ane DUT puna ‘TECHNOLOGY ea CRU SS (Ut Water Engineering WHYD 201 HYDRAULICS 2A ~ PRACTICAL MANUAL 20181. Chapter One Laboratory work preparation, learning outcomes and marking format 2. Chapter Two How do the practical experiments enhance civil engineering students for more understanding in theory 3. Chapter Three Hydraulics practical experiments Ba 32 33 34 BS Measurement of Densities, Specific Gravity & Viscosities Centre of Pressure on a Plane Surface Flow in Pipe Network (Single pipe & Pipes in Parallel) Flow Measurement in Open Channel Flow Hydraulic Jump. Page v 19 28 39 43 53CHAPTER ONE LABORATORY WORK PREPARATION, LEARNING OUTCOMES AND MARKING FORMATLABORATORY WORK PREPARATION, CARRYING OUT THE PRACTICAL AND WRITE-UP 1. INTRODUCTION In the real world of engineering, laboratory work plays an important role. It is used to obtain data necessary for accurate design, as well as quantify uncertainties For students, laboratory work serves to test and solidify students’ understanding of underlying theory, a8 well as familiarize students with various experimental measurement techniques that are used in the real world of engineering. The instructional objectives for executing laboratory work include: * Exposing students to typical operations and procedures used in the real engineering world + Using “hands-on exposure to promote deep understanding of theory ‘+ Development of manual skills which lead to confidence in operating instruments and technical equipment ‘* Giving practice in recording process data, analysing the data and obtain meaningful results + Developing the following skills: working in groups, accurate communication and technical report writing 2, LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LABORATORY PROGRAMME ‘After completion of the practical, the student will be able to: a, Describe the objectives of the experiment b. Describe the different methodologies available that are used to achieve the objectives of the experiment c. Explain the underlying principles of the chosen methodology Identify the various components of the equipment and explain their function Describe the operational hazards and what precautions are necessary to execute the practical safely Operate the experimental equipment Gather and record the necessary experimental data Analyse and evaluate the data ‘Summarise the results in the form of tables and graphs where appropriate Draw conclusions and make recommendations Write a report on the experiment in the required format 3. PREPARATION It is clear that much of the effort involved in successfully executing the practical is centred around thorough preparation. A good understanding of the underlying theory, the details of the equipment and the instrumentation used in taking the readings is essential, ‘After ensuring that the underlying theory and experimental procedure Is understood, the student needs to prepare a summary, in his own words, of the following: 1The objectives of the practical Essential details of the theory Formulae used in the practical ‘The experimental procedure in point form Hand-drawn graphs of the expected results ‘Templates of tables to be used with appropriate units ooReNa 4, PERFORMING THE PRACTICAL AND RECORDING RESULTS The following procedure ie to be followed in performing the practical: 1. Ensure you are wearing the correct clothing (lab coats, closed shoes) and have the appropriate safety gear(goggles, face shield where appropriate, gloves, where ‘appropriate, etc) 2. Identity emergency exit routes and safety switches, and ensure that all safety guards are in place 3. Identify instruments , control switches and adjustment devices 4. Check that instruments are giving sensible results and respond to changes 5. Take and record the necessary readings by adjusting variables on the apparatus as er procedure. In recording readings, use the appropriate number of significant figures 6. Before switching off the apparatus, ensure that adequate numbers of readings have been recorded, and assess if the data will give the intended results. 7. Shut down the apparatus as per instructions, switch off air fans and lights, if you are the last person in the laboratory. Make sure all valves are property shut and there is no possibility of leakage of dangerous or other fluids. 8. Do the write-up of the practical report in your own time, as per instruction (see next page)5. MARKING SYSTEM & FORMAT OF PRACTICAL REPORTS All reports must be typed. Use Arial Font, 11 point . Text must be left justified, Use 1.5 line spacing SECTION T CONTENT Mark 7 Tile page p 2. Summary | State biefly 10 the purposelobjectve of the practical equpment used = Variables investigated (stale which variables were Kept constant) = methodology = final resulls obtained 2 conclusions | recommendations, where applicable 3 Tabs of | Slate ferent sections of praca! and tei elatve page numbers | 4 | contents ['4"Tatroduction_ ‘State what work was done and the relevance of the work 5 3_—Theory Esplin he theory bey, numbering relevant equaions 70 © Experimental Present a block diagram of the apparatus including pining 3 apperalus and connections ang instrumentation Method Describe briely important features ofthe apparatus. 5 = Describe the operating procedure, what variables were 5 measured and recorded, ang which were kep constr 7 Results, Prosont tables ofresulis,cleary labelled, showing corect | 5 units and appropriate number of decimal figures. Raw deta must be given in a clearly marked appendix Conclusion + Draw appropriate graphs from the results, properly labelled 5 = Comment on frends shown ine graphs, and expain the trends. Give clear reasons why trends wore not according 5 t© expectation = Sate conclusions reached Present recommendations 5 5 8 Nomenciature | Tabula al eymbols used, variables tay represent and the 3 relevant units & Refarences joumal articles read and refered oi the repo must be Teted 5 Format = Journal arte (Sumame, nals, tie, Joumel name, eer of prin, journal volume, page numbers) =" 0.9. Rennie J, The uncertainties of technological innovation, Scientific American, 1995, 273(3), 43-45. Format = Book (Sumame, intial, tile, eciton, publisher, year of print, page numbers) ig Donny IW, Hicks RE, Pressure cop in pace bes, ‘edition, Princeton University Press Princeton Nd, 1983, 0. Appendices > Present tables of raw data 5 | = Present one sample calculation, Final results must have 5 I appropriate units 17. General | Check crammar, spelling, style and punctuation. Use Whitesmoke 10 | rather eating sofwareWYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY ‘where V isthe velocity and ¢ is the speed of sound.Analysis ofLog - Log Plots While analyzing the results of experiments, you will often come across equations of the form: y=bx” 0 Consider two examples: 1 Fro? (ay Vo =5x°° 2) ‘These can easily be