Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth of Nations,

generally known simply as the Commonwealth of Nations
Commonwealth,[3] is a political
association of 54 member states,
almost all of which are former
territories of the British Empire.[4]
The chief institutions of the Logo
organisation are the Commonwealth Flag
Secretariat, which focuses on
intergovernmental aspects, and the
Commonwealth Foundation, which
focuses on non-governmental
relations amongst member states.[5]

The Commonwealth dates back to

the first half of the 20th century with
the decolonisation of the British
Empire through increased self- Member states of the Commonwealth, shown in dark green.
British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies in light
governance of its territories. It was
green.
originally created as the British
Commonwealth of Nations[6] Headquarters Marlborough House, London, United
Kingdom
through the Balfour Declaration at
the 1926 Imperial Conference, and Working language English
formalised by the United Kingdom
Type Voluntary association[1]
through the Statute of Westminster
in 1931. The current Member states 54 states
Commonwealth of Nations was  Antigua and Barbuda
formally constituted by the London  Australia
Declaration in 1949, which
 Bahamas
modernised the community and
 Bangladesh
established the member states as
"free and equal".[7]  Barbados
 Belize
The head of the Commonwealth is  Botswana
currently Queen Elizabeth II; the  Brunei
2018 Commonwealth Heads of  Cameroon
Government Meeting appointed
 Canada
Charles, Prince of Wales, to be her
 Cyprus
designated successor, although the
position is not hereditary. Elizabeth  Dominica
II is the head of state of 15 member  Eswatini
states, known as the  Fiji
Commonwealth realms, while 34  Gambia
other members are republics and 5  Ghana
others have different monarchs.[8]  Grenada
Member states have no legal  Guyana
obligations to one another but are  India
connected through their use of the  Jamaica
English language and historical ties.  Kenya
The Commonwealth Charter defines
 Kiribati
their shared values of democracy,
 Lesotho
human rights and the rule of law,[9]
as promoted by the quadrennial  Malawi
Commonwealth Games.  Malaysia
 Maldives
 Malta

Contents  Mauritius
 Mozambique
History  Namibia
Origins of the concept and  Nauru
establishment of the term
 New Zealand
Adoption and
 Nigeria
formalisation of the
Commonwealth  Pakistan

Decolonisation and self-  Papua New Guinea

governance  Rwanda
Declining roles  Saint Kitts and Nevis
Republics  Saint Lucia
New Commonwealth  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Plan G and inviting  Samoa
Europe to join  Seychelles
 Sierra Leone
Structure
Head of the  Singapore
Commonwealth  Solomon Islands
Commonwealth Heads of  South Africa
Government Meeting  Sri Lanka
Commonwealth  Tanzania
Secretariat  Tonga
Commonwealth  Trinidad and Tobago
citizenship and high  Tuvalu
commissioners
 Uganda
Membership  United Kingdom
Criteria  Vanuatu
Members  Zambia
Economy of member
countries Leaders
Applicants • Head Queen Elizabeth II
Suspension • Secretary-General The Baroness Scotland of Asthal
• Chair-in-Office Boris Johnson
Withdrawal and
termination Establishment

Politics • Balfour Declaration 19 November 1926

Objectives and activities • Statute of Westminster 11 December 1931[2]
• London Declaration 28 April 1949
Competence
Area
Economy • Total 29,958,050 km2 (11,566,870 sq mi)
Economic data by Population
member
• 2016 estimate 2,418,964,000
Postwar • Density 75/km2 (194.2/sq mi)
UK joins the
European Economic Website

Community thecommonwealth.org (https://thecommonwealth.org/)

Trade
Commonwealth Family
Commonwealth
Foundation
Commonwealth Games
Commonwealth War
Graves Commission
Commonwealth of
Learning
Commonwealth Local
Government Forum
Culture
Sport
Literature
Political system
Symbols
Recognition
Commonwealth Anthem
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Primary sources
External links

History

Origins of the concept and establishment of the term

Queen Elizabeth II, in her address to Canada on Dominion Day in 1959, pointed out that the Confederation
of Canada on 1 July 1867 had been the birth of the "first independent country within the British Empire".
She declared: "So, it also marks the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now
known as the Commonwealth of Nations."[10] As long ago as 1884 Lord Rosebery, while visiting
Australia, had described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent, as
a "Commonwealth of Nations".[11] Conferences of British and colonial prime ministers occurred
periodically from the first one in 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences in 1911.[12]
The Commonwealth developed from the imperial conferences. A
specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts in 1917 when he
coined the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations" and
envisioned the "future constitutional relations and readjustments in
essence" at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, attended by
delegates from the Dominions as well as Britain.[13][14] The term
first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish
Treaty of 1921, when the term British Commonwealth of Nations
was substituted for British Empire in the wording of the oath taken
by members of parliament of the Irish Free State.[15] The prime ministers of five members
at the 1944 Commonwealth Prime
Ministers' Conference. (L-R)
Adoption and formalisation of the Mackenzie King (Canada), Jan
Commonwealth Smuts (South Africa), Winston
Churchill (United Kingdom), Peter
Fraser (New Zealand) and John
In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference, Britain
Curtin (Australia)
and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way
subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or
external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown,
and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term "Commonwealth"
was officially adopted to describe the community.[16]

These aspects to the relationship were formalised by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied to
Canada without the need for ratification, but Australia, New Zealand, and Newfoundland had to ratify the
statute for it to take effect. Newfoundland never did, as on 16 February 1934, with the consent of its
parliament, the government of Newfoundland voluntarily ended and governance reverted to direct control
from London. Newfoundland later joined Canada as its tenth province in 1949.[17] Australia and New
Zealand ratified the Statute in 1942 and 1947 respectively.[18][19]

Although the Union of South Africa was not among the Dominions that needed to adopt the Statute of
Westminster for it to take effect, two laws—the Status of the Union Act, 1934, and the Royal Executive
Functions and Seals Act of 1934—were passed to confirm South Africa's status as a sovereign state.[20]

Decolonisation and self-governance

After the Second World War ended, the British Empire was gradually dismantled. Most of its components
have become independent countries, whether Commonwealth realms or republics, and members of the
Commonwealth. There remain the 14 mainly self-governing British overseas territories which retain some
political association with the United Kingdom. In April 1949, following the London Declaration, the word
"British" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature.[21]

