment are greater than expected. This was shown during the serviceability phase of
a quay of an ore transhipment company, when berthing damage resulted in big costs for
the management. Not only was the fendering seriously damaged, but also even the sheet
pile wall was deformed. The cause was quickly clear. The designer had underestimated
the energy that is generated during berthing. The sheet pile wall structure with wooden
fendering was much too light in relation to the heavy loads during the berthing of push
barges. In such cases the structure must be very robust because the energy must primarily
be taken up by the ship’s hull. When designing energy-absorbing facilities such as fender
piles, whether or not provided with rubber fenders, it is necessary to be alert, because it
frequently occurs that berthing speeds are higher than the values that are stipulated in the
terms of reference. Information on the berthing velocities of ships may be obtained from
various sources. However, simply using these velocities creates a risk, if at the same time
the layout of the harbour basin is not investigated with regard to nautical factors such as
whether space and currents will allow sufficient reduction in the speed of the vessels.
535
Lesson learned:
The designer must ensure that the layout of the harbour basin is such that sufficient reduc-
tion in the speed of the ship is possible. Moreover, both fendering and quay must be robust.
With wooden fendering, care must be taken to ensure a good connection of the various
elements so that mooring cable or protective strips on the ships cannot catch on them.
When energy-absorbing fenders are used extra attention must be paid to secondary parts
such as suspension chains and fender plates. A robust design can prevent many problems
during use.
12.9 Bottom protection

Various considerations play a role in the determination of the weight and dimensions of
bottom protection.
12.9.1 Bottom protection should be designed for the expected developments in

shipping
The high speeds of jet flows from the main propellers and bow thrusters of berthing ships
cause scouring of the harbour bottom in front of the quay. If the bottom protection is not
adequate, scouring holes of several metres in depth can form. Not only does this reduce
the passive earth pressure, but soil can also wash out under the sheet pile wall. This was
observed in a combi-wall with intermediate piles that were too short. Big settlements
occurred in the area behind the sheet pile wall. If measures had not been taken in time,
the structure would probably have failed. Therefore, it is essential to decide whether a
bottom protection should be used. Without any protection scouring holes of several metres
in depth might develop. This must be taken into account in the design when choosing
the construction depth and the length of the intermediate piles. If a sufficiently heavy
protection is applied, no scouring will occur. The cost of bottom protection is quite high,
so it may be less expensive to design for a greater depth and without protection. Moreover,
it is possible to apply a protection later if it will be necessary to increase the contract depth
in the future.
bow thruster
Combi-wall
Contract depth
Harbour bed Erosion
Construction depth Scour hole
Fig. 12.19 Scouring in front of a combi-wall caused by propeller flows of ships.
536
Quay walls
Lesson learned:
When designing the bottom protection, remember that increasing numbers of ships
are berthing without the aid of tugs. When the design depth is being determined the
maintenance margin should be 0.5 m, plus dredging tolerances and tolerances for the
application of bottom protection. Take scouring into account when designing a quay
without bottom protection. For the management of the quay, a limit line must be spec-
ified in order to be able to determine when scouring must be tackled in order to prevent
instability.
12.9.2 Scouring in front of the quay can endanger its stability

Serious scouring caused by jet flows of ferries led to the installation of an alternative bottom
protection for an existing quay wall. The wall, consisting of three layers of prefabricated
concrete blocks and a capping beam cast in situ, was founded on 1.00 m of crushed stone
above a 1.50 m thick sand bed. In 1975, as a result of scouring at the foot of the quay wall
over a length of 20 m the wall moved forward. The scour holes were caused by the powerful
jet currents from the screws of the ferries that use full power when berthing and departing.
Regular sounding of the water depth would have revealed the scour holes earlier and extra
costs for repair of the quay could have been avoided. It was decided to give the propeller
jets space and to fix the bottom at the foot of the quay wall. For a distance of 3 m in front
of the quay the harbour was deepened to a depth of 9.00 m under the low water line. In this
position a sheet pile wall with a backfill of rock was installed.
Lesson learned:
When designing, take into account possible scouring. Monitoring the condition of the
bottom in front of the quay and taking suitable measures in time are important money
savers. The depth can be checked by taking frequent soundings. If there is sufficient water
depth the bottom can be protected by a filter structure.
2.5
+1.70
±0.00
Stone
blocks 3.0 5.5
7.00
8.00
9.00
Crushed
Sheet pile stone
wall
Fig. 12.20 Renovation of block wall after scouring in front of the quay.
537
12.10 Drainage and dewatering

Management of the ground water level is not only important for a quay that has been
completed. Well-designed and executed dewatering and drainage systems are important
throughout the duration of the execution of the work.
12.10.1 The design of a quay drainage system requires

a careful soil investigation
To limit the excess water pressures behind the quay structure it is important to install a well-
designed drainage system. This must be carefully designed on the basis of accurate data.
An example is provided by an unfortunate project in which during the execution it appeared
that the groundwater level was much higher than had been predicted from the calculations.
This caused many deformations. Checking of calculations and execution revealed that the
drainage system was designed, dimensioned and constructed correctly. Further investiga-
tions showed that the problems were caused by unfavourable soil stratification above the
anchor level. A number of layers were found to be weakly permeable.
Lesson learned:
Careful soil investigation and a good analysis of results and geohydrological parameters,
including those of the upper layers, will prevent problems. These can sometimes be solved
by installing sand drains or vertical drains.
12.10.2 Prevent the flooding of building pits by careful deep well drainage
When installing sheet pile walls and foundation elements in a deep building pit it is impor-
tant to prevent piping by spring erosion. This risk occurs if the hydrostatic head in the
deeper layers rises above the bottom of the building pit. In this case, when the casing is
emptied, springs appear before the concrete filling is in place. This can be prevented by
sufficient over-pressure until the tube is filled with concrete. This means for example, that
in tidal areas it is better not to work with rising water. Once piping starts, it is exceedingly
difficult to devise ways to stop it. Therefore when there are great differences in hydrostatic
head, it is necessary to introduce counter pressure on the top or under pressure on the
underside. This can be done, for example, by draining the sand layer of the underlying
Pleistocene strata. In this way wells were made along the building pit from the ground level
NAP +5.50 m down to a depth of NAP −40.00 m when installing bored piles of lengths
between 30.85 m and 36.50 m. With this deep well drainage the water under pressure in
the Pleistocene sands was lowered to a hydrostatic pressure of approx. NAP −4.00 m.
Lesson learned:
When installing sheet piles and foundation elements it is necessary to be aware of the
possibility of piping by spring erosion. This can be prevented by giving sufficient over
pressure or by creating under pressure with a deep well drainage system.
538
Quay walls
12.10.3 Prevent spring formation and runoff of sand

The deeper the building pit, the more important the drainage system and the measures
that must be taken to prevent spring formation and piping. A critical situation arose when,
owing to spring formation in a deep building pit, the bearing capacity of the piles was
lost. The situation was as follows: in a building pit, prefabricated concrete piles were
installed behind a steel sheet pile wall. The tips of the piles penetrated 3 to 4 m into the
Pleistocene sand. The building pit was equipped with a dewatering system in the Holocene
sand layers above the clay layer that separated the Holocene series from the Pleistocene
series. During the execution of the work spring formation developed in the building pit
via the interlocks of the sheet pile wall structure. This spring formation was the result of
the great difference between the hydrostatic pressure in the Pleistocene sand layer and the
bottom of the building pit. The interlocks of the sheet pile wall formed small channels and
these carried water with sand grains up into the building pit. The excess water was not the
biggest problem: the biggest issue was that owing to sand flowing out of the Pleistocene
layer the degree of packing density of the Pleistocene was reduced. This was detected by
cone penetration tests performed later, which indicated that the cone resistance at the level
of the pile tip had considerably decreased and thus also the bearing capacity of the adjacent
piles. The problem was solved by further driving and lengthening of the piles with cast in
situ concrete. New longer piles were ordered.
An alternative solution involves reducing the hydrostatic head in the Pleistocene layers.
This was not chosen, because such a solution is very expensive and leads to a high dewa-
tering rate. Moreover, reducing the hydrostatic head leads to higher pore pressures and
consequently heavier pile driving work. This solution would only have been chosen if the
spring formation has become very serious.
Lesson learned:
Prevention is always better than cure. A carefully designed and executed dewatering system
takes into account leakages and the loss of sand via sheet pile wall interlocks.
GWL
Spring formation Holocene

via interlocks
20.00 Impermeable
clay layer
Reduction of Pleistocene
cone resistance
Ground water flow
Fig. 12.21 Spring formation via interlocks.
539
12.10.4 Stop in time if a central jet pipe is used

When using prefabricated concrete piles it is also necessary to be prepared for problems
caused by spring formation. This may occur when a central jet pipe is installed in the
pile to reduce the driving resistance while installing the pile to the required depth. Before
pile driving starts in the Holocene strata, water is jetted under pressure under the pile tip,
thus reducing driving resistance. However it is important that jetting is stopped before the
bearing layer is reached. The bearing capacity of the piles must not be reduced by loose
packing caused by jetting. A hydrostatic head that is higher than the level of the building pit
can also be a reason to stop jetting. At the moment that the pile tip reaches the groundwater
layer that is under excess pressure a spring can form.
Lesson learned:
A central jet pipe in the pile might cause reduction of bearing capacity and the formation
of springs. This can be prevented by stopping jetting before the pile tip reaches the bearing
layer.
Block
Ground level
GWL
Jet pipe
Holocene
Clay layer
Pleistocene
Fig. 12.22 Stop jetting before the bearing layer is reached.
12.11 Deformations of quay structures

Quay walls that have moved forward or tilted have often been found, but total loss of
stability seldom occurs.
540
Quay walls
12.11.1 Monitoring of siltation under a gravity wall prevents dangerous

sliding planes
After the Second World War, when a caisson wall was being constructed during the repair
of a port, the caissons moved forward shortly after they had been sunk. Investigations
indicated that a thin layer of silt had formed on the foundation bed on which the caissons
had been placed. Before the caissons were positioned, an extra thick layer of sand had been
applied to accelerate consolidation of the substrata under load. During dredging of this
extra sand it emerged that silt had been washed out and had settled on the foundation bed.
This sedimented layer of silt provided insufficient shear resistance against the horizontal
earth pressure. To prevent further forward displacement, the caissons that had been pushed
forward had to be anchored. During further extension of the harbour the problem was
solved by placing a layer of coarse sand under the caissons. Moreover friction between the
earth and caissons was increased by the application of strips forming a profiled sole under
the caissons.
Lesson learned:
If water has a high silt content siltation may occur when a dredged and prepared foundation
bed is exposed for a longer period. For gravity structures it is essential to check the
foundation bed and, if necessary, to clear it up.
12.11.2 Groundwater under excess pressure must be removed as soon as possible

During the 1950s, as a result of unfavourable soil conditions, big earth slides occurred on
slopes both during dredging and when increasing the height. The ground was weakly per-
meable, and not sufficiently consolidated or adapted to the imposed load of the elevation.
Owing to the weak permeability of the soil, the ground water could not be removed quickly
enough, as a result of which the total normal stresses were taken up by the pore pressures.
This caused long term excess pore pressure, which in its turn caused lower effective stress
in the ground and thus reduced effective shear stress. In the years that followed, diligent
efforts were made to find a way to reduce the excess pore pressure as quickly as possi-
ble. Since 1960 the techniques of vertical drainage have progressed so much that this is
extensively used to limit the development of excess pore pressure.
Lesson learned:
Prevent excess pore pressure by installing good drainage systems.
12.11.3 The theoretical sliding plane is not always normative

Sliding planes are determined by the structure of the ground, and these are not always the
same as the theoretical sliding planes. Often, at first the design is based on theoretical
circular sliding planes. However, a number of cases have shown that if the natural sliding
planes are not taken into consideration, this will lead to big problems. The theoretical sliding
circles are not always normative planes for shearing. The weak layers in the structure of
541
the substrata determine the sliding planes, especially if it is strongly stratified. The weak
layers cause forced horizontal sliding planes.
Lesson learned:
Local conditions are often normative, so for every design it is necessary to investigate
what sliding planes are possible in relation to the structure of the substrata.
Weak layer
R
Forced sliding Theoretical

plane sliding plane
Weak layer
Fig. 12.23 Forced horizontal sliding plane.
12.11.4 Careful positioning and sand tightness are crucial to a block wall
When a block wall was being constructed some big problems arose because the foundation
layer for the wall was not entirely level. During the placing of the lowest layer of blocks
there were further disturbances because the floating crane was not suitable for the heavy and
accurate work required. The blocks were not accurately positioned and the wall increasingly
ran out of line in both horizontal and vertical directions. The geotextile between the wall
and earth fill did not close properly and tore in a number of places. This endangered the
sand-tightness of the wall.
Lesson learned:
• Install the foundation layer carefully and ensure that it is level
• Use good material, a sufficiently heavy floating crane with good working winches,
and expert operators to position the blocks accurately
• Make the connections simple and self-adapting with the possibility to correct
dimensions
• Work along the length: first place the lowest row of blocks and wait until these have
settled and then place the following row; do not pile on the blocks in a vertical sequence
542
Quay walls
• Before placing the fill, make a reliable filter layer of stone running from coarse to
fine from the waterside to the land side. A geotextile is too fragile.
12.12 Back fill and dredging

The hour of truth dawns when the quay wall is exposed by dredging.
12.12.1 Analyze the loads that occur in each phase of the construction
The stability of the quay must be ensured during every phase of the construction. This
looks like a statement of the obvious, but reality is often more complicated than theory.
Consider the stresses that occur during the filling process of the combi-wall in the corner
structure as shown in Figure 12.24. The corner was designed with corner anchors inclined
at 45◦ on both sides between the tubular piles. Moreover, in the serviceability phase the
concrete capping beam should fulfil the function of a tension bar in the plane of the sheet
pile wall to take up the load component deriving from the anchorage. In fact it was not
recognized that as a result of the backfill of the ground behind the sheet pile wall, this
load already occurred during the construction phase. A deformation of the wall resulted.
These problems can be prevented by placing a continuous horizontal beam during the
construction phase or by anchoring the corner pile.
Deformation
MV-pile or anchor tie rod

with anchor wall
Original design Modified design
Fig. 12.24 Deformation of corner structure of a combi-wall during backfilling.
A second example concerns block walls, which, although stable in the final phase, might
encounter stability problems during the construction phase before the fill has been placed.
Considering all the construction phases during the design phase throws some light onto
these aspects.
543
Lesson learned:
During the design process the situations expected during the construction phase must be
analyzed and calculated step-by-step. It is essential to the development of a successful
concept that loads, stability, strength and deformations are analyzed for all phases of the
construction.
12.12.2 Take deformations into account when specifying tolerances
During the process of dredging free and back filling deformations of quay walls are
unavoidable. When quay walls that have been built in a dry building pit are exposed
by dredging, the front of the quay wall rises several centimetres, moves forward a little,
and rotates. This is caused by relaxation of the substratum. There are also deformations
of the quay wall as a result of backfilling behind the quay. Bearing and tension piles are
slightly displaced before they can take up their full load. These deformations should be
taken into account. If, as in the case of rails for a crane track, dimensional tolerances are
important, it is advisable to pay extra attention. Users of crane rails are often unaware
that a quay wall can be displaced by several centimetres as a result of the processes of
backfilling and dredging free. Tolerances for rail structures amount to only a few millime-
tres. The problems that might arise can be prevented if there is insight into the expected
deformations. The finite elements model PLAXIS can give an indication of this. If strict
stipulations are unavoidable, the placing of the crane rails must wait until the dredging free
operation has been completed.
Load
Backfill
Dredging
Bending of
sheet pile wall
Displacement of
Elastic deformation of tension pile by
substrata anchor force
Settlement of tip of bearing pile

as a result of backfilling
Fig. 12.25 Deformation of quay wall.
Lesson learned:
Before dredging free, install deformation measuring points at the expansion joints and
calibrate them accurately. By making periodic measurements immediately after dredging
544
Quay walls
free and during the serviceability phase, the deformations over time can be followed. Crane
tracks must be installed during the latest possible phase, and preferably after the dredging
free of the quay. If strict tolerances are demanded, the crane rails must be installed after
the dredging process.
12.13 Earthquake zones

There are many parts of the world where the effects of earthquakes must be taken into
account. Seismic activity causes enormous damage to quay structures, partly as a result of
shortcomings in the design and partly because the boundary conditions of the design are
exceeded. There are various recent examples of such damage.
12.13.1 In earthquake zones specialist knowledge is required

The danger created by seismic activity can take three different forms:
• Dynamic forces acting on the structure as a result of vertical and horizontal

accelerations in the substrata
• The occurrence of liquefaction in certain soil layers under or behind the structure
• The development of tsunamis
In the most simple and traditional form, the horizontal acceleration is defined as a fraction
of the acceleration due to gravity and as a quasi-static force in stability and strength
calculations. The magnitude of this fraction varies from region to region from 0.05 g to
0.50 g or more, and is usually indicated in local or national building regulations. This is an
oversimplification. Earthquakes are stochastic natural phenomena for which a probabilistic
approach and a probability density distribution are needed rather than a deterministic value.
To obtain a representative idea of the actual forces, dynamic calculations must be made
instead of static or quasi-static ones. This is certainly true for free-standing structures such
as jetties and quay cranes, in which the relation between the own frequency of oscillation
and the dominant frequency of the seismic vibrations in the play of forces have a dominant
role.
Liquefaction of soil layers under the influence of a cyclic load can occur in loosely deposited
granular materials: silt, sand and fine gravel. The parameters that play a role in this are
the intensity and duration of the earthquake, the effective stress, and the nature of the
substrata. A material with a fine grain, uniform grain distribution and loose packing has
maximum sensitivity to liquefaction. Preventive measures include compaction in situ or
soil improvement.
Tsunamis are waves caused by a vertical movement of the seabed, and have quite a low
height in open and deep water, but which in shallow water and sea inlets and bays can rise
steeply, in extreme cases over 20 metres. On the basis of the topography of the seabed and
the geometry of the coast, an estimate of the wave height that might be generated can be
545
made. This can be anticipated in the design, for example in the choice of the type of quay
structure.
There are several techniques and models to calculate the forces caused by surface acceler-
ations acting on the structure. Often the vertical accelerations are not taken into account
because they are considerably smaller than the horizontal accelerations and because in
relation to most designs these forces have fewer consequences. Still this is not always
correct. A quay structure in an Asiatic port was constructed as a mushroom slab without
flared column heads. After a severe earthquake the horizontal deformation of the quay was
relatively small, but some of the pile heads were punched through the quay deck.
Finally it is necessary to consider local effects that cannot be included in building regula-
tions. Considerable damping or magnifying of the oscillation can occur. This depends
on the thickness, composition and properties of local unconsolidated layers above a
deeper lying consolidated layer. Local Peak Ground Accelerations (PGAs), can consid-
erably deviate from regional guidelines. Quantification of these demands very specific
knowledge.
Lesson learned:
Earthquakes form a threat in many countries and regions. In a number of countries there
is much knowledge and experience in the design of earthquake-resistant structures. It is
recommended that this specific knowledge of earthquake engineering expertise should be
utilized rather than ignored.
12.14 Working in an aggressive tropical environment

Aggressive environmental conditions, such as tropical waters, form a separate problem.
Insufficient familiarity or inadequate anticipation of these ‘facts of life’has led to a number
of cases of costly damage in these areas.
12.14.1 Reinforced concrete in warm seawater

