BP Exploration Completion Design Manual (Vol 2)

BP Exploration
Completion Design Manual

(Volume 2)
Contents
Chapter 5 Architecture of Completions

Section 5a Optimizing the Completion in the
Near Wellbore Region
Section 5b Downhole Production Chemistry
Chapter 6 Tubing Movement and Stress Calculations
Chapter 7 Selection of Tubulars

Section 7a Materials
Chapter 8 Selection of Completion Equipment

Section 8a Surface Equipment
Chapter 9 Procurement of Equipment
Chapter 10 Running the Completion

Section 10a Completion Fluids
Chapter 11 Well Servicing and Workover Philosophies

BP Exploration Completion Design Manual
TECHNICAL EDITOR AND AUTHOR:
.....................................................................
P Murray SPE, Well Technology Studies XEU
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS AND EDITORS:
I. Mossige
R C Ellis
J K Pucknell
M G Bwye
P D Rist
D J Potts
TECHNICAL CONSULTANTS:
L D Patton and Associates
Adams Pearson Associates
Professor James P Brill
Oilfield Technology Services
APPROVED FOR ISSUE:
.............................................................
M G Knowles, Chief Petroleum Engineer
PUBLISHED BY ODL
COPY NO 1
MARCH 1990
Chapter 5 - Architecture of Completions
BP Exploration
Jonathan Bellarby
Independent Completions Engineering Ltd.
26 May 1998
BP Completion Design Manual Section 5 - Architecture of Completions
Contents
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
5.2 Completion Design Considerations .............................................................................................. 2
5.2.1 Health Safety and Environmental Protection .............................................................................. 2
5.2.2 Location ...................................................................................................................................... 3
5.2.2.1 Land ..................................................................................................................................... 3
5.2.2.2 Platform................................................................................................................................ 3
5.2.2.3 Tension Leg Platform........................................................................................................... 3
5.2.2.4 Subsea ................................................................................................................................. 4
5.2.3 Reservoir Access........................................................................................................................ 5
5.2.4 Data Acquisition.......................................................................................................................... 6
5.2.4.1 During the Completion Phase .............................................................................................. 6
5.2.4.2 Permanent, Surface read-out gauges.................................................................................. 6
5.2.4.3 Non Surface Read-out Gauges............................................................................................ 8
5.2.5 Deviation and doglegs ................................................................................................................ 9
5.2.6 Installation Methods.................................................................................................................. 10
5.2.7 Production Chemistry ............................................................................................................... 11
5.2.7.1 Scales ................................................................................................................................ 12
5.2.7.2 Wax.................................................................................................................................... 16
5.2.7.3 Asphaltenes And Tar Mats................................................................................................. 20
5.2.7.4 Hydrates............................................................................................................................. 21
5.2.7.5 Emulsions .......................................................................................................................... 22
5.2.7.6 Sulphur............................................................................................................................... 23
5.2.7.7 Sulphate Reducing Bacteria............................................................................................... 23
5.2.7.8 Completion Fluid Chemistry ............................................................................................... 24
5.2.8 Artificial Lift ............................................................................................................................... 25
5.2.8.1 Gas lift ................................................................................................................................ 25
5.2.8.2 Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESPs)............................................................................... 26
5.2.8.3 Jet pumps .......................................................................................................................... 28
5.2.9 Workovers and Reliability ......................................................................................................... 30
5.2.10 Well Control / Plugging Philosophy......................................................................................... 31
5.2.11 Casing Schemes .................................................................................................................... 32
5.3 Completion Architecture .............................................................................................................. 34
5.3.1 Reservoir Section ..................................................................................................................... 35
5.3.1.1 Cased and perforated ........................................................................................................ 35
5.3.1.2 Open Hole .......................................................................................................................... 44
5.3.1.3 Sand Control ...................................................................................................................... 44
5.3.1.4 Stimulation ......................................................................................................................... 50
5.3.1.5 Multi-laterals....................................................................................................................... 53
5.3.1.6 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs .......................................................................................... 54
5.3.1.7 Underbalance Drilling Completion Techniques.................................................................. 55
5.3.2 Total Depth Requirements........................................................................................................ 57
5.3.3 Interface of the Reservoir with the Tubing................................................................................ 58
5.3.4 Interface of Tubing With Casing ............................................................................................... 61
5.3.5 Upper Completion..................................................................................................................... 65
5.3.5.1 Tubing - Annulus Access Requirements............................................................................ 65
5.3.5.2 Positioning of Downhole Safety Valves.............................................................................. 65
5.3.5.3 Nipples and Their Impact on the Completion Architecture ................................................ 66
5.3.6 Interface with Tree and Wellhead............................................................................................. 68
5.3.6.1 Wellhead ............................................................................................................................ 68
5.3.6.2 Tubing Hanger ................................................................................................................... 68
5.3.6.3 Christmas Tree .................................................................................................................. 69
5.4 References ..................................................................................................................................... 71
Version 60
5.1 Introduction
The architecture of completions is a term that describes the overall layout of the well completion.
At the conceptual completion stage, the reservoir completion type will be proposed, along with
likely well performance, tubing size and the artificial lift requirement. These items have now to be
detailed and integrated with each other and the overall well design.
It is important that at the conceptual completion design stage, there has been enough detail to
consider the impact the completion has on both facilities, reservoir engineering and generalised
drilling plans. By examining the issues presented in this section, the conceptual designs can be
taken forward and fleshed out. When the architecture of the completion has been proposed, there
should be enough detail to write a completion Basis of Design (BoD) document.
It is vital during this (and every stage) of the completion design process that all the relevant
disciplines involved in the field development are kept in discussion. In particular when the
architecture of the completion is being worked, decisions will be being made on well profiles,
casing designs, wellhead and tree designs and facilities (platform, subsea or land). The
completion designer must interact (a two way process!) with all these disciplines.
Figure 1 - The Wells Team!
Reservoir
Drilling Economics
Completions
Geology Projects
Service Management
Facilities Sector
This does not mean that the completions engineer is the most important member of the team!
However, probably more than anyone else, he / she needs to communicate with more disciplines
and over a longer time frame than other engineers.
26 May 1998 Page 1