plotted using an arithmetic scale; as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. While Figure 1 is reasonably informative, Figure 2 is clearly not! For example, Figure 2 seems fp, indicate that is essentially zero, but obviously it is not. The trouble lies 50260 In the large range of the y values that results when the exponent m is large. The usual approach to plotting these kinds of equations is to use log-scale for the x and Y axes, The justification for this follows. + First ‘ake the logarithm of both sides of (1): 606 ° ‘+ Then using logarithm rules (look these up if you don’t remember them: they are used throughout CEE341): logy = mlogx + logb (4) + Compare (4) to the usual equation for a line: ao ‘ ybo= mute bi (8) 7WYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS | ABORATORY + The following relationships are clear: ZL ye log yFigure 1. Arithmetic plot of y = 10x” Figure 2. Arithmetic plot ofIn other words, if one plots logx versus logy instead of x versus y, the result will be linear, regardless of the values of b and m. However, simply plotting y versus x using log-scales forthe x and y axes accomplishes exactly the same thing (this way, there is no need to actually take the logarithms of x and y!) Figure 3 and Figure 4 demonstrate that plotting equations of the form (1) on log-log scales results in a straight line (although, of course, these two examples do not constitute a proof) wo - L lejeg Hao ¥= 1m @ IL anlnn nlnt nf = Ae?During your data analysis, you will often be asked to plot your data using log-log scales. If these plots resemble straight lines, then you might assume your data follows the power relationship in (1). One example is shown in Figure 5: Few weight above wr fora Wangs wir oo LL. 7 0 ‘ot Holt stove wart) Figure 5. Example of data plotted using log scales for x and y axes. 10" Of course, you can use a sofware package like Excel to determine the coefficients b and 'm, but it is absolutely essential that you know how to estimate b and rn by eye! [This will be on the first test) aWYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY First, draw a line of best fit (by eye) through the points as shown in Figure 6. Given (6), it is clearthat when x = 4 log = logy Therefore, Looking at your plot for x — 4, read off the corresponding y _value. This is b, the “inter- cept” of your log-log plot [Note: the intercept of the log-log plot is NOT the value of y where x = 0. but rather where x = 100. Why?] In the example in Figure § and Figure 6, 08. 2Flow ev. hebttabove wolf engl wor ight atove wat) Figure 6. Example of data plotted using log scales for x and y axes wi best fil “Rnd” He Now, choose two polnts on your line of best Tent to, is not necessary). choose two points separated by an integer number of log cycles, but thi Write (5) for each point: toayy = mlegx, + log Subtract miog x3 + log (6b) 92 = 2 from (6a): BWYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY a) (6b) logy, -logyy = mlogx, log) Solve for m: logy, -logya logx4 - logxy Inthe examples m = 2.5 14WYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY Pointsor Lines? When creating plots, it is absolutely essential that you know when to show the points and when to show the line connecting the points, When plotting data, show the data points. You may also wish to show a trendline, but always show the points! ‘When plotting a functional relationship, show only the line connecting the points, not the points themselves. If the functional relationship is smooth, make sure you have enough points that your curve is smooth as well! 15Hydraulic engineering is a B Eng. Tech year 2, semester 1 level subject and itis also the entry level of water engineering for further studies. It creates the foundation stone for water engineering knowledge. However, it is not an easy subject and theory itself cannot make understanding for basic concepts. Thus, theory knowledge does need by practical experiments backup. The practical works show the students how to link theory in classroom for application purpose. Five practical experiments must be done by all civil engineering students as following: Experiment No. 1: Measurement of Properties of Liquids -liquid density, specific gravity & viscosity Specific gravity or relative density Pressure forces exerted by the liquid depend on density of this liquid and its depth. The density of liquid is determined how much heavier or lighter than the water density. This density ratio is called specific gravity or relative density. Specific gravity = liquid density water density The specific gravity of liquid can be measured by using simple hydrometer. The immersed length of hydrometer in the given liquid is inversely proportionated with its specific gravity. Pip = LwiLl= immersed length of hydrometer in water; LI = Where pl = liquid density; p = water density; Li immersed length of hydrometer in given liquid. The comparison of liquid density and water density shows the given liquid is lighter than water or heavier. Ifthe liquid is lighter than water it can floats as a layer on top of water. Otherwise. the liquid sinks or suspend in water. When design the liquid retained structures, the forces on the wall must be determined first and itis calculated based on the equation as : F = plg.hog. A Measurement of liquid viscosity ( Properties of fluids) This experiment is to measure the viscosity of liquid by using a falling sphere (ball) viscometer. The theory is based on Stroke law as follow: The forces on the falling ball are balanced by weight of the ball and buoyancy force on the ball plus drag force or force of viscosity. W= Fb +F visco Viscosity is the property of liquid to resist motion among layers of liquid due to shear forces. To determine the liquid viscosity is useful parameter in water engineering as the viscosity affects the flow depth, velocity and flow rates in the pipes ( water supply, storm water, sewers ). v7Experiment No. 2: Hydrostatic force and its centre of pressure on a plane surface This experiment shows how to determine the hydrostatic force on a vertical plane surface and its location as the centre of pressure. This practical links the theory of apply force on a dam gate or dam wall due to water depth and its location. Experience No. 3: Single pipe ~ pipe losses and discharge & Pipes in parallel connection There are two energy losses in pipe flow - friction loss and minor losses as bend, valve, expansion, contraction, entrance, exit. These energy losses are directly affected by the diameter of pipe. Changing of pipe diameter creates increase in discharge or decrease. ‘The plotting of the graph based on the head loss verses discharge shows the smaller diameter has higher head loss and subsequently lower discharge. The connection of pipes in parallel experienced in same head loss in each pipe but