In the tropics the quality of the concrete demands extra attention. Here concrete is affected
by the combined action of diffusion and capillary forces because the penetration of chlo-
rides into the concrete progresses more quickly as the environmental temperature rises.
According to a rule of thumb, for each 10◦ C rise in environmental temperature, the rate
of the reaction of the chemical processes responsible for corrosion doubles. Moreover, in
many shallow tropical waters and partially enclosed basins, such as the Persian Gulf, the
salinity is higher than average. This higher salinity also accelerates corrosion. Moreover
there are large areas where concrete aggregates of a suitable quality are very scarce.
Many port owners and managers have experienced these problems. There are numerous
examples of quays and jetties in which over a period of 5 to 10 years reinforced concrete
piles or reinforced concrete walls in the critical zone round the high water line lost large
546
Quay walls
Harbour in Curaçao.
pieces of the concrete cover, necessitating very far-reaching and costly repair operations.
In some regions the extent of the problems is so great that reinforced concrete is regarded
as an unattractive choice for structural material for quays and jetties.
In the middle of the last century this problem was solved in India in an area with unusu-
ally aggressive environmental conditions by using very dense concrete. This very dense
concrete was manufactured by using a centrifugal process. The quay was constructed
as a reinforced concrete floor on centrifuged reinforced concrete tubular piles. From an
inspection after 40 years these piles appeared to be still in excellent condition.
Lesson learned:
In aggressive environments degradation of concrete can be prevented by using concrete
of suitable quality, a thicker cover and very good compaction by means of a centrifugal
process.
12.14.2 Take aggressive environments into consideration during construction

It is advisable to be wary of large-scale applications of new techniques that have not yet
proved themselves in comparable conditions. For a new port complex in the Middle East
the decision was taken to construct the approx. 6 km long quay as a reinforced concrete
547
diaphragm wall with T-shaped panels and a superstructure that was cast in situ. One con-
sideration was the idea that the production rate would be considerably higher than with
more conventional solutions. After the teething troubles of the process had been overcome
the construction rate was indeed high, but it had not been sufficiently appreciated that the
nature of the local seabed was unsuitable for this building technique. Moreover quality
control of this technique is very difficult during construction. The result, which became
apparent during excavation of the harbour basin, was a diaphragm wall with a very poor
outer surface. Locally there were big bulges, insufficient cover of reinforcement and many
large honeycombs. Moreover in some places there was insufficient connection of the indi-
vidual panels. All in all, the wall was exposed to an extremely aggressive environment.
The repair was a very time consuming and expensive business.
Lesson learned:
It is wise first to carry out a thorough investigation into the aggressiveness of the local
environment. After this, small-scale prototype tests should be carried out before proceeding
to large-scale applications.
12.14.3 Steel in warm seawater needs extra protection

In the tropics the corrosion of steel is an extra source of concern because the rate of
corrosion is partly determined by the salinity and temperature of the seawater. The zone
in which the corrosion is most severe extends from a level 1 to 2 m beneath LW to the
upper side of the ‘splash zone’. Traditional preventive measures, such as the application
of a good coating for example coal tar epoxy, possibly in combination with cathodic
protection, provide some sort of protection, but require maintenance and have a limited
lifetime. Moreover, the cathodic protection works fully only below LW. In addition, a
corrosion allowance can be accommodated in the design by over dimensioning the wall
thickness of piles, sheet pile walls or beams.
In a tropical area the bearing steel tubular piles for a new container terminal were given
effective but expensive corrosion protection. This consisted of a manufactured, approx.
4 mm thick casing of polypropylene, extending from the top of the pile to several metres
under LW, or to the harbour bottom. Such a provision supplies not only sufficient corrosion
protection but is also highly resistant to mechanical damage.
Lesson learned:
In aggressive environments it is necessary to use a coating, a cathodic protection or a
corrosion allowance to protect the steel from corrosion.
12.15 Quality assurance

The quality of the work is determined not only by the knowledge, workmanship and efforts
of the people who are employed on it, but also by the entire process of communication and
management.
548
Quay walls
12.15.1 Quality assurance and communication are very important

In 1994 it was realized how important working processes are when a wharf had to be made
suitable for the berthing of large cruise ships. In front of the existing quay wall a heavy
sheet pile wall was driven and anchored with the aid of screw injection anchors, after which
the bottom in front of the quay was deepened by approx. 5 metres. Earlier experience in
the environment had shown that the anchor force supplied could vary greatly owing to the
varying substrata, and among other things, the hollows in the limestone layers. Therefore
12 test anchors of various diameters were installed.
Tests were made to determine the maximum anchor forces. Because the results covered a
wide range, a conservative choice was made, consisting of screw injection anchors with
enlarged screw blades. After the installation, however, checking of the documentation
indicated that a standard screw blade had been used. This had not been noticed by the
contractor, supervisor, engineer or anyone else in the construction yard.
After the final consultation it was decided that no extra anchors should be placed, but that
the maximum allowable load on the quay should be reduced, in combination with regular
monitoring of the quay wall. The argument for this was that monitoring and tests give a
more reliable indication of the anchor capacity.
Lesson learned:
Quality assurance is not in itself an objective. During construction there should be optimal
communication between designer, contractor and engineer.
12.16 Wise use of the quay

During the use of the quay a range of problems may confront the manager. These are
partly deficiencies or imperfections that derive from the design or execution that come to
light despite monitoring and quality assurance. To some extent the damage derives from
unanticipated and poor monitoring of the use of the quay by bigger ships, heavier loads or
use of the quay that differs from that intended in the original design.
Examples of cases of damage are:
• Uniform, or possibly sometimes sudden, settlements behind older quay walls, the
underlying cause of which is progressive erosion of the underwater slope protected by
layered fascine mattresses. Aging of the material, in combination with currents caused
by bow thrusters and tides, results in damage by piping and erosion of the wooden
relieving platform, instigating soil loss.
• Uniform settlement behind newer quay walls caused by a number of starting events
such as exposed interlock gaps, seepage distances that are too short instigating pip-
ing, holes in the sheet pile wall caused by corrosion or by collisions, leakage via
anchorages, drainage, or corner joints. These settlements can sometimes occur sud-
denly at the level of the quay deck when there is an undermined, strongly cohesive top
layer.
549
• Weakening of the combi-wall as a bearing element as a result of serious corrosion:

this also occurs at greater depth and is caused by a combination of aeration, sand
abrasion, material quality, biological activity, and electrolytic action between various
steel elements such as sheet piles, tubes, repair plates, welds and saddles.
• Scouring just in front of quay walls as a result of bow and stern thrusters and main
propellers or local eddies such as those occurring near quays in rivers. As a result the
passive earth pressure is partly lost and the probability of piping increases.
• Heavy siltation in front of a quay wall by eddies and currents, as a result of which it
is difficult to maintain the required depth.
• Overloading and breaking of bollards or the anchorages of fendering, because increas-
ingly larger ships, with hawsers that are excessively prestressed via self-tension
winches, are moored too steeply to a single bollard or king pile.
• Overloading of wooden fendering during careless berthing operations, resulting in
accelerated wear, splintering and breakage.
• Overloading during transhipment of goods, when the steel ship fenders are caught on
top of the horizontal fendering beams or heads of fendering piles or when they jack
up these piles.
• Accelerated wear of sheet pile walls resulting from impacts or shearing actions of
berthing ships when there is no fendering.
• Overloading and breakage of ladders, edge protection (kantenschütz), and berth line
beams.
• Blockage or other defects of the drainage, as a result of which the water level behind the
quay wall rises too high in relation to the harbour water level. Sometimes a difference
of 2.00 m from the design criteria is observed.
• Excessive deformation (0.12 to 0.15 m) of one or more quay sections, caused by a
variety of factors. Vertical and horizontal overloading often plays an important role,
as well as erosion, differences in water level, inadequate slipping or broken anchorages
and poorer bearing substrate.
• Serious crack formation in vertical shear connectors between quay sections owing to
weak detailing including suspension reinforcement or excessive imposed deforma-
tions.
• Cracking in quay decks caused by a combination of shrinkage, temperature, fatigue,
overloading by containers on extremely hard mafi-trailers in double stacks or
inadequate crack reinforcement.
• Strong local corrosion caused by the spillage of aggressive substances, such as chem-
ical fertilizers and de-icing salt during transshipment or by excessively high thermal
loads caused by high temperatures.
• Local damage to the underside of a quay deck in the form of flaking concrete as a
result of dropped crane loads or degradation of concrete caused by inadequate cover.
• Local damage caused by impacts during the berthing of ships.
Lesson learned:
When using the quay, pay attention to the basic principles of the design and monitor
regularly.
550
Quay walls
References
12.1 Tol A.F. van, and Gijt, J.G. de, Quay walls of the Rotterdam harbour, in
Barends et al. Geotechnical engineering for transportation infrastructure, ISBN
9058090477, Balkema 1999.
12.2 Franx C. De ontwikkeling van de kademuurbouw in Rotterdam, De Ingenieur van
22–29 maart 1957.
12.3 Technische beschrijving van eenige werken in verband staande met de haven,
1909.
12.4 Faber B.J., Uitvoering kademuur E.E.C.V.; Otar 1983.
12.5 Sijberden H.L. Ervaringen met het heien van samengestelde Larssen kokerpalen
met drievoudige tussenplanken, Cement 1984 nr 8.
12.6 Brückner, Manfred. Experiences with building quay walls with prefabricated
reinforced concrete superstructures in the port of Hamburg. PIANC bulletin nr. 82.
12.7 Varadarajulu G.H., Basu, A.N., Sinha, A. and Saha, B.K. Construction of ship
repair facilities at Mormugao, India with state of art methods, PIANC Third
Seminar on Ports and Inland Waterways, Nov. 1995.
12.8 PIANC report of wg 34, Seismic design guidelines for port structures, A.A.
Balkema Publishers, 2001.
12.9 Berg M.N. van den, Knabb Rock Sea Wall, Terre Armée, Breda, Netherlands.
12.10 Boot H. Delta 2 Europahaven, Gemeentewerken Rotterdam, Netherlands, 1993.
12.11 Brunck, Jan-Peter en Christoph Miller, Unerwartetes Verformungsverhalten einer
bestehenden Kaimauer. Bautechnik 74, 1997 nr: 7.
12.12 Verhey, H.J., Blokland, T., Bogaerts, M.P., Volger, V. and Weyde, R.W. v.d. Expe-
riences in the Netherlands with quay structures subjected to velocities created
by bow thrusters and main propellers of mooring and unmooring ships. PIANC
Bulletin 1987 nr 58.
12.13 Suntah S. and Dhar, S. Development of peninsular area of Port Louis Harbour for
grain terminal, Mauritius. PIANC Proceedings 3e Seminar GOA, 1995.
12.14 Eurocode 8. Ontwerpbepalingen voor de bestandheid van constructies tegen
aardbevingen.
12.15 CUR report 182 Geofysische technieken voor grondonderzoek. ISBN
9037600395, Gouda, The Netherlands, 1996.
551
Quay walls
Chapter 13
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
Quay walls
Contents
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
13.2 Port developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
13.3 Shipping developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
13.4 Development of logistic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
13.5 Development of new quay concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

13.5.1 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
13.5.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
13.5.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
13.5.4 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
13.5.5 Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
13.5.6 Innovative designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Quay walls
Chapter 13
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
13.1 Introduction
The direction in which quay walls can and probably will develop is determined by many,
often interrelated, aspects, but who could have predicted the rapid proliferation in the
transport of containers. These aspects are considered separately in this chapter.
Firstly the development of the port: is this a question of extension or even a movement
towards the sea, with deeper and more saline water and greater tidal movement? Or will
the port remain on its original site and will it be a question of joint use of infrastructure,
higher stacking of cargo, multiple use of space, the intensification of port activities and
upgrading of existing quay walls? Moreover, there are also developments in shipping. As
different stronger types of steel become available, the size of ships increases, while, with
the increasing use of aluminium, they are lighter and can attain higher speeds, making
them more competitive with other forms of transport such as road and rail.
From the point of view of logistic concepts relating to worldwide transport of the increasing
flow of goods, there are trends such as containerisation, multi-porting instead of main-
porting, and shifts in modality in the direction of inland shipping, inland terminals and
door-to-door transport. Finally, a number of changes can also be observed in quay wall
designs. In addition to the increase in the well-known box superstructures with steel combi-
walls, there are also variants with concrete diaphragm walls, prefabricated L-walls, in
situ cast monolithic walls and even floating deep-water options that are anchored to the
seabed.
13.2 Port developments

Usually two trends in the growth of a seaport can be distinguished.
On the one hand, growth can lead to an involuntary extension of the area in a seaward
direction, which for many ports is the only solution. In this case there is an increasing tidal
range and greater berthing depth, as a result of which, at a particular moment, an entirely
different type of quay wall concept enters the picture.
On the other hand, the shortage of land can lead to the concentration of activities and use
of space in the horizontal plane, the clustering of associated activities or even multiple use
of space in the vertical plane. For the latter, consider the storage of goods underground
557
Future developments
Photo 13.1 Widening of entrance Amazone harbour.
and perhaps higher stacking above the level of the quay deck. This intensification of use
often leads to the upgrading of existing ports, as result of which, they can accommodate a
wider range of ships of increased beam and draught, as well as an increase of throughput.
Following on from this, comes the total utilization or even improvement of the existing quay
walls. A good example of this is the recent increase in the accessibility of theAmazonehaven
in Rotterdam to containerships up to 13,500 TEU.
13.3 Shipping developments

Developments in shipping lead to the use of increasingly larger and/or faster vessels. While
on one hand steel with high tensile strength, better mathematical techniques and an increase
in automation opened possibilities for ships with greater length, beam and draught, larger
wind catching area, more mass and fewer crew members, on the other hand the high
strength steels and lighter materials such as aluminium or reinforced synthetic materials
(plastics) also lead to faster ships with an entirely different hull form, such as catamarans,
trimarans, and hydrofoils. These ships also have increasingly larger engine capacity or jets,
so that with a speed of ca. 90 km/hour, they can compete with other transport modalities
such as road or rail. This increased speed brings new dynamic problems for the ship, such
as ‘slamming’, which is a collision between the bow and large masses of water and which in
practice can lead to severe damage and greater sensitivity to the fatigue of critical details.
558
Quay walls
Moreover, increased speeds in or just outside a port can also generate a more dynamic
traffic scenario and higher ship induced waves, so that ships berthed at a quay or jetty
make bigger movements and higher mooring forces occur.
Ships are not only bigger and faster; they also have more powerful propellers and, with
their bow and stern thrusters, are more manoeuvrable. Thus they can now berth or depart
independently or, in less favourable weather conditions, with the minimum use of tugs.
This has of course important consequences for the stability of the bottom protections.
L = 440.0m
B = 59.0m
22000
L = 400.0m D = 16.5m
B = 59.0m
20000
D = 14.5m
18000
16000
10000
L = Length B = Beam D = Depth L = 335.0m
B = 42.8m
9000
L to 350.0m D = 14.0m
B to 42.0m
8000
TEU
L >300.0m L to 320.0m D to 14.5m

B to 42.0m B to 42.0m
7000
L to 290.0m D to14.0m D to 14.0m
P&O Nedlloyd Mondriaan
B to 32.0m
6000
L to 290.0m D to 13.8m
5000 L to 190.0m L to 210.0m B to 32.0m
Maersk Triple E-class
4 th Gen.(Panamax)
B to 28.0m B to 28.0m D to 13.0m

Sovereign Maersk
D to 10.0m D to11.5m
4000
Regina Maersk
2 ndGeneration
3 rd Generation
1st Generation
PostPanamax
3000
2000
1000
?
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 1992 1996 1997 2005 2013 2020
Years
Fig. 13.1 Development of container ships.
With the increasing size of ships, in addition to the ‘economy of scale’ that is encountered,
there are physical limitations of the layout of the port, especially the depth, but to a lesser
extent also the width. The access policy is sometimes already based on a probabilistic
approach designed to minimise the probability of disturbance of the bottom of the harbour.
Although the depth of a harbour and the depth in front of a quay wall can still be increased
by a number of metres, somewhere along the route another (often natural) limit will be
reached, such as the Suez Canal, Panama Canal or the Straits of Malacca, as a result
of which ships using the route cannot exceed a specific limit, probably the Suezmax,
Panamax or the Malaccamax. This increase in scale plays an important role, primarily in
559
Future developments
containerships, because ore carriers and oil tankers seem to have already reached the limits
in the 1980s.
13.4 Development of logistic concepts

Various trends in the logistic concepts relating to the worldwide distribution of cargo can
also be distinguished. Globalisation is making the world into one huge village in which
production may take place in parts of the world far distant from the market, resulting in
an increasing amount of cargo. Despite the greater distances, the deliveries must be made
exactly on time to limit the amount of stock held (just-in-time) and perishable goods or
fashionable goods also demand fast transport. A ship is an expensive investment, earning
its keep by transporting goods, so therefore must spend as little time as possible in a
port (turn-around-time). The containerisation of increasing volumes of goods is leading to
an increasing variety of containers, and longer and higher containers that can preferably
be stacked and transported two high. The huge flow of containers leads to the use of
‘main-hubs’ for the largest ships, in combination with short-sea-feeders to widen the flow
still further or, conversely, to the use of ‘multi-porting’, in which one ship, moving with
decreasing draught, visits a number of ports. The shipping companies are scaling up
by means of mergers and combinations of shipping companies. These provide services
with strict sailing schedules and with fixed slots at the terminals to ensure a more rapid
turn-around-time. There are also shifts in transport modalities, so that more freight is
transported by inland shipping, by rail or by pipelines than over the congested roads. The
door-to-door-transport entails the use of a chain of management, using inland terminals in
order to change the transport modality at the most suitable moment.
These and other logistic concepts give rise to the need for quays, that will act as turntables
between the various transport-modalities and in a short time will be able to provide many
transhipment, storage and/or transit capacities via as many modalities as possible. Consider
quick berthing and departure, loading and unloading from both sides or with double decks,
and the ability to handle various types of ships with the aid of cranes with a much larger
outreach, in combination with horizontal conveyer belts.
An entirely new logistic concept is the ‘travelling warehouse’, in which the final destination
of the cargo is only determined at some stage in the voyage, during which selection takes
place. Thus the desired transport modality is only determined at a very late stage. The
future terminals must also be able to react flexibly to these changes.
13.5 Development of new quay concepts