5.2 Completion Design Considerations

The purpose of this section is not to produce rigid guidelines for completion architecture. It is more
to highlight the issues that need to be considered when designing completions. There has also
been no attempt to go into detail on many of the issues, rather to highlight them and note relevant
experience where appropriate.
As a general rule, the completion design should be from a “zero-based” approach. This means
that the design should start with a blank sheet of paper and add components as and when
justified. The alternative which is to start with an existing design (with tubing, packer, safety valve
etc.) and then omit items if they are not required implies that you need to justify why you are
removing items rather than why you need to include items.
5.2.1 Health Safety and Environmental Protection

It should not be forgotten that the purpose of development wells is to safely and economically
produce oil or gas. As such the completion is one of the key elements in the safety of the well.
Health, safety and environmental protection must be considered during all aspects of the design of
the completion. For example, the following activities will impact the field health, safety and
environmental record:
x Barriers. The well should be designed so that in general they are two reliable independent
barriers between the reservoir and the environment at all times.
x Completion installation. This may involve for example, heavy or awkward lifts, toxic chemicals
(e.g. biocide or brine), or high pressures.
x Well integrity. The completion should be designed to prevent leaks of hydrocarbon or other
damaging fluids during the life of the well. This will impact elastomer and metallurgy selection
as well as the completion architecture.
x Well monitoring. It is vital to be able to detect a leak of hydrocarbons from the production
conduit. The completion architecture will impact the ability to detect leak (e.g. through annulus
monitoring) and to be able to intervene to plug the well.
26 May 1998 Page 2

5.2.2 Location
The location has an obvious implication on the well architecture. It influences how a completion is
run, what equipment is required and the types (and costs) of intervention afterwards.
5.2.2.1 Land
Specific considerations for land wells include:
x Artificial lift options are greater than platform wells, rod pumps for example would usually be
impractical offshore.
x Wells are often remote from facilities and personnel. The safety implications are therefore not
so great as platform wells. For example, annular safety valves, safety valves or packers may
not be required, depending on reservoir conditions. Clearly a risk assessment would be
required for considerations like these, but gas venting up the annulus with pumps may help
well performance.
x Conversely, the environmental implications may be more severe than for offshore wells.
5.2.2.2 Platform
It is important that the platform design integrates with the well design. Not only is well performance
impacted (e.g. by flow line size, lift gas compression or power generation for ESPs), but the
intervention capabilities may be dependent on platform design. For example rig independent
intervention will likely be beneficial for perforating, coiled tubing or hydraulic workover units.
Some of the specifics of platform completion design implications are:
x Safety implications will be paramount. Facilities and personnel will be in close proximity to the
wells. This means that safety valves will likely be required for production wells and annular
safety valves may be required for gas lifted wells. For example in the UK it has been agreed
between the assets and the HSE that a safety valve is required for all platform wells capable of
flowing hydrocarbons to surface.
x Wells may be clustered very close together at surface. Collision mitigation may be required in
the form of adjacent well shut-ins. If this can be performed by positioning safety valves below
the kick-off point this avoids well intervention for setting plugs.
5.2.2.3 Tension Leg Platform

Although a tension leg platform (TLP) can be used to give many of the advantages of a rigid
platform (i.e. dry trees and ease of well intervention), there are some specific considerations:
1. The surface wellheads are severely limited in the weight that can be transferred from the tubing
to the platform. This invariably means that a mudline or sub-mudline hanger (and probably an
expansion device) is required. The options for hang-off include:
x An annular safety valve (ASV) style packer with full barrel slips for distribution of loads to
1
unsupported casing. This avoids space-out problems and is set sub-mudline .
x A solid fluted hanger, landed off on a casing crossover (e.g. 10 ¾” - 9 5/8” crossover).
x A subsea wellhead hanger.
2. The TLP moves and can create large doglegs at the subsea wellhead. This can create severe
2
problems in running completion equipment . Completion equipment (especially packers and
hangers) must have sufficient clearances.
1
“Mars TLP A1 Completion Design Document” Shell GoM 1996 - supplied by R. Plott BP
2
Experience from Hutton TLP in North Sea
26 May 1998 Page 3