the flow is summarised, Q=Q1+02+03404+— {In conclusion , the practical experiments in laboratory shows the students clearly how to apply theory concepts in real situation, Experience No. 4: Flow measurement in open channel ‘The measurement of flow rate Is necessary for water and wastewater treatment plant and also in the drainage channel from the dam. However, the actual flow and the flow rate from calculation (it is called theoretical flow) is not the same. The ratio of actual fiow to theoretical flow is called flow coefficient ~ Cd. To find the Cd for the different weirs is the main task to get the acourate measurement, Experience No. 5: Hydraulic jump in open channel ‘Super-critical flow changes to sub-critical flow where a hydraulic jump happens, The flow at the super critical stage is high velocity and it needs to reduce the flow downstream to prevent erosion. The solution for reducing the flow is created a hydraulic jump. Most of the hydraulic jump can be found after flow over a spillway from a dam. 18How to use the Hydrometer First immerse the tube in water and mark on the paper scale the length immersed. Then repeat by immersing in another liquid, and again, mark the length immersed. If L,=length immersed in water of density py and Li= length immersed in liquid of density pu, but then the gravitational force on the mass of water displaced = py.gA.Lw(where A= cross section area of glass tube), 5 Pw the gravitational force on the mass of liquid displaced = p..g.A.Li= Soy.g-AL, from Archimedes’ principle the gravitational force on tube = gravitational force on the mass of water displaced = gravitational force on the mass of liquid displaced Pw GA.Lw= SPw.g-A-L, = fengtn immersed in water eh immersed in Haul If then, depth of immersion in water is marked on the paper scale as 1.00 and for the liquid by Lw/ Le Using a number of different liquids a scale may be constructed to read specific gravities directly. Apparatus 1. Universal Hydrometer HrOROMETER 2. Four of Hydrometer jars 3. Engine oil, castor oil, glycerol oi! THE HYOROMETER _-WYOROMETER Jan CONTAINING LIQUID 20Method 1, Record the atmospheric pressure and room temperature by using barometer and thermometer, 2. Fill one hydrometer jar with sufficient water depth to float the meter and check that the scale marking corresponding to depth of immersion reads 1.00; 3, Remove the hydrometer from the water and ensure that the meter is wiped thoroughly before being floated in the next liquid. Failure to clean the hydrometer could cause results to be wrong; 4, Fill three hydrometer jars with the each given liquids to be tested with sufficient of the liquids to float the meter and note for each liquid the scale reading, Precaution 1. When reading taking on the hydrometer, ensure the readings are read at correct meniscus; 2, Ensure that the hydrometer is thoroughly wiped and clean; 3. Ensure Glycerol cil is not exposed to air as itis hydroscopic and will absorb moisture from the air. Results Barometric pressure = millibars = Temperature = .. are ‘Scale reading = Specific gravity, s | Engine oll —_ ft | Glycerol or Castor oll See o= getizef mit ae se PLES. Pw And p= 2 = x 10°= 10° kgim® aApparatus The falling sphere (ball) viscometer The stop clock hydrometer THE FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETER woof = 3m Vd : Free body diagram of falling sphere Method 1. Measure the atmospheric pressure and room temperature, 2. Fill the three tubes with the liquids under test to @ level of just below the exit from the capillary tube. The liquids under test being are i, Engine oll(Castro XXL) i, Glycerol ii, Castor oil. 3. Measure diameters of each ball. Using the hydrometer obtain the specific gravity of each liquid. 5. Drop 3 balls of each size into the viscometer and record the time taken for each ball to fall from the 200 gauge lenath to the zero gauge length. 6. Repeat this method until 9 balls have been dropped into each liquid. 24From the figure shown when the ball is moving with a uniform velocity u, then forces acting on the sphere are: 1. The gravitational force on the ball, m.g 2. The buoyancy force or upthrust FB 3. The viscous force resisting motion, Fv. Since the velocity of fall is uniform, then algebraic sum of these forces must be zero, - mg-FB-Fv=0 The gravitational force on the ball = V.. ps. g m3. Pkg where p. = density of ball 1'= radius of sphere The buoyant force FB = p..g,fnr? where p, = density of liquid The viscous force Fv = 6rr 1. u Where 11 = coefficient of viscosity and u = mean velocity of ball Far? Pg- pig tar? Ger piu nrg (pep) Oar pou w= Eng (pe-p)/ u 25Experiment No.2 A. Centre of Pressure on a Plane Surface (Partial immersion) Objective To determine the position of the centre of pressure on the rectangular face of the torroid Theory F=pgH Aand Depth of centre of area Hp =H” + AH” may be applied to give expressions for the moment of the hydrostatic force about the knife-edge axis, For partial immersion, r+ (by12 W (byi2) =2y/3 Moment at F about the knife edge is given by =Apgby'(atd-y+Hp) =%pgby'(a+d-yi3) ‘Also moment due to the mass = Mg L Where M =mass added to balance pan L = distance from knife-edge axis to balance pan suspension rod axis MgL=F(a+d-y+Hp) F=MgL/ (a+d-yi3) Which can be compare wit the theoretical result F=%pby 28Apparatus Hydrostatic Pressure apparatus Spire Lee Fy re *: Schematic diagras of center of pressure apparatus Method 1. Locate the torrid on the two dowel pins and fasten to the balance arm by the central screw. 2, Measure the dimensions a, b, and d and the length L from the knife-edge axis to the balance pan axis, 28Data & Result L=275 mm, a= 100 mm, d= 100 mm, b = 75 mm (A) Partial Immersion armetoemaraaaT [|| a e+ Force on end surface (theoretical) Depth of center of pressure Hy == (mm) (6) Complete Immersion Depth of water y (mm) Force on end surface (experimental) pa Mab aernaredat) Coae aah, Force on end surface (theoretical) F=pg & Depth of center ee Gm) a 12H a7 -St ie Conclusion 32Experiment 3: Closed Conduit Flow Key Concepts: Friction Factor, Reynolds Number, Minor Losses, Grade Lines Refer to: Roberson & Crowe, 11th ed., Chapter 7, pp. 224-227 See also: Chapter 10, pp. 278- 309 1. Introduction The losses of energy in conduits flowing full of a liquid usually result from the resistance of the conduit walls to the flow (pipe friction), or from pipe appurtenances (e.g. elbows, contractions, valves) which cause the flow velocity to be changed in magnitude and/or direction. These losses must be calculated so that, for example: + the proper size and number of pumps can be specified in the design of a municipal water distribution system; + the conduit size for a gravity-flow urban drainage project may be deter- mined; * the optimum size of valves and the radius of curvature of elbows can be stipulated in the specifications of a pipeline desigr. ‘When the ratio of the length of the pipeline, L, to the diameter, D, exceeds 2000:', pipe system energy losses are predominantly the result of pipe friction. The energy losses resulting from pipe appurtenances are termed ‘minor’ losses and are usually neglected in the calculation of pipe system eneray losses. In short lenaths of pipe, however, these minor losses can become ‘major sources of energy loss. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is used to express energy loss caused by pipe friction, hp =f D2g (1) where r iS the dimensionless Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, V ls the average fluid velocity, and g__ is the acceleration of gravity 330100 ‘Transition “1 Fully Rough Flow - Complete Turbulence pS Friction Factor 0010 1.6403 Reynolds Number Figure 1. Moody Diagram [Note: this Moody Diagram is for illustration pur- poses only. Refer to the Moody Diagram in your text for all calculations.] For pipe flow, the Moody diagram (see Figure 10) was developed to show the relationship between the friction factor, the relative roughness of the pipe, (10, and Reynolds number (see “Dimensionless Fluid Parameters” on page 8). On the Moody diagram there are three zones of flow: laminar, transitional, and turbulent. In lieu of the Moody diagram, the following equations (Table 1) may be used to determine f for smooth pipes (72000), where f is a function of the Reynolds number only: Re f ] Laminar R,, $2000 f = 64/R, | Transitional 2000 SR, 5109 Ff = 0.316/R, _ Turbulent Re pato® ur = 20 wghitr, VAc-0.0) | Table 1. Friction Factor equation for three flow regimes uMThe energy loss may also be expressed as: Pr ay" @ Refer to “Analysis of Log-Log Plots" on page 9 for the procedure to determine n and z ‘The values of n and Z are functions of the type of flow, i., laminar, transitional, or turbu- lent. The losses due to appurtenances (minor losses) in pipe flow are usually expressed as: @) where is the dimensionless head loss coefficient related to the type of appurtenance. 'ypical K values can be found in most hydraulics textbooks. Consider the energy equation for steady, incompressible, viscid, turbulent flow: Py 2 Po ip VE I, -+hy+ = +hg+ 2+ mya) 4 y 4% ¥ %, where pj is pressure head at point /, hj is elevation head at point /, V; /2g is veloci vw i i head at point f, and MLi¢t -a is the head loss between points 1 and 2. Each of these terms has units of length The sum of pressure head, elevation head and velocity head at @ particular point is the total head at that point. A plot of total head vs. distance from the pipe entrance is an energy grade line (EGL). In fact, an EGL is simply a spatial representation of the total energy. For a real fluid, Ay, 4-2), | (10, 80 the EGL must siope downward in the direction of flow. The sum of the pressure head and elevation head at a particular point is the piezometric or 35WYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATOR! static head at that point. A plot of piezometric head vs. distance from the pipe entrance is @ hydraulic grade line (HGL). The vertical distance between the EGL and the HGL at a particular point is, by definition, the velocity head at that point. Figure 11 shows the EGL and HGL for a horizontal constant diameter pipe with flow from left to right, Note the EGL slopes downward in the direction of flow and fy = hy-hg equals the head loss over the length of the pipe. Furthermore, the difference in total head between any two points represents the head loss between those two points. 36oe Flow Direction Figure 2. Energy and hydraulic grade lines Note also that the EGL and HGL are parallel, this implies that the velocity head (V"/“ti2g) is constant over the length of the pipe. Since % and g _are constants, clearly the velocity is also constant. 37Finally, the distance between the HGL and the centerline of the pipe represents the pres- sure head. In this cage, the lose in total cnergy Is reflected in the lose of pressure head only, as elevation and velocity heads are constant over the length of the pipe. I. Objective Determine the energy loss for pipelines in which a steady-state flow exists. Also determine the head loss coefficients for an orifice meter, a venturi meter, and a gate valve one-half open and full open. Compare measured K values to authoritative sources. Compare the head losses through different size pipes at the same flow rate. 38Experiment No. 3A, Flow in Pipe network ( single pipe) Objective To determine the head loss versus discharge characteristics for each of the three different ciameter test pipes supplied as network components. Theory Any pipeline of diameter D and length L carrying a flow rate Q within a network will have a head loss along its length( H = H1 ~H2).. This head loss is largely the result of pipe friction and other arise from junctions, bends, valves or sudden change of pipe section. Friction head loss hy= @ (LO*VD* Ht HGL. OL Apparatus \ a nf Oo %, < oe ore Contrettes water 9S ftw e ryboa ens / — he orc vittareen water mercy seit Method Test pipe sequence i, 13. mmm diameter; 17.5 mm diameter, 22 mm diameter. 391. Connect up the equipment as shown in the schematic diagram using the 13.0 mm diameter test pipe. 2, Switch on the hydraulic bench pump and open the flow control valve to allow a nominal flow through the pipe. 3. Read the head loss across the pipe on the appropriate manometer scale. 4.. Determine the volumetric flow rate using the hydraulic bench measuring tank and stopwatch. 5, Repeat this procedure for a range of increasing flow rates, 6. Once completed, the test pipe should be replaced with 17,5 mm, and then 22.0 mm diameter pipes and the whole procedure repeated above. Result Pipedia. = [H1. | H2. | AH1- | V(Litres) | t (sec) "| Flow (L/s) mm 12 The table of results should be used to plot a set of curves representing the total head loss versus volumetric floe rate characteristics for each test pipe arrangement. Note: The curve called calibration curve, should be plotted carefully as they will be necessary for the analysis of other Flow in pipe networks experiments concerned with the determination of pressure head and flow relationships in parallel pipes network and series pipe network. Calibration Curve of testing pipes ’ 7 18mm dia test pipe Total head loss / H1-2 47,5 mm dia test pipe - 22mm dis test pipe = > Volumetric flow rate Q 40Conclusion Experiment No. 3B Flow in Pipe network (pipes in parallel) Objective To determine the head loss versus discharge characteristics consisting of four pipes of various sizes in parallel Theory Hydraulic + | 0, | In a pipe network consisting of four pipes of various diameters (D1 D2 D3 D4) and lengths (L1 L2 3 L4) in parallel with each other, the pressure in the common junction manifolds must be the same for all four pipes. The total flow (QT) therefore distributes itself between the four branch pipes in accordance with the controlling end pressures and QT = Q1+02+03+04 hL1 =hL2=hL3 = hL4 Apparatus inlet Manifold Exit Manifold 13mm pipe Controlled S | water flow rate from hydraulic 175mm Discharge bench (0) >t | a t te eH ' [rca Peal ‘22mm pipe Pibbe | Copa}, —_______}._J | Tamm pipe | 7H Measured on water 0° nen IT. mEEUTY manorel aMethod Test pipes in parallel D1 = 13.0 mm cia, D2 = 17.5 mm dia, D3 = 22.0 mm dia, D4 = 13.0 mm dia 1. Connect up the equipment as shown in the schematic diagram. 