A number of changes can be observed in the quay wall design itself. This is because more
knowledge and new calculation techniques permit better modelling and because more
attention is paid to multi-functionality, the possibility for extension in the same location or
the possibility to use the design at a different location and also because, with high quality
new materials, entirely different types of structural forms can be constructed.
560
Quay walls
In the construction phase too, on one hand the quality of the substrate and the structure in
situ is better managed while, on the other hand, increasingly large high-quality prefabri-
cated elements with hoisting loads of 2,000 to 4,000 tonnes can be more accurately placed
by using the techniques of the offshore industry.
During the serviceability or management phase, thanks to a variety of sensors, sonar, radar
and cameras, especially with glass fibre cables ‘tele-monitoring’ of the quay is possible.
With this ‘remote management’, greater advantage can be taken of the actual use and the
conditions of the quay. Thus smaller safety margins are possible and better use can be made
of existing quays.
13.5.1 Design
Until recently the design of a quay wall was based on a relatively simple one or two
dimensional mass-spring model. Now, however, when required, 3-dimensional non-linear
and/or semi probabilistic models that integrate structure and ground are available, and
these make a better design possible. But new types of structure can also be developed by
taking advantage of new materials, such as very high strength concrete, reinforced earth,
and concrete or synthetic sheet pile walls.
Qualities such as sustainability play an increasingly important role in the design. In this
context attention is paid not only to the current environmental impacts, but also to the
environmental impacts on future generations in relation to the scarcity of raw materials,
shortage of energy and excess of waste materials. Here the re-use of aggregate materi-
als, elements or even entire structures, caissons, and extendable quay walls may provide
solutions.
Moreover trends can emerge from the boundary conditions, such as rising sea levels and
bottom subsidence, which demand fundamental modifications of the quay wall concept.
In addition to stricter boundary conditions in relation to the natural environment, it will
also be necessary to take into account the increasing functional requirements, thus higher
loads caused by the impacts of ships, propellers, hawsers, cranes and loads.
The aspect of life cycle concept and CO2 emissions will become more important aspects
to consider.
13.5.2 Materials
In the area of material technology too, there are new possibilities. These include self-
compacting and very high strength concrete, which make possible the construction of
more slender structures, and also more durable structures. Synthetic fibres or carbon
reinforcements can contribute to this, but can also be used to strengthen existing concrete
structures. Aluminium and synthetic materials are appearing as light, low maintenance
materials for structural elements in very aggressive conditions.
561
Future developments
13.5.3 Construction
For many years there has been a shift in the construction methods, going from traditional
working methods on the site towards greater use of prefabricated elements such a L-walls or
even complete caisson-like structures that are sometimes transported over long distances
from a factory-like manufacturing setting. This trend can also be linked to sustainable
demountable structures, with reuse of larger elements or even entire structures in different
locations.
13.5.4 Use
Where the flow of freight is greater and the freight must also be unloaded in shorter times,
there is more intensive use of the quay and of the area lying behind it. The results include
fixed berthing positions, scouring, fast berthing manoeuvres, and no crossing (but also
less favourably sometimes almost vertical) mooring lines, heavier and faster cranes, twin,
triple, quattro lift or tandem (2 × 40/45 ft) and tandem Quattro lift (4 × 20 ft), higher stacks
and more intensive transport on the quay as well as track formation.
13.5.5 Management
The management must keep pace with the above-mentioned developments if it is not to fall
back into purely reactive management. This demands good preparation of the management
process, thus the use of risk analysis to determine the threats to vital parts in advance. Next,
in addition to a historic overview, in order to be able to supply indices for the future, the
processes must be well supported by means of an information system which makes all the
fixed data relating to the management area rapidly available, and from which insight can be
obtained into the variable data. This includes the existing condition of the various elements
and current inspection and maintenance activities, in relation to both costs and planning.
The routine management can then be made easier by introducing ‘remote management’
with the aid of sensors and the internet, tele-monitoring, deformation measurements via
GPS and by using new sensors such as fibre optic cables for the detection of settlements
and chloride.
13.5.6 Innovative designs

Quays have an increasingly shorter service life . While many quays would be physically
able to last for many more years they are functionally outdated. The question arises of how
to deal with their economic, technical and operational life. This evaluation is made by the
principle, client, owner, management, operator and designer. In the port of Rotterdam a
trend like that shown in Figure 13.2 can be observed [13.8].
With the examples given below, designers take advantage of the logistic concepts in the
rapidly changing world, including speed along the path from demand to completion and
flexibility with regard to adaptation to the changing functions of the quay. The technical
feasibility of all the following designs has been shown by calculation.
562
Quay walls
150
100
Service life in years
Quays in
town
50
Quays in
Waal- /Eemhaven
area
Chemical
industry Quays on
the Maasvlakte
3/5
1850 1920 1930 1990 2050
Built in the years
Fig. 13.2 Duration of the functional use of quays.
Containerland
‘Containerland’ meets the need for the rapid and temporary construction of flexible,
small-scale, inexpensive port areas. Batches of 20-foot or 40-foot containers, stacked
and connected to each other, are placed in the water. It is possible to stack five contain-
ers up to a height of 15 m. Concrete plates are placed on the upper and lower sides and
lead the loads to the corner points of the containers. In practice, ‘Containerland’ has been
successfully tried out with four batches of containers stacked three high [13.3].
Fig. 13.3 Experimental Containerland, Dintelhaven, Rotterdam.
Universal moveable quay

The design of the universal movable quay is based on the stacking of triangular concrete
elements. The quay is constructed under water by building upwards from the harbour
bottom. By using tongue-and-groove connections and securing these with tightening bars
563
Future developments
it is possible to form the elements into a whole. This structure makes it easy to adapt the
quay to new functions. Moreover, it is possible to dismantle the quay and rebuild it in a
different position within the port. With this design, the lifetime of the quay will be twice
thirty years [13.4].
Fig. 13.4 Quay wall structure with stacked triangular concrete elements.
Quay wall of synthetic elements

The quay wall is constructed from stacked elements made of synthetic material that is
reinforced by fibreglass and filled with ballast sand. The elements can be easily built up
to the desired height. It is possible to position the elements without the development of
high local forces by using a stepped method when constructing the quay wall. Cohesion
between the blocks is created by stacking the blocks in stretcher (half brick) bond, by
making recessed connections in roof and floor and by placing a concrete capping beam
Fig. 13.5 Quay wall of stacked synthetic elements. Synthetic framed structure with anchorage.
564
Quay walls
over the top layer of blocks. The quay wall is flexible, can be dismantled, is moveable and
is re-usable [13.5].
Maxisteck
The Maxisteck element consists of a prefabricated steel substructure placed on a rigid
foundation, above which is a working area of one or two construction layers. The system
can be used to extend piers, to fill in harbour basins and to construct new piers. A group
of Maxisteck elements connected to each other by intermediate elements forms a new port
area. The system can be quickly constructed and is flexible with regard to placing and
use [13.6].
18m
Prefabricated concrete deck
e
slop
ting
Exis
Steel
frame
Steel
tubular pile
Fig. 13.6 Steel structure with concrete elements.
Suction anchor
A hollow concrete floating quay is anchored by means of cables and suction anchors. The
quay is independent of tides, can move vertically and is relatively easy to install anywhere
in the port area [13.1].
Cable
tension winch
Suction
anchor
Fig. 13.7 Concrete structure anchored with suction anchors.
565
Future developments
Famas
Famas is a concept designed to speed up and simplify the handling of goods. This includes
berthing facilities to tranship the cargoes of marine shipping into freight trucks and a
combi-terminal for freight trucks and the transhipment of cargoes of inland shipping.
The concept also provides a compact terminal in which the transport modalities for
freight trucks, rail and inland shipping are combined [13.6].
Fig. 13.8 Terminal layout, Maasvlakte 2.
Magnetic berthing
This is a quick and safe way of berthing. Blocks composed of small magnets are placed in
the quay. When these are activated a magnetic field is created and this is strong enough to
hold the ship at the quay. The magnetic field thus generated is not dangerous to the cargo
and does not affect the instruments on board of the ships [13.7]. See Fig. 13.9.
L-Wall
The L-wall is a concrete structure placed on a carefully levelled bed of gravel or stone
grading. The structure obtains its stability from the vertical weight deriving from the self-
weight of the concrete structure, the soil on the floor and the shear resistance under the
floor. The foot of the wall is protected against erosion by dumped stone. The concrete
L-wand is often built in situ in a building pit. With this type of structure it is possible to
construct a quay wall from prefabricated elements up to a retaining height of 30 m [13.9].
See fig. 13.10.
Gravity wall
The special form of the gravity wall is derived from the internal stress lines and the
requirement that no tensile stress may occur. Thus the structure can be constructed with
un-reinforced concrete and a robust structure that is easy to repair is obtained. Because
of its shape, the structure must be cast in sections and, for the sake of the formwork, this
566
Quay walls
Fig. 13.9 The principle of magnetic berthing.
Drainage
ca. 30 m
Prefabricated concrete
L-wall
Foundation bed
Fig. 13.10 Prefabricated concrete L-wall.
567
Future developments
must be done in a construction pit. The setting up of the formwork in a construction pit
demands that the construction pit is both deep and dry [13.10].
ca. 25 m
ca. 20 m
Fig. 13.11 Un-reinforced concrete wall.
Difference wood, concrete, steel and composites

In the 2011 a MsC study has been performed [13.11] to investigate the costs and CO2 for
different construction materials (wood, concrete, steel and composites) for the front wall
of a quay wall.
This study indicate that regarding costs steel and concrete are about the same while
synthetics was very expensive.
€400,000.00
€350,000.00
€300,000.00
€250,000.00
Euro
Retaining wall
€200,000.00
Relleving structure
€150,000.00
€100,000.00
€50,000.00
€–
Concrete Steel Wood FRP
Fig. 13.12 Costs quay wall per m.
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Quay walls
The same trend has been observed for CO2 .

160,000
140,000
120,000
kg CO2 equivalent
100,000
construction
80,000 transport
production
60,000
40,000
20,000
–
Fig. 13.13 CO2 -emissions per m quay wall.
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
Euro
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Global warning potential Ozone layer depletion Human toxicity

Aquatic toxicity fresh water Aquatic toxicity salt water Terrestrial toxicity
Photochemical oxidation Acidification Eutrophication
Exhaus biotic Exhaus abiotic Exhaus energy
Landuse
Fig. 13.14 Shadow costs per m retaining wall.
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Prefab slurry wall

Recently 2013 a MsC study [13.12] has been completed for the design of a prefab
slurry wall. This study have indicated that it is possible to construct a prefab slurry
wall.
The designed wall consists of three panels connected by prestressing. The study revealed
that the costs are about the same for a life time of 50 years if compared to an in situ made
slurry wall. However when a shorter life is considered and reuse is taken into account, the
prefab wall is cheaper and has a lower CO2 output.
Fig. 13.15 Prefab slurry wall.
SFRHPC (Steel Fibre Reinforced High Performance Concrete) facing

In 2011 for the quay wall for EMO berth M5/M6 an integrated concrete fender system
was developed using a SFRHPC shell in the front face of the quay wall. This quay wall
is used by coal barges which are famous for their destructive capacity and cause much
maintenance to conventional structures as explained above.
The shell structure consists of precast SFRHPC slabs which are incorporated in the front
wall of the Quay wall. This material combines high strength with high resistance to
wear and tear and this combination makes it the ideal product to make a quay barge
proof.
The fender system is designed and patented by Van Hattum en Blankevoort.
570
Quay walls
The structure also reduces construction cost, maintenance and due to the smaller gap
between quay and ship quay reduces also the spill of coal during transshipment.
The specifications of the shell are:
– High strength concrete in strength class C90/105 and environmental class XS3
– Steel fibres of drawn wire >75 kg/m3
– Ordinary reinforcing steel: single mesh
– Rough surface with protruding reinforcement at the back side for integral connection
with the structural concrete wall
In order to prevent damage to the sea vessels that also will berth at this quay UHMWPE
plates are mounted at a 10 m interval.
80 370
Steel fibre
concrete
1%
+5.20
50
250
1%
Rebar
670
Ø8-100
SFRHPC
shell
80
Contact reinforcement Anchors
SFRHPC M16
Ø8-200/300 shell Rubbing strip
UHMW-PE 890
Recess
Fig. 13.16 Details of SFRHPC shell EMO.
Continuous quay wall without joints

In the port of Bremen the quay wall for container transhipment has been constructed
without joints over a distance 1,680 metres. Also by Jade Weserport a quay wall without
joints with a length of 1,720 metres was built [13.13].
To realize this additional reinforcement has to be placed in the construction to prevent severe
cracking. Also cooling was necessary to prevent cracking during the hardening phase.
Corrosion resistant steel

AMLoCorTM
During the last 20 years several steel grades were tested in various ports and many labora-
tory tests were conducted in order to develop a new steel grade that would be less prone to
corrosion in a maritime environment. Additionally, trials at the steel plant and rolling mill
were done to optimize the production of a whole range of piling products in such special
571
Future developments
steel. The key challenge was to develop a steel that would perform better in the critical
zones to which a typical maritime quay wall is exposed. The result is AMLoCorTM , the
new ’low corrosion’ steel grade developed by ArcelorMittal.
Advantages of the new steel grade

For the verification of the structure, the designers take into account the ‘general’ corrosion,
assuming that the loss of thickness is uniform all over the surface. In general, the maximum
bending moments, and consequently the steel stresses, are in an area where corrosion rates
are relatively low: the permanent immersion zone or embedded zone (soil). Sometimes
however, the low water zone governs the design as the reduction of the section properties
in the permanent immersion zone is offset by the lower thickness loss.
The main advantage of AMLoCorTM is a significant reduction of the corrosion rates

in both the low water zone (LWZ) and in the permanent immersion zone (PIZ). In-
situ test specimens have proven that the loss of steel thickness (LoT) of AMLoCorTM
is reduced by a factor 3 for the permanent immersion zone and a factor 5 for the low
water zone.
Additionally AMLoCorTM provides a better protection against ALWC (Accelerated Low

Water Corrosion) which is related to biological activity enhancing degradation of steel in
the low water zone. Samples of the new steel grade are being tested over a period of a few
years in a lake in Northern USA affected by accelerated corrosion.
Steel properties
By deduction from its behaviour and mechanical properties, AMLoCor can be consid-
ered as equivalent to a ’standard’ carbon steel used in the construction industry. Hence it
can be designed and installed based on standard design procedures and guidelines valid
for steel (sheet) piles, for instance according to EN 1997, EN 1993 Part 5, EN 12063,
EAU 2012, etc. In the design a combination of additional protection methods may be
considered for zones where the steel is less effective, including coatings, concrete capping
beams, etc.
572
Quay walls
Fig. 13.17 Typical loss of steel thickness in a marine environment.
The intrinsic properties of AMLoCor make it a ‘special’steel grade with respect to welding.
Specific welding procedures have been worked out to ensure state-of-the-art welding and
welders also have to be certified accordingly.
Fig. 13.18 Stress–Strain diagram.
573
Future developments
Reference case: Port of Shoreham, UK

In 2010 a pilot wall was installed in the Port of Shoreham in the UK. The anchored quay wall
is approximately 30 m long, with one anchor level, and a retaining height of 8.7 m. It utilizes
sheet piles from one trial rolling, 16.0 m long AZ 37-700 sheet piles in AMLoCorTM Blue
355, with a yield strength of 355 MPa. Four sheet piles were installed with the additional
channel elements required for the future inspection of the residual thickness, as well as
two standard S 355 GP sheet piles. These will serve as reference samples to compare the
effective corrosion rates of both steel grades under the exact same conditions.
A similar, but larger, pilot project is being set up in the Amazonehaven by the Rotterdam
Port Authority and ArcelorMittal. In this case a 150 m long tubular combined wall will be
monitored over a period of 5 to 10 years.
Biomass used for preventing corrosion

One of the trends in construction research is trying to build or protect more with the help
of mother nature. Although most research is still ongoing some developments can be read
in literature. Especially bacteria might play a large role in the future. There are bacteria
that protect steel against corrosion. Subject of research currently are the land side of sheet
piles and buried pipe lines. Perhaps on one day the sea side might be helped as well.
At present (2013) a study is going on in cooperation with the Rotterdam Port Authority,
Delft University of Technology whether micro small organisms can be used to prevent
corrosion of steel in the ground.
In the field investigations are taken placed into the soil-and groundwater conditions
including chemical tests. Further steel sections are investigated for the presence of biofilms.
There are also bacteria that can repair concrete. Oysters are used to armor sandbanks and
perhaps one day we might use natural resources instead of steel and concrete to construct
quay walls? More information and inspiration can be found on www.ecoshape.com and
the research of the Delft University of Technology, faculty of Geo Engineering.
Anchorview & group dynamics of grout anchors

One of the major risks with grout anchors on heavy quay walls is group dynamics. As
the anchors are placed very close to each other (c.t.c. distances of 1 to 1.5 m appear), the
chance of the anchors influencing each other is large. All anchors are tested individually,
but not as an entire group. The only available test is dredging and then fully loading of the
quay, is obviously not the right way.
Today it is possible to measure the position of each anchor (see [13.14]). Grout anchors
normally have a hollow rod that is normally filled with grout during the drilling process.
The rod can be cleaned with water directly after grouting. It also appeared to be pos-
sible to use a strong jet and remove the hardened grout form the rod, but this is rather
expensive.
574
Quay walls
The Dutch company Invetec (www.Invetec.nl) developed Anchorview using the SAAF.
The ShapeAccelArray/Field (SAAF) consists of an articulated chain of sensor elements

(segments).
The segments are joined together in such a manner that they can move in relation to each
other in all directions but do not twist. Each segment contains a multi-axial MEMS-chip
accelerometer. This makes the segment act as an extremely accurate inclinometer that
determines the angle of inclination in both X- and Y-direction.
The length of a segment is 0.305 m or 0.500 m, the diameter is only 25 mm. By lowering the
SAAF into the hollow core of a grout anchor and reading all the segments in the chain, the
shape of the anchor is determined very accurately. The SAAF measures with an accuracy
of 1.5 mm over a length of 30 m.
References
13.1 Gijt J.G. de, (1999) Kademuren, verleden, heden en toekomst. Ingenieursbureau
Gemeentewerken Rotterdam.
13.2 Maxisteck, (1999) een innovatief ontwerp voor flexibel werkterrein in de
Rotterdamse haven. Ingenieursbureau Gemeentewerken Rotterdam.
13.3 Containerland, baanbrekende vondst voor flexibele landuitbreiding. Gemeentelijk
Havenbedrijf Rotterdam.
13.4 Fecken F.A. (1998) Ontwerp van een universele verplaatsbare kade voor de
Rotterdamse haven. Afstudeerverslag Technische Universiteit Delft.
13.5 Breugel M.P. van (2003) Kademuur van de toekomst. AfstudeerverslagTechnische
Universiteit Delft.
13.6 FAMAS (1999) Maasvlakte Integraal Container Logistics. Port of Rotterdam.
13.7 Fiktorie E. (2002) Laden en lossen zonder trossen. Afstudeerverslag Technische
Universiteit Delft.
13.8 Gijt J.G. de (2002) Trends in de waterbouw, lezing cursus nieuwe ontwikkelingen
in de waterbouw, HAN/CUR.
13.9 Adel F. De, Gijt J.G. de, Valkenburg W. (2003) Design alternatives for the quay
wall in the Yangtzehaven, Ingenieursbureau Gemeentewerken Rotterdam, 13th
International Harbour Congres Antwerp.
13.10 Cosy P., Celst E, Simons R, Thibaut W., Verdamme M., Dedeyne R.,
Vandemeulebroecke S, De ongewapende J-kaaiwall, Geotechniek, juli 2001.
13.11 Maas T., Gijt J.G. de, Dudok van Heel D., Comparison of quay wall designs
in concrete, steel, wood and composites with regard to CO2 -emission and the
lifecycle analysis, MTEC2011, Singapore.
13.12 Rafik A., Gijt J.G. de, Braam C.R., The feasibility of removable prefab diafragm
wall, EACEF 2013, Singapore.
13.13 Morgen, Karl, Fugenlose Kaimauern am Beispiel Bremerhaven und am neuen
deutschen Tiefwasserhafen in Wilhelmshaven, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau Spezial,
575
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März 2012. Häfen und Kaianlagen, Berlin (Deutschland, Bundesrepublik), Ernst

und Sohn, 2012, S.39-45, Serie: Beton- und Stahlbetonbau Spezial (Sonderheft).
13.14 Broos, E.J., (2010) Design & construct contract for a deepsea quay wall in the Port
of Rotterdam, case study Brammenterminal, Port Infrastructures Seminar 2010.
13.15 Dudok van Heel D., (2007) Joint free quay wall in high performance concrete: a
feasibility study, MsC thesis, TUDelft.
13.16 Wel M.C. van der, Gijt J.G. de, Dudok van Heel D., The use of a floating quay
wall for container Port Infrastructure Seminar Delft 2010.
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Quay walls
Chapter 14
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND STANDARDS

Quay walls
Contents
14.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
14.2 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