5.2.2.4 Subsea
Subsea wells create unique challenges. The key issues that arise in the completion design are:
1. The cost of well intervention is considerable post completion. Completion equipment must
therefore be designed for reliability. Mobilisation and use of a semi for a workover will be
around an order of magnitude more expensive than the capital cost of tubing and completion
equipment.
2. Conversely with a minimum intervention strategy, additional completion equipment may be
required. For example scale prevention without intervention may require downhole chemical
injection. Continuous data acquisition may be required with permanent surface read-out
3
gauges common .
3. Completion equipment must be designed for running and setting through a riser and subsea
wellhead. Issues include potential debris from mudline BOPs and the dogleg and restrictions at
the wellhead.
4. A conventional subsea tree requires that the tubing is plugged at the hanger prior to removing
the BOPs and installing the tree. This can cause considerable problems as debris can be
dislodged and fall onto the plugs. The clean-out prior to running the completion must be
rigorous and remove debris from the riser, the BOP cavities and the wellhead. Note that these
problems are avoided with a horizontal tree as the completion is run through the BOP and tree.
This will also not be the case with the ‘in-line’ tree currently under joint development with BP
and Cameron / Expro. The in-line tree has a single bore hanger with dual ball valves mounted
below. The tree is run with the completion through the BOP. Access to the annulus is via a side
outlet, as in a surface tree.
5 3
5. No conventional subsea well has access to the outer annuli (e.g. 9 /8" - 13 /8" and beyond)
due to restrictions on penetrations through the wellhead. Integrity monitoring may therefore be
harder and considerations for annular injection (between tubing and production casing) should
address potential corrosion carefully. Alternative non intrusive monitoring techniques are
4
available if required , but these tend to be complex. Likewise all injection (e.g. lift gas) must be
through the hanger rather than through a side entry. A dual string hanger is therefore required.
Note that this is not the case with the ‘in-line’ tree currently under joint development with BP
and Cameron / Expro. The in-line tree has a single bore hanger with dual ball valves mounted
below. Access to the annulus is via a side outlet, as in a surface tree.
6. The complexity of the subsea hanger (e.g. orientation) and hanger running tool, means that it is
normally preferable to land, set and test the tubing hanger prior to setting a permanent packer.
This has implications for tubing stress analysis and the interface between the tubing and the
casing.
7. With deep water reservoirs such as the West of Shetland Foinaven field and the Gulf of Mexico
Mars field, the time required to run tubing to a subsea wellhead is considerable. One trip
completion systems without space-out trips should therefore be considered.
8. The wells will often be remote from the facilities. This may pose challenges for well
performance (especially gas lift), but also for well monitoring and control.
9. Similarly to land wells, there may be no requirement for annular or tubing safety valves.
However, the safety and environmental issues will clearly have to be assessed.
3
“Meeting the challenges of Deepwater Subsea Completion Design”
4
“Non intrusive Sensors - an answer to annulus pressure monitoring in subsea wellhead equipment” F.C. Adamek et al
OTC 7747 May 1995.
26 May 1998 Page 4

5.2.3 Reservoir Access

When designing a completion, you must consider what (if any) forms of intervention will be
required into the reservoir section. The forms of access fall into two main categories - through
tubing or after the tubing has been pulled. The options for through tubing interventions are
increasing - but their feasibility will largely depend on the completion design.
Table 1 - Types of Reservoir Interventions to be Considered
Through Tubing Intervention Interventions Without Tubing
x Scale inhibitor squeezes (bullheaded or x Conventional sidetracks (for mechanical or
spotted with coil or HWO). reservoir reasons).
x Through tubing stimulation (acid frac or x Cased hole gravel packs.
proppant frac). x Heavy duty fishing operations.
x Water / gas shut-off treatments. x Well deepening (conventional).
x Chemical consolidation of sand. x Perforating ? (drill-pipe conveyed).
x Through tubing cased hole gravel packs. x Stimulations with test string.
x Through tubing sidetracks (e.g. coil tubing or x Tubing Workovers.
drillpipe multi-laterals).
x etc.
x Reservoir monitoring (PLTs and pressure
surveys).
x Scale / asphaltene dissolver treatments.
x Re-perforating.
The likelihood of each form of intervention must be considered when designing the completion. In
particular, the requirements of each intervention must be considered. For example water / gas
shut-off is considerably easier if a monobore style completion is deployed. On the other hand, drill
pipe conveyed perforation guns can be larger and penetrate further if the liner size is large (e.g.
7"). The requirements for reservoir access may also dictate considerations for the upper
completion - for example a through tubing stimulation should not be unnecessarily restricted in
terms of rates or pressures by any component in the completion.
26 May 1998 Page 5

5.2.4 Data Acquisition

In terms of completion architecture, data acquisition may impact the completion design and how
the completion is run.
5.2.4.1 During the Completion Phase

There is usually only minimal requirement for data acquisition during the running of the
completion. The areas of data acquisition that may however be vital are:
x If ECPs are used, there may be merit in running memory gauges to indicate correct inflation5.
x If the reservoir is exposed at any point, monitor and control fluid losses and fluid quality. This
is vital to avoid formation damage.
x Anything installed in the well must be documented for future use during interventions or for
quality control. This should include (but not limited to), component part and serial numbers,
sizes , materials, depths, I.D.s, O.D.s, a full tubing tally, fluid weights and types, additives, any
items “lost” downhole, and any problems encountered.
5.2.4.2 Permanent, Surface read-out gauges