2. Switch on the hydraulic bench pump and open the flow control valve to allow a nominal flow through the pipe. 3. Read the head loss across the pipe on the appropriate manometer scale, 4. Determine the volumetric flow rate using the hydraulic bench measuring tank and stopwatch. 5. Repeat this procedure for a range of increasing flow rates. Result - Results I Calculations | Test [HI] H2/H12/Vol [T [Tow [Qi [az [a> (as [za | No. | 1 [sec Flow |Us |Us |Us |Us Us Ls ‘Students should determine the flow in each branch pipe using the respective calibration curves for each individual size of pipe used. Note : The flows in each branch pipe should be added together and the result compared to the total flow measured using the hydraulic bench, Correlation will be noted between the total flow values determined by these two experimental approaches but students should account for any observed minor differences. ‘Students should observe and comment upon the magnitude of the flow rates in each pipe and account practically for their respective differences. Conclusion 2Experiment4 Flow Measurement in OpenChannelFiow Key Concepts: Flowrate Measurement, Weir Equations Refer to: Roberson, Crowe & Elger, 11th ed., Chapter 13, pp. 398 - 401 |. Introduction Determination of the flowrate of water in open channels is significant in many aspects of society. For example, urban and industrial water supplies must be measured so that demands are satisfied; the amount of water required for the dilution of pollutants being wasted into a river can be calculated mathematically, but metering devices are required to measure the supplied flow; and flood damage can be determined by correlating the depth of water passing over a dam spillway (a special type of weir) to the volume of water flowing downstream. ‘A weir is a vertical obstruction placed in an open channel, normal to the mean flow, thus forcing the flow over a crest designed to measure the flow rate. A well designed weir will exhibit subertical flow upstream, accelerating to critical flow at the crest, For more infor- mation on subertical and supercritical flow, refer to "Experiment 5: Hydraulic Jump" on page 39. This experiment will consider one class of weirs, known as sharp-crested weirs, which are smooth, vertical, lat plates with a sharpened upper edge. In particular, rectan- gular and triangular weirs will be studied. Consider a schematic diagram of flow over a weir (Figure 1). Among the complicated features of the flow are: a3(1) upstream velocity profile which varies over the vertical; (2) curved streamlines over the crest; (3) potentially inadequate ventilation under the nappe, which may result in sub- atmospheric pressure there; (4) secondary flows and other turbulent processes; (6) surface tension For a first analysis, the problem is greatly simplified by neglecting these complicating features. A diagram of the simplified flow is shown in Figure 2 Specifically, simplifications include: (1) uniform upstream velocity profile (generally valid for H/P (560.4); (2) straight, horizontal streamlines over the crest; (3) good ventilation, and therefore atmospheric pressure, under the nappe; (4) neglect of secondary flows and other turbulent processes; (6) neglect of surface tension generally valid for 1 13cm ‘Simplifications (2) and (3) indicate that the flow over the weir may be treated as a jet. Note that the velocity profile over the crest is stil not uniform. 45WYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY‘An expression for Q can now be derived. Because velocity over the crest is not uniform: Qfova (ty Rather, the more general expression for Q must be used: (2) Q= }pvaa The velocity can be determined using Bernoulli's equation. Consider the Bernoulli equa- tion between the two points on the streamline indicated in Figure 13: 2 2 Py Py pp Ve mtyto ett @ u 2 GD 29 Although the fluid is not ideal, viscosity may be neglected, for a first approximation, when the two points of interest are very close together, as they are here. For the simplified flow, 2 = 0,2) = HiD-h, py = — (H+ Di)iyti, and P. is zero gage. Algebraic manipu- 2 lation yields an expression for V>_—_in terms of V1, g and h: Ye B 1 29 “ 1 If the upstream velocity is not only uniform, but also negligible, (4) becomes: V2 = y2ah 6) For the case of negligible upstream velocity, substitution of (5) into (2) yields: H 3 { [Eghaa «) 0 ayWYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY Evaluation of the integral yields: 2 ean? 3 ” where L i. the constant width of the weir. Letting D = 2/3 ,/2q._-(@ Afferent D than above), (7) becomes: aRQe oi? i) Unfortunately, (8) doesn't work particularly well when applied to natural flow situations. Fudge factors, Cand n_are therefore introduced: Q eu” where © is a coefficient of discharge, which is not necessarily equal to D, but rather is a function of the geometry of the weir, and n _ is also a function of weir geometry. For weirs constructed to standard specifications, the values of C and n are constants for each weir design and are given below. These values are only valid for the assumptions of the equa- tion's derivation. Be sure to use consistent units such as fps and feet or mps and meters. ‘Similarly, the formula for the V - notch weir is: o- cH" (10) where C i. a function of the notch angle, @7, and nis a constant. Refer to "Analysis of Log-Log Plots" on page 9 for the procedure to determine the values of n and C Rectangular 90°" V-notch c 3.33 (fps) | 2.5 (fps) 1.84 (mps) 4.38 (mps) n [ 15 25 | Table 2. Weir coefficients for standard, sharp-crested welrs a9VI. Data Control Data control consists of plotting Q vs. H (at log-log scale) for each weir. A linear rela- tionship indicates good results. Vil. Results 1) Plot on a graph (at logdog scale) Q vs. (use similar units such as cfs and feet) for each weir from: (a) the laboratory data, and (b) weir formula calcula- tions - use your laboratory data for H and solve for Q_using (9) and (10). 2) Plot Q vs. Hon one log-log plot for only the rectangular suppressed weir using (a) the laboratory data, and (b) the laboratory data, with H increased by the addition of the velocity head. Use your laboratory H values, the width of the upstream cross-section, and the laboratory @ value to determine the upstream V (using @ = VA) and then calculate Q using (11). 