Quay walls
Chapter 14
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND STANDARDS
14.1 Bibliography
1. Aanbestedingsreglement Werken ARW 2012, SDU, Den Haag, The Netherlands.
2. Uniforme Administratieve Voorwaarden voor de uitvoering van werken 2012 (UAV
2012), SDU, Den Haag, The Netherlands, 2012.
3. Port of Rotterdam, Port Statistics, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2010–2012.
4. CUR-rapport 2001–8, Bearing capacity of steel pipe piles, ISBN 9037601618, CUR,
Gouda, The Netherlands, 2001.
5. Milas, Perez, Containeroverslag, Gemeentewerken Rotterdam, The Netherlands,
2001.
6. CBS-publicatie, Statistisch jaarboek, Statistiek van het goederenvervoer, ISBN: 978-
90-357-1530-1, CBS, Voorburg, The Netherlands, 2013.
7. CB2 Constructieleer Gewapend Beton ISBN: 978-94-6104-006-0, mart 2010.
8. Smoltczyk, Prof. Dr. Ing. Ulrich, Grundbau Taschenbuch, 6eAuflage: Teil 1:
Geotechnische Grundlagen. Teil 2: Geotechnische verfahren. Teil 3: Gründungen.
ISBN 3433014450/3433014469/3433014477. Ernst & Sohn, Bern, Switzerland,
2001.
9. Bakker, Klaas Jan, Soil retaining structures, Developing of models for structural
analysis, ISBN 90-5809-3204, Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2000.
10. Ligteringen, Prof. ir. H., Ports and Terminals, TUDelft, The Netherlands, ISBN10
9065622888, 2012.
11. CUR-rapport 198, Kerende constructies in gewapende grond, ISBN 9037601421,
CUR Gouda, The Netherlands, 2000.
12. Uitvoering van betonconstructies CB19, ENCI media, Den Bosch, The Netherlands,
2000.
13. Standaard RAW Bepalingen 2010, ISBN 9789066285675, CROW, Ede, The
Netherlands.
14. Ruimtelijke dynamiek in de Rotterdamse haven, Gemeentelijk Havenbedrijf Rotter-
dam, The Netherlands, 2000.
15. Driel, H. van en F. de Goey, Rotterdam cargo handling technology 1870-2000, ISBN
9057301458, Walburgpers, Zutphen/Stichting historie der techniek, Eindhoven, The
Netherlands, 2000.
16. Barends et al., Geotechnical engineering for transportation infrastructure, art. A.F.
van Tol and J.G. de Gijt, Quay walls of the Rotterdam harbour, ISBN 9058090477,
Balkema Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1999.
17. Clarkson Research studies, The Tanker Register, London, UK.
581
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18. Tweede structuurschema verkeer en vervoer, deel a: Beleidsvoornemen. ISBN 90-

12-06057-5, Tweede kamer, The Netherlands, 20 922, vergaderjaar 1988–1989.
19. Port of Rotterdam, 2020 Integrale verkenningen voor haven en industrie, Rotterdam,
20. Kreukels, T. en E. Wever, North Sea Ports in transition: Changing tides, ISBN
9023232860, Van Gorcum, Assen, The Netherlands, 1998.
21. RWS, directie Zuid-Holland, Trends Scheepsafmetingen 2020, Lloyd’s Register
Management Services, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1998.
22. Nationale Havenraad, Ontwikkelingen in de Europese Zeehavens buiten Nederland,
Secretariaat van de Nationale Havenraad, Den Haag, The Netherlands, 1998.
23. Betontechnologie CB1, ENCI media, Den Bosch, The Netherlands, 1998.
24. Spundwandhandbuch Berechnung, ThyssenKrupp Gft Bautechnik GmbH, HSP
Hoesch Spundwand und Profil GmbH, 2007.
25. CUR-rapport 172, Duurzaamheid en onderhoud van betonconstructies, tweede
herziene uitgave, ISBN 9037600441, CUR, Gouda, The Netherlands, 1998.
26. Head, K.H., Manual of soil laboratory testing, three volumes, ISBN 0471977951,
Chisester Wiley, 1998.
27. Lunne, T., P.K. Robertson and J.J.M. Powel, “Cone Penetration Testing in geotech-
nical practice”, ISBN 041923750 X, 1997.
28. Verruijt, prof.dr.ir.A., Soil dynamics, TUDelft, The Netherlands, 1997.
29. CUR-rapport 189, Cement-bentonietwanden, ISBN 9037600921, CUR, Gouda, The
Netherlands, 1997.
30. CUR-rapport 166, Damwandconstructies, ISBN 903760031X, CUR, Gouda, The
Netherlands, 1997.
31. Keverling Buisman, ir. A.S., Grondmechanica, ISBN 90541106727, Balkema,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1996.
32. EAU 2012, Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses “Ufereinfassungen” Häfen and
Wasserstrassen (Recommendations of the committee for waterfront structures har-
bours and waterways), ISBN: 978-3-433-01848-4, Ernst & Sohn, Bern, Switzerland,
2012.
33. Moscoviter, H., Op de groei gemaakt, 150 jaar gemeentewerken Rotterdam, ISBN
90803331115, Gemeentewerken Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1996.
34. Statistik, B.A., Bundesverband öffentlicher Binnenhafen Deutschland, Germany,
1995.
35. American society of civil engineers, Retaining and floodwalls, ISBN 0872629686,
ASCE Press, New York, USA, 1994.
36. CUR-rapport 162, Construeren met grond, ISBN 9037600247, CUR, Gouda, The
Netherlands, 1993.
37. Pleticha and Schönbergen, Die Römer, Gondron Verlag GmbH en Co, KG, Binlach,
1992.
38. OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine Forum), Mooring equipment guide-
lines, 3rd edition, 2008, ISBN 978 1 905331 32 1, Witherby, London, UK.
39. EAU 1990, Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses “Ufereinfassungen” Häfen und
Wasserstrassen, ISBN 3-433-01210-5, Berlin, Germany, 1990.
582
Quay walls
40. Gaythwaite, John W., Design of marine facilities for the berthing, mooring and repair
of vessels, ISBN 0442229003, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, USA,
1990.
41. IJsselsteijn, H.A., Rotterdam 650 jaar, The port of Rotterdam 1908, ISBN
9020419439, Nijgh en Ditmar publishing co, The Netherlands, 1990.
42. Stadstimmeren, ISBN 9071082113, Phoenix & Den Oudsten, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands, 1990.
43. Nekker, ir. J. de, Short course on design of coastal structures, Gemeentewerken
44. Bruun, Per, Port engineering, ISBN 0872018431, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, USA, 1989.
45. Thoresen, Carl A., Port designers Handbook, ISBN 0727732285, Thomas Telford
Publishing, London, 2003.
46. Strubbe, Jan, De Belgische zeehavens, erfgoed voor morgen, ISBN 902091457x,
Lannoo, Tielt, Belgium, 1987.
47. Spundwand-Handbuch teil 1, Grundlagen, Trade Arbed, Luxemburg, 1986.
48. Gemeentewerken Rotterdam 1955–1980, ISBN 9090005595/cip, Gemeentewerken
49. PAO, Cursus Havens III, Delft, The Netherlands, 1981.
50. Gaythwaite, John P.E., The marine environment and structural design, ISBN 0442-
24834-2, Van Nostrand Reinhold company, New York, USA, 1981.
51. Veen, ir. C. van der and ir. E. Horvat, ing. C.H. van Kooperen, Grondmechanica
met beginselen van de funderingstechniek, ISBN 902123078x, Waltman, Delft, The
Netherlands, 1981.
52. Lloyd Christopher, Atlas of the history of navigation, The Hamlyn Publishing Group
Limited, London, United Kingdom, 1980.
53. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Port development, a hand-
book for planners in developing countries, Sails no.E-772.d.8, Unctad, New York,
USA, 1978.
54. Asaert, dr. G., West Europese scheepvaart in de Middeleeuwen, ISBN 9022818012,
Unieboek, Bussum, The Netherlands, 1974.
55. Bas, George F., Geschiedenis van de scheepvaart weerspiegeld in de scheepsarche-
ologie, ISBN 9022819086, Unieboek, Bussum, The Netherlands, 1974.
56. Huizinga, ir. T.K., Grondmechanica, 4e druk, Agon Elsevier, The Netherlands, 1969.
57. Lee, Donovan H., An introduction to deep foundations and sheet piling, 2nd ed.
Concrete Publications, London, UK, 1961.
58. Bening, Simon, Vlaams gebedenboek, Bayerische Staatsbibliotheek, Munchen,
Germany, Cod.lat. 23638, fol 11v (ca. 1483–1561).
59. UAV 2012, Uniforme administratieve voorwaarden voor de uitvoering van werken,
SDU, Den Haag.
60. CUR 2001–4, Design rules for tension piles, ISBN 9037604811, CUR, Gouda,
2001.
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14.2 Standards
NEN, Delft, The Netherlands. (NEN-EN Standards published in English; NEN Standards
available in Dutch only)
NEN 2019 Hijskranen, het metalen geraamte, 1976/A1:1986. (Cranes –The metal
structure)
NEN 2881 Maattoleranties voor de bouw. Begripsomschrijvingen en algemene
regels, 1990. (Dimensional tolerances for the building industry –
Terminology and general rules)
NEN 2886 Maximaal toelaatbare maatafwijkingen voor gebouwen, steenachtige
draagconstructies, 1990. (Maximum permissible dimensional devia-
tions for buildings – Stony load bearing structures)
NEN 2887 Maximaal toelaatbare maatafwijkingen voor het uitzetten op de bouw-
plaats, 1990. (Maximum permissible dimensional deviations for
setting-out on the building site)
NEN 2888 Maximaal toelaatbare maatafwijkingen voor het stellen van draag-
constructies van gebouwen, 1990. (Maximum permissible dimen-
sional deviations for the erection of load bearing structures of
buildings)
NEN 2889 Betonelementen, maximaal toelaatbare maatafwijkingen, 1990. (Con-
crete components. Maximum permissible dimensional deviations)
NEN 3682 Maatcontrole in de bouw. Algemene regels en aanwijzingen, 1990.
(Dimensional control in the building field. General rules and
guidance)
NEN 5106 Geotechniek, Bepaling van ongedraineerde schuifsterkte, Terrein- vin-
proef, 1991/A1:1997. (Geotechnics, Determination of undrained
shear strength – in situ vane test)
NEN-EN-ISO Geotechnisch onderzoek en beproeving – Veldproeven – Deel 12:
22476-12:2009 Mechanische sondering (CPT)
NEN 5108 Geotechniek, Bepaling in het terrein van de CBR-waarde, 1990.
(Geotechnics. In situ determination of CBR-values)
NEN-EN-ISO Geotechnisch onderzoek en beproeving – Methoden voor monsterne-
22475-1:2006/ ming en grondwatermeting – Deel 1: Technische grondslagen voor de
C11:2010 nl uitvoering
NEN 5725: Bodem – Landbodem – Strategie voor het uitvoeren van vooronder-
2009 nl zoek bij verkennend en nader onderzoek. (Geotechnics, Guidance
in the preliminary study for preliminary site investigation, first
investigation and main investigation)
NEN 5740 NEN 5740:2009 nl – Bodem – Landbodem – Strategie voor het
uitvoeren van verkennend bodemonderzoek – Onderzoek naar de
milieuhygiënische kwaliteit van bodem en grond (Soil quality –
Strategy for exploratory survey – Investigation of the environmental
quality of soil and soil lots)
584
Quay walls
NEN-EN 206-1+ Beton – Deel 1: Specificatie, eigenschappen, vervaardiging en con-

A1+A2:2005 nl formiteit (Concrete – Part 1: Specification, performance, production
and conformity)
NEN 5988 Beton. Bepaling van de kubusdruksterkte. Verhardingsproef, 1999.
(Concrete. Determination of compressive strength – Hardening test)
NEN 5989 Beton. Bepaling van de kubusdruksterkte. Verhardingsproef met
temperatuurregeling, 1999. (Concrete. Determination of the com-
pressive strength regulation hardening with temperature)
NEN-EN 1990-1 Basis for structural design.
NEN-EN 1991-1 Loads on constructions.
NEN-EN 1992-1 Concrete constructions.
NEN-EN-1993-1 Steel constructions.
NEN-EN 1997-1 Geotechnical design.
NEN 9997-1: Geotechnical design of constructions. This is a compilation of
2011/C1:2012 NEN-EN 1997-1 Eurocode 7 Geotechnical design, NEN-EN 1997-
1/NA National Annex: 2008 and Additional rules for NEN-EN
1997-1:2011.
NEN-EN Quality management systems – Requirements, 2008.
ISO 9001
NEN-EN 10025 Hot rolled products of structural steels – Part 1: General technical
delivery conditions, 2004.
NEN-EN 10027 Designation systems for steel.
NEN-EN 10027-1 Designation systems for steel – Part 1: Steel names, principal
symbols, 1993.
NEN-EN 10027-2 Designation systems for steels – Part 2: Numerical system, 1993.
NEN-EN 10210-1 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
structural steels – Part 1: Technical delivery requirements, 2006.
NEN-EN 10210-2 Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
steels – Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties,
2006.
NEN-EN 10219-1 Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine
grain steels – Part 1: Technical delivery requirements, 2006.
NEN-EN 10219-2 Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine
grain steels – Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties,
2006.
NEN-EN 10248-1 Hot rolled sheet piling of non alloy steels – Part 1: Technical delivery
conditions, 1995.
NEN-EN 10248-2 Hot rolled sheet piling of non alloy steels – Part 2: Tolerances on
shape and dimensions, 1995.
NEN 5493 Quality guidelines for hardwoods in road construction works and
hydraulic engineering works, 2010.
585
Quay walls
Annex A
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND

ABBREVIATIONS USED
587
Annex A
Accidental Combination* of loads consisting of permanent* and variable*

combination of loads* that are used in the assessment of the ultimate limit
loads state*, especially for the assessment of accidental and exceptional
conditions or after an exceptional or accidental situation.
Accidental load Fortuitous or abnormal load that results from accidents, misuse,
environmental conditions, or overwork.
Action Load*=The cause or acting agent capable of generating tension,
stresses, or strain in a structure or structural element.
Active earth Minimum horizontal earth pressure* behind a quay wall at the
pressure moment when the wall moves forward.
Additional costs All costs that do not fall under the construction costs*, real estate*,
or engineering costs* but do form part of the estimated costs*.
Examples include the costs of permits, levies, taxes and fees,
sufferance tax*, decommissioning, financing, replacement trans-
port, interest, wage and price increases, soil investigations, noise
assessment and zoning plans.
AFNOR Association Française de Normalisation, (French Standards Insti-
tute).
AGV Automated Guided Vehicle*=A remotely controlled vehicle, with
an electronic guiding system, that is used to transport containers
between the quay and the stack*.
ALWC Accelerated low water corrosion=microbiological corrosion of
steel. This occurs on or around the low water zone.
Anchor bolt Bolt with its threaded part secured in the quay deck to hold bollards
and other equipment of the quay.
Anchor frame Anchorage composed of pressure and tension piles and tie rods for
connection with the sheet piling.
Anchor plate Plate at the foot of an anchor bolt, buried in the concrete.
Anchor wall Aburied wall or block of steel, concrete or wood that is connected
to the sheet pile wall by tie rods and serves to anchor back the sheet
pile wall.
Anchor with a An anchor* that is constructed in situ with cement and grout.
grout body
Anchor Structure that can absorb some or all of the horizontal forces. The
principle types are horizontal anchors, tension piles, and anchors
with a grout body.
API American Petroleum Institute.
Apron Storage area between the berth line* and the transit shed or the
storage area for transhipped cargo.
Artesian water Hydrostatic water pressure* in an aquifer. This is higher than the
pressure water pressure in the above lying soil, so that springs will form
where there is a hydraulic link between the aquifer and the ground
level.
As-built drawings Record drawings* =Revised drawings showing the quay structure
as constructed at the moment of conveyance to the owner.
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Quay walls
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers.