Burma (also known as Myanmar) and Aden (now part of the Republic of Yemen) are the only states that
were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon independence.
Former British protectorates and mandates that did not become members of the Commonwealth are Egypt
(independent in 1922), Iraq (1932), Transjordan (1946), Palestine (part of which became the state of Israel
in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which united with the former Italian Somaliland in 1960 to
form the Somali Republic), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), and the United
Arab Emirates (1971).[22]

Declining roles
The postwar Commonwealth was given a fresh mission by Queen Elizabeth II in her Christmas Day 1953
broadcast, in which she envisioned the Commonwealth as "an entirely new conception – built on the
highest qualities of the Spirit of Man: friendship, loyalty, and the desire for freedom and peace".[23] Hoped-
for success was reinforced by such achievements as climbing Mount Everest in 1953, breaking the four-
minute mile in 1954, and a solo circumnavigation of the globe in 1966.[24]

However, the humiliation of the Suez Crisis of 1956 badly hurt the morale of Britain and of the
Commonwealth as a whole. More broadly, there was the loss of a central role of the British Empire: the
defence of the Empire. That role was no longer militarily or financially feasible, as Britain's withdrawal
from Greece in 1947 had painfully demonstrated. Britain itself was now just one part of the NATO military
alliance, in which the Commonwealth had no role apart from Canada. The ANZUS treaty of 1955 linked
Australia, New Zealand, and the United States in a defensive alliance, with Britain and the Commonwealth
left out.

The second major function of the Empire made London the financial centre of the system. After the Second
World War, the British treasury was so weak that it could not operate independently of the United States.
The loss of defence and financial roles, furthermore, undermined Joseph Chamberlain's early 20th-century
vision of a world empire that could combine Imperial preference, mutual defence, and social growth. In
addition, Britain's cosmopolitan role in world affairs became increasingly limited, especially with the losses
of India and Singapore.[25] While British politicians at first hoped that the Commonwealth would preserve
and project British influence, they gradually lost their enthusiasm, argues Krishnan Srinivasan. Early
enthusiasm waned as British policies came under fire at Commonwealth meetings. Public opinion became
troubled as immigration from non-white member states became large-scale.[26]

Republics

On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became a republic in accordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act
1948; in doing so, it also formally left the Commonwealth.[27] While Ireland had not actively participated in
the Commonwealth since the early 1930s, other dominions wished to become republics without losing
Commonwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting
in London. Under the London Declaration, India agreed that, when it became a republic in January 1950, it
would remain in the Commonwealth and accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association
of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth". Upon hearing this, King
George VI told the Indian politician Krishna Menon: "So, I've become 'as such'".[28] Some other
Commonwealth countries that have since become republics have chosen to leave, while others, such as
Guyana, Mauritius and Dominica, have remained members.[29]

The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following
India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs.
While some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, their monarchies developed
differently and soon became essentially independent of the British monarchy. The monarch is regarded as a
separate legal personality in each realm, even though the same person is monarch of each
realm.[30][31][32][33]

New Commonwealth

Planners in the interwar period, like Lord Davies, who had also taken "a prominent part in building up the
League of Nations Union" in the United Kingdom, in 1932 founded the New Commonwealth Society, of
whose British section Winston Churchill became the president.[34] This new society was aimed at the
creation of an international air force to be an arm of the League of Nations, to allow nations to disarm and
safeguard the peace.

The term 'New Commonwealth' has been used in the UK (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to
recently decolonised countries, predominantly non-white and developing. It was often used in debates
about immigration from these countries.[35] Britain and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known
as the Old Commonwealth, or more pointedly as the 'white Commonwealth',[36] in reference to what had
been known as the White Dominions.

Plan G and inviting Europe to join

At a time when Germany and France, together with Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands,
were planning what later became the European Union, and newly independent African countries were
joining the Commonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent Britain from becoming isolated in economic
affairs. British trade with the Commonwealth was four times larger than its trade with Europe. In 1956 and
1957 the British government under Prime Minister Anthony Eden considered a "Plan G" to create a
European free trade zone while also protecting the favoured status of the Commonwealth.[37][38][39] Britain
also considered inviting Scandinavian and other European countries to join the Commonwealth, so that it
would become a major economic common market.

At the time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, in the face of colonial unrest and international tensions, French
prime minister Guy Mollet proposed to British prime minister Anthony Eden that their two countries be
joined in a "union". When that proposal was turned down, Mollet suggested that France join the
Commonwealth, possibly with "a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis". These ideas faded
away with the end of the Suez Crisis.[40][41][42]

Structure

Head of the Commonwealth

Under the formula of the London Declaration, Queen Elizabeth II is the

head of the Commonwealth, a title that is by law a part of Elizabeth's royal
titles in each of the Commonwealth realms,[43] the 15 members of the
Commonwealth that recognise her as their monarch. When the monarch
dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become the new
head of the Commonwealth.[44] However, at their meeting in April 2018,
Commonwealth leaders agreed that Prince Charles should succeed his
mother as head.[45] The position is symbolic, representing the free
association of independent members,[43] the majority of which (34) are
republics, and five have monarchs of different royal houses (Brunei,
Eswatini, Lesotho, Malaysia, and Tonga).
Queen Elizabeth II, Head of
the Commonwealth
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government
Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth heads of government, including (amongst others) prime
ministers and presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the
successor to the Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers and, earlier, the Imperial Conferences and
Colonial Conferences, dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law
ministers, health ministers, etc. Members in arrears, as special members before them, are not invited to send
representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs.[43]

The head of government hosting the CHOGM is called the chair-in-office (CIO) and retains the position
until the following CHOGM. Since the most recent CHOGM, in the United Kingdom in 2018, the chair-
in-office has been the prime minister of the United Kingdom.[46]

The next (26th) CHOGM was initially to be held in Kigali, Rwanda, in June 2020. Owing to the COVID-
19 pandemic, it was rescheduled to be held there in the week of 21 June 2021; it was now scheduled for
the week of 20 June 2022. It will be accompanied by meetings of a Commonwealth Youth Forum, a
Commonwealth Women's Forum and a Commonwealth People's Forum.[47]

Commonwealth Secretariat

The Commonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965, is the main

intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating
consultation and co-operation among member governments and
countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively.
The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in the United
Nations General Assembly by the secretariat as an observer. The
secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of
ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists
policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates Marlborough House, London, the
multilateral communication among the member governments. It headquarters of the Commonwealth
also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social Secretariat, the Commonwealth's
and economic development of their countries and in support of the principal intergovernmental institution
Commonwealth's fundamental political values.[48]

The secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth secretary-general, who is elected by the Commonwealth
heads of government for no more than two four-year terms. The secretary-general and two deputy
secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present secretary-general is Patricia Scotland,
Baroness Scotland of Asthal, from Dominica, who took office on 1 April 2016, succeeding Kamalesh
Sharma of India (2008–2016). The first secretary-general was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–75),
followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–90), Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria (1990–99),
and Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000–2008).[48]

Commonwealth citizenship and high commissioners

Initially, Commonwealth countries were not considered to be "foreign" to each other as their citizens were
British subjects and then Commonwealth citizens.[49][50][51] Citizenship laws have evolved independently
in each Commonwealth country. For example, in Australia, for the purpose of considering certain
constitutional and legal provisions no distinction is made between Commonwealth and foreign countries: in
the High Court case of Sue v Hill, other Commonwealth countries (specifically, the United Kingdom) were
held to be 'foreign powers'; similarly, in Nolan v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, the nationals
of other Commonwealth realms were held to be 'aliens'.