3) Determine the C ang n_ values of each weir using the laboratory data and the procedure outlined in the theory section. Compare fo expected values. 4) What types of flows (e.g. high flow or low flow) are most appropriate for each type of weir shape? 5) Are the simplifying assumptions all valid? What effects might they have if not? Vill. Suggested Data Sheet Headings ([ _} indicate the units of measurement) Run# | Volume | Time | Discharge | Weir Type | Hook Gage[ ] Crest Length (L) to] Notch Angle (i. to C1 C1 | Ws} | tcfs) ws. | “0” | H 82ExperimentS:HydraulleJump Key Concepts: Validity of the Equation, Hydraulic Jump Phenomenon Refer to: Roberson, Crowe & Elger, 11th ed., Chapter 15, pp. 461 - 466 1, Introduction A hydraulic jump in an open channel of small slope is shown in Figure 1.. In engineering practice the hydraulic jump frequently appears downstream from overflow structures (spill- ways) of underflow structures (sluice gates) where velocities are high. It may be used to effectively dissipate kinetic energy and thus prevent scour of the channel bottom, or to mix chemicals in a water or sewage treatment plant. In design calculations the engineer is concerned mainly with prediction of existence, size, and location of the jump. A hydraulic jump is formed when liquid at high velocity discharges into a zone of lower velocity, creating a rather abrupt rise in the liquid surface (2 standing wave) accompanied by violent turbulence, eddying, air entrainment, and surface undulations. A flow is supercritical when: v yt 7 4) gy where F, is the Froude number (see “Dimensionless Fluid Parameters” on page 8), V Is the fluid velocity, g is the gravitational constant, and y {is fluid depth. 53Figure { +. Hydraulic jump For # channel of rectangular cross-section and constant width, b @ where q = Qlb, the flowrate per unit width of the channel. In supercritical flow, distur- tances travel downstream, and upstream water levels are unaffected by downstream control. Supercritical flows are characterized by high velocity and small flow depth and are also known as shooting flows. A flow is subcritical when: FO = a Gi saWYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY In subcritical flow, disturbances travel upstream and downstream, and upstream water levels are affected by downstream control. Subcritical flows are characterized by low velocity and large flow depth and are also known as tranquil flows. In a hydraulic jump, supercritical flow changes to subcritical flow over a short horizontal distance. Specific energy (E) in a channel section Is the sum of the elevation head and velocity head, measured with respect to the channel bottom: 2 Eays” 4) 29 lar channel of constant width b For a rectangular channel and constant dacharyge ©, E = BE) (5) Consider a plot of depth, y, vs. specific energy, E, for a given flow rate (Figure 16). This plot is known as a specific energy diagram. As the depth increases from a small value, the specific energy decreases to a minimum value, _E,. The depth associated with this minimum value of specific energy is called critical depth, /,,, and the associated Froude number is unity, As the depth continues to increase, the specific energy increases, even- tually approaching the y = _E line, For each value of specific energy greater than the minimum specific energy, there are two associated depths of flow. One, 4 , is less than the critical depth (supercritical), and one, yz, is greater than the critical depth (subcritical. Using equation (5), the energy loss through the jump may be determined: (6) 55wy le IAE)-< —— E Figure 7.. Hydraulic jump profile and associated specific energy diagram. Consider the integral momentum equation: DoF = Vpy uoaa 7) cs. where F is an extemal force, V__ is the velocity vector, positive tothe left, is the density of the fluid, and dA fs the area vector, positive outward from the stationary control volume. The control volume contains the jump, as shown in Figure 14. Assuming a Uniform velocity distribution across the area A _yields: Zr VpV goa (8) Ignoring boundary friction and for small channel slopes, Fy -Fp = §ar(v2-V1) ® t 2 2 where Fy = (\ty4/2 and Fz = OCy2/2 are the hydrostatic forces upstream of the jump and downstream of the jump, respectively. After substitution for Fy and 5, the momentum equation becomes.‘Equation (10) is quadratic in y9/y, the solution of which may be written (the derivation is ngg-trivial!): - Ye dear -1) cD) 2 or ” oe (dive - ) (12) ‘These equations show that yo/y4 i211 onlywhen F, Dat and F, &11, thus proving the necessity of supercritical flow for hydraulic jump forma tion, Anothe? way of visualizing this is by defining a momentum function, also known as specific momentum or specific force, M: ay wok 09 where the term "lay is the momentum ofthe flow passing through the channel section per unit time per unit weight of water, and the term ¥R is the force per unit weight of water. Plotting M as a function of y for a constant flowrate (Figure 16), the solution of equation (10) occurs when M4 = M2. The depths y; and yp at which M 4 = M 2 are called sequent depths, 57\WYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY My a M 2 Figure 3. Hydraulic jump profile and associated M- curve. 58A stable hydraulic jump will form only if the three independent variables (iy gueqor, ) fe the hydraulic jump equation conform to the relationship of equations (11) and (12). The upstream depth, y4 ,and the Froude number, F,_, are controlled by an upstream head- gate for a given discharge. In this experiment, the Yownstream depth, ys controlled by a downstream tailgate and not by the hydraulicjump. Denoting the actual measureddown- stream depth as y2 and the sequent depth as 2). the following observations may be made: * if¥2 = yo’ Gea stable jump forms; 39+ if ¥2 Betyg’ the downstream (Mis greater than the upstream M, and the jump moves upstream; * if yp Syg'the downstream Mis less than the upstream M and the jump moves downstream. WL Objective Determine the validity of the integral momentum and specific energy equations for the hydraulic Jump phenomenon. Determine the stability and characteristics of the jump obtained in the lab using the impulse-momentum and specific energy equations. Ata minimum, you should be able to anticipate: NV. 1) What happens to the energy curves as the flowrate increases? 2) What happens to the M curves as the flowrate increases? 3) Will the jump be stable? Apparatus 1) Horizontal, glass-walled flume with headgate and tailgate controls. 2) Metered water supply. 3) Point gages. 