Asphalt mastic Dense mixture of sand, aggregate and asphalt bitumen in which
the volume of asphalt bitumen is in excess of the volume of voids
in the mixture.
ASR Alkali-Silica Reaction in concrete in which the components of
aggregate materials react with the alkalis contained in the pore
water (interstitial water). The reaction products can absorb the
pore water and swell and in time cause the concrete to crack.
ATT Admiralty Tide Tables.
Atterberg limits Consistency values of Atterberg = Limit values that characterise
the cohesion* of clay: liquid limit*, plastic limit* and possible
shrinkage limit*.
Auger grout pile Pile formed by boring a hole. After the removal of the soil, pres-
surised grout is placed in the hole through the centre of the auger.
The auger is withdrawn at a steady rate as the grout is placed.
Auger pile Soil displacing pile that is screwed into the soil.
Automated Guided AGV* =A remotely controlled vehicle, with an electronic
Vehicle guiding system, that is used to transport containers between the
quay and the stack*.
Back reach Back reach of a container crane=distance between the land-side
crane leg and the centre of the hoisting point furthest from this.
Backhoe A piece of equipment with a grab and fixed arm used in dredging.
Bakje Extended base on the tip of the MV- pile to optimise grouting
process.
Bakjes-paal MV-pile* = Steel pile with an extended base (bakjes) around the
pile tip and a grout pipe fixed along the entire length of the pile,
thus enabling grout to be injected into the ‘bakjes’ and the pile to
be encased in grout.
Bar anchor Horizontal anchor consisting of an anchor body that is connected
to the sheet pile wall by a bar of relatively low quality steel.
Barge Flat-bottomed freight boat for canals, rivers and harbours.
Barge unloading Suction dredging equipment used to transfer wet dredged material
suction dredger from barges and pump it to the disposal site.
Bargeman assigned Bargeman assigned to regular service between two or more places.
to a regular service
Bathymetry The science of measuring the depth of water.
Batter pile Pile installed at an angle to the vertical, mostly as part of a founda-
tion system, to provide horizontal as well as vertical components
of actions. Normally expressed as a ratio of vertical to horizontal
(i.e., 4:1 = 4 vertical to 1 horizontal). Also called raking pile* or
inclined pile* (usually driven not bored).
Beam Maximum width of the cross-section of the ship’s hull*.
Bearing pile Foundation pile that can take up compression loads.
Berm Flat platform on the bottom of the harbour adjacent to the toe of
the quay.
589
Annex A
Berth line A line along the outermost edge of the superstructure on the
waterside.
Berthing equipment General term for the berth structures such as mooring facilities*,
bollards*, ladders, stairs and fendering*, gutters and ducts or
channels. Sometimes termed berthing details.
Block coefficient Volume of water displaced by a loaded vessel, divided by LBP* ×
beam* × draught*of the vessel.
Block wall Gravity wall* constructed from piled up concrete or stone blocks.
BOA Beam Over All=Overall width, the widest beam* (breadth) of a
ship.
Bogie A frame on wheels, for example under a crane gantry.
Bollard A structure on a quay comprising one or more cylinders round
which a hawser can be fastened.
Bollard recess A basin-shaped hollow in the quay, with a bollard or toggle that
can be used when mooring or warping a ship.
Bored cast-in-place Bored pile formed by pouring concrete in a bored hole in the ground
pile and usually containing some light reinforcement.
Bottom protection Structure placed on the bed of the harbour in front of the quay to
protect it from erosion.
Bow propeller Propeller on the bow of a ship to improve manoeuvrability during
slow movements (mooring and casting off).
Breaking pin Shearing pin* =An easily replaceable pin inserted at a critical point
and designed to break when subjected to excess stress.
BS British Standards.
Bulk Non-packaged bulk goods. These can be subdivided into dry goods,
such as ores and grain, and liquid goods, such as oil and oil
derivatives.
Bulk carrier A ship with ballast tanks and holds specially designed for the
transport of various kinds of homogeneous bulk goods.
Bulkhead A structure for retaining earth, or to prevent earth or fill from
sliding into water.
Buoying Free floating or anchored objects, such as buoys and beacons, used
for the marking of fairways.
Cable anchor Horizontal anchor consisting of an anchor body that is usually
attached to the sheet pile wall by cables made of high tensile steel
(usually prestressed).
Cable channel Duct in the surface of the quay through which cables and pipes can
be fed.
CAD Computer Aided Design=Drawing software.
Caisson A gravity wall* made up of hollow elements that are constructed
elsewhere and after placing are filled with sand or other material.
Cantilever A beam which is securely fixed at one end and hangs freely at the
other end.
Capillary elevation The height of the saturated zone in the soil above the water table*.
Capillary zone The soil zone above the water table* in which the pores are entirely
filled by water and which conforms to the hydrostatic law.
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Quay walls
Capital outlay Investment* =The sum of the estimated costs* and the project
contingencies*, if desired increased by the VAT (value added tax).
Capping beam Horizontal beam that links the tops of the vertical piles of a sheet
pile wall and distributes loads.
Capstan Vertical windlass used when moving ships by warping.
Car carrier Ro-Ro ship* used to carry vehicles (mainly for new cars).
Cartography The art of making topographical maps and sea charts.
Case pile Pile consisting of a concrete pile constructed in situ, with a
permanent casing*.
Casing A hollow tube used to provide space for cables or concrete filling
to be added later. After filling the casing may be withdrawn.
Cathodic protection Method of protecting the sheet pile wall against corrosion by
reducing the electro-potential of the steel pile wall.
CCR Central Commission for Rhine navigation. Commission that
promotes the interests of shipping on the River Rhine.
CD Consolidated* drained triaxial test=Procedure used to carry out
the triaxial test* in a fully consolidated and drained condition.
CDM Condition Dependent Maintenance.
Cellular wall Gravity wall constructed in situ, with circular or partially circular
cells that are filled by sand or other material.
Channel width The width of the bottom of a channel.
Characteristic value Value of a variable with a previously determined probability of
exceedence.
Characteristic value That value that is most probably not exceeded. This value is mostly
of a load associated with an occurrence probability of 95%. In other words:
the probability of occurrence above that value is 5%.
Characteristic value That value that the material most probably fulfils. The value is
of a material property mostly associated with an occurrence probability of 95%. In other
words: the probability of occurrence below that value is 5%.
Chart datum The level shown on nautical charts which serves as the datum from
which depths are measured.
Chassis The trailer of a freight truck onto which a container can be loaded.
Chemical A ship with separate stainless steel tanks for the transport of bulk
tanker/carrier chemicals.
Chloride content The amount of chloride ions in water expressed in mg/l. The rela-
tion between salinity* (S) and chloride content (Cl) is given by: S
= 0.03 + 1.805 × Cl.
CLC Central aerial photograph catalogue of the Netherlands = an
inventory of vertical air photos taken since 1-1-1975 and held
by the Central Topographical Service in Emmen (Photographic
Department).
Coaster Short sea ship* = Ship that sails only in coastal waters and does
not cross oceans.
Coating Paint system used to protect material against corrosion.
Coefficient of Spring constant of soil, expressed as the quotient of normal reaction
subgrade pressure and displacement.
591
Annex A
Cofferdam Soil and water retaining structure consisting of two sheet pile walls
between which a soil mass is enclosed.
Cohesion Cohesion of the soil. Frictional resistance of the soil, independent
of the vertical load, comprising true cohesion, apparent cohesion
and cohesional resistance.
Cohesive soil Soil that has shear resistance in the absence of normal stress*.
Colloidal concrete A concrete mixture in which additives are used to produce a degree
of cohesion that permits its free fall through water without washing
out or loss of its cohesive properties.
Combination of During the design process the most unfavourable combination of
loads loads that may occur simultaneously during each project phase and
work condition. These are usually divided in combinations of load
for ultimate limit state* and combinations of load for serviceability
limit state*.
Combined wall A sheet pile system constructed from primary elements with a bear-
ing function (steel profiles, I-section or built up box piles) spaced
uniformly along the length of the quay wall, the spaces between
being closed by the secondary elements, which are intermediate*
sheet piles with a sealing function.
Combi-wall A combined wall*, the primary elements of which consist of open
steel tubular piles.
Commencement date Date upon which the contractor receives the notice to commence
the works.
Completion of works Document stating the date on which the works were substantially
certificate completed in accordance with the contract.
Compression test Laboratory test in which the compression properties of a soil
sample are measured.
Concrete capping Concrete beam that connects the head of a group of piles and
beam distributes loads.
Cone penetration Dutch cone penetration test = CPT* = Measurement of the pen-
test etration resistance of the soil with the aid of a cone on a thin steel
tube, as indication of the bearing capacity of the soil, as developed
in the Netherlands.
Con-Ro ship A container Ro-Ro* =A ship that combines Ro-Ro* facilities with
space for container transport.
Consistence Indication of degree of density or stiffness in cohesive soil, or the
workability or ease to flow of a concrete mix.
Consistency index A figure used for comparing the stiffness of clays in their natural
state. Values above 100% indicate a stiff clay.
Consistency limits Consistency values of Atterberg* = Limit values that characterise
the cohesion* of clay: liquid limit*, plastic limit* and possible
shrinkage limit*.
Consolidation The dynamic process of the adaptation of the soil to a change in
the stress. For example the settling of a dike body or embankment
as a result of the expulsion of pore water.
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Quay walls
Consolidation Progressive decrease of the water content in the soil or a saturated

process cohesive landfill due to the action of a constant load.
Construction costs The sum of the direct* and indirect costs* =The total of all
expenditure relating to the physical construction activities.
Construction depth Design depth* =The theoretical water depth in front of the quay
wall, consisting of the sum of the maintenance margin*, the
dredging tolerance*, the sounding inaccuracy*, the under keel
clearance*, and the draught* of the biggest ship at LLWS*.
Construction in a Building situation where the construction site is above the ground-
dry pit water level, usually in a construction pit with drainage to lower the
groundwater level.
Construction Technical lifetime*=The time during which a quay fulfils the pos-
lifetime sibly changing requirements of the terminal operator or manager
of the site.
Construction loads Loads during execution and construction of the works, during
fabrication, transport and installation.
Construction from Building situation where the groundwater level is not lowered and
the waterside the construction is executed from the waterside.
Container ship A ship with holds equipped with cellular structures/guide rails
specially fitted for the transport of containers.
Contingencies Unexpected events during the course of a project that may affect
the project. Examples include strikes, interruption in the supply
of materials, or calamities during the execution of the work. The
probability of such events is usually small but the consequences
may be serious and they can considerably impede the project.
Contingency costs Addition to the nominal* estimate for costs. This may arise for
listed or unlisted special occurrences* relating to the object in
question.
Contingency Sum that the client adds to the investment* (including or excluding
reserve VAT) to cover possible overrunning of the estimated investment.
The amount is related to the margin* and the probability of
exceedence that can be expected.
Continuous flight A concrete pile formed in situ by using a drill to bore a hole and
auger pile extract the soil while at the same time injecting grout via a hollow
tube in the auger.
Contract depth Guaranteed depth of a harbour in relation to LLWS*, as specified
in the lease contract for the quay.
Contractor Person whose tender has been accepted bythe owner and who
carries out the works.
Conveyance Document stating the actual administrative conveyance of a project
certificate to the owner after completion of the works.
Corrosion Chemical damage to steel.
CP Cathodic protection of steel against corrosion by reducing the
electro-potential of the steel.
CPT Cone Penetration Test.
593
Annex A
Crane outreach Working radius =The distance between heart of the crane and axis
of the load.
Creep Continuous deformation with constant stress as a function of time.
Crib A slope protection consisting of a flexible mattress constructed
from osiers that are bound together to form a two way square grid
that is attached to a strong geotextile* and loaded with riprap*.
Fascine mattress* that is placed with the long side adjacent to the
bank.
Critical limit state Limit state* that is used to assess a structure against the require-
ments for structural safety.
CROW Knowledge platform for infrastructure, traffic and transport. P.O.
Box 37; NL 6710 BA Ede; Telephone +31 318 695 300; website:
www. crow.nl
CU Consolidated undrained* = Consolidated undrained triaxial test*
= Procedure used to carry out the triaxial test* in a fully consoli-
dated and undrained condition with water pressure measurements.
Cunette A trench with sloping sides excavated in the natural subsoil; often
made to remove the weak soil and afterwards filled with sand.
Curing Maturing* =The measures taken during the first week after pour-
ing or casting concrete so that the cement is always provided with
enough water to harden.
Cutter suction Floating dredger with a cutter head and hydraulic pumping system.
dredger
D Draught of ship
D&B contract Design and build contract = Contract agreement in which the
contractor tenders for both design and construction.
DBM Contract Design, build and maintenance contract = Contract agreement
in which the contractor tenders for design, construction and
maintenance on one tender.
DBMF Contract Design, build, maintenance and finance contract = Contract agree-
ment in which the contractor tenders for design, construction,
maintenance and financing in one tender.
DD Design Depth of quay wall
Dead load Permanent load*, not being the self-weight of the structure, with
a more or less consistent position and magnitude.
Dead weight DWT* =The loading capacity* of a ship, this includes the mass of
tonnage the load, including fuel, crew, passengers, drinking water, and pro-
visions that the vessel can carry, expressed in metric tons (=1000
kilograms). One DWT is approximately 1.5 GRT* and 2.5 NRT*.
Defects liability Period after completion of the works during which various tests on
period completion as prescribed by the contract are carried out.
Deformation loads Loads produced by imposed deformations, such as caused by pre-
stressing, thermal differences, rheological actions and imposed
movements.
Delta girder Structure in which the relieving platform is constructed as a hollow
triangular beam.
594
Quay walls
Depassivation Damage to the protective layer round the concrete reinforc-

ing steel that occurs when the steel is in an alkaline concrete
environment.
Depth of ship The vertical distance at mid length between the lowest part of
the keel and the top of the upper deck of a ship, expressed in
metres.
Design depth Construction depth* =The theoretical water depth in front of
the quay wall. This consists of the sum of the maintenance
margin*, the dredging tolerance*, the sounding inaccuracy* the
under keel clearance*, and the draught* of the biggest ship at
LLWS*.
Design life The life as required by the owner in the terms of reference* =The
period of time from the beginning of the construction of the struc-
ture until it is dismantled, withdrawn from service or acquires a
different function.
Design value of a The sum of the nominal value* of the geometric parameter and an
geometric parameter unfavourable addition to the geometric parameter.
Design value of a The product of the representative value* of the load/action* and
load/action the partial factor* for loads.
Design value of a The quotient of the representative value* of the material property
material property and the material factor*.
Deviator stress In the triaxial test* the difference in stress between the total vertical
stress and the support stress in the cell.
Dew point The temperature at which the water vapour in the air begins to
condense forming droplets on surfaces. When the temperature falls
below dew point it is impossible to get a good painted surface and
painting is not allowed.
DGPS Differential Global Position System = Position and height mea-
suring system with the aid of satellites.
Diaphragm wall A reinforced concrete wall that is cast in situ in a previously
excavated wall-shaped trench. During excavation, the trench is
stabilised with bentonite slurry.
Diffraction The deflection of waves round an obstacle (cliff, pier or breakwater
roundhead).
Diffuser Equipment for the underwater discharge of wet soil. A wide
outflow-mouth on the pipe ensures the deposition of an even layer.
Dilatancy Expansion (positive dilatancy) or decrease (negative dilatancy) of
the volume of soil caused by shear at constant pressure.
DIN Deutsche Industrie Normal=German standard.
Direct costs Costs that are directly related to the construction of the object.
They are the sum of labour and the cost of running equipment,
hire charges and deliveries. These costs are linked directly to
the amount of work that is done and materials supplied. They
include specified costs*, unspecified costs* and contingency
costs*.
595
Annex A
Displacement Total weight of a fully loaded ship. This is equal to the weight of
the volume of water displaced by the ship’s hull*.
Distomat Optical telemeter= Distance measuring instrument used on sur-
veying.
Distripark A distribution centre at which goods can be sorted according to their
various destinations and at which as many activities as possible are
carried out to increase their value.
Disturbance level Depth to which dredging equipment has disturbed the soil in
order to obtain the desired depth and the cohesion* of the soil is
disturbed.
Diurnal tide Tide which passes through one maximum and one minimum in one
lunar day =Tide with a predominant period of one lunar day.
Dolphin An isolated gravity structure made from heavy wood or iron piled
with an energy absorbing function for restraining, guiding or
mooring ships.
Double tide This results in a small rise in sea level during the low water period
as a result of which two low waters can be distinguished during
this period.
Down-time Low water period during which the harbour is inaccessible to ships
with a deep draught or period with high winds, as a result of which
it is impossible to work.
Drainage system System through which the groundwater can flow in order to control
the ground water conditions. It can be divided into a horizontal
system that removes ground water laterally and a vertical system
that removes groundwater vertically from the soil. The latter system
consists of vertically permeable sand or gravel columns or plastic
drains.
Drained soil test Laboratory test in which the load is built up so slowly that no water
over pressure is created.
Draught The maximum distance between the waterline of a ship and the
lowest part of the keel, expressed in metres.
Dredging free Excavationof the material in front of the quayto the desired water
depth.
Dredging margin Variation in the depth of the water as a result of the inaccuracy of
dredging.
Dredging tolerance The permitted deviation from the dredging depth stipulated in the
contract.
Drift The lateral movement of a ship caused by wind pressure on the part
of the hull* that is above water.
Driven cast-in-place A reinforced concrete pile cast in a hole formed by driving a steel
pile casing*. The casing is filled with concrete tamped with the drop
hammer, after which the casing is usually withdrawn.
Driving helmet Driving cap =A steel cap placed over the head of a steel pile to
reduce damage during driving.
DTM Digital terrain model=A model with which the situation and
longitudinal and transverse profiles of an area can be drawn.
596
Quay walls
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage*=The loading capacity* of a ship,

expressed in metric tons (=1000 kilograms). This includes the
mass of the load, including fuel, crew, passengers, drinking water,
and provisions that the vessel can carry. One DWT is approximately
1.5GRT* and 2.5 NRT*.
Dynamic load Load* that can cause accelerations in the structure or parts there
of that are larger than 0.5 m/s2 .
Earth fill site Disposal site to which wet or dry earth is carried by a pipeline or
by truck.
Earth loads Pressures due to either the direct action of natural soil or landfill,
or the indirect action of other loads via the soil.
Earth pressure Soil pressure* =Total force per unit area of a mass of soil= Sum
of pore water pressure* and effective stress*.
Earth pressure Coefficient that gives the relation between normal horizontal and
coefficient vertical stress in the soil.
EAU Empfehlungen des Arbeitsausschusses “Ufereinfassungen” =
Recommendations of a German committee for waterfront struc-
tures, harbours and waterways.
Echo sounder Instrument used to determine the depth of water with the aid of a
sound wave with a single frequency.
Economic life The time during which a quay functions economically=Time
during which the benefits exceed the costs.
EDI Database for the electronic processing of data from the cargo flow.
Effective stress Effective pressure = Intergranular pressure = Stress in the soil
resulting from contact forces between the grains.
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment = Legally required procedure
for the assessment of the environmental impacts of the planned
construction with opportunities for discussion/consultation for all
the parties involved.
EIS Environmental Impact Statement=Legally required report on the
environmental impacts of the planned construction. This must be
approved before a construction permit can be issued.
Elevation head The height of a point above a horizontal reference point.
EM Etat Major=Chart datum used in Belgium. The plane of reference
for the measurement of heights that is used on Belgian maps and
charts. (equivalent to NAP* – 2.32 m).
Encroachment The right to have projections over public land (such as balconies
and shop signs), which are permitted on sufferance*.
Engineer Person appointed by the owner to act as engineer and supervisor
Engineering costs of the works. He reports to the project manager of the owner The
costs arising from the work of engineering consultants in relation to
design and supervision, techniques used as well as work in the areas
of organisation, and environmental, legal and economic aspects.
Usually these activities can be divided into those that do not directly
or indirectly lead to the construction of an object and activities that
are directly related to the construction of the object.
597
Annex A
Environmental Loads caused by natural phenomena, such as waves and currents,