Nevertheless, some members treat resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries preferentially to
citizens of non-Commonwealth countries (see Commonwealth citizen). Britain and several others, mostly in
the Caribbean, grant the right to vote to Commonwealth citizens who reside in those countries.
The closer association amongst Commonwealth countries is reflected in the diplomatic protocols of the
Commonwealth countries. For example, when engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth
governments exchange high commissioners instead of ambassadors.[52] In non-Commonwealth countries in
which their own country is not represented, Commonwealth citizens may seek consular assistance at the
British embassy although it is for the embassy to decide, in its discretion, whether to provide any.[53] Other
alternatives can also occur such as the consular services agreement between Canada and Australia that
began in 1986.[54]

Membership

Criteria

The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have

developed over time from a series of separate documents. The
Statute of Westminster 1931, as a fundamental founding document
of the organisation, laid out that membership required The members of the Commonwealth
dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing shaded according to their political
republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition status. Commonwealth realms are
that they recognised the British monarch as "Head of the shown in blue, while republics are
Commonwealth". [55] In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in shaded pink, and members with their
the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by own monarchies are displayed in
political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set green.
out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality
would be a requirement for membership, leading directly to the
withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the
London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration
dedicated all members to the principles of world peace, liberty, human rights, equality, and free trade.[56]

These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,[57] until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued,
dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of
the Cold War, and the end of apartheid in South Africa.[58] The mechanisms by which these principles
would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action
Programme, which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power
to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.[59] Also
in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for
membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental
Group ruled that any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing
member.[60]

In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements
are that members must accept and comply with the Harare principles, be fully sovereign states, recognise
the monarch of the Commonwealth realms as the head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language
as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with
regard to Commonwealth membership.[60] These requirements had undergone review, and a report on
potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007
Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[61] New members were not admitted at this meeting,
though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM.[62]
New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most
cases, this is due to being a former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries,
either exclusively or more directly (e.g. Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, Namibia
to South Africa, Bangladesh to Pakistan and Singapore to Malaysia). The first member to be admitted
without having any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member was Mozambique
in 1995 following its first democratic elections and South Africa's re-admission in 1994. Mozambique was
a former Portuguese colony. Mozambique's controversial entry led to the Edinburgh Declaration and the
current membership guidelines.[63]

In 2009, Rwanda became the second Commonwealth member admitted not to have any such constitutional
links. It was a Belgian trust territory that had been a German colony until World War I.[64] Consideration
for its admission was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by the Commonwealth Secretariat.[65]
Rwanda was permitted to join despite the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) finding that
"the state of governance and human rights in Rwanda does not satisfy Commonwealth standards", and that
it "does not therefore qualify for admission".[66] CHRI commented that: "It does not make sense to admit a
state that already does not satisfy Commonwealth standards. This would tarnish the reputation of the
Commonwealth and confirm the opinion of many people and civic organisations that the leaders of its
governments do not really care for democracy and human rights, and that its periodic, solemn declarations
are merely hot air."[66]

Members

The Commonwealth comprises 54 countries, across all inhabited

continents.[67] The members have a combined population of
2.4  billion people, almost a third of the world population, with
1.4  billion living in India, and 94% living in either Asia or
Africa.[68] After India, the next-largest Commonwealth countries
by population are Pakistan (227  million), Nigeria (213  million), Flags of the members of the
Bangladesh (167  million), and the United Kingdom (68  million). Commonwealth in Parliament
Tuvalu is the smallest member, with about 12,000 people.[69] Square, London

The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about

31,500,000 km2 (12,200,000 sq mi), or about 21% of the total world land
area. The two largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at
9,984,670  km2 (3,855,100  sq  mi) and Australia at 7,617,930  km2
(2,941,300 sq mi).[70]

The status of "Member in Arrears" is used to denote those that are in

arrears in paying subscription dues. The status was originally known as
"special membership", but was renamed on the Committee on
Commonwealth Membership's recommendation.[71] There are currently no
Members in Arrears. The most recent Member in Arrears, Nauru, returned
to full membership in June 2011.[72] Nauru has alternated between special
and full membership since joining the Commonwealth, depending on its
financial situation.[73] The Commonwealth flag
flying at the Parliament of
Canada in Ottawa
Economy of member countries
In 2019, the Commonwealth members had a combined gross domestic product of over $9 trillion, 78% of
which is accounted for by the four largest economies: United Kingdom ($3.124  trillion), India
($3.050 trillion), Canada ($1.652 trillion), and Australia ($1.379 trillion).[74]

Applicants

In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Government agreed that, to become a member of the
Commonwealth, an applicant country should, as a rule, have had a constitutional association with an
existing Commonwealth member; that it should comply with Commonwealth values, principles and
priorities as set out in the Harare Declaration; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms and
conventions.[75]

South Sudanese politicians have expressed interest in joining the Commonwealth.[76] A senior
Commonwealth source stated in 2006 that "many people have assumed an interest from Israel, but there has
been no formal approach".[77] The State of Palestine is also a potential candidate for membership.[77]

President Yahya Jammeh unilaterally withdrew The Gambia from the Commonwealth in October 2013.[78]
However, newly elected president Adama Barrow returned the country to the organisation in February
2018.[79]

Other eligible applicants could be any of the remaining inhabited British Overseas Territories, Crown
Dependencies, Australian external territories and the Associated States of New Zealand if they become
fully independent.[80] Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth,
particularly through the Commonwealth Family.[81] There are also former British possessions that have not
become independent: for example, although Hong Kong has become part of China, it continues to
participate in some of the institutions within the Commonwealth Family.