4) Scale. Procedure 1) Check the reservoir water level 2) Level the flume to horizontal if necessary. Measure the flume width, 3) Zero the gages to the bottom of the channel 4) Lower the tailgate to approximately level. Start the pump and open the dis- charge control valve. Use fiowrates between 85 gallons per minute and fully open (about 115 gpm) 5) Position the headgate so that the upstream water surface is near the top of the headgate. Do not overflow the headgate or channel. 8) Once steady-state conditions have been reached, record the discharge rate. 7) Position the tailgate (raise it) to create a hydraulic jump in the center of the flume. Very ‘small adjustments are required once the jump is near the center of the channel. Give the system a few moments to equilibrate before making more adjustments. Verify the jump is stable and not moving upstream or down- stream. The jump will not remain perfectly steady but should not move during a period of several ‘minutes. 8) Using the point gages, determine the water surface levels upstream and down- stream of the jump. 9) Raise the headgate a small amount (only small amounts are required; give the system a few moments to equilibrate) and repeat steps 7 through 9 for at least five headgate positions, 10) Repeat steps 5 through 10 for three flowrates. 60VI. Data Controt Data control consists of plotting water surface depth (both upstream and downstream of the jump) versus E and versus M (on separate plots) for one set of flow data, VII. Results 4) Plot the specific energy curves for the three laboratory flowrates on the same graph. Denote on each curve the critical depth, and the loss of energy in one jump. Hint: ortcal depth occurs when E —isaminimum and F, = 1. Hint: plot the y=E line. What happens as the flowrate increases? 2) Plot the M = curves for the three flowrates on the same graph. Denote the 61WYDR201 PRACTICAL MANUAL FOR HYDRAULICS LABORATORY sequent depths and the critical depth for one jump (use a yy value from your lab data and equation (11)). What is the relationship between your calculated sequent depth and the measured depth? What is the relationship between the sequent depths and the critical depth? What happens as the flowrate increases? 3) _Is the jump stable? Why or why not? VII Suggested Data Sheet Headings ([___]_ indicate the units of measurement) Run# | Discharge @ q Point Gage 4 ] Point Gage 2 {m3/s] | {ef} | [ } | Bed | ws. | yy | Bed | ws. | ¥2 Flume width (6) cl 62FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES X.NO: DATE: FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES OBJECTIVES: To determine the coefficients of discharge of the rectangular, triangular and trapezoidal notches. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Hydrautic bench Notches ~ Rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal shape. Hook and point gauge Calibrated collecting tank Stop watch THEORY: A notch is a sharp-edged device used for the measurement of discharge in free surface flows. A notch can be of different shapes ~ rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal etc. A triangular notch is particularly suited for measurement of small discharges, ‘The discharge over a notch mainly depends on the head H, relative to the crest of the Hote, measured upstream at a distance about 3 to 4 times H from the crest. General formula can be obtained for a symmetrical trapezoidal notch which is a combined shape of rectangular and triangular notches. By applying the Bemoulli Equation (Conservation of energy equation) to a simpli sd flow model of a symmetric trapezoidal notch, theoretical discharge Qa is obtained as: On B EH ends BygeW Where ‘H’ is the water head measured above the crest, ‘6° is the angle between the side edges and ‘B’ is the bottom width of the notch. ‘When 6-0, this equation is reduced and applicable for rectangular notch or when BO (no bottom width) it is applicable for triangular notch. Hence the same equation (1) cane also used for both rectangular and triangular notches by substituting corresponding values (ie 6=() or B=0).FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES Tf Qu; actual discharge is known then coefficient of discharge Cd of the notch can be expressed as Cd = Qe/Qe DESCRIPTION In open channel hydraulics, weirs are commonly used to either regulate or to measure the volumetric flow rate, They are of particular use in large scale situations such as irrigation schemes, canals and rivers. For small scale applications, weirs are often referred to as notches and invariably are sharp edged and manufactured from thin plate material. Water enters the stilling baffles which calms the flow. Then, the flow passes into the channel and flows over a sharp-edged notch set at the other end of the channel. Water comes of the channel in the form of a nappe is then directed into the calibrated collection tank. The volumetric flow rate is measured by recording the time taken to collect a known volume of water in the tank. A vertical hook and point gauge, mounted over the channel is used to measure the head of the flow above the crest of the notch as shown in Fig. 2.1. Hook gauge can be moved vertically to measure vertical movements, FORMULAE USED: A) RECTANGULAR NOTCH Coefficient of discharge sn Qu= Fie BH = Volume Collected oe = Tie Taken C= Se Qn B) TRIANGULAR NOTCH Coefficient of discharge sa Qua Tevie H tm$ eer = Volume Collected “ Time TakenFLOW THROUGH NOTCHES G+ Se C) TRAPEZOIDAL NOTCH Coefficient of discharge 52 3) On= KEW td + 2 eae! yun lected Quet Volume Coll = o,- Se Qe 2 PRECAUTIONS ‘* Ensure and read initial water level reading just above the crest. PROCEDURE (INSTRUCTIONAL MODE) Preparation for experiment; 1. Insert the given notch into the hydraulic bench and fit tightly by using bolts in order to prevent leakage, 2. Open the water supply and allow water till over flows over the notch. Stop ‘water supply, let excess water drain through notch and note the initial reading of the water level ‘/s'using the hook and point gauge. Let water drain from collecting tank and shut the valve of collecting tank after emptying the collecting tank 3. After initial preparation, open regulating valve to increase the flow and ‘maintain water level over notch. Wait until flow is steady. 4. Move hook and point gauge vertically and measure the current water level ‘hy’ to find the water head ‘H’ above the crest of the notch. 5. Note the piezometric reading ‘29’ in the collecting tank while switch on the stopwatch, 6. Record the time taken ‘T” and the piezometric reading ‘2;" in the collecting tank after allowing sufficient water quantity of water in the collecting tenk.©, FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES 7. Repeat step 3 to step 6 by using different flow rate of water, which can be done by udjusting the water supply. Measure and record the H, the time and piezometrie reading in the collecting tank until 5 sets of data have been taken. If collecting tank is full, just empty it before the step no 3. 