loads wind and tidal variations, wind, snow, ice and seismic actions, as
well as actions due to precipitation, atmospheric pressure, air and
water temperature.
EO Earth observation=Surveying and mapping of the sea and naviga-
ble waters with the aid of radar satellites.
Estimated costs The sum of the construction costs*, real estate costs*, engineering
costs* and additional costs*.
Eudiometer Compression test = One dimensional consolidation test.
Euro-pile Prefabricated hollow concrete pile, with a closed tip that is brought
to depth by a screwing action. When the pile reaches the required
depth the bearing capacity can be increased by the injection of
concrete or mortar, possibly strengthened by reinforcement bars.
Event tree Representation of the consequences of an undesired initial event.
Exceedence Number of observations that a value is reached or exceeded.
frequency
Expansion joint Joint or space between the elements of a structure that is introduced
to take up shrinkage or expansion caused for example by changes
in temperature.
Extreme load The value of the variable load* that has a very low probability of
exceedence during the reference period*of the construction.
Falling apron Ridge of riprap* placed at the toe of a revetment or bottom
protection.
Fascine mattress A mattress, woven from osiers and weighted by stones, that is
placed on the bed of a harbour in front of the quay, to protect the
bottom against scour.
Fault tree A representation of the relation between the contributions of
various failure mechanisms, assuming an undesirable top event.
FDM Failure dependent maintenance.
Feeder vessel Originally a grain hopper that was positioned above the hold of a
ship in order to replenish the settlement of grain mass in the hold
during the voyage and to maintain the stability of the ship. Now a
general term for any coaster or self propelled inland vessel.
FEM Finite Element Model
Fender Energy absorbing element that is placed on the front of a quay to
prevent damage to ship or quay, arising from contact between ship
and quay wall.
Fender pile Vertical beam that is used as a fender between ship and quay to
prevent damage to either.
Fendering The system comprising energy-absorbing structures designed to
prevent damage to a quay or a vessel during berthing.
Fibrous open stone Permeable mixture of fibrous mastic with a coarser limestone
asphalt fraction.
Fidic Fédération Internationale des Ingenieurs-conseil, Genève
=Organisation that publishes for instance the ‘Conditions of
contract for works of civil engineering construction’.
598
Quay walls
Filter structure Protection of the harbour bed in front of the quay that is made up
of a series of layers of stone. The lower layers are of fine material,
with coarser layers above, thus providing a filter.
Final statement at Documents showing the final value of all the work done.
completion
Flare Angleofinclinationofaship’s bowin avertical plane.
Fluidisation pile In situ constructed soil displacing round, reinforced concrete pile,
made with the aid of a vibrating casing and in combination with
fluidisation. The tube is withdrawn with the aid of vibration.
Footing Narrow shallow foundation* in direct contact with the subsoil
(rock or compacted sand layer).
Forklift truck A small vehicle with vertical lifting equipment in the form of a
fork.
Form removal Shuttering stripping strength = Minimum required strength of
strength concrete before the formwork is removed.
Forwarding agent Company that arranges for the overland transport of cargo.
Franki pile Trade name for a driven cast-in-place, soil displacing*, reinforced
concrete pile, with a bulbous toe (clubfoot), made with the aid
of an internal monkey (=ram block) in the steel casing or by pile
driving on the casing*.
Freeboard The vertical distance between the water line and the highest deck
that is attached to the side of the ship.
Frequency The relation which exists between the magnitude of an observed
distribution variable and the frequency of its occurrence.
Frequent Combination* of loads consisting of permanent* and variable*
combination of loads* that are used in the assessment of the serviceability limit
loads state*, especially for the assessment of deferred effects.
Frequent load/action Value (with average and standard deviations*) for the variable
load* that may be encountered at a random time.
Functional lifetime The duration over which a quay satisfies the required functions
(may be changing over time).
Functional manager Person appointed by the owner* who is responsible for the
of the owner maintenance of the quay after conveyance* of the works to the
owner.
Functional terms of A list of functions and associated functional requirements which
reference the quay wall must satisfy, seen from the point of view of the
owner* or terminal operator.
Functionality The degree to which a quay wall is able to fulfil its functions and
satisfy the functional requirements.
Fundamental Combination* of loads consisting of permanent* and vari-
combination of able*loads* that are used in the assessment of the ultimate limit
loads state*, especially for the assessment of extreme conditions and
repair in normal operating services.
Fundex Pile Soil displacing* screw pile* = In situ constructed reinforced con-
crete pile, made with the aid of a steel casing* with a loose steel
tip. The casing is later withdrawn.
599
Annex A
General cargo Cargo, including many kinds of boxes, crates, barrels and irregular
items.
Geo-electrical Non-destructive soil investigation based on the measurement of mag-
investigation netic fields in the soil after inducing weak magnetic currents in the
soil.
Geological Schematic vertical section of part of the earth’s crust that shows the
profile position of the soil strata.
Geotextile A synthetic textile material or matting used in geotechnical structures.
GEWI anchor Bar anchor made of specially ribbed steel that is of higher quality
than usual.
GIS Geographic Information System.
GPS Geographic Positioning System.
Grab Crane Earthmoving equipment with a grab suspended on a cable that reaches
the harbour bottom.
Gravity wall Soil and water retaining structure which derives its stability from its
self-weight.
Grip The degree to which the interlocks* of a sheet pile wall grip each
other.
Groundwater GWL*=The height of a point where the groundwater has a pressure
level head equal to 0 compared to the atmospheric pressure.
Grout A mixture of cement and water.
Grout anchor Rod-shaped anchor that is formed by injecting cement grout into the
soil under pressure around a steel rod.
Grouting Injecting the soil with cement-grout, resulting in a solid sand-cement
mixture after hardening.
GRT Gross registered tonnage, that is the total volume of the closed part of
a ship expressed in registered tonnage. 1 GRT = 100 ft3 = 2.83 m3 .
GWL Ground water level (phreatic level)
Hand-over Document stating the acceptance of the works in accordance with the
certificate conditions of contract.
HAT Highest astronomical tide=highest predicted water level under aver-
age meteorological conditions.
Hawser Rope or cable used for towing, mooring or warping ships. Hawsers
run fore from the bow and aft from the stern to the mooring points on
the quay.
HDPE Synthetic material made of High Density Poly Ethylene.
Heave Vertical movement over the entire length of a ship caused by long
waves that approach from directly in front.
Heeling Listing*=Continuous listing to one side about the longitudinal axis
of a ship.
HHWS High High Water Spring tide=MHHWS*=The five yearly average
of the highest spring tide high water of every month.
High modulus A high strength retaining wall formed by modules of interlocking
wall steel elements that have the same geometry.
600
Quay walls
Hopper suction A self-propelled suction dredger with an own hold or hopper.

dredger
Hub Portto which most cargo is transported and at which much is
transhipped to smaller vessels.
HW High water=MHW*=The top of the average tidal curve.
Hydration grade Percentage of the total amount of cement in concrete that is present
in concrete in a bonded form.
Hydraulic gradient Relationship between the difference in piezometric level* and the
distance covered.
Hydraulic loads Loads associated with water levels and pore water* pressures.
Hydro block Hydraulically powered pile ram for pile driving.
Hydrography The science of describing seas, rivers and lakes.
Hydrophobing The addition of a water repellent layer to make concrete water
repellent.
ICT Information and Communication Technology.
Inclinometer A measuring instrument running in a steel tube welded into the
(TRIVEC) foundation pile and taking readings at every metre. The instrument
is used to measure the inclination of sheet piles during and after
pile driving activities.
Inclined pile Pile installed at an angle to the vertical, mostly as part of a founda-
batter pile* (usually driven not bored).
Inclination of a pile Angle of a pile between the pile axis and the vertical. This means the
greater the inclination, the more effective the pile for transferring
horizontal forces on the pile system.
Indirect costs Expenditure that must be incurred by the party executing the work
(contractor) in order to satisfactorily carry out the work covered by
‘direct costs’*. Indirect costs bear no direct relation to quantities.
The costs can be expressed in terms of percentages of the direct
costs* including unspecified costs* and contingency costs* or as
a fixed sum. This also includes the items ‘contractor’s profit and
risks’ and possibly (if applicable) the item ‘compensation for wage
and price increases’.
Infrequent Combination* of loads consisting of permanent* and variable*
combination of loads* that are used in the assessment of the service abil-
loads ity limit state*, especially for the assessment of instantaneous
effects.
Infrequent load Value (with average and standard deviations*) for the variable
load* that may be encountered rare or infrequent.
Inspection Periodic inspection of the state of maintenance of the quay.
Interlock Structure linking the piles in a sheet pile wall by means of a thumb
and finger.
601
Annex A
Interlock gap Loss of interlock* = Opening between the sheet piles that can
occur unintentionally during installation and which may result in
sand being washed out between the piles.
Interlock sensor A measuring instrument that is attached to the sheet pile to indicate
whether it has lost interlock during driving of the sheet pile.
Intermediate pile Secondary element in a combined wall* =A sheet pile profile
that is placed between the primary bearing elements of a com-
bined wall* as a seal and to transfer soil and water pressure* to the
primary elements.
Inter-modal Transport in which the cargo is carried by a chain comprising var-
transport ious means of transport. This includes the transport of containers
and pallets.
Internal vibrator Poker vibrator* or immersion vibrator =A cylinder of 1 inch to
3 inches (2.54cm to 7.62 cm) diameter, containing a vibrating
mechanism. It is inserted into wet concrete so as to compact it.
Investment Capital outlay*=The sum of the estimated costs* and the project
contingencies*, if desired increased by the VAT (value added
tax).
Jack Piece of equipment for raising heavy loads from below.
Jack up point Position where the crane leg can be jacked up.
Jet grouting VHP*=Very High Pressure*=A process in which a grout mix-
ture is injected into the ground under high pressure as a result of
which the grout mixes with the soil and a solid soil cement mass is
formed.
Jet pipe Tube with nozzles used to jet water into the ground under pressure
to loosen soil and thus to assist in pile driving.
Jetty A free standing structure, one end of which is linked to the shore,
or that may be at some distance from the shore. Ships can berth on
both sides of the jetty for the transhipment of goods to and from
the shore.
Kantenschütz Protective structure on the waterside edge of the quay wall to
prevent damage by mooring ropes and cables.
Keel Main longitudinal frame in the bottom of a ship’s hull*.
King pile Central longest pile of a dolphin*=Vertical capstan* in the harbour
to which a mooring rope can be attached.
KIVI Royal Institute of Engineers in the Netherlands, an association for
professional engineers.
KM Royal Marine Hydrographic Service in the Netherlands, PB 90704,
2509 LS, Den Haag. Tel. +31 (0)70-3162800.
KNMI Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute, PB201, 3730AEDeBilt, Tel.
+31 (0)30 22066911.
Lane length on Capacity of a Ro-Ro-ship* (that is the total length of the 2.4 m
board wide lanes in which containers are placed for transport).
Laser Positioning system using laser beams.
LASH ship Lighter Aboard Ship =A ship that carries loaded barges.
602
Quay walls
LAT Lowest astronomical tide=The lowest predicted water level with

average meteorological conditions. This serves as the plane of
reference for the heights shown on British marine charts.
LBP Length between perpendiculars=The horizontal distance between
the intersections of the bow of the ship and summer saltwater line,
if fully loaded and the vertical line through the axis of the rudder
of the ship.
Letter of acceptance The formal acceptance of the tender by the owner.
Levelling Measurement of differences in height in relation to a horizontal
plane of reference.
L-gravity wall Gravity wall in the shape of an L (or a T).
Life cycle costs Sum of the costs of construction, management and maintenance
of the quay during its entire life, including demolition costs.
Light weight LWT* =The mass of an entirely empty ship, thus without load,
tonnage but including engines and equipment, expressed in metric tons
(=1000 kg).
Limit discharge The threshold discharge of a river that is reached or exceeded twice
per year on average.
Limit discharge level Discharge level with an accepted exceedence ratio.
Limit effective stress Effective stress measured in a compression test* that indicates the
level to which the sample was formerly compressed in the field.
Limit high water Accepted high water level that an average is exceeded once in two
level years. When this happens there is a storm surge* and monitoring
procedures are initiated.
Limit mode Failure mechanism =The actions that cause failure.
Limit state State or situation in which the effect of the load and the response
of the structure just fail to satisfy the stipulated requirements.
Line of floatation The line in the plane of the surface of the water that intersects the
hull*of a ship.
Liquefaction Loss of stability in a layer of saturated sand which has a void ratio*
higher than the critical void ratio, caused by a sudden increase of
pore pressure.
Liquid limit Uppermost plasticity limit =That moisture content at which a clay
changes from the liquid state to the plastic state.
Liquidity index Index of liquidity = (Water content of sample) minus (water con-
tent at plastic limit*) divided by plasticity index*. This figure is
the reverse of the consistency index* and gives a value of 100%
for a clay at the liquid limit* and 0 for a clay at the plastic limit*.
Listing Heeling*=Continuous listing to one side about the longitudinal
axis of a ship.
LLWS Low low-water spring tide=MLLWS*=The average (5-year) of
the lowest spring tide low water of each month. This serves as the
plane of reference for the heights shown on Dutch and Belgian
marine charts.
LNG Liquefied natural gas.
603
Annex A
LNG tanker A ship with separate tanks for the transport of liquid natural gas in
bulk.
LOA Length over all=The greatest length of a ship that is the hori-
zontal distance between a perpendicular tangent to the bow and a
perpendicular tangent to the stern of the vessel.
Load Action*=The cause or acting agent capable of generating tension,
stresses, or strain in a structure or structural element.
Load case General term used to make a distinction between various types of
load or load configuration*. For example ‘Wind’ or ‘self-weight’*.
Magnitude and direction are not considered.
Load configuration Combination of various loads* that act on fixed points.
Load factor Partial factor* by which the representative value* of a load must
be multiplied in order to obtain the design value* of a load.
Load settlement Graph showing the load plotted against the settlement of the soil.
curve
Loaded The mass of the water displaced by the maximum draught of a
displacement ship=Deadweight*+Lightweight*.
Loading capacity Capacity in DWT*. This includes the mass of the load, including
of a ship fuel, crew, passengers, drinking water, and provisions that the ves-
sel can carry, expressed in metric tons (=1000 kilograms). One
DWT is approximately 1.5GRT* and 2.5 NRT*.
Locking position Point at which a crane can be locked in a storm proof position.
Loss of Interlock Interlock gap* = Opening between the sheet piles that can occur
unintentionally during installation and which may result in sand
being washed out between the piles.
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas=Liquid petroleum or petrochemical gas.
LPG tanker A ship with separate tanks for the transport of LPG* in bulk.
LW Low water=MLW*=The lowest point on the average tidal curve.
LWT Light Weight Tonnage*=The mass of an entirely empty ship, thus
without load, but including engines and equipment, expressed in
metric tons (=1000 kg).
Mainport Hub* with an international distribution function.
Maintenance Over-depth that is dredged in order to postpone the need for
margin maintenance dredging resulting from sedimentation.
Margin Reserve or reserve space, more specifically the margin of the esti-
mated costs*. This is the distribution of the margin around the
cost because of uncertainties about the project, including the inac-
curacy of underlying data (capacity to resolve), the scale of the
design drawing, and the normal fluctuations in underlying items in
the estimates, such as quantities and unit rates. This is expressed
as a variation coefficient, a percentage of the average value of the
capital outlay*, or as a standard deviation*. The margin can be
derived from a risk analysis, but can also be estimated as a per-
centage. The size of the margin depends on the project phase, the
process and the company.
604
Quay walls
Material factor Partial factor* by which the representative value* of a mate-

rial property must be divided to obtain the design value* of the
property.
Maturing Curing* =The measures taken during the first week after pouring
or casting concrete so that the cement is always provided with
enough water to harden.
Mean water MWL*=Average water level in a tidal area over a long period.
level
MDL Mean Dredging Level (Construction Phase)
MHHWS Mean High High Water Spring tide=HHWS*=The five yearly
average of the highest spring tide high water of every month.
MHW Mean High Water=HW*=The top of the average tidal curve.
MHWN Mean High Water Neaps=The water level given in the ATT* =
Average high water at neap tide*.
MHWS Mean High Water Spring tide=The top of the average tidal curve
at spring tide*.
MIC Microbiologically Induced Corrosion=Microbiological corrosion
of steel.
Midship section Cross-section of the vessel with the greatest cross sectional
area.
MLLWS Mean Low Low Water Spring tide=LLWS*=The average (5-year)
of the lowest spring tide low water of each month. This serves as
the plane of reference for the heights shown on Dutch and Belgian
marine charts.
MLW Mean Low Water=LW* =The lowest point of the average tidal
curve.
MLWN Mean Low Water Neaps=The water level given in the ATT* =
average low water at neap tide*.
MLWS Mean low water spring tide=The lowest point of the average tidal
curve at spring tide*.
Mobile load A load* that, within limits, can have a random spatial distribution
over a structure.
Mode of transport Mode of transport divided into seagoing, inland shipping, and rail,
road and pipeline transport.
Monitoring Making regular inspections to check and record the condition, or
the development or progression of a process.
Mooring facilities Equipment on the quay for the mooring of ships with hawsers* and
for the provision of access to the quay.
Mohr’s stress circle Graphical representation of the stress situation of soil according to
Mohr.
MR Mean River level=The average river level in the Netherlands,
observed every day at 08:00 hrs a. over the six summer months
(May to October).
Multi beam sonar Instrument to measure the water depth with the aid of sound waves
with two or more frequencies.
605
Annex A
Multipurpose ship Ship prepared for the transportation of different kinds of goods:
containers, general cargo*, liquid or solid bulk*, etc.
Multi trailer system Transport system for moving a number of containers from the
quay to the stack* and vice-versa by one yard tractor.
Multilayer fascine Pile of fascine mattresses* used to stabilise the bottom.
mattress
MV-pile Müller Verfahren pile=Bakjes paal*=Steel tension pile sur-
rounded by injected grout. MV-piles can bear large loads.
MWL Mean Water Level=Average water level in a tidal area over a long
period.
NAP Normaal Amsterdams Peil=Amsterdam ordnance datum=The
Dutch chart datum. The plane of reference for the measure-
ment of heights that is on maps and charts. NAP was introduced
in 1891 and corresponds approximately with the average sea
level.
Nautical depth The distance between the waterline and the bottom of the water
for which the plane with a density value of 1200 kg/m3 or more
is taken for the bottom.
Neap tide Tide occurring when the influence of sun and moon are in
opposition.
Negative skin Down drag=Vertical load on piles or vertical structures that is
friction transferred by friction as a result of settlement of the surrounding
soil in relation to the piles or vertical structures.
NEN Netherlands Standards Institute. Dutch standards are desig-
nated as NEN standards*. When Dutch standards are in strict
accordance with the European standards (Euronorm) they are
designated as NEN-EN standards*.
NEN standards Dutch standards of the Netherlands Standards Institute.
NEN-EN standards Dutch standards that are in strict accordance with the European
standards (Euronorm).
Neutral earth Horizontal earth pressure against a wall that does not deform the
pressure wall.
Newlyn The British chart datum. The plane of reference for the Lowest
Astronomical Tide = Lowest water level that can be predicted
under average meteorological conditions and every combination
of astronomical conditions; in other words, the lowest possible
low water with average weather. The actual harmonic components
are used to make a hind-cast over the previous 18.6 years and
the minimum of these is the LAT*. The LAT is not the lowest
possible water level, since considerably lower water levels may
occur because of storm surges.
NGD Nautical Guaranteed Depth
NN Normal Null=The German chart datum. The plane of reference
for the measurement of heights that is on maps and charts. NN
corresponds approximately with the average sea level. It differs
by 0.01 to 0.02m from NAP*.
606
Quay walls
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington

DC.
Nominal value Value of a variable determined on the basis of expert understanding,
taking into account all its reasonable foreseen variations.
Non-cohesive soil Soil in which the fine fraction is lacking, resulting in the loss of
the cohesive bonds associated with the fraction.
Normal stress Normal pressure=A force per unit area perpendicular to the plane
on which the stress acts.
NPR Nederlandse Praktijk Richtlijn=Dutch guideline, giving practical
support and assistance in the use of NEN standards.
NRT Net Registered Tonnage=All the space that is available for the load
(i.e. GRT* minus the accommodation for the crew, workshops,
machinery etc.) expressed in terms of registered NRT: 1 NRT =100
ft3 = 2.83 m3 .
NVN Final stage of the development of a standard in the Netherlands in
those cases that more experience is needed.
NW Normal or average Water level=The average annual level of obser-
vations monitored every day at 08:00 hrs along the major rivers in
the Netherlands.
OC Organic content
OCR Over Consolidation Ratio.
OLA Overeengekomen LageAfvoer=Agreed low discharge=The dis-
charge of the Rhine at Lobith defined as 984 m3 /s.
OLR Overeengekomen Lage Rivierstand =Agreed low river level = The
local level for the Upper Rhine, the IJssel and the Waal upstream
of Tiel. This serves as the plane of reference for water depth of the
rivers in the Netherlands.
OLW Overeengekomen Lage Waterstand =Agreed low water level =The
plane of reference for depths shown on maps of the Lower Rivers in
the Netherlands. The plane of the OLW makes a gradual transition
from that of the OLR* plane of the Upper Rivers to that of the
LLWS* of the river mouth.
Open berth quay wall A jetty like structure for the mooring of ships that extends over a
slope; often termed a piled quay wall or open quay.
Open textured Open textured mixture of asphalt mastic and stone, in contrast to
bitumen macadam asphalt mastic* which is a dense mixture of sand aggregate and
has an excess of asphalt mastic.
Outreach Outreach of a container crane. The distance between the berth line*
of the quay and the centre of the hoisting point furthest from this.
Over-consolidation Quotient of the maximum historic effective pressure and the
present vertical effective pressure in cohesive soil.
Owner Person who orders the works. In this book the owner of a quay wall
and principal of the works.
Panamax ship The largest ship that can pass through the Panama Canal when fully
loaded with capacity up to 3000 TEU*. The largest measurements
are 290m long, beam* 32.30m and draught* 11.80 m.
607
Annex A
Partial factor Factor by which the representative value* of a load* is multiplied