If a permanent, surface read-out pressure, temperature or flowrate gauge is required, this will
usually be accomplished by a mandrel, gauge and cable. The uses of this gauge are:
1. Reservoir pressure monitoring - useful for example for pressure maintenance information or for
preventing gas breakout in the reservoir.
2. Bottom hole flowing pressure information. This can be useful so that the well can be controlled
to prevent asphaltene deposition in the reservoir for example, or prevent gas breakout in the
near wellbore.
3. Well productivity information - monitoring the well productivity will give early indications of many
productivity problems. This enables preventative action or early remedial action to be
scheduled. Examples include fines production or scale build-up.
4. Natural flow well performance - knowing the bottom hole pressure allows the tubing
performance curves to be accurately correlated. It also allows possible identification of
increases in frictional pressure (scaling or corrosion of tubing) or lifting problems (liquid loading
for example).
5. Artificial lift troubleshooting - bottom hole flowing pressure (and other measurements perhaps)
allows accurate estimates of the gas injection depth during gas lift or free gas production for
the suction of ESPs. See section 5.2.8 for more details.
6. Production allocation and well testing. If downhole flowrates can be obtained, then the
requirement for regular well tests reduces. This is especially useful for subsea wells tied back
with a common flowline.
The position of the gauge is therefore important:
5
As performed by Foinaven - contact Huawen Gai or Grahame Elliot
26 May 1998 Page 6

Figure 2 - Gauge Positioning
Completion Engineer’s
preferred gauge
position
Reservoir pressure
extrapolation (friction,
hydrostatic and gas
breakout effects)
Reservoir Engineer’s
Packer and ideal position for gauge
tailpipe at 60°
Deviation (if possible)
1. As close to the top of the reservoir as possible. This avoids errors in accounting for the
pressure drop in the tubing / liner between the reservoir and gauge. The importance of getting
the gauge deep will depend on the primary purpose of the gauge and an estimate of the errors
introduced by the extrapolation. This will also depend on whether the errors are introduced
through horizontal displacement (i.e. frictional pressure drops) or vertical displacement (i.e.
hydrostatic pressure drops).
2. The position of the gauge will normally be above a packer - this to avoid the associated
additional penetration (and therefore additional failure point) and to allow gauge replacement
during a top hole workover. The position of the packer may be dictated by the casing and liner,
the deviation or artificial lift. For example, it is usually very useful to have a wirelineable nipple
below a packer. If a deep gauge is desirable in a horizontal well, the main options are a
penetrator through the packer and a long tailpipe with gauge mandrel at the base, or a deep
set packer set by intervention free systems. If a long tailpipe is used, gas will probably build up
in the casing-tubing annulus. This will pose a safety hazard during a full workover - if the gas is
not vented first by using a tubing punch. A tophole workover would also destroy the link to the
gauge, although some wet connect systems and even radio link systems are available.
3. The gauge should ideally be positioned above any chemical injection point to prevent blockage
of the pressure ports, but below any gas lift mandrels. Lift gas entering below a gauge has
caused problems with pressure fluctuations and unsteady pressure readings.
26 May 1998 Page 7

4. The gauge cable encapsulation may not be compatible with certain fluids. For example,
6
Schiehallion have reported that their cable encapsulation is not compatible with diesel or base-
oil.
5.2.4.3 Non Surface Read-out Gauges

There are a variety of intervention systems for gauges:
1. Traditional tailpipe nipple and perforated joint in tailpipe. This allows a memory gauge to be
positioned below the packer. This system is tried and tested. The major problem is that the
gauge creates a low flow spot in the well. This allows debris to build up on top of the gauge,
making it hard or impossible to remove or changeout the gauge.
2. Fluted gauge hanger in nipple. This system uses any nipple to hang-off a gauge. The problem
is that the flowrate may be restricted either by the gauge or the lock in the nipple.
3. Retrievable gauges in a mandrel. Conventional gas lift mandrels can be used to house
7
gauges . These gauges can either be internal or external sensing. They can be pre-installed in
the completion and can be retrieved or replaced using conventional kick over tools. This
technique is particularly suitable for use during stimulations, when gas lift valves often have to
be pulled to allow annulus pressure to be increased. The mandrels can also be constructed
without a flow path to the annulus, thus avoiding a potential leak path.
8
4. Interrogatable gauges . This system also uses a gauge mandrel, but the gauges do not have to
be pulled for the data to be extracted. An inductive coupling allows extraction of the data using
slickline techniques. This avoids multiple wireline runs purely to extract data and allows data to
be extracted if the gauges are stuck in the mandrel.
9
5. Deployment of fibre optic sensors through a control line. The Sensor Highway system uses a
conventional control line and fluid drag to deploy sensors (pressure, temperature, strain, noise,
magnetic fields etc.) down a control line. The control line loops downhole and then back to
surface.
6
John Mason - Schiehallion Asset
7
Omega Ltd., Aberdeen
8
e.g. Metrol technology
9
Trade Mark of Sensor Highway Ltd.
26 May 1998 Page 8

5.2.5 Deviation and doglegs

The well profile has a large impact on the completion architecture as well as well performance. It is
therefore vital that the completion engineer is involved during the well planning stage:
1. The hole angle dictates what tools can be run. In particular wireline is restricted to moderate
10
hole angles. Although slickline has been successfully used at hole angles of 82 degrees , the
amount of jar action is substantially reduced. For planning purposes a maximum hole angle of
11
60 degrees is recommended for clean wellbores with “slick” toolstings. This means that if
nipples are to be accessed with wireline they should be at locations with hole angles less than
60 degrees.
2. With hole angles above 60 degrees, alternatives to wireline need considering. These include
coiled tubing, tractors and the various intervention free systems for testing tubing or setting
packers.
3. Certain completion components prefer (or require) low doglegs for smooth operation. In
particular electrical submersible pumps (ESPs) should be installed in hole sections with
doglegs of less than 1q/30m, ideally straight.
4. Certain components can be damaged by running them through high doglegs. Many sand
screens (e.g. pre-packed screens) are prone to damage when run through high (>4q/30m)
doglegs. Long, large OD rigid assemblies can also be difficult to install through high dog leg
severities. Certain annular safety systems are particularly prone to this problem. Check
beforehand!
5. Solids and liquids production is influenced by the hole angle. Debris (e.g. perforating debris or
sand) is particularly prone to build up at around 40-60 degrees. If possible avoid large IDs at
these points which would add to the problem. This is a particular issue for sections of exposed
casing below packers. If possible have as smooth as interface as possible between the liner
and tubing at these hole angles. The worst design would be a gap between the liner and tubing
allowing solids to settle and build up.
10
Enterprise Nelson field
11
“The effect of Extended Reach High Angle Drilling Trajectories on Wireline Operations” D. Andrews internal filenote
26 May 1998 Page 9

5.2.6 Installation Methods

The completion installation method clearly impacts the completion architecture:
1. What is being used to run the completion (conventional rig, workover rig, hydraulic workover
unit or coiled tubing). What are its capabilities (overpull, can it run the completion
underbalance, can you rotate the completion?).
2. How are you testing the completion? - i.e. what plugs or other techniques are being used?
3. How are you setting the packer (if present?).
If coiled tubing is being used to run the completion, then the completion architecture will largely be
dictated by the size of tubing and the connection type. The components can either be external
upset (e.g. packers) with an external connector to the coil, or internal upset i.e. flush on the
outside (e.g. certain spoolable gas lift valves). The advantage of internal connections is that it
opens up the possibility of spoolable completions.
26 May 1998 Page 10

5.2.7 Production Chemistry

Downhole production chemistry investigates the rock/oil/brine reactions and interactions occurring
in the wellbore and near wellbore area due to changes in the operating environment.
Understanding these processes is critical to the avoidance of formation damage resulting from
deposition, wettability and emulsion problems. Production chemistry directly impacts the
completion architecture - be it the requirement for a downhole injection line or the requirement to
deploy scale inhibitors through the tubing.
Numerous chemicals are involved in downhole operations, and wellbore fluids are subject to a
wide range of conditions. A typical reservoir will consist of hundreds of fluid and rock components.
A completion or workover fluid may contain surfactants, inhibitors, viscosifiers, salts, fluid loss
control materials, solvents or acids and the base fluid may be brine or oil.) Failure to understand
this complex environment can give rise either to wasted expenditures on unnecessary chemicals
and treatments, or to the creation of problems or damage that could have been avoided. Although
completion engineers are not expected to be experts in production chemistry, they should
understand the major concerns, the important principles and the solutions to common problems.
The two main operational processes affecting the production chemistry are the injection of
‘incompatible’ fluids and the effects of pressure and temperature changes.
Once chemical problems occur downhole, they are usually difficult and costly to rectify, so
avoidance is the best strategy. Moreover, treating one problem can lead to another. For example,
the chemicals used to remove scale can create emulsions or mobilize fines. On the other hand,
risk and cost/benefit analysis will sometimes indicate that it is more economically attractive to
accept a potential future problem than to face high chemical costs throughout the project. For
example, seawater, which is incompatible with the formation water, may be used as a flood fluid,
provided that the net present worth of future workovers for scale removal is less than the cost of
treating the seawater. In this case, the production well completion should be designed to facilitate
future scale inhibitor treatments and clean-out operations. Some problems are difficult to avoid
and may require provision for chemical injection or mechanical removal. However, provisions for
minimizing pressure and temperature losses in the production system can suppress many
depositional problems.
The completion engineer’s role should be to:
1. Identify potential problems.
2. Collect data and representative samples.
3. Assess impact on production and on workover costs and methods.
4. Delegate further investigations, if necessary.
5. Determine an optimum solution to avoid the problem or minimize the impact.
6. Document experience.
The most difficult task is to assess the impact on production, since quantifying the amount of
deposition is usually very difficult. For example, most chemical equilibrium programs determine
the amount of material (e.g., wax, scale, etc) that will precipitate at a given location, but not the
deposition rates. Such predictions often lead to a very pessimistic estimate of the damage.
Many problems can be identified with good data gathering and analysis, or by reviewing the
literature. In order to achieve an engineering solution to the problem, it is important to establish the
context and identify an optimum strategy and methodology. Rule-of-thumb calculations should be
performed first to determine upper and lower bounds to the problem. Experimental investigations
should proceed only if the results will be meaningful and the added value of information is clearly
established. In many cases, a simple compatibility test is all that is required. In other cases, expert
assistance should be sought from the Production Chemistry sections in BP. Service companies
can also be very helpful provided one contacts their experts, and carefully scrutinizes their data,
experimental results and recommendations.
26 May 1998 Page 11

5.2.7.1 Scales
Inorganic scales, such as calcite, gypsum and barite are hard, aqueous mineral solids that
precipitate from brines when their constituent ions become supersaturated. Scales can deposit in
the formation, perforations, tubing, flowlines and process facilities, and can increase skin, plug or
erode tubulars, increase pressure losses, enhance corrosion, cause wireline problems, stick
downhole safety valves (DHSVs) and burn out heat exchangers. Scales can also be radioactive,
and thus be costly to dispose of and a health risk to the work crews. Scales are the most
predominant and costly of all depositional problems in the oilfield.
Many parameters affect scale formation, including constituent ion concentrations, pressure,
temperature, ionic strength and pH. Ionic strength is the measure of total ion concentration of the
brine, which is comprised primarily of sodium and chloride. Since scales form in the aqueous
phase, scale deposition can only occur when water is contacting a surface and thus is linked to
water production or injection. The two main operational factors affecting scale formation are
pressure/temperature decline during production and the mixing of incompatible waters, such as
during a waterflood or kill operation. Mixing of incompatible brines can create a highly
supersaturated solution and result in large deposition rates. This is why the highest occurrence of
scale is usually just after floodwater breakthrough. Evaporation can also result in scale deposition
and is important for gas wells and gas lift systems.
The two main kinds of oilfield scales are carbonates (CaCO3, MgCO3) and sulphates (CaSO4,
12
BaSO4, SrSO4). Iron scales are less frequent and are discussed in detail elsewhere .
Calcite (CaCO3) is the predominant carbonate scale. This forms primarily as a result of the
decreasing pressures in the wellbore. In flowing wells, it is usually found in the upper wellbore and
topside facilities, while in pumping wells, it can occur anywhere. If the reservoir is saturated with
CaCO3, deposition may occur in the formation. This deposition is self-enhancing since it
increases pressure drop, which in turn increases the deposition rate. Carbonate scales are
2+ 1-
common where the formation water is rich in calcium (Ca ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ) and/or
2-
carbonate (CO3 ) ions.
Calcite solubility decreases with increasing pH, increasing temperature, decreasing pressure and
decreasing ionic strength (for IS < 120 g/l). The effect of pressure reductions is to cause CO2
evolution, which increases pH. Although temperature decline increases solubility, the counter-
effect of pressure decline usually dominates during production. Water injection and disposal wells
can experience calcium scaling due to increasing temperatures as the water flows downhole.
Carbonate scales are easily removed with acids - so long as the acid can be put in contact with
the scale and the potential formation damage and metallurgical issues can be resolved.
2-
Sulphate scales form primarily as a result of mixing a water rich in SO4 anions, such as
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
seawater, with formation water that is rich in Group IIA cations (Ca , Ba , Sr , Ra ). This mixing
usually occurs in the wellbore, but could also occur in the perforations and formation. Pressure
and temperature also affect sulphate scale formation. Sulphate scale deposits can be found
throughout the production system, but are usually found at the bottom of the well, particularly after
seawater breakthrough. Sulphate scales are more difficult to remove since they are insoluble in
HCl acid.
Calcium sulphate can form as either gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O ) or anhydrite (CaSO4), but gypsum is
the most common. Calcium sulphate solubility decreases with decreasing pressure, increasing
magnesium ion, increasing temperature and decreasing ionic strength. Calcium sulphate is most
sensitive to pressure drop and to magnesium ion concentration. It is the only sulphate scale that is
chemically active and success has been achieved in removing it with either chemical converting
agents (converts CaSO4 to CaSO3 which is acid soluble) or chelating agents, such as EDTA or
13
DTPA. This is discussed by Allen and Roberts .
12
“Applied Water Technology” Patton 1991
13
“Production Operations II: Well Completions, Workovers and Stimulation” T.O. Allen and A. P. Roberts 1982
26 May 1998 Page 12

Barium sulphate (BaSO4) is chemically inert and hence precipitation must be prevented or
mechanically removed. BaSO4 solubility decreases with decreasing pressure, decreasing
temperature and decreasing ionic strength. The latter two are the most sensitive parameters.
Strontium sulphate (SrSO4) behaves in a very similar fashion to BaSO4. A sulphate scale deposit
will often contain a mixture of BaSO4, SrSO4 and CaSO4. Radium sulphate (RaSO4) can also be
present, making the scale radioactive. Radioactive scales are a serious problem in the many
areas because of the additional concerns of worker safety and disposal requirements.
5.2.7.1.1 Scale Prediction

Scale prediction requires accurate chemical analysis of the formation water, injection fluids and
wellbore brines. Representative formation water samples are difficult to obtain due to
contamination by drilling and completion fluids and their instability at surface conditions. Long flow
+2 +2 +2
periods are required with continuous monitoring of several of the ions, such as Ca , Ba , Mg ,
+1 -2 -1 -1
Na , SO4 , Cl and HCO3 . For carbonate scales, the pH and partial pressure of CO2 in the
reservoir are required, but are difficult to obtain. Samples should be analysed as soon as possible
after retrieval, with on-site measurements being required for bicarbonate and pH.
Carbonate scales are the most difficult to predict due to the strong dependence on pH and CO2
partial pressure. Sulphate scales are easier to predict but much more difficult to remove. Many
scale prediction programs have been developed, varying in accuracy, complexity and user-
friendliness. Most programs calculate a ‘scaling tendency’ (saturation index or stability index),
where a positive scaling tendency indicates supersaturation and hence scale formation, and
negative indicates no scale. Unfortunately, scaling tendencies do not indicate how much scale will
form or deposit. Programs which calculate actual amounts of precipitation tend to be pessimistic
since not all precipitated scale will deposit. More details, including the use of scale prediction
programs, can be obtained from production chemists within BP.
5.2.7.1.2 Scale Prevention

Scale prevention is the best policy, particularly for sulphate scales, which are difficult or impossible
to remove. The most effective means of preventing scale is to avoid the conditions under which
scales form. For example sulphate scales can be prevented by avoiding sulphates in the injection
water- this can be accomplished by injecting water from sulphate free sources such as rivers or
aquifers or by removing the sulphate prior to injection. If this is not economic then the next most
effective means is by chemical inhibitors. These function at extremely low (threshold)
concentrations (in the ppm range). There are four types of commonly used inhibitors, namely
polyphosphates, phosphate esters, phosphonates and polyacrylates. Phosphonates are reported
to be the more effective in most cases. As with all treatments injected into the formation, there is a
14
chance of formation damage that must be prior assessed .
15
Some success has been claimed with magnetic fluid conditioner tools. These produce
permanent magnetic fields which affect the way solids (scales, wax, asphaltene etc.) precipitate.
The tools can be run as part of the tubing or on slickline for setting in a nipple.
For completion design, one of the most important aspects of the scale prediction is indications of
where the scale will form. In the case of sulphates, the deposition will be most severe in the liner,
perforations and near wellbore area. In the case of carbonates, the deposition may be anywhere
from the reservoir to the separator.
14
“Phosphonate Scale Inhibitor Adsorption / Desorption and the Potential for Formation Damage in Reconditioned Field
Core” M.M. Jordan et al SPE 27389 Feb 1994
15
“Magnetic Fluid Conditioner (MFC) Tool” Halliburton Brochure 1995
26 May 1998 Page 13

The two main methods of applying inhibitors are by continuous injection (below or above packer or
at wellhead) or by batch chemical squeezes into the formation. Continuous injection can be carried
out via the annulus or by a macaroni string run outside the tubing. Inhibitors can be misted into a
gas lift stream to allow for inhibition at and above the gas lift valve. This can be useful as scales
may be encouraged by gas lift. Other chemicals such as corrosion inhibitors or demulsifiers can
also be injected in this way. Problems with this method have occurred. The most serious is that
16
the carrier solvent can be stripped off the chemical, leading to “gunking” . This led to a workover
on the Clyde platform due to a blocked annulus and a similar problem on the Forties field. Proper
injection quills are required with centre stream injection. Scale inhibitors can now also be
17
impregnated into porous proppants . This allows preemptive treatments on hydraulically fractured
wells and wells with gravel packs or pre-packed screens.
For scale that forms in the perforations or below the tubing shoe, the squeeze method is usually
preferred since the inhibitor must be present when the scale begins to form. Treatments usually
consist of a demulsifier or surfactant spearhead, followed by a 2 to 5% inhibitor solution. This is
injected 3 to 5 metres out into the formation and left for a 16 to 24 hour soaking period. Re-
treatment is performed when the inhibitor concentration drops below the threshold value.
The main issues with squeeze treatments are:
1. How to deploy the chemicals. In a vertical land well with a limited completion interval,
bullheading the scale inhibitor may be adequate. In a subsea long interval extended reach well,
it is likely that such a technique would not only require large volumes of chemicals, but it would
be difficult to treat the entire interval. Some form of diversion may be required.
2. How to optimize the size and life of the squeeze job. These will depend on the formation
characteristics and inhibitor adsorption/desorption properties. Treatment frequencies vary from
2 to 12 months. Inhibitors selection and control of formation damage can be achieved using
simple screening techniques in the laboratory. The input of production chemists is vital.
3. Coiled tubing deployment may be needed to avoid plugging formation with e.g. asphaltene from
the tubing. Coiled tubing may also be needed to lift wells back on after SIS treatments if
seawater overflush is used. A diesel overflush may be used but could cause formation
damage.
4. With subsea wells or wells with long flowlines, the squeeze treatment may be difficult to deploy,
or pick up debris as it is being pumped. This can and has caused severe formation damage if
this debris is pumped into the formation - e.g. on the Don Field.
5.2.7.1.3 Scale Removal

Removal methods are classified as either chemical or mechanical. Carbonate scales can be
removed using acid (see acidising in section 5.3.1.4.2).
Gypsum scale, the most reactive of the sulphate scales, can also be removed chemically. The
scale is soaked with a converter (such as potassium acetate, potassium glycolate, potassium
citrate or potassium hydroxide). This changes the gypsum to calcium carbonate, which can be
removed with acid. Chelating agents (such as EDTA) dissolve gypsum deposits directly, but are
expensive and require long soak times. With either treatment method, a solvent spearhead is
usually required to remove organic deposits.
16
Previous Experience of Chemical Injection via Gas Lift” Drew McMahon BP Internal Report 1997
17
“Economic and Technical Advantages of Revolutionary New Chemical Delivery System for Fractured and Gravel
Packed Wells” P.J.C. Webb SPE 38548 Sep 1997
26 May 1998 Page 14

Barium and strontium sulphates can be removed by dissolution with chemicals such as “Basol”™.
However the reaction can be slow and surface area and contact time are required. Sulphates are
therefore frequently removed mechanically. To avoid conventional workovers, the milling tools are
often run through the tubing, for which large bore access to the perforated interval is highly
desirable. A snubbing unit and a conventional or underreamer type scale mill may be used,
although many deposits can be removed using a downhole motor and underreamer run on coiled
tubing. Fluid selection is a key issue since lost circulation can cause severe formation damage
when the fluid is loaded with milled solids. Where sulphate scales form in the near wellbore
environment or in perforations, treatment is difficult, with re-perforating usually being the only
option.
5.2.7.1.4 Impact on Completion Design

Scales (CaCO3 in particular) tend to form at restrictions, so that special consideration should be
given to minimizing pressure drops in the tubing and DHSV. Tubing retrievable subsurface safety
valves (TRSCSSVs) are less restricting and also allow easier passage for milling tools. Similarly,
the use of polished bore receptacles (PBRs) instead of packer seal assemblies provides fullbore
access to the sump. Nipples may become unusable over time and alternatives such as monobore
plugs should be available with considerations for where and how to set them. Scale that forms
may also be radioactive and workovers and interventions may recover material that has to be
suitably disposed of.
Careful cleaning of tubulars has also been found to reduce scale problems since scale deposition
is very sensitive to surface characteristics. Certain coatings on tubing (especially hydrophobic
coatings such as certain plastics) can also reduce scale deposition.
Tubing materials and downhole elastomers must be capable of withstanding acids and solvents
(spearhead) used in scale treatment. Since certain stainless steels (e.g. 316L, 304) are prone to
chloride stress cracking at elevated temperatures, it is normally recommended that these should
not be used for corrosion control where there is a high risk of calcium carbonate or sulphate
18
scaling. Similarly, Viton® and fluorel elastomers are hardened by acid inhibitors and nitrile swells
in organic solvents, so that composite seal stacks are recommended if frequent stimulations may
be necessary. See section 7 of this manual for more details of material selection or contact the BP
metallurgists and elastomer specialists in Sunbury.
Any treatment involving bullheading may significantly cool the wellbore and must be considered
during the tubing stress analysis (section 7).
Continuous injection requires adequate sizing and rating of the injection conduit, selection of the
optimum injection point and methods, and may have implications for the packer fluid selection,
casing and tubing design, packer selection and wellhead and SSV configuration (see Figure 3).
The major problems with injection lines have been blockages. These are primarily caused by poor
QA of chemicals, but exacerbated by small injection lines. It is therefore recommended that the
largest injection valve and injection line is used, subject to it being able to fit between the casing
and all of the completion components, with due allowance for suitable clamps and tubing
3 1
connections. A /8" or even /2" line is preferred over a “conventional” 1/4" line.
18
Trademark of DuPont Chemicals
26 May 1998 Page 15

Figure 3 - Chemical Injection Options
inhibitor
injection through injection through injection via injection through

check valve and injection line, misting into the dual string,
mandrel check valve and gas stream on a below packer
mandrel gas lift well
5.2.7.2 Wax
Wax problems are common in low rate wells, rod pumping wells (due to low rates) and where
severe cooling is caused by cold lift gas injection, permafrost, deep waters and/or exposed risers.
Wax deposits can plug tubulars, obstruct wireline operations, increase flowing pressure losses,
increase rod load/drag and induce formation damage especially when inadvertently pumped into
the formation. There are a severe problem in many flowlines (especially subsea). Wax
precipitation as crystals in the crude can enhance emulsion and foam stability and may cause the
crude to gel and to resist restart after a shut-in.
Waxes are a wide range of high molecular weight paraffinic hydrocarbons (predominantly alkanes)
which precipitate in the crude primarily as a result of cooling. Several design temperatures have
been defined to characterize waxy crudes.
The wax onset temperature (or cloud point) is the highest temperature at which wax precipitates.
The cloud point may be determined by a number of methods:
1. Filter plugging.
2. Differential scanning calilimetry (DSC).
3. Cross polar microscopes.
The accuracy of such measurements is usually around r 5qC.
Keeping the tubing and wellhead above the cloud point prevents wax problems in the completion.
Conversely, if flooding operations brings the reservoir temperatures below or near the cloud point
temperature, wax may cause formation damage, especially when cold stimulation fluids are
injected. The critical issue here is that it is not the fluid temperature that matters, rather the tubing
wall temperature. This may be a few degrees lower - particularly when there is a high heat loss.
Prediction of the tubing wall temperature can be performed with tools such as ‘Prosper’ and
‘Welltemp’. Note, although wax may precipitate in the flowlines rather than the tubing, the
completion engineer can help the facilities or subsea engineers by retaining heat whilst the oil
flows up the tubing.
The non-Newtonian onset temperature is the temperature below which sufficient precipitated wax
is present in the crude to incur non-Newtonian rheology (shear and time dependent viscosity).
Multiphase flow correlations may be less accurate below this temperature.
26 May 1998 Page 16

The pour point is the temperature below which crude gels and is measured according to ASTM
D97. The pour point provides a good guideline for determining the temperature below which
restart may be a problem.
Wax problems are related to the amount, types and solubility of wax in the crude. Normal paraffins
above C20 are the primary constituents of wax deposits and can be easily and accurately
measured using capillary gas chromatography.
Figure 4 shows a typical profile of the weight percent of normal paraffins in a North Sea crude oil,
along with its solubility isotherms. These indicate the maximum amount of a particular component
that can be dissolved in the crude at the specified temperature. For example, C46 is saturated at
50qC and all the wax above the 50qC isotherm will be precipitated.
Figure 4 - Wax Composition and Solubility Isotherms
1.000
40°C
50°C
TYPICAL NORTH SEA
60°C
PARAFFIN COMPOSITION
WEIGHT PERCENT PARAFFINS IN CRUDE
0.100
PARAFFINS
PRECIPITATED
AT 50°C
0.010 0°C
10°C
20°C
30°C
0.001
20 30 40 46 50 60
NORMAL PARAFFIN CARBON NUMBER
The weight percent