All three of the Crown dependencies regard their existing situation as unsatisfactory and have lobbied for
change. The States of Jersey have called on the UK foreign secretary to request that the Commonwealth
heads of government "consider granting associate membership to Jersey and the other Crown
Dependencies as well as any other territories at a similarly advanced stage of autonomy". Jersey has
proposed that it be accorded "self-representation in all Commonwealth meetings; full participation in
debates and procedures, with a right to speak where relevant and the opportunity to enter into discussions
with those who are full members; and no right to vote in the Ministerial or Heads of Government meetings,
which is reserved for full members".[82] The States of Guernsey and the Government of the Isle of Man
have made calls of a similar nature for a more integrated relationship with the Commonwealth,[83]
including more direct representation and enhanced participation in Commonwealth organisations and
meetings, including Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings.[84] The Chief Minister of the Isle of
Man has said: "A closer connection with the Commonwealth itself would be a welcome further
development of the Island's international relationships".[85]

Suspension

Members can be suspended "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for "serious or persistent
violations" of the Harare Declaration, particularly in abrogating their responsibility to have democratic
government.[86] Suspensions are agreed by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which
meets regularly to address potential breaches of the Harare Declaration. Suspended members are not
represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the
organisation.
Nigeria was suspended between 11 November 1995 and 29 May 1999,[87] following its execution of Ken
Saro-Wiwa on the eve of the 1995 CHOGM.[88] Pakistan was the second country to be suspended, on 18
October 1999, following the military coup by Pervez Musharraf.[89] The Commonwealth's longest
suspension came to an end on 22 May 2004, when Pakistan's suspension was lifted following the
restoration of the country's constitution.[90] Pakistan was suspended for a second time, far more briefly, for
six months from 22 November 2007, when Musharraf called a state of emergency.[91] Zimbabwe was
suspended in 2002 over concerns regarding the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's
ZANU-PF government,[92] before it withdrew from the organisation in 2003.[93] On 15 May 2018,
Zimbabwe applied to rejoin the Commonwealth.[94]

The declaration of a Republic in Fiji in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political
power, was not accompanied by an application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have
lapsed until 1997, after discriminatory provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and
reapplication for membership made.[95][96] Fiji has since been suspended twice, with the first imposed from
6 June 2000[97] to 20 December 2001 after another coup.[92] Fiji was suspended yet again in December
2006, following the most recent coup. At first, the suspension applied only to membership on the Councils
of the Commonwealth.[95][98] After failing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting a date for national
elections by 2010, Fiji was "fully suspended" on 1 September 2009.[95][98] The secretary-general of the
Commonwealth, Kamalesh Sharma, confirmed that full suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded from
Commonwealth meetings, sporting events and the technical assistance programme (with an exception for
assistance in re-establishing democracy). Sharma stated that Fiji would remain a member of the
Commonwealth during its suspension, but would be excluded from emblematic representation by the
secretariat.[95] On 19 March 2014 Fiji's full suspension was amended to a suspension from councils of the
Commonwealth by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group, permitting Fiji to join a number of
Commonwealth activities, including the Commonwealth Games.[99] Fiji's suspension was lifted in
September 2014.[100] The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group fully reinstated Fiji as a member
following elections in September 2014.[101]

Most recently, during 2013 and 2014, international pressure mounted to suspend Sri Lanka from the
Commonwealth, citing grave human rights violations by the government of President Mahinda Rajapaksa.
There were also calls to change the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2013 from Sri Lanka
to another member country. Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper threatened to boycott the event, but
was instead represented at the meeting by Deepak Obhrai. UK Prime Minister David Cameron also chose
to attend.[102][103] These concerns were rendered moot by the election of opposition leader Maithripala
Sirisena as president in 2015.[104]

Withdrawal and termination

As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the
Commonwealth. Pakistan left on 30 January 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth's recognition of
breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined on 2 August 1989. Zimbabwe's membership was suspended in 2002
on the grounds of alleged human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment, and Zimbabwe's
government terminated its membership in 2003.[105] The Gambia left the Commonwealth on 3 October
2013,[78] and rejoined on 8 February 2018.[79]

The Maldives withdrew from the Commonwealth on 13 October 2016,[106][107] citing Commonwealth's
"punitive actions against the Maldives since 2012" after the allegedly forced resignation of Maldivian
President Mohamed Nasheed among the reasons for withdrawal.[107] Following the election of Ibrahim
Mohamed Solih as president in November 2018, the Maldives announced its intention to reapply to join the
Commonwealth.[108] They rejoined on 1 February 2020.[109]
Although heads of government have the power to suspend member states from active participation, the
Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members.

Until 1948, there was a consensus among the existing half-dozen Commonwealth members that
Commonwealth realms that became a republic would cease to be members but the situation changed in
1948 when newly independent India announced its intention to become a republic on 1 January 1950
although it wished to remain in the Commonwealth. This was granted. Now, the majority of the
Commonwealth members, including all those from Africa, are republics or have their own native monarch.

Ireland withdrew from participation in the Commonwealth in the 1930s, attending its last Commonwealth
governmental heads' meeting in 1932. For some years Ireland considered itself to be a republic outside the
Commonwealth but the Commonwealth considered Ireland to still be a Commonwealth member. Its
treatment as a member ended on 18 April 1949 when Irish legislation that the Commonwealth chose to
regard as having caused Ireland to become a republic became law. It is the only country whose membership
terminated without any declaration withdrawing from the organisation. Instead, it was (with its own tacit
support) excluded from the organisation.

South Africa was barred from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostility
from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of racial
apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a
republic when it became clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference that any such
application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following its
first multiracial elections that year.[110]

The transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997 ended the territory's status as a part of the
Commonwealth through the United Kingdom. Non-sovereign states or regions are not permitted to become
members of the Commonwealth. The government of the People's Republic of China has not pursued
membership. Hong Kong has nevertheless continued to participate in some of the organisations of the
Commonwealth family, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association (hosted the Commonwealth
Lawyers Conference in 1983 and 2009), the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association (and the
Westminster Seminar on Parliamentary Practice and Procedures), the Association of Commonwealth
Universities and the Commonwealth Association of Legislative Counsel,[111][112] as well as the
Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC).