or by which the value of a material property can be divided to
obtain the design value*.
Passenger Ro-Ro A ship with several decks that is used to carry cars and passengers.
Passive earth The maximum the horizontal earth pressure in front of a sheet pile
pressure wall at the moment that the wall is pressed forward whereby a
passive stress condition is developed in the soil.
Pendulate zone Area in the ground above the zone of intermittent saturation* (=
vadose zone) in which the pores are partially filled with water and
which no longer satisfies the hydrostatic law.
Permanent load Load that acts at every moment during the design life of the quay,
with a more or less consistent position and magnitude. They are
divided in self weight* and dead load*.
PGA Peak Ground Acceleration=Measure for the horizontal accelera-
tion of the ground caused by seismic activity.
Photogrammetry Mapping from aerial photographs.
Phototopography Aerial surveying and drawing.
Phreatic surface The groundwater level*= the level at which water pressure* is
equal to the atmospheric pressure (the water pressure at this level
is 0).
Piezometric level The sum of the local height and the piezometric head* of the ground
water at a point in the ground in relation to a plane of reference (in
the Netherlands usually NAP*).
Piezometric head The height of the water column that gives a pressure that is equal
to the prevailing water pressure* at that point.
Pile helmet Cast-steel cap that covers and protects the head of a precast-
concrete pile during driving.
Pile trestle A structure consisting of linked tension and bearing piles.
Pile wall A wall formed by a row of non-soil displacing* piles constructed
in situ by the injection of concrete, cement grout, bentonite cement
or injected soil that slightly overlap each other.
Piping A channel in the soil resulting from a process of retreating erosion
and running from the rear to the front of an earth retaining structure.
Caused by the leakage of seepage water under or behind an earth
structure.
Pitch Movement of a ship about the transverse axis, resulting from short
waves that approach head on.
Plastic limit Lowest plasticity limit =Water content* of a clay at the boundary
between the plastic and the half-solid state at which it becomes
too dry to be plastic. Together with the liquid limit*, it is used to
determine the plasticity index* which, when plotted against the
liquid limit* on the plasticity chart, enables the classification of
cohesive soils.
Plastic range Range between the liquid limit* and plastic limit*.
608
Quay walls
Plasticity index Difference between the water content of a clay at the liquid
limit*and at the plastic limit*.
PLAXIS A computer programme used for the analysis of soil, rock and earth
structures. This program is based on the finite element method.
Poisson’s ratio Lateral contraction coefficient of soil.
Poker vibrator Internal vibrator* or immersion vibrator =A cylinder of 1 inch to
3 inches (2.54 cm to 7.62 cm) diameter, containing a vibrating
mechanism. It is inserted into wet concrete so as to compact it.
Population Statistical term =A collection of objects from which a sample is
taken in order to reach a conclusion about all the objects based on
a limited amount of data.
Pore water The pressure of water in a saturated soil.
pressure
Post-Panamax Container ship with a capacity over 7000TEU*.
container ship
Post-Panamax ship Ship that is bigger (usually in the beam*) than a Panamax ship*,
and thus unable to pass through the Panama Canal (beam* wider
than 32.30 m).
PP filter material Geotextile* made of polypropylene.
Price level The price level of the estimated costs* at the date that is taken for
the prices, standards and indicators. Usually this is the date that
is linked to the cost price standard files used. If desired, the price
level at the moment that the financing is fixed can be calculated
by indexing the price level used in the estimate.
Principle stress The normal stress* that is wholly compression or tension and
involves no bending or shear and that acts on an infinitely small
plane in the soil.
Product tanker A ship with separate tanks for the transport of petroleum products
in bulk.
Project Supplement to the estimated costs* for the costs that will be
contingencies incurred at a later stage for specified and unspecified contingen-
cies* that are beyond the scope of project and that exceed the
original estimated costs.
Project manager of Person appointed by the owner who is responsible for the works.
the owner
Project scope Description of what is and is not included in the project in terms of
the physical design and possible boundary conditions that govern
the implementation of the project (for example the required phasing
or the safety measures).
Propeller jet The flow velocity field created by the jet action of a propeller.
Provisional sum Sum included in the contract* between owner* and contractor*for
the execution of any part of the works or for the supply of goods,
materials, plant or services, which sum may be used in whole or
in part or not at all.
609
Annex A
PVC Synthetic material made of polyvinyl chloride.

Quality assurance The sum of all planned and systematic actions needed to provide
sufficient assurance that a product fulfils the stipulated quality
requirements.
Quarter ramp Inclined ramp for a Ro-Ro ship* permitting the ship to be loaded
and unloaded while lying alongside the quay.
Quasi-permanent Combination of permanent* and variable* loads that are used in
combination of loads the assessment of the serviceability limit
state*, especially for the case of deferred effects.
Quay Earth retaining structure parallel to the shoreline for the mooring of
ships and transhipment of goods from ship to shore and vice versa.
Rainbowing Sub-aerial hydraulic placement of soil by discharging wet soil in
an arc so that it is spread more or less evenly.
Raking pile Pile installed at an angle to the vertical, mostly as part of a founda-
batter pile* (usually driven not bored).
Reach stacker Transport vehicle for containers with a long-armed loading boom
with spreader to stack containers up to 6 layers high.
Real estate costs All costs arising from the acquisition of real estate in so far as these
relate to the ownership and/or management rights over the site and
any buildings on it (for example compensation for inconvenience).
These include costs of making the inventory, valuation costs, pre-
tendering costs, pre-commissioning costs of buildings, purchase
of buildings, conveyancing fees, lump sum payments for loss of
revenue and damage caused, cables and pipelines and demolition
costs.
Record documents All the documents that relate to technical and administrative infor-
mation on the structure, up to and including the final conveyance*of
the quay wall.
Record drawings As-built* drawings = Drawings showing the quay structure, as
constructed at the moment of conveyance to the owner.
Reference period Intended period during which the structure must satisfy the stipu-
lated requirements.
Refraction Change in direction of incoming wave crests in shallow water due
to the contours of the seabed.
Reinforced earth Retaining structure with horizontal tension elements in the ground
structure that are attached to vertical revetment panels.
Relieving platform A horizontal slab at the landside of a retaining wall that is intended
to reduce lateral earth pressures on the sheet pile wall by the weight
of the soil on the slab.
Remoulding Disturbance of the internal structure of clay or silt.
Renovation Restoration or modification of the function of an existing quay.
610
Quay walls
Representative Stipulated value that is equal to a characteristic value* or a nom-

value inal value*. With the aid of a partial factor* the representative
value can be used to determine the design value*.
Reserve for external Reserve of the owner* for substantial unexpected changes or addi-
contingencies tions to the project scope* that derive from external sources, for
example stricter environmental laws.
Retaining height The height of the quay wall from the construction depth* to the
upper surface of the quay.
Rijkswaterstaat The Netherlands Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water
Management.
RIKZ Rijks Instituut voor Kust en Zee/National Institute for Coast and
Sea PB 20907, 2500 EX Den Haag, Telephone +31 703 114 444
Ripeness of The ripeness is a measure for the strength of concrete using the
concrete dimension degree-Celsius-hour [?Ch], and is calculated from the
measured concrete temperature during the setting period = The
sum of the products of hardening time and concrete temperature
measured at fixed intervals.
Riprap Broken stone discharged onto the harbour bottom, mostly on top
of a geotextile*, used to protect harbour bottoms, riverbanks and
riverbeds from erosion and scour.
RIZA Rijks Instituut voor Zoetwaterbeheer en Afvalwaterbehan-
deling, National Institute for Freshwater Management and
Wastewater Treatment, PB 17, 82 AA Lelystad. Telephone
+31 320 298411.
Roll Rolling movement of a ship about the longitudinal axis resulting
from transverse incoming waves.
Ro-Ro Ship Roll on-Roll off=A ship with multiple decks for the transport of
wheeled loads such as freight vehicles, cars and trains.
Rover Measuring rod with reflector that records the readings with the
aid of a satellite.
RVOI Dutch regulations governing the relation between owner and
consulting engineer.
RVS Stainless steel.
Saddle Cast iron hinged support between a sheet pile wall and the
superstructure above it.
Safety level Evaluation of the security requirements of a structure, in terms
of the consequences of loss of human life, environmental damage
and economic losses in case of its failure.
Safety margin Allowable probability of failure.
Salinity The amount of salt in water expressed in mg/l. The relation
between salinity (S) and chloride content* (Cl) is given by
S = 0.03 + 1.805 × Cl.
Sand drainage System of vertical columns of sand in poorly permeable soil to
drain off excess pore water.
611
Annex A
SBRCURnet Independent knowledge network for the entire construction sec-

tor. Visiting adress: Stationsplein 45, A6.016 (Groothandelsge-
bouw) 3013 AK Rotterdam. Postal adress: PO-box 1819 3000
BV Rotterdam. Contact: Telephone: +31 102 065 959 e-mail:
info@sbrcurnet.nl
Scour Undesired deepening of a harbour, for example by propeller action.
Screw anchor Rod shaped anchor with an auger that is inserted into the ground
horizontally or at a low angle to anchor the sheet pile wall.
Screw injection Rod shaped anchor that is made up from sections that are screwed
anchor together. The first section consists of a spiral drill that is inserted
into the ground at the same time as cement grout so that the grout
is mixed with the soil.
Screw pile A spiral blade fixed on a shaft screwed into the ground. For con-
crete screw piles the spiral shoe is screwed down by a steel shaft
within a cylinder. The steel shaft is withdrawn when the screw
has reached the required depth. The cylinders are filled with con-
crete. These piles can be driven to very great depths and carry large
loads.
Sea Wind sea = Waves at sea generated by the local wind and with a
period of less than 10 seconds.
Seiches Periodic variations in water level, with a period of minutes, initiated
by squalls at sea. Reflections of these in harbours can result in
oscillation.
Self-weight The load produced by the corresponding weight of the structure.
Semi-diurnal tide Tide which passes through two maxima and two minima in one
lunar day = Tide with a predominant period of one half lunar day.
Service area Zone excluded from cargo, material or supply traffic, designated
for administrative services.
Service loads Site loads* = Loads in the serviceability phase deriving from
cranes and equipment, from installations and storage of freight,
from traffic and ship operations. They can vary in position and
magnitude during the lifetime of the quay.
Serviceability limit All states or structural situations where the structure is out of
state service because of functional, durability or aesthetic reasons.
Shallow foundation Footing* = Bearing foundation laid directly onto the subsoil (rock
or compacted sand layers) sometimes termed spread foundation*.
Shear stress Force per unit area parallel to the area in question.
Shearing pin Breaking pin*=An easily replaceable pin inserted at a critical point
and designed to break when subjected to excess stress.
Sheet pile The individual steel element of which a sheet pile wall is composed.
Sheet pile wall Soil retaining structure of sheet piles* that forms a continuous wall
by threading of the interlocks*.
Ship broker A shipping agent=Company that arranges the cargo for a shipping
company.
Shipper Company that arranges the transport of cargo by sea.
612
Quay walls
Shipping line Regular shipping service between two places for passengers or
vehicles.
Ship’s hull The main body of the ship.
Short sea ship Coaster* = Ship that sails only in coastal waters and does not cross
oceans.
Shrinkage index Ratio of decrease in volume of soil due to settlement in relation to
its original volume.
Shrinkage limit The limit between solid and plastic states of clay =The maxi-
mum water content of clay at which a reduction in water content
decreases the volume of the sample.
Side ramp Rampon the side of a Ro-Ro ship.
Significant wave Arithmetical average of the highest third of the wave height*=The
height wave height* with a probability of exceedence of 13.5% (Hs ).
Significant wave Mean value of the periods of the one-third of highest waves.
period
SIKB A CUR network on soil management, encompassing both the pri-
vate and the public sector, set up to continuously and structurally
enhance the standards of activities relating to decision-making,
rendering of services, as well as soil remediation and soil handling.
Single beam sonar Echo-sounder that uses the reflected sound waves of a single
frequency to measure the depth of water.
Site investigation Examination of the topographic, hydraulic, environmental,
geotechnical and geo-hydrological conditions of the site and
the subsoil to obtain the information needed for the design of
the structure.
Site loads Service loads* = Loads on the site in the serviceability phase of
the quay.
Sliding formwork Formwork (shuttering) that slides with the work during the pouring
of the concrete so that this can be cast continuously without joints.
Sliding guide for Strip that is welded over the lower decimetres of the sheet pile
the interlocks as extra protection for the interlock* to reduce the risk of loss of
interlock* during driving of the sheet piles.
Sliding modulus of Relation between shear stress* and angular displacement in soil.
shear deformation
Slope The sloping sideofan inclined earthwork.
SOB Sulphur Oxidising Bacteria=Bacteria that under aerobic condi-
tions can change sulphides into sulphuric acid.
Softening Decrease in the shear stress* of the fully saturated soil under rapid
loading in which the grain structure exhibits negative dilatancy*.
Soil displacing auger Foundation pile that is drilled into the ground without removal
pile ofthe soil.
Soil displacing pile A solid pile, or hollow pile, driven with the lower end closed,
which displaces an equivalent soil volume by compaction or by
lateral displacement of the soil. Examples of these are: timber
pile, closed end pipe or precast concrete pile, Franki pile.
613
Annex A
Soil pressure Total normal* pressure in a horizontal plane at the depth consid-
ered caused by the self-weight of the soil and the loads* above the
considered plane; the soil pressure can be divided into effective
stress or effective pressure* and pore water pressure*.
Sounding Measuring of the depth of water by means of an echo sounder*or
a plumb line.
Sounding inaccuracy In accuracy in the result of a sounding in which both the system
errors and the measuring errors are taken into account.
Specifications Precise description of a work on which costs can be estimated,
contracts awarded and works executed and that serves as the basis
for the tenders*.
Specified costs Part of the estimate that is specified according to parts of the
design. The cost usually consists of amounts times prices. Together
with the costs for unspecified costs* and contingencies*, this is
the best estimate of the total direct cost* of the object.
Splash zone The part of the quay above the high water level that is extra sensitive
to corrosion.
Spread foundation Shallow foundation* in direct contact with the subsoil (rock or
compacted sand layer).
Spreader Equipment to pick up a container.
Spring System for the mooring of ship in which a rope runs from the bow
to the stern or from the stern forward to the mooring point on the
quay.
Spring tide High tide occurring when the influences of sun and moon are in
phase.
SPT Standard Penetration Test=Test that gives an indication of the load
bearing capacity of the soil.
Squat Settling of a ship as a result of its speed.
SRB Sulphur reducing bacteria which under anaerobic conditions can
change sulphur compounds into sulphates.
Stack Zoneofaquay designated for stacking and storageofcontainers.
Standard deviation The square root of the average of the squares of the deviations of
all the observations.
Static load Load that does not lead to the occurrence of significant accelera-
tions in the structure.
Stationary suction Hydraulic dredger used to extract sand from a fixed point.
dredger
Stb Staatsblad=Official paperofthe Dutch government.
Stcrt Staatscourant=Official journal of the Dutch government.
Stern ramp Ramp at the stern of a Ro-Ro-ship.
Stern thruster Thruster on the stern of a ship to improve manoeuvrability at low
speeds (during berthing and casting off).
Stevedore company A transhipment company that loads and unloads ships.
Storm bollard Bollard* sited further inland to which a ship can be moored during
a storm or when a storm threatens.
614
Quay walls
Storm reference In a tidal area the local level that is reached or exceeded by an
level average of 1/10 000 storm high water levels per year.
Storm surge Static rise or fall in the average water level resulting from a very
high or very low-pressure area, possibly combined with the tide.
Storm tide Tidal wave that reaches or exceeds the upper limit high water
level at one or more of the seven stipulated stations in the
Netherlands.
Straddle carrier Container transporter with hoisting equipment that can lift 1
container over 2 containers or 1 over 3 containers.
Strand A number of wires twisted together. Several strands laid parallel
twist to form a rope or cable.
Subcontractor Person to whom a part of the work has been subcontracted with
the consent of the engineer*.
Sufferance tax Tax levied by the local authority to be paid for the right to have
projections over public land or to use public land.
Support Auxiliary structure that ensures that the reinforcing remains in
position during the casting of concrete.
Surcharge Any load on the area/above the earth that is level with the top of a
retaining wall. Surcharges may be service* loads such as traffic,
lorries, locomotives, cranes or stacked goods or dead* loads such
as earth sloping up from the top of the wall or a building above the
top of the wall.
Surge The alternating forward and backward motion of a ship resulting
from short waves approaching at an angle.
Sway The alternating movement stoport and star board of a ship caused
by long transversely approaching waves.
Swell Sea waves that originate in a wind field but that are no longer
influenced by the wind that originally generated them and that
have a period greater than 10 sec.
Swelling Increase in the volume of the soil caused by an increase in the water
content.
SWL Surface Water Level.
Synchrolift A platform suspended from cables that are connected to winches
that can control its vertical position.
Tachymetry Length measurement in combination with angular measurement.
Tanker A ship with large tanks for the transport of crude oil, refined oil
(e.g. petroleum or petrol) or petrochemicals.
TAW Tweede Algemene Waterpassing (Second General Levelling) =
The Belgium chart datum. The plane of reference for the measure-
ment of heights that is on maps and charts in Belgium, equivalent
to NAP* —2.31 m.
TDM Technically Dependent Maintenance.
Technical lifetime Construction lifetime* = The time during which a quay fulfils
the possibly changing requirements of the terminal operator or
manager of the site.
615
Annex A
Technical manager Person who carries out the technical inspections after completion
of the owner of the work together with the engineer.
Technical terms of A list of technical requirements that the quay wall must satisfy,
reference which can be tested against detailed technical criteria.
Tender The contractor’s priced offer to the owner* for the execution and
completion of the works.
Tendon A prestressed bar, cable, rope, strand or wire.
Tension pile Foundation pile that is suitable to take up tension.
TEU Twenty-foot Equivalent-Unit = Standard measurement unit for
containers. 1 TEU= 20 container = 20 × 8 × 8 6 with external
measurements: length 6058 mm × width 2438 mm × height 2591
mm, internal measurements 5900 × 2340 × 2395 mm3 . Cubic
capacity = 33.1 m3 . Tare weights 2000-2400 kg = 20-24kN, max.
payload 18300 21 750-28240kg = 183-217.5-282.4 kN. A 40 con-
tainer = 40 × 8 ×8 6 with external 12 192 × 2438 × 2591 mm,
internal 12 030/12 075 × 2345/ 2370 × 2395/2405 mm3 cubic
capacity = 67,6-68,8 m3 . Tare weight 3550–4000 kg = 35.5–40
kN, max payload 26480-26 930 kg = 264.8-269.3 kN.
Theodolite Optical surveying instrument used for measuring angles.
Tidal range Difference in height between high water and the subsequent low
water.
Tidal window This indicates how much time is available for a ship with a specific
draught to reach its berth in a tidal port.
Tilt The angle between the bottom of the ship and the plane of the
horizontal.
TNO-NITG Nederlands Instituut voor Technologisch Onderzoek enToegepaste
Geowetenschappen (Netherlands institute for technological
research and applied earth sciences). PB 6012, 2600 JA Delft.
Telephone +31 152 564 470.
Tolerance Allowable deviation from a stipulated requirement.
TOR Terms of reference=Reference document containing the require-
ments for design and construction of a work to be done under a
consulting agreement or similar contract.
Total Station Theodolite* with a built-in, telemeter. It is used to determine the
coordinates in the x, y and z directions.
Transhipment Transfer of a load from one type of transport to another, often from
a seagoing vessel to a smaller ship.
Transhipment area Zone of a quay designated for the transfer and handling of cargo.
Transtainer Transport vehicle in a conTainer yard. Travelling crane that can
move containers by road or by rail.
Triaxial test Laboratory test to determine strength and stiffness properties of a
cylindrical soil sample that is loaded on all sides.
Trim Balance of a ship in relation to the distribution of the load.
Tsunami Short high wave resulting from a seismic disturbance (earthquake)
on the sea floor.
616
Quay walls
Tubex-Pile Aninsitu constructed soil displacing* reinforced concrete pile

