Alina Rafique Assignment Psychology

Federal Urdu University, Abdul Haq Campus

Karachi

Name: Alina Rafique

Department: BS Psychology

Semester: BS-1

Subject: Psychology

Submitted to: Sir Shahid

Date: 11/5/2022

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Alina Rafique Assignment Psychology

Psychology:
1. Introduction of Psychology:
Psychology is the scientific study of mind (mental processes) and behavior.
The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life,
and “logos,” meaning explanation.
Psychology is best defined as the “scientific study and practical application
of observable behavior and mental processes of organisms.”
Watson urged that psychology be defined as the scientific study of behavior.
Since about 1920, most university psychologists have accepted Watson's
definition. So, think of psychologists as scientists who study behavior.

Branches of Psychology:
There are many branches of psychology few of them are following:
1) Educational Psychology: Educational psychology is concerned with the
teaching and learning processes such as the relationship between motivation
and school performance.
2) Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology deals with the study,
diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders.
3) Developmental Psychology: Developmental psychology is a scientific
approach which aims to explain growth, change and consistency though the
lifespan.
4) Counseling Psychology: Counseling psychology focuses primarily on
educational, social and career adjustment problems.
5) Sports Psychology: Sports psychology is the study of how psychological
factors influence sports, athletic performance, exercise, and physical
activity.
6) Forensic Psychology: Forensic psychology involves the application of
psychological knowledge and methods to help answer legal questions
arising in civil or criminal proceedings.
7) Health Psychology: Health psychology is the study of psychological and
behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare.

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8) Industrial/Organizational Psychology: Industrial psychology refers

to the applied organizational psychology used to study, analyze and
understand human behavior in the workplace, mainly how business works
and how employees function.
9) Evolutionary Psychology: Evolutionary psychology is the study of
behavior, thought, and feeling as viewed through the lens of evolutionary
biology.
10) Experimental Psychology: Experimental psychology refers to work
done by those who apply experimental methods to psychological study and
the processes that underlie it.
11) Personality Psychology: Personality psychology is a branch of
psychology that examines personality and its variation among individuals.
It aims to show how people are individually different due to psychological
forces.
12) Environmental Psychology: Environmental psychology examines the
interrelationship between environments and human behavior.
13) Cross-cultural Psychology: Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of
psychology that looks at how cultural factors influence human behavior.
14) Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of
mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception,
problem solving, creativity, and reasoning.
15) Social Psychology: Social psychology is the scientific study of how
people's thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed
within a social context by the actual or imagined interactions with others.
16) School Psychology: School psychology is devoted to counseling
children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or
emotional problems.
17) Psychology of Women: Psychology of women is an approach that
focuses on social, economic, and political issues confronting women all
throughout their lives.

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18) Behavioral Genetics: Behavioral genetics is the study of genetic and

environmental influences on behaviors.
19) Behavioral Neuroscience: Behavioral neuroscience, also known as
biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the application
of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, and
developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.
20) Clinical Neuropsychology: Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas
of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship
between biological factors and psychological disorders.

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2. School of Thoughts/ Scientific Psychology:

i. Structuralism (1879):
Wilhelm Wundt–the father of psychology
 Set up the first psychology in Germany lab in 1879.
 Wanted to know what the structure of the mind was
 Focused on breaking down mental processes into basic
components(elements).
ii. Functionalism (1900 around):
 Heavily influenced by William James.
 Focused on the process of conscious activity
 Concerned with the adaptive purpose or function of mind and
behavior.
iii. Behaviorism (1913):
 Based upon thinkers: John B. Watson Ivan Pavlor and B.F Skinner.
 J.B Watson-Founder replaced the mind and restricted to the study of
Behavior.
 Suggest that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes
rather than interval forces.
iv. Gestalt Psychology (1900 early):
 Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler- Gestalt
Psychologist’s primary interest was perception they believed that
perceptual experiences depend on the patterns formed by stimulus and on
the organization of experience.
 Based upon the idea that we experience things as unified wholes.
“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”
v. Psychoanalysis (1890s):
 Founded by Sigmund Freud.
(Father of psychology.
He was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis.
Famous Theory: The Concept of Unconscious mind:
It is a reservoir of thoughts, memories, urges and emotions that lie
outside the awareness of the conscious mind.
Freud believed that the unconscious continues to influence behavior even
through people are unware of these underlying influence.)