Politics

Objectives and activities

The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration, which committed
the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace; promotion of representative democracy and individual
liberty; the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease;
and free trade.[113] To these were added opposition to discrimination on the basis of gender by the Lusaka
Declaration of 1979,[56] and environmental sustainability by the Langkawi Declaration of 1989.[114] These
objectives were reinforced by the Harare Declaration in 1991.[115]

The Commonwealth's current highest-priority aims are on the promotion of democracy and development,
as outlined in the 2003 Aso Rock Declaration,[116] which built on those in Singapore and Harare and
clarified their terms of reference, stating, "We are committed to democracy, good governance, human rights,
gender equality, and a more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalisation."[117] The Commonwealth
website lists its areas of work as: democracy, economics, education, gender, governance, human rights, law,
small states, sport, sustainability, and youth.[118]
Through a separate voluntary fund, Commonwealth governments support the Commonwealth Youth
Programme, a division of the Secretariat with offices in Gulu (Uganda), Lusaka (Zambia), Chandigarh
(India), Georgetown (Guyana) and Honiara (Solomon Islands).

Competence

In recent years, the Commonwealth has been accused of not being vocal enough on its core values.
Allegations of a leaked memo from the Secretary General instructing staff not to speak out on human rights
were published in October 2010.[119]

The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 considered a report by a Commonwealth

Eminent Persons Group (EPG) panel which asserted that the organisation had lost its relevance and was
decaying due to the lack of a mechanism to censure member countries when they violated human rights or
democratic norms.[120] The panel made 106 "urgent" recommendations including the adoption of a Charter
of the Commonwealth, the creation of a new commissioner on the rule of law, democracy and human rights
to track persistent human rights abuses and allegations of political repression by Commonwealth member
states, recommendations for the repeal of laws against homosexuality in 41 Commonwealth states and a
ban on forced marriage.[121][122] The failure to release the report, or accept its recommendations for
reforms in the area of human rights, democracy and the rule of law, was decried as a "disgrace" by former
British Foreign Secretary Sir Malcolm Rifkind, a member of the EPG, who told a press conference: "The
Commonwealth faces a very significant problem. It's not a problem of hostility or antagonism, it's more of a
problem of indifference. Its purpose is being questioned, its relevance is being questioned and part of that is
because its commitment to enforce the values for which it stands is becoming ambiguous in the eyes of
many member states. The Commonwealth is not a private club of the governments or the secretariat. It
belongs to the people of the Commonwealth."[122]

In the end, two-thirds of the EPG's 106 urgently recommended reforms were referred to study groups, an
act described by one EPG member as having them "kicked into the long grass". There was no agreement to
create the recommended position of human rights commissioner, instead a ministerial management group
was empowered with enforcement: the group includes alleged human rights offenders. It was agreed to
develop a charter of values for the Commonwealth without any decision on how compliance with its
principles would be enforced.[120]

The result of the effort was that a new Charter of the Commonwealth was signed by Queen Elizabeth on 11
March 2013 at Marlborough House, which opposes "all forms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender,
race, colour, creed, political belief or other grounds".[123][124]

Economy

Economic data by member

 Economies of the Commonwealth of Nations 2012 

GDP (nominal, US$) GDP (PPP, US$)

Member states Population[125][126] Comm.
(2018) per per realm?
millions[127] millions[129]
capita[128] capita[130]
 Antigua and
96,286 1,176 12,480 1,778 18,492 Yes
Barbuda
 Australia 24,898,152 1,520,608 61,789 1,008,547 41,974 Yes

 The Bahamas 385,637 8,149 22,431 11,765 31,978 Yes

 Bangladesh 161,376,708 115,610 743 291,299 1,777 No

 Barbados 286,641 3,685 13,453 — — No

 Belize 383,071 1,448 4,059 2,381 6,672 Yes

 Botswana 2,254,068 14,411 8,533 34,038 14,746 No

 Brunei 428,963 16,954 40,301 21,992 51,760 No

 Cameroon 25,216,267 24,984 1,260 50,820 2,359 No

 Canada 37,064,562 1,821,424 50,344 1,489,165 40,420 Yes

 Cyprus 1,189,265 22,981 30,670 26,720 32,254 No

 Dominica 71,625 480 7,154 906 13,288 No

 Ghana 29,767,102 40,710 1,570 51,943 1,871 No

 Grenada 111,454 790 7,780 1,142 10,837 Yes

 Guyana 779,006 2,851 3,408 2,704 — No

 India 1,352,642,280 3,049,700 2,171 11,468,022 7,874 No

 Jamaica 2,934,847 14,840 5,335 — — Yes

 Kenya 51,392,565 37,229 808 76,016 1,710 No

 Kiribati 115,847 176 1,649 248 2,337 No

 Lesotho 2,108,328 2,448 1,106 4,027 1,691 No

 Malawi 18,143,217 4,264 365 14,344 893 No

 Malaysia 31,528,033 303,526 9,977 501,249 16,051 No

 Maldives 515,696 2,222 6,405 3,070 8,871 No

 Malta 439,248 8,722 21,380 12,138 27,504 No

 Mauritius 1,267,185 10,492 8,755 20,210 14,420 No

 Mozambique 29,496,004 14,588 533 25,805 975 No

 Namibia 2,448,301 12,807 5,383 16,918 6,801 No

 Nauru 10,670 — — — — No

 New Zealand 4,743,131 139,768 36,254 139,640 31,082 Yes

 Nigeria 195,874,685 262,606 1,502 449,289 2,533 No

 Pakistan 212,228,286 231,182 1,189 517,873 2,745 No

  Papua New 8,606,323 15,654 1,845 20,771 2,676 Yes
Guinea
 Rwanda 12,301,970 7,103 8,874 15,517 1,282 No

 Saint Kitts
52,441 748 13,144 966 17,226 Yes
and Nevis
 Saint Lucia 181,889 1,186 7,154 2,016 11,597 Yes

 Saint Vincent
and the 110,211 713 6,291 1,202 10,715 Yes
Grenadines
 Samoa 196,129 677 3,485 853 4,475 No

 Seychelles 97,096 1,032 12,321 2,371 25,788 No

 Sierra Leone 7,650,150 3,796 496 8,125 1,131 No

 Singapore 5,757,499 274,701 46,241 328,323 60,688 No

 Solomon
652,857 1,008 1,517 1,718 2,923 Yes
Islands
 South Africa 57,792,518 384,313 8,070 585,625 10,960 No

 Sri Lanka 21,228,763 59,421 2,835 126,993 5,582 No

 Eswatini 1,136,281 3,747 3,831 6,458 6,053 No

 Tanzania 56,313,438 28,249 532 74,269 1,512 No

 Tonga 103,197 472 4,152 527 4,886 No

 Trinidad and
1,389,843 23,986 16,699 35,638 25,074 No
Tobago
 Tuvalu 11,508 37 3,636 — — Yes