with a permanent steel casing* and fixed steel foot that is
embedded by means of a screwing motion.
Tubular auger pile A foundation pile constructed in situ, requiring the removal of
very little soil. It is constructed by screwing a steel tube into the
ground, thus forming a cylindrical hole that is then filled with
reinforced concrete.
Turning basin Space in a harbour that is required to manoeuvre vessels.
Turning circle The smallest circle in which a ship can turn when moving at a
constant speed in deep calm water.
UAR Uniform Aanbestedings Regelement=Uniform Tendering Regu-
lations. UAR 1986 is valid in the Netherlands and the UAR 1991
is valid for the European situation. In 2003 a new version, which
replaces previous versions, was published.
UAV Uniform Administratieve Voorwaarden=Uniform Administrative
Conditions. This describes the legal relation between the client and
the contractor in the Netherlands. A new version was published
in 2003.
UBBP Upper Bound Bottom Protection
UBMD Upper Bound Maintenance Dredging (absolute value)
UDM Use Dependent Maintenance.
ULCC Ultra Large Crude Carrier = Large tanker with deadweight
exceeding 400 000 DWT.
Ultimate limit All those states corresponding to the end of the service of the
state structure as a result of collapse, breakage, loss of stability or
other forms of the structure’s or part of the structure’s failure.
Unbonded tendon Prestressed high quality steel cable, without attachment sur-
rounded by grease or a plastic casing.
Under keel The safety margin between the keel of the ship and the bottom of
clearance the waterway or harbour. This is related to the movement of the
ship.
Under-exceedence In this book the probability of occurrence of a variable below a
of a variable stipulated value.
(probability of)
Undrained shear Shear strength of fully saturated consolidated soil when quickly
strength loaded and drainage is prevented.
Unspecified Supplement to specified costs* for further working details. These
costs costs are incurred in consequence of the further detailing of the
design, the work methods and other factors.
UU Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test=Procedure used to carry
out the triaxial test* in an unconsolidated and undrained
condition.
Vadose zone Zone of intermittent saturation*=Area in the layer above the cap-
illary zone* in which the pores are partially filled with water but
which satisfies the hydrostatic law.
617
Annex A
VAL Value Added Logistics=The combination of production processes

with distribution activities, often in a Distripark* (distribution
centre).
Value of the design The product of the representative value* of the load and the
load load factor*. This value must be used when assessing the
structure.
Variable load External load whose magnitude and/or position is variable during
the time of the works and design life of the quay and that have a
frequent or continuous form and vary insignificantly in comparison
with their mean value. They are divided into hydraulic loads*, earth
loads*, service loads*, environmental loads*, deformation loads*
and construction loads*.
VAT Value added tax.
VBT Voorschriften Beton Technologie=Dutch standard for concrete
technology.
VBU 2000 Dutch standards for concrete construction published in December
2002.
VHP Very high pressure=Jet grouting*=Technique in which a grout
mixture is injected into the ground at very high pressure.
Vibro compaction Rütteldrukverfahren = In situ method of compaction of loose,
cohesion less granular soil by means of mechanical vibration.
Vibro-pile An in situ constructed earth displacing* reinforced concrete foun-
dation pile constructed in a driven steel casing* with a loose foot
plate that is later withdrawn.
VLCC Very large crude carrier=very large tanker with a dead weight
between 140 000 DWT and 400 000 DWT.
VLOC Very large ore carrier.
Void ratio The relation between the volume of the space between the soil
particles and the volume of the soil particles.
Waling Horizontal beam, usually of steel or reinforced concrete, fixed to
the retaining wall and used to transmit the design support force for
the wall into the tie rods or struts.
Warping Hauling a ship to a different berth usually by means of a winch*.
Water content Relation between the mass of the water in the soil and the mass of
dry particles.
Water pressure That part of the soil pressure* that is caused by the pore water
pressure* in the area under consideration.
Watertable Phreatic surface=The level at which the water pressure*is equal
to the atmospheric pressure (in this case water pressure =0).
Wave height Difference in height between crest and consecutive trough of a
wave.
Wave overtopping Waves that come over the edge of the quay.
WCF Water-Cement Factor=The mass relationship between the total
water content of the concrete mixture, minus the amount of water
absorbed by the aggregate and the amount of cement.
618
Quay walls
Weep hole Hollow to allow water to escape from behind a retaining wall and
thus to reduce the pressure behind it.
Whole life costs Life-cycle costs* plus costs and lost revenue of the owner and user
caused by damage and delay.
Winch Cylinder around which cables, hawsers and ropes can be wound.
WMO World Meteorological Organisation.
Yaw Movement of a ship about a vertical axis caused by oblique waves.
Yield point of soil Upper limit of fluid state =Water content* of the soil at the
transition between the fluid and plastic states.
Zéro hydrographique Chart datum used in France. The plane of reference for the measure-
ment of heights that is on French maps and charts. Lowest water
level that can be predicted under average meteorological condi-
tions and every combination of astronomical conditions; in other
words, a lower level than this theoretical level is very exceptional.
Zone of intermittent Vadose zone* =Area in the layer above the capillary zone* in
saturation which the pores are partially filled with water but which satisfies
the hydrostatic law.
619
Quay walls
NOTATION
621
Notation
Notation
Units are given in:

Mass: 1kg
Force: 1 N = 1 kgms−2 (kgm/s2 )
Pressure: 1 Pa = 1 Nm−2 (N/m2 )
Stress: 1 kPa = 1 kNm−2 (kN/m2 )
Energy: 1 J = 1 Nm
Tonnage: 1 DWT = 1000 kg
[Dead Weight Tonnage, the load capacity of a ship, this includes the mass of the load,
including the fuel, crew, passengers, drinking water, and provisions that the vessel can
carry, expressed in metric tons (= 1000 kilograms). One DWT is approximately 1.5 GRT
and 2.5 NRT]
Length: 1 m (1 ft = 12 in = 0.3048 m; 1 yd = 3 ft = 0.9144 m; 1 nautical mile = 1852 m)
Speed: 1 ms−1 (m/s) (1 knot = 1 nautical mile/hour = 0.514 m/s)
SYMBOL DEFINITION DIMENSION
A Cross sectional area of tubular pile m2

A Accidental load kN
Ad Design value of an accidental load kN
Ap Primary swell coefficient (Koppejan) –
As Secondary swell coefficient (Koppejan) –
a Out-of-roundness parameter (steel pipe piles) –
a Menard parameter in evaluating kh –
anom Nominal value of geometrical data m
B Beam of a ship m
Cc Primary compression index (Terzaghi) –
Cr Primary recompression index (Terzaghi) –
Cα Secondary compression index (Terzaghi) –
Cα;r Secondary recompression index (Terzaghi) –
Cα;sw Secondary swell index (Terzaghi) –
Csw Primary swell index (Terzaghi) –
Cp Primary compression coefficient below limiting stress Pg –
(Koppejan)
Cs Secondary compression coefficient below limiting stress –
Pg (Koppejan)
Cp Primary compression coefficient above limiting stress Pg –
(Koppejan)
Cs Secondary compression coefficient above limiting stress –
Pg (Koppejan)
c Hydraulic resistance (ground water flow) days
c Effective cohesion in drained conditions kPa
cu Undrained shear strength kPa
622
Quay walls
cv Consolidation coefficient (Terzaghi) m2 s−1

D Diameter m
D Depth or thickness of soil layer m
Di Internal pile diameter m
Do External pile diameter m
d Water depth m
dtop Layer thickness top layer bottom protection m
dfilter Layer thickness filter layer bottom protection m
d50 Sieve diameter at which 50% of soil grains passes m
E Effect of actions kN
E Energy kNm
E Modulus of elasticity of soil (Young’s modulus) kPa
E Earth pressure of overal vervangen door P?? kPa
Ea Active earth pressure kPa
Ed Design value of effect of actions
Em Ménard modulus of elasticity –
Eo Earth pressure at rest kPa
Ep Passive earth pressure kPa
Eu;50 Undrained modulus of elasticity of triaxial test from 0.0 to kPa
0.5 σmax
E50 Drained modulus of elasticity of triaxial test from 0.0 to kPa
0.5 σmax
emax Greatest eccentricity of the cross-section m
e0 Initial void ratio –
Fd Design value of a load kN
Fk Characteristic value of a load kN
Frep Representative value of a load kN
Fd Design value of a load kN
Ft Adapted extreme value of the variable uniform load with kNm−2
the chosen design life
Ft0 Extreme value of the variable uniform load with the design kNm−2
life of 50 years
fy Yield stress of steel Nmm−2
G Permanent Action (i.e. self weight of earth mass) kN
G Modulus of shear deformation of soil kPa
Gd Design value of permanent action kN
Gk Characteristic value of permanent load kN
Gstb Characteristic value of the stabilising actions kN
Gstb;d Design value of the stabilising actions kN
Gu;50 Modulus of shear deformation from undrained triaxial test kPa
from 0.0 to 0.5 σmax
G0 Modulus of shear deformation with small strain kPa
G50 Modulus of shear deformation from drained triaxial test kPa
from 0.0 to 0.5 σmax
H Horizontal (component of) load kN
623
Notation
H, h Height m
Hs Significant wave height m
hmaintenance Maintenance margin asset management m
hsuction Safety margin suction pipe-bottom protection m
hdisturbance Disturbance margin dredging works m
hscour Scour depth m
I Moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area m4
Iel Elastic moment of inertia (of a sheet pile wall) mm3 /m
Icorr Reduced moment of inertia (of a sheet pile wall) for oblique mm3 /m
bending
Id Density index –
Ip Plasticity index of clay –
I,i Hydraulic gradient –
K0 Coefficient of soil pressure at rest. Also: Camko meter –
value
Kγ;a Coefficient of active soil pressure due to self weight of soil –
Kq;a Coefficient of active soil pressure due to surcharge load –
Kγ;p Coefficient of passive soil pressure due to self weight of –
soil
Kq;p Coefficient of passive soil pressure due to surcharge load –
kD Permeability of soil layer with thickness D (ground water m2 s−1 or
flow) m2 /day
k Coefficient of subgrade reaction kNm−3
k Permeability ms−1
kh Coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction kNm−3
kh Permeability in horizontal direction ms−1
kv Permeability in vertical direction ms−1
L Length m
Loa Overall length of a ship m
Lpp Distance between perpendiculars of a ship m
l Length (Menard) m
M Bending moment kNm
Mmax Maximum bending moment in a pile kNm
Mmax;d Design value of maximum bending moment kNm
Mmax;rep Representative value of bending moment kNm
m Factor for hydraulic fall (flow net calculation) –
mv Coefficient of volume compressibility (Terzaghi) kPa−1
N Normal force / Axial force
Nd Design value of normal force kN
n Number of tests –
Op;gem Average circumference of pile shaft M
Op;z Circumference of pile shaft at depth z M
Pea Soil pressure (active or passive) of overal vervangen door kPa
E??
Pg Limiting stress or pre-consolidation pressure kPa
624
Quay walls
P Load on a soil anchor kN

Pmax Maximum value of load on a soil anchor (anchor force) kN
PKr Maximum available anchor capacity according to Kranz kN
p Margin for probability of failure –
pea;h;a Active horizontal soil pressure kPa
pea;h;p Passive horizontal soil pressure kPa
ph Horizontal soil pressure in establishing the coefficient of kPa
subgrade reaction
p0 Neutral soil pressure, soil pressure at rest kPa
Q Variable action (variable load) kN
Q Soil resistance in Bishop calculation kN
Qd Design value of variable action (design value of variable kN
load)
Qk Characteristic value of variable action (variable load) kN
q Groundwater flow ms−1
q Surcharge load kPa
qc Cone resistance (CPT) kPa
qc;z Measured cone resistance at depth z kPa
qc;z;d Design value of the cone resistance at depth z kPa
qd Design value of uniformly distributed load kPa
qeb End-bearing capacity of a pile kPa
qrep Representative value of uniformly distributed load kPa
qu Unconfined compressive strength kPa
R Design value of the resistance of a structural member kN
R Resistance / Resistance of fenders kN
R Reaction force kN
Rb Base resistance of a pile kN
Rc Compressive resistance of the ground against a pile kN
Rc;d Design value of Rc (bearing capacity of a pile) kN
Rd Design value of the resistance to an action kN
Re Relative density –
Rint Interface factor in FEM calculations (Plaxis) –
Rs Shaft friction of a pile kN
Rs;d Design value of Rs (shaft friction of a pile) kN
Rt Tensile resistance of a pile kN
Rt;d Design value of Rt (tensile resistance of a pile) kN
r Radius (steel pipe pile) m
s Standard error of the average of the random sample survey var.
T Transverse load or resistance (of a foundation pile) kN
T Tolerance (construction) m
t Student t series parameter –
t Thickness of a steel section (wall thickness of a steel pipe) m
t Embedment depth of sheet pile wall m
t Chosen design life year
t0 Design life of 50 years year
625
Notation
U Pore water pressure kPa

Ur Out-of-roundness tolerance (steel pipe piles) –
u Horizontal deformation m
V Volume m3
V Vertical (component of) load kN
Vdst Characteristic value of the destabilising actions kN
Vdst;d Design value of the destabilising actions kN
v Velocity of the groundwater flow ms−1
v Berthing velocity of a ship ms−1
W Weight of stones in bottom protection kN
Wel Elastic moment of resistance (of a sheet pile wall) mm3 /m
Wcorr Reduced moment of resistance (of a sheet pile wall) for mm3 /m
oblique bending
Wd Design value of upward water pressure kPa
Wrep Representative value of upward water pressure kPa
w Water content –
Xd Design value of a material property var.
Xk Characteristic value of a material property var.
Zn;v Multiplication factor in statistical calculation –
α Angle of slope ˚
α Inclination of (sheet pile) wall with vertical ˚
α Menard parameter in evaluating kh –
αt Hydration degree for cement stone –
αp Coefficient for the end bearing of a pile –
αs;z Coefficient for shaft friction of a pile loaded in compres- –
sion at depth z
αt;z Coefficient for shaft friction of a pile loaded in tension at –
depth z
β Reliability index –
β Inclination of ground surface with horizontal ˚
βB Reduction factor for Wel with oblique bending –
βD Reduction factor for Iel with oblique bending –
γ Partial safety factor –
γa Partial safety factor for anchors –
γf , γF Partial factor for a load –
γg , γG Partial factor for a permanent action (permanent load) –
γq , γQ Partial factor for a variable action (variable load) –
γm , γM Material factor –
γφ Material factor for tan φ –
γc Material factor for c –
γcu Material factor for cu –
γG Partial safety factor permanent actions –
γR Partial safety factor for resistance –
γqu Material factor for qu –
γγ Material factor for γ –
626
Quay walls
γ Weight density kNm−3

γd Dry weight density of soil kNm−3
γsat Saturated weight density of the soil kNm−3
Nominal safety margin –
a change made to nominal geometrical data for particular m
design purposes
h Additional height (in establishing design water levels) m
P Additional anchor force kN
δv Vertical displacement m
δ Structure-ground interface friction angle or wall friction ˚
angle
δdredging Tolerance layer thickness filter layer m
δfilter Tolerance layer thickness filter layer m
δsounding Tolerance/Accuracy echo sounding harbour bottom m
δtop Tolerance layer thickness top layer m
ε Strain –
εv Volumetric strain –
εy Yield strain
εa Axial strain of soil sample in the triaxial test –
εv Volume strain of soil sample in the triaxial test –
κ Parameter with respect to ovalization of a steel pipe pile
λa Coefficient of active soil pressure –
λf General load factor –
λf ;gmax Load factor for permanent destabilising load –
λf ;gmin Load factor for permanent stabilising load –
λf ;q Load factor for variable load –
λf ;a Load factor for accidental load –
λp Coefficient of passive soil pressure –
λn Coefficient of neutral soil pressure –
µ Critical strain parameter for steel pipe piles –
µb Flow velocity on the bottom ms−1
ν Coefficient of lateral contraction or Poisson ratio –
θ Angle ˚
θa Angle of active sliding plane in the soil body with ˚
horizontal
θp Angle of passive sliding plane in the soil body with ˚
horizontal
ρ1 Principal stress, stress normal to the 1st principal plain in kPa
a point
ρ2 Principal stress, stress normal to the 2nd principal plane in kPa
a punt
ρ3 Principal stress, stress normal to the 3rd principal plane in kPa
a point
Sum –
σ Standard deviation (statistical calculation) –
627
Notation
σg Total normal stress, effective stress + water pressure kPa

σ Effective stress of soil kPa
σh Effective horizontal stress kPa
σn Effective normal stress kPa
σv Effective vertical stress kPa

σko Surcharge kPa
σyield Yield point of steel Nmm−2
σw Water pressure kPa
σ1 Effective stress in the direction of principal stress 1 kPa
τ Shear stress kPa
τR τmax = shear stress = c + σ tan ϕ kPa
ϕ Angle of internal friction ˚
ϕ Effective angle of internal friction of soil ˚
ψ Angle of dilatancy ˚
ψ0 Combination factor for loads –
ψ1 Momentary factor –
ψ2 Quasi permanent factor –
ψi;rep Reduction factor for the load Qi;rep in a combination of –
loads
Ø Diameter m
628

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J.G.

Finally, the section on corrosion has been updated to reflect the

The new edition was made possible thanks to the contributions of

SBRCURnet Publication 211E

Dr. J.G. de Gijt, Stadsontwikkeling, Ingenieursbureau Gemeente Rotterdam/TUDelft

November 2013 The Board of SBRCURnet

In de inleidende hoofdstukken wordt de functie van kademuren in de loop van de geschiede-

De daaropvolgende hoofdstukken volgen het ontwerpproces op de voet. Omdat betrouw-

Hoewel het handboek in de eerste plaats gericht is op de ontwerppraktijk hebben ook

ervaringsgegevens, zowel ontwerptechnische en uitvoeringstechnische zaken, als aanwi-

Chapter 2 Overview of quay wall construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Chapter 3 Main types of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4.10 Investigation into meteorological conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Chapter 5 Terms of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 6 Design of Quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Chapter 7 Quay-elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 313

7.9 Drainage systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

Chapter 8 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 367

Chapter 9 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Chapter 10 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

Chapter 11 Management and maintenance of Quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

11.7 Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

Chapter 12 Lessons from experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Chapter 13 Future developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553

Chapter 14 Bibliography and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

Annex A Glossary of terms and abbreviations used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587

1.1 Function of quay walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 Objective of this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 Composition of the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.1 Function of quay walls

Photo 1.1 Entrance to the Port of Rotterdam [Port of Rotterdam N.V.]

1.2 Objective of this book

1.3 Composition of the book

These chapters are preceded by a number of introductory chapters including Chapter 2,

OVERVIEW OF QUAY WALL CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Ports as a source of prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 Ports and quays past and present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.3 History of quay wall construction in Rotterdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

OVERVIEW OF QUAY WALL CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Ports as a source of prosperity

2.2 Ports and quays past and present

Fig. 2.5 Map and painting of the port of Ostia

Fig. 2.6 Treadmill crane of Brugge in

Fig. 2.7 The most important Hanseatic cities [52].

In addition to the effects of technical developments, economic cooperation also promoted

Fig. 2.8 The most important ports in western Europe [19].

Load in million metric tons

Fig. 2.9a Freight transhipment in the ten largest seaports of EU.

2.2.2 Ship development

2.2.2.2 Tankers (liquid bulk carriers)

2.2.2.3 Container vessels

Table 2.1 Development of the average size of container ships.

Photo 2.3 Maersk Mc Kinney in Rotterdam. (photo Port of Rotterdam)

2.2.2.4 Dry bulk carriers

2.2.2.5 Ro-Ro ships

2.2.2.6 Other types of ship

Photo 2.4 Six barge push tow.

2.3 History of quay wall construction in Rotterdam

2.3.1 Quays on shallow foundations

2.3.2 Pile supported masonry block wall

2.3.3 Quay on layered fascine mattress

2.3.4 Soil improvements

2.3.5 Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete Shed