8. To determine the coefficient of discharge for the other notch, repeat from step L After entering the readings in the Tabulation 2.1 and Tabulation 2.2, compute the necessary values. PROCEDURE (Write down your own procedure in presentation mode_ __». FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES Fi = L Ne Get fer epee — estore = — — Rectangular Notch 6=0 ‘Triangular Notch B=0 Trapezoidal Notch Collecting Tank Fig 2.1 Longitudinal section of Experimental setup for notches"= pO Jo onjo, aBeiany : yaiou mwuBDoy 9 s ’ € }— + : | I ~Guy ke Paroaytoo (908) 1) (wu) y yue, ay =, 2 roem | uoye]”) Amysooy | zy A BUAG =D @ | w > O ‘e8reqosiql] Jo oumjon | ouny lurasry soweyy| —_‘staeyosicy eonaiooy, H y PO Juauaansnayy aBanyosig ponjoy suoUiansDayy aBsDYaSIC wotradoaty ON] ‘YotoU seynBuBIoa4 Jo pO Jo uoNeUIUUIIEG — [°Z HOReINgE), ot 90 wog'a x WOR’? ="V YUE SuND9II09 J0 vary ‘Hy 98108 au1od pue yooy jo Suipeas peru WW =.8, uipem yOoN, Yot0u sepnftumsoy 0g Cy 0 Oy TERI ORY NOLLVAWASIO SAHO.LON HONOWHL MOTsromrerreeeet ai Jo anpe olsony :YpI0U aepnBUELy 9 s € z 1 PCa) * "ren | won| Seton Ses MENT" @ | w PO 0 ‘s8eqosiq] jo aumnjon | samy |uy sry soyeys| —_‘seyosic yeonauoouy, H y rO Mawaunspayy aBunyosiq wonsoy Juowaimsvayy a8s0y981C] on24094.1 von Yst0u zeINBuEIN Jo po Jo uoneuUNad — zz UoREINgEL 279° = WORD x WOs'D ="y YUE, BuNII91{00 Jo wasy =%y 988 jurod pur yooy Jo Supeas pensyy > 06 =.0, 2f8ue yon ypiou senBuey soy (gq eT TT SNOLLVINdWO9 GNV NOLLVAWASAO SAHOLON HONOYHL MO2. FLOW THROUGH NOTCHES GRAPH; 1+ Caversus Qu, curves are drawn taking Qua on-axis and Cd on y~ axis in the same graph for all the notches, 2 Qui versus H curves are drawn taking H on x-axis and Qui on y~ axis in the same graph for all the notches, RESUL’ CO! ‘s POST EXPERIMENT ACTI Ss ‘The apparatus should be drained and cleaned after use, QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION * Discuss assumptions of the theory and possible experimental errors. + What are the purposes of notch and weirs and where do you use them in the practical life. * Compare the performance of the V-notch weir with that of the rectangular weir.FABLE Ri FORMULAS FOR UNIT CONVERSIONS* Name, Symbol, Dimensions; Conversion Formula Length L 1] Lm = 3.281. = 1.054 yd = 39357 in = km/ 1000 = 13048 m = 12 in = mle/5280 5/1000 = in/28.4 = 39.37 Speed vy | ur 3.600 km/ br = 3.281 11/8 = 2.237 mph = 1.988 knots 3048 m/s = 0.6818 mph Mass m | M__| 1g = 2208 tom + 1000 g = slug/ 14.59 = (metric ton or tonne or Mig) / 1000 1 bm = Ibfs?/(82.198) = kg/2.205 = slug/32.17 = 453.68 = 16 02 = 7000 grains = short ton/2000 © metic ton (tonne) /2205 Density | Msi? | 1000 kg/m? = 62.43 bm/A? = 1.940 slug /A? = 8.345 Iben/ gal (US) Force F | wast? | ie = 4448N = 32.17 m/e? AN = kgm/s? = 0.2248 Ibf = 10° dyne Pressure P| aster? | 1Pa = N/m? = kg/m? = 10% bar = 1.450% 10-*IbE/ in? = inch H,0/249.1 0.007501 torr = 10.00 dyne/emm* 101.3 kPa = 2116 paf = 1,013 bat = 14.70 1bf/in? = 33.90 of water = 29.92 in of mercury = 10.33 m of water = 760 mm of mercury = 760 torr I psl = atm /14.70 = 6.895 kPa = 27.68 in HO = 51.71 torr Volume ¥ LT | 1m! = 3531 8° = 10001 = 2642 US. gal 0.02832 m? = 28.32 L = 7.481 U.S. gal = sere-A/43,560 gal = 231 in? = barel (petroleum) /42 = 4 US. quan = 8US. pints = 3.785 L = 0.003785 m* Volume Few | | 1/7 | m/s = 3531 18/s = 2119 cfm = 264.2 gal (US)/s = 15850 gal (US)'m Lat an 1 efs = 10/5 = 2832/6 = 7481 gal (US)/e = 448.8 gal (US)/m Mass Flow M/T | Lug/s = 2.205 tom/s = 0.06852 sug/s ate ‘Energy and BW | MP /1? | 13 = kem?/s? = Nm = W's = voltcoulomb = 0.7376 trlbt Work = 9.478 x 10° Btu = 0.2388 cal = 10” erg = kWh/3.600 x 10° Power pb | MUP |W = I/s = Nm/s= kee? 2 = 1300 107k» = 073768: It /s = LO vol-ampere = 0.2368 cal/s = 9.478 x 10"'Btu/s 1 hp = 0.7457 kW = 550 fIbt/s = 33,000 f.1b{/mnin = 2544 Bru ‘Angular Speed o rT 1.0 rad/s = 9.549 rpm = 0.1591 rev/s Viscosity a | MET | 1 pee = kg/ars = N/m? = 10 pose = 0.02089 bf /1% = 0.6720 m/f Kinematic » E/T | 1m?/s = 10.76 f/s = 10% cSt Viscosity: |tnpertore | or | @ |x =cermis= Ris $C = CF ~32)/18 #R =F + 459.67 = 18K [= 180432 reference is wm. onli neconvers\on. com|TABLE F2 COMMONLY USED EQUATIONS | Specie 1798 Specific gravity ge_P_ ey Prowee Thowsre "Rema sip —— v= p/p | Pressure equati Pats = Pam + Paage Pobs = Pato ~Pracnsn Hydrostatic equation Pigs, = P82, = constant 7 Y Pe Py +12, = py +-¥2) = constant Ap = ~yAz “Mauometer equations ~~ Pre pit Swi Sh, com AM e/Y4~1) F 2 Bw yt agttl 2 or; V3 | Pith pee = p+ 82 + pgs, | Coefficient of pressure C= PecPae hy F3/2 ¥3/(2g) Volume flow rate equation O=Paata ef vada = [Vad ‘Hydrostatic force equations (flat panels) (Ea. 58,p.131) 4220.19 | | .23,9.15 9.524.138) 4259.19 (€a.525,9.138) 0260-19) | eatam esuaties ——— o—_ a >. a seaneay | | DFG [ots [rove acess 4.324. [Se 4 erate Se Snes ep 4390039 | Haney cauaton— | —— | 2 yr lla? a | wespay | Ptegg thy Beatie ehh, | fo a (Eq. 7. 4-37.38 | |The power equation | (&q.376p.38) | | P= FI 4.73, p.218) | (&q. 7.31, p.227) } Efficiency of a machine as (Ba, 3.18.9. 45) Pee | | a= soem (64.732; p.27) ‘ant (Eq, 3.19, p. 46) | Revol umber ip) —_ a VD 49 _ (Eq. 3.23, p.49) Rea arate =Dv ae (4-102, p.317) (ea.326,p.s1) | Combined head Yas eq on — = hen Shes DE a, 1045, 0.339) | 3.36, p. 5¢ _—__ PP __componeats 7 Os 295759 | | reeion factor fQessanes coficendy ———— | |r-# Re < 2000 E4.1034,p.326) | (a 4.18, 92) © | [pe 0.25 rT (Eq, 4.186, p. 92) Bie Sa ts) | | Drag fares equation — \ i | v3 | Litt foree equation ov? lakaas ea auanp.sey |‘TABLE R.3 USEFUL CONSTANTS ‘Name of Constant Value Acceleration of gravity g= 9a m/e = 3228/8 Universl ges constant 2, = 83145 /lamol + K = 1545 6» Tbf/tomol- R Standard atmospheric pressure Pan = \.Datea = 1013 KPA = 14.70 pai = 2116 paf = 33.90 Rf water Pan = 1033 m of watt = 760 mm of ig = 2992 in of Hg = 760 torr = 1.013 ber ee TABLEF4 PROPERTIES OF AIR [7 = 20°C (68°F),p = 1 atm] Property SI Units ‘raditional Units ‘Specific gas constant Rag = 282.03/ kg K IT6 A If/ slug + °R Density = 120kg/m 0.0752 tbe /A° = 0.00234 shug/A? Specific weight y= U8N/m y= 00752 06/8 Viscosity WE LBL ION s/a? w= 3.81 x 10 Es 6/f Kinematic viscosity y= 1st x108m/s v= 163 x 1048/5 Specific heat ratio k= e/e,= 140 G/e,= 140 ‘Specific heat 6p = 1008/5 °K 0.243 Btu/Tbm +R ‘Speed of sound e= Mm/s = 1308/5 TABLE ES PROPERTIES OF WATER [T = 15°C (59°F), p = 1 atm] Property S1Units ‘Traditional Uni Density p= 999 kg/m? p= 624 Tbm/n = 1.94chug/t? Specific weight y= 9800 N/m? ye eae Viscosity w= 114x109 N+ s/o? Be 238% 107 bf: s/h Kinematic viscosity v= 114 x 104 m/s ve 13 KOR /s Surface tension @ = 0.073N/m = 0.0050 66/8 (watersit) Bulk modulus ofslesticty p= 2.14» 10° Pe 3.10 % 10° pi TABLE R6 PROPERTIES OF WATER [7 = 4°C (39 *F),p = 1 aun] Property ST Units ‘Traditional Units Density 1000 kg/m? 62.4 tbm/f = 1,96 sg/f Specific weight 9810 N/m? 62.4 bt/ 8?