 Uganda 42,729,036 19,881 487 49,130 1,345 No

 United
67,141,684 3,124,650[131] 38,974 3,174,921 35,598 Yes
Kingdom
 Vanuatu 292,680 785 3,094 1,139 4,379 No

 Zambia 17,351,708 20,678 1,425 24,096 1,621 No

2,418,964,000 9,766,209 3,844 13,119,929 4,035 —

 Commonwealth

 Commonwealth 144,033,000 5,966,408 43,493 4,945,842 36,053 —

(realms)

Postwar

During the Second World War, the British Empire played a major role in supporting British finances.
Foreign exchange reserves were pooled in London, to be used to fight the war. In effect Britain procured
£2.3 billion, of which £1.3 billion was from India. The debt was held in the form of British government
securities and became known as "sterling balances". By 1950, India, Pakistan and Ceylon had spent much
of their sterling, while other countries accumulated more. The sterling area that included all of the
Commonwealth except for Canada, together with some smaller countries especially in the Persian Gulf.
They held their foreign-exchange in sterling, protecting that currency from runs, and facilitating trade and
investment inside the Commonwealth. It was a formal relationship with fixed exchange rates, and periodic
meetings at Commonwealth summits to coordinate trade policy, and domestic economic policies. Britain
ran a trade surplus, and the other countries were mostly producers of raw materials sold to Britain.
However the commercial rationale was gradually less attractive to the Commonwealth. Access to the
growing London capital market, however, remained an important advantage to the newly independent
nations. As Britain moved increasingly close to Europe, however, the long-term ties began to be in
doubt.[132]

UK joins the European Economic Community

By 1961, with a sluggish economy, Britain attempted to join the European Economic Community, but this
was repeatedly vetoed by Charles de Gaulle.[133] entry was finally achieved in 1973. Queen Elizabeth was
one of the few remaining links between the UK and the Commonwealth. Historian Ben Pimlott argues that
joining Europe "constituted the most decisive step yet in the progress of severance of familial ties between
Britain and its former Empire....It reduced the remaining links to sentimental and cultural ones, and legal
niceties."[134]

The newly independent countries of Africa and Asia concentrated on their own internal political and
economic development, and sometimes their role in the Cold War. The United States, international
agencies, and the Soviet Union became important players, and the British role receded. While there was
opposition to British entry into the EEC from many countries, such as Australia, others preferred the
economic advantages brought by British access to the Common Market.[135] The historic ties between the
former dominion nations and Britain were rapidly fraying. The Canadian economy increasingly focused on
trade with the United States, and not on trade with Britain or other Commonwealth nations. Internal
Canadian disputes revolved around the growing American cultural economic presence, and the strong force
of Quebec nationalism. In 1964 the Maple Leaf flag replaced the Canadian Ensign to the sorrow of many
Anglophiles, with Gregory Johnson describing it as "the last gasp of empire".[136] Australia and New
Zealand were generally opposed to entry and exerted considerable influence on the eventual terms of
accession agreed in 1972, for which Britain agreed transitional arrangements and monetary compensation
to protect important export markets.[137][138] Nevertheless, the implications of British entry into Europe
seemed shattering to most Australians, particularly to older people and conservatives. Russell Ward
summerises the period in economic terms: "In fact the United Kingdom, as Australia's chief trading partner,
was being very rapidly replaced just at this time by the United States and an economically resurgent Japan,
but most people were scarcely aware of this.... It was feared that British entry into the Common Market was
bound to mean abolition, or at least scaling down, of preferential tariff arrangements for Australians
goods."[139]

Trade

Although the Commonwealth does not have a multilateral trade agreement, research by the Royal
Commonwealth Society has shown that trade with another Commonwealth member is up to 50% more
than with a non-member on average, with smaller and less wealthy states having a higher propensity to
trade within the Commonwealth.[140] At the 2005 Summit in Malta, the heads of government endorsed
pursuing free trade among Commonwealth members on a bilateral basis.[141]

Following its vote in June 2016 to leave the EU, some politicians in the United Kingdom have suggested
the idea as an alternative to its membership in the European Union,[142][143] however it is far from clear
that this would either offer sufficient economic benefit to replace the impact of leaving the EU or be
acceptable to other member states[144] Although the EU is already in the process of negotiating free trade
agreements with many Commonwealth countries such as India and Canada, it took the EU almost ten years
to come to an agreement with Canada,[145][146] due to the challenge associated with achieving the
necessary EU-wide approvals.

Commonwealth Family
Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with over a hundred Commonwealth-wide
non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture, education, law and charity. The Association of
Commonwealth Universities is an important vehicle for academic links, particularly through scholarships,
principally the Commonwealth Scholarship, for students to study in universities in other Commonwealth
countries. There are also many non-official associations that bring together individuals who work within the
spheres of law and government, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association and the Commonwealth
Parliamentary Association.

Commonwealth Foundation

The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation, resourced by and reporting to

Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to
strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance,
respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centred and sustainable
development, and to promote arts and culture.

The Foundation was established in 1965 by the Heads of Government. Admittance is open to all members
of the Commonwealth, and in December 2008, stood at 46 out of the 53 member countries. Associate
Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been
granted to Gibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is
headquartered in Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London. Regular liaison and co-operation between the
Secretariat and the Foundation is in place. The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which
it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding.[147]

Commonwealth Games

The Commonwealth Games, a multi-sport event, is held every four

years; the 2014 Commonwealth Games were held in Glasgow,
Scotland, and the 2018 Commonwealth Games in Gold Coast,
Australia. Birmingham is set to be the host for 2022
Commonwealth Games. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, as
at the Summer Olympic Games, the games include sports
particularly popular in the Commonwealth, such as bowls, netball,
and rugby sevens. Started in 1930 as the Empire Games, the games
were founded on the Olympic model of amateurism, but were The Commonwealth Games are the
deliberately designed to be "the Friendly Games",[148] with the third-largest multi-sport event in the
goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and world, bringing together globally
celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage.[149] popular sports and peculiarly
"Commonwealth" sports, such as
The games are the Commonwealth's most visible activity[148] and rugby sevens, shown here at the
interest in the operation of the Commonwealth increases greatly 2006 Games.
when the Games are held.[150] There is controversy over whether
the games—and sport generally—should be involved in the
Commonwealth's wider political concerns.[149] The 1977 Gleneagles Agreement was signed to commit
Commonwealth countries to combat apartheid through discouraging sporting contact with South Africa
(which was not then a member), whilst the 1986 games were boycotted by most African, Asian, and
Caribbean countries for the failure of other countries to enforce the Gleneagles Agreement.[151]