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 Concept of unconsciousness, thoughts, attitudes, impulses etc. that

we are unaware of.
 Emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.
vi. Cognitive Psychology (1950s):
 Influential theory: Stages of cognitive developing by Jean Piaget.
 Studies mental processes.
 Related to other disciplines such as Neuroscience philosophy and
linguistics.
vii. Humanism/Humanistic Psychology (mid 1950s):
 It developed as a response to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
 Humanistic psychology instead focused on individual free will,
personal growth, and self-actualization.
 Major humanist thinker included Abraham Maslow and carl rogers.

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3. Perception:
Gestalt Principles are principles/laws of human perception that describe how
humans group similar elements, recognize patterns and simplify complex images
when we perceive objects.
Factors Affect Perception:
Personal characteristics that affect perception include a person’s attitudes,
personality, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.
There are some factors that influence the target such as- novelty, motion,
sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity, etc.
Extrasensory Perception: Extrasensory perception or ESP, also called sixth
sense, includes claimed reception of information not gained through the recognized
physical senses, but sensed with the mind. The term was adopted by Duke
University Psychologist J. B.

4. Psychological Assessment:
A psychological Assessment is gathering information to evaluate a person’s
behavior, character strengths, and needs for the purpose of diagnosing, setting
goals and recommending treatment.

Components of Psychological Assessment:

It can include numerous components such as norm-referenced,
psychological tests, informal test and surveys, interview information, school or
medical records, medical evaluation and observation data.
A psychologist determines what information to use based on the specific
questions being asked.
There are three steps to conduct this assessment.
1. Interview 2. Observation 3. Psychological Test.
1) Clinical Interview:
A Clinical Interview is a dialogue between psychologist is a patient that is
designed to help the psycholist diagnose and plan treatment for the patient. It is
often called “a conversation with a purpose.”
Types of clinical Interviews:

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Three types of Clinical Interview:

i. Structured Interview: A Structured Interview requires that the same
questions be asked of each client in an identical manner.
It has Close Ended questions and fixed sequence.
ii. Unstructured Interview: An Unstructured Interview allows the
counselor to determine the questions and topics covered during the
interview.
It has Close & Open Ended questions and fixed & vary sequence.
iii. Semi-Structured Interview: A Semi-Structured Interview combine these
formats. Specific questions are always asked, but these are coupled with
opportunities to explore unique client circumstances.
It has Open Ended questions and unfixed & vary sequence.
 Open ended questions allowed someone to give free form answer. Close
questions can be answer limited, in options or in Yes or No.

2) Observation (Direct Observation Test):

It involves observing people in a structural way, either in a laboratory or natural
setting as they carry out various pre-determined activities.

3) Psychological Testing:
It is used to measure an individual’s different abilities such as their aptitude
in a particular field, cognitive functions like memory and spatial recognition, or
even traits like introvert.

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5. Motives:
A motive is something that causes us to act or behave in order to reach a
goal or desired endpoint. It comes from the Latin word that means 'moving'. A
motive is the reason WHY you do something. For example, a motive for exercise
is better health and weight loss.
Needs: Needs are a kind of natural mental programming that make us
want things

Murray’s Theory of Psychogenic Needs:

American psychologist Henry Murray (1893–1988) developed a theory of
personality that was organized in terms of motives, presses, and needs. Murray
described needs as a "potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under
certain given circumstances."

Murray’s Types of Needs:

According to Murray, these psychogenic needs function mostly on the
unconscious level but play a major role in our personality. Murray identified
needs as one of two types:
 Primary Needs: Primary needs are basic needs that are based upon
biological demands, such as the need for oxygen, food, and water. Primary
needs pattern is universal.
 Secondary needs: Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as
the need for nurturing, independence, and achievement. While these needs
might not be fundamental for basic survival, they are essential for
psychological well-being. They can also affect our primary needs and
satisfaction of secondary needs can make our mind healthy. Secondary needs
can be varying by time or age
.
Both needs can be developed, groom and increase by time.

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6. Characteristics and Major Functions of Eye and Ear.

a. Vision, Structure and Functions of the Eye:
The human eyes are the most complicated sense organs in the human body.
From the muscles and tissues to nerves and blood vessels, every part of the
human eye is responsible for a certain action. Furthermore, contrary to popular
belief, the eye is not perfectly spherical; instead, it is two separate segments
fused together. It is made up of several muscles and tissues that come together
to form a roughly spherical structure. From an anatomical perspective, the
human eye can be broadly classified into external structure and internal
structure.
The External Structure of an Eye:
The parts of the eye that are visible externally include the following:
Sclera:
 It is a white visible portion.
 It is made up of dense connective tissue and protects the inner parts.
Conjunctiva:
 It lines the sclera and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium.
 It keeps our eyes moist and clear and provides lubrication by secreting
mucus and tears.
Cornea:
 It is the transparent, anterior or front part of our eye, which covers the
pupil and the iris.
 The main function is to refract the light along with the lens.
Iris:
 It is the pigmented, colored portion of the eye, visible externally.
 The main function of the iris is to control the diameter of the pupil
according to the light source.
Pupil:
 It is the small aperture located in the center of the Iris.
 It allows light to enter and focus on the retina.
The internal components of an eye are:

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Lens:
 It is a transparent, biconvex, lens of an eye.
 The lens is attached to the ciliary body by ligaments.
 The lens along with the cornea refracts light so that it focuses on the
retina.
Retina:
 It is the innermost layer of the eye.
 It is light sensitive and acts as a film of a camera.
 Three layers of neural cells are present in them, they are ganglion,
bipolar and photoreceptor cells.
 It converts the image into electrical nerve impulses for the visual
perception by the brain.
Optic nerve:
 It is located at the posterior portion of the eyes.
 The optic nerves carry all the nerve impulses from the retina to the
human brain for perception.
Aqueous Humour:
 It is a watery fluid present between the cornea and the lens.
 It nourishes the eye and keeps it inflated.
Vitreous Humour:
 It is a transparent, jelly-like substance present between the lens and
the retina.
 It contains water (99%), collage, proteins, etc.
 The main function of vitreous humour is to protect the eyes and
maintain its spherical shape.

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b. Structure and Functions of the Ear.

Structure of Ear:
Human Ear Parts:
The human ear parts are explained below:
 The external ear: It formed by the pinna/auricle and the external auditory
canal, which receives sounds and transmits them to the middle ear via the
eardrum. The eardrum is circular and flexible, and begins to vibrate as the
incoming sound waves strike it.
 The middle ear: It includes the ossicles, three minuscule bones called the
malleus, incus and stapes (the latter being the smallest bone in the human
body). These bones form a bridge between the eardrum and the inner ear
through the oval window that covers the cochlea. A narrow tube of
approximately 3.5 cm in length, called the Eustachian tube, connects the ear
to the outer part of the nose and acts as an equalizing valve. This ensures that
the pressure on either side of the eardrum is balanced and that sound can be
heard correctly.
 The inner ear: It includes the cochlea, a structure that has a spiral shape
similar to a snail shell, and is located in the bony labyrinth, which has several
membranous sections filled with fluids called endolymph and When these
liquids move, they create fluctuations in the cochlea’s hair-like structures
called stereocilia. Finally, the Organ of Corti transforms the mechanical
energy of the sound waves into nerve energy by creating electric impulses that
are sent to the brain through the auditory or vestibulocochlear nerve.

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7. Brain Anatomy Development and Functions:

The Cerebral Cortex: The part of the brain that takes the longest time
to develop is the cerebral cortex. It is the outer layer of the brain’s most dominant
part (the cerebrum) and can be easily identified by its bulging wrinkled surface.
The Four Cerebral Lobes:
 Frontal Lobe: It’s the largest of the lobes Located directly beneath the
forehead and Responsible for “higher” brain functions like attention,
planning, critical thinking, problem-solving, self-control, language, and
complex movement. It integrates information and governs what the rest of the
brain does.
 Parietal Lobe: It located behind the frontal lobe, at the top of the head. It
processes information from the senses (e.g., touch, pressure, pain), allowing
 people to perceive and interpret the world around them.
 Occipital Lobe: It located at the back of the brain. It processes visual images
by interpreting signals sent by the eyes.
 Temporal Lobe: It located along the side of each hemisphere. It processes
sound and, in turn, language. It involved in memory formation and retention
through connection to the hippocampus.

Corpus Callosum: The corpus callosum is a thick, flat bundle of nerve

fibres through which information flows from one side of the brain to the other.
The corpus callosum is necessary for the brain to function properly. It allows the
two hemispheres to work together to analyze information and situations.

The Limbic System: The limbic system is a set of brain structures that are
centrally located in the brain. The limbic system is underneath the cerebral cortex
and above the brainstem. Two of the major structures are the hippocampus and
the amygdala. They are necessary for the brain’s processing of emotion and
motivation.

Parts of the Limbic System:

Thalamus: It located close to the center of the brain; egg-shaped. “Relay station
of the brain”: receives input from all of the senses, except smell (olfaction);
performs preliminary analyses; and directs messages to various parts of the brain.
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It processes information from the cerebellum and other brain areas involved in
movement.
Hypothalamus: It located below the thalamus; connected to almost every other
part of the brain. It regulates hormone release, which in turn controls sex drive,
pleasure, pain, hunger, thirst, blood pressure, body temperature, and other
functions.
Basal Ganglia: The basal ganglia are structures lying deep within the brain and
are involved in actions of the limbic system. They are involved in a wide range
of processes. such as: emotion reward processing, habit formation (learning or
creating behaviors), movement, learning.

The Cerebellum: The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem and, like
the cerebrum, is divided into two hemispheres. The cerebellum is sometimes
called the “little brain”. Although it only accounts for one-tenth of the brain’s
volume, the cerebellum contains approximately one-half of the brain’s total
number of neurons. The cerebellum’s primary functions are balance, posture, and
coordination of voluntary movement.

The Brainstem: The brainstem is located at the base of the brain and at the
top of the spinal cord. Some people nickname it the primitive brain or dinosaur
brain. The brainstem is responsible for regulating many vital bodily functions
including breathing (respiratory), maintaining a heart rate (circulatory), feeling
hungry or full (digestion), and getting rid of waste.

Types of Brainstem:
The brainstem consists of three parts:
1) The medulla oblongata: It located at the bottom of the brainstem and
connected to the spinal cord. It responsible for the automatic functions that keep
the body alive (e.g., heartbeat, breathing, digestion, blood pressure).
2) The pons: It located above the medulla oblongata. It works with the medulla
oblongata to regulate some automatic functions (e.g., arousal and breathing). It
Directs movement-related information between the cerebellum and the cortex.

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3) The midbrain: It located at the top of the brainstem. It contains an extension

of the reticular activating system, which plays a key role in sleep and arousal. It
responsible for controlling and coordinating many of the body’s sensory and
motor functions (e.g., eye movements).

Neurons:
Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) are the fundamental units of
the brain and nervous system, it’s made up of a cell body (control centre of the
neuron) with a nucleus, branch-like structures called dendrites, and nerve fibres
called axons. It specialized for the task of receiving and processing information
signals.

Types of Neurons:
Multipolar neurons, Unipolar neurons, Bipolar neurons, Pyramidal neurons,
Purkinje neurons
Sensory Neurons: Sensory neurons help you taste, smell, hear, see, feel things
around you.
Motor Neurons: Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary
and involuntary movements. These neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to
communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all over the body.
Interneurons: Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in your brain and
spinal cord. They’re the most common type of neuron. They pass signals from
sensory neurons and other interneurons to motor neurons and other interneurons.
Often, they form complex circuits that help you to react to external stimuli.

Neurotransmission:
Information (carried by an electrical impulse) travels through the cell body
of a neuron and down the axon. The axons of neurons contain neurotransmitters
(chemical messengers). These neurotransmitters are held until the neuron is
stimulated.

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Types of Neurotransmitter:
There are about a dozen different neurotransmitters. Each has its own role
and effect. Some of the more common neurotransmitters include:
Dopamine: Involved in the reward and pleasure centre of the brain and also
needed for voluntary movement, attention, decision-making, and other cognitive
processes.
Serotonin: Involved in many different behaviors including sleep, arousal, mood,
eating, and pain perception.

Functions of Nervous System:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS):
The central nervous system (CNS) is comprised of the brain and
spinal cord. The three broad functions of the CNS are to take in sensory
information, process information, and send out motor signals. The CNS
receives sensory information from the nervous system and controls the
body's responses.
It controls all voluntary movement, such as speech and walking, and
involuntary movements, such as blinking and breathing.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of two components that
make up the nervous system of bilateral animals, with the other part being
the central nervous system (CNS). The PNS consists of the nerves and
ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.

Types of Peripheral Nervous System:

The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system:

Automatic Nervous System:

The autonomic nervous system controls specific body processes, such as
circulation of blood, digestion, breathing, urination, heartbeat, etc. The

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autonomic nervous system is named so, because it works autonomously, i.e.,

without a person’s conscious effort.

Types of Automatic Nervous System:

1. The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):
It is the part of the autonomic nervous system, located near the thoracic
and lumbar regions in the spinal cord. Its primary function is to stimulate the
body’s fight or flight response. It does this by regulating the heart rate, rate of
respiration, pupillary response and more.

2. Parasympathetic Autonomic Nervous System:

It is located in between the spinal cord and the medulla. It primarily
stimulates the body’s “rest and digest” and “feed and breed” response.

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