Commonwealth War Graves Commission

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is

responsible for maintaining the war graves of 1.7  million service
personnel that died in the First and Second World Wars fighting for
Commonwealth member states. Founded in 1917 (as the Imperial
War Graves Commission), the commission has constructed 2,500
war cemeteries, and maintains individual graves at another 20,000
sites around the world.[152] The vast majority of the latter are
civilian cemeteries in Britain. In 1998, the CWGC made the
records of its buried online to facilitate easier searching.[153] The Commonwealth War Graves
Commission serves to
Commonwealth war cemeteries often feature similar horticulture
commemorate 1.7 million
and architecture, with larger cemeteries being home to a Cross of Commonwealth war dead and
Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance. The CWGC is notable for maintains 2,500 war cemeteries
marking the graves identically, regardless of the rank, country of around the world, including this one
origin, race, or religion of the buried.[153][note 1] It is funded by in Gallipoli.
voluntary agreement by six Commonwealth members, in
proportion to the nationality of the casualties in the graves
maintained,[152] with 75% of the funding coming from Britain.[153]

Commonwealth of Learning

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by the Heads of

Government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge,
resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and
training.

Commonwealth Local Government Forum

The Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) is a global local government organisation,
bringing together local authorities, their national associations and the ministries responsible for local
government in the member countries of the Commonwealth. CLGF works with national and local
governments to support the development of democratic values and good local governance and is the
associated organisation officially recognised by Commonwealth Heads of Government as the representative
body for local government in the Commonwealth.[155]

CLGF is unique in bringing together central, provincial and local spheres of government involved in local
government policy and decision-making. CLGF members include local government associations, individual
local authorities, ministries dealing with local government, and research and professional organisations who
work with local government. Practitioner to practitioner support is at the core of CLGF's work across the
Commonwealth and within the region, using CLGF's own members to support others both within and
between regions. CLGF is a member of the Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Governments, the
formal partner of the UN Major Group of Local Authorities.[156]
Culture
Many Commonwealth nations possess traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth
culture. Examples include common sports such as cricket and rugby, driving on the left, the Westminster
system of parliamentary democracy, common law, widespread use of the English language, designation of
English as an official language, military and naval ranks, and the use of British rather than American
spelling conventions (see English in the Commonwealth of Nations).

Sport

Many Commonwealth nations play similar sports that are considered quintessentially British in character,
rooted in and developed under British rule or hegemony, including cricket, football, rugby and netball.[157]
This has led to the development of friendly national rivalries between the main sporting nations that have
often defined their relations with each other. Indeed, said rivalries preserved close ties by providing a
constant in international relationships, even as the Empire transformed into the Commonwealth Games.[158]
Externally, playing these sports is seen to be a sign of sharing a certain Commonwealth culture; the
adoption of cricket at schools in Rwanda is seen as symbolic of the country's move towards
Commonwealth membership.[159][160]

Literature

The shared history of British presence has produced a substantial body of writing in many languages,
known as Commonwealth literature.[161][162] The Association for Commonwealth Literature and
Language Studies has 11 branches worldwide and holds an international conference every three years.[163]

In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the annual Commonwealth Writers' Prize "to
encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a
wider audience outside their country of origin". Prizes are awarded for the best book and best first book in
the Commonwealth; there are also regional prizes for the best book and best first book in each of four
regions. Although not officially affiliated with the Commonwealth, the prestigious annual Man Booker
Prize, one of the highest honours in literature,[164] used to be awarded only to authors from
Commonwealth countries or former members such as Ireland and Zimbabwe. Since 2014, however, writers
of any nationality have been eligible for the prize providing that they write originally in English and their
novels are published by established publishers in the United Kingdom.[165]

There had been a few important works in English prior to 1950 from the then British Empire. From 1950
on, a significant number of writers from the countries of the Commonwealth began gaining international
recognition, including some who migrated to the United Kingdom.

The South African writer Olive Schreiner's famous novel The Story of an African Farm was published in
1883 and New Zealander Katherine Mansfield published her first collection of short stories, In a German
Pension, in 1911. The first major novelist, writing in English, from the Indian sub-continent, R. K.
Narayan, began publishing in England in the 1930s, thanks to the encouragement of English novelist
Graham Greene.[166] Caribbean writer Jean Rhys's writing career began as early as 1928, though her most
famous work, Wide Sargasso Sea, was not published until 1966. South Africa's Alan Paton's famous Cry,
the Beloved Country dates from 1948. Doris Lessing from Southern Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe, was a
dominant presence in the English literary scene, frequently publishing from 1950 on throughout the 20th
century. She won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007.[167]
Salman Rushdie is another post-Second World War writer from the former British colonies who
permanently settled in Britain. Rushdie achieved fame with Midnight's Children (1981). His most
controversial novel, The Satanic Verses (1989), was inspired in part by the life of Muhammad. V. S.
Naipaul (born 1932), born in Trinidad, was another immigrant, who wrote among other things A Bend in
the River (1979). Naipaul won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2001.[168]

Many other Commonwealth writers have achieved an international reputation for works in English,
including Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe, and playwright Wole Soyinka. Soyinka won the Nobel Prize
in Literature in 1986, as did South African novelist Nadine Gordimer in 1995. Other South African writers
in English are novelist J. M. Coetzee (Nobel Prize 2003) and playwright Athol Fugard. Kenya's most
internationally renowned author is Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o, who has written novels, plays and short stories in
English. Poet Derek Walcott, from Saint Lucia in the Caribbean, was another Nobel Prize winner in 1992.
An Australian, Patrick White, a major novelist in this period, whose first work was published in 1939, won
in 1973. Other noteworthy Australian writers at the end of this period are poet Les Murray, and novelist
Peter Carey, who is one of only four writers to have won the Booker Prize twice.[169]

Political system

Due to their shared constitutional histories, several countries in the Commonwealth have similar legal and
political systems. The Commonwealth requires its members to be functioning democracies that respect
human rights and the rule of law. Most Commonwealth countries have the bicameral Westminster system of
parliamentary democracy. The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association facilitates co-operation between
legislatures across the Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth Local Government Forum promotes good
governance amongst local government officials. Most Commonwealth members use common law,
modelled on English law. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the supreme court of 14
Commonwealth members.[170]

Symbols

The Commonwealth has adopted a number of symbols that represent the association of its members. The
English language is recognised as a symbol of the members' heritage; as well as being considered a symbol
of the Commonwealth, recognition of it as "the means of Commonwealth communication" is a prerequisite
for Commonwealth membership. The flag of the Commonwealth consists of the symbol of the
Commonwealth Secretariat, a gold globe surrounded by emanating rays, on a dark blue field; it was
designed for the second CHOGM in 1973, and officially adopted on 26 March 1976. 1976 also saw the
organisation agree to a common date on which to commemorate Commonwealth Day, the second Monday
in March, having developed separately on different dates from Empire Day celebrations.[171]

Recognition

In 2009, to mark the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Commonwealth, the Royal Commonwealth
Society commissioned a poll of public opinion in seven of the member states: Australia, Canada, India,
Jamaica, Malaysia, South Africa and the United Kingdom. It found that most people in these countries
were largely ignorant of the Commonwealth's activities, aside from the Commonwealth Games, and
indifferent toward its future. Support for the Commonwealth was twice as high in developing countries as
in developed countries; it was lowest in Britain.[172][173][174][175]

Commonwealth Anthem
Also to mark the 60th anniversary (Diamond Jubilee) of the Commonwealth in 2009, the Commonwealth
Secretariat commissioned Paul Carroll to compose "The Commonwealth Anthem". The lyrics of the
Anthem are taken from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[176] The Commonwealth has
published the Anthem, performed by the Commonwealth Youth Orchestra, with and without an
introductory narrative.[177][178]

See also
Anglosphere
Community of Portuguese Language Countries, an equivalent grouping of Portuguese-
speaking countries and territories
English-speaking world
La Francophonie
List of country groupings
List of multilateral free-trade agreements
List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP
List of Commonwealth of Nations prime ministers
Organization of Ibero-American States
Representatives of the Commonwealth of Nations
Special Relationship, the common name for the relations between the United Kingdom and
the United States

Notes
1. Each headstone contains the national emblem or regimental badge, rank, name, unit, date of
death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more
personal dedication chosen by relatives.[154]

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Further reading
Ashton, Sarah R. "British government perspectives on the Commonwealth, 1964–71: An
asset or a liability?." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 35.1 (2007): 73–94.
Bloomfield, Valerie. Commonwealth Elections 1945–1970 (1976).
Cook, Chris and John Paxton. Commonwealth Political Facts (Macmillan, 1978).
Hall, H. Duncan. "The genesis of the Balfour declaration of 1926." Journal of
Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 1.3 (1962): 169–193.
Holland, Robert F. Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance, 1918-39 (Springer, 1981).
Jebb, Richard (1905). "Imperial Organization"  (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Empire_a
nd_the_century/Imperial_Organization). The Empire and the century. London: John Murray.
pp. 332–348.
Lloyd, Lorna. Diplomacy with a difference: the Commonwealth Office of High Commissioner,
1880–2006 (Brill, 2007).
McIntyre, W. David. "The strange death of dominion status." Journal of Imperial and
Commonwealth History 27.2 (1999): 193–212.
McIntyre, W. David. The commonwealth of nations: Origins and impact, 1869–1971 (U of
Minnesota Press, 1977); Comprehensive coverage giving London's perspective on political
and constitutional relations with each possession.
McIntyre, W. David. A Guide to the Contemporary Commonwealth, Palgrave, 2001.
ISBN 978-0-333-96310-4.
McIntyre, W. David. "The Unofficial Commonwealth Relations Conferences, 1933–59:
Precursors of the Tri-sector Commonwealth." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth
History 36.4 (2008): 591–614.
Madden, Frederick and John Darwin, eds. The Dependent Empire, 1900–1948: Colonies,
Protectorates, and the Mandates (1994) 908 pp online (https://www.questia.com/library/9175
3673/the-dependent-empire-1900-1948-colonies-protectorates)
Maitland, Donald. ed. Britain, the Commonwealth and Europe (Palgrave Macmillan UK,
2001) online (http://vm3.ehaus2.co.uk/macmillan/resources/sample-chapters/978033380013
3_sample.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180819203743/http://vm3.ehaus2.c
o.uk/macmillan/resources/sample-chapters/9780333800133_sample.pdf) 19 August 2018 at
the Wayback Machine
Mansergh, Nicholas The Commonwealth in the World, University of Toronto Press, 1982.
ISBN 978-0-8020-2492-3.
Moore, R.J. Making the New Commonwealth, Clarendon Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-19-
820112-0.
 Murphy, Philip. Monarchy and the End of Empire: The House of Windsor, the British
Government, and the Postwar Commonwealth (Oxford UP 2013)
doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199214235.001.0001 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aos
o%2F9780199214235.001.0001)
Perkin, Harold. "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire
and Commonwealth." International Journal of the History of Sport 6.2 (1989): 145–155.
Shaw, Timothy M. Commonwealth: Inter- and Non-State Contributions to Global
Governance, Routledge, 2008. ISBN 978-0-415-35120-1
Srinivasan, Krishnan. The rise, decline and future of the British Commonwealth. (Springer,
2005).
Wheare, K. C. The Constitutional Structure of the Commonwealth, Clarendon Press, 1960.
ISBN 978-0-313-23624-2.
Williams, Paul D. "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth." The Round Table 94.380 (2005):
381–391.
Winks, Robin, ed. The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth: Trends,
Interpretations and Resources (1966) online (https://www.questia.com/library/95979771/the-
historiography-of-the-british-empire-commonwealth)

Primary sources
Madden, Frederick, ed. The End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948: Select Documents
on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth: The West Indies,
British Honduras, Hong Kong, Fiji, Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Falklands (2000) online (http
s://www.questia.com/library/120072134/the-end-of-empire-dependencies-since-1948-select)
596pp
Madden, Frederick, and John Darwin, ed. The Dependent Empire: 1900–1948: Colonies,
Protectorates, and Mandates (1963) 908pp online (https://www.questia.com/read/91753692/t
he-dependent-empire-1900-1948-colonies-protectorates)
Mansergh, Nicholas, ed. Documents and Speeches on Commonwealth Affairs, 1952–1962
(1963) 804pp online (https://www.questia.com/library/1817157/documents-and-speeches-on
-commonwealth-affairs-1952-1962)

External links
Commonwealth Secretariat (https://thecommonwealth.org/)
The Commonwealth of Nations Network (https://www.commonwealthofnations.org/)
Commonwealth Foundation (https://commonwealthfoundation.com/)
The Royal Commonwealth Society (https://web.archive.org/web/20191214000728/https://the
rcs.org/)
The Commonwealth Countries League (https://web.archive.org/web/20191212142446/http
s://www.the-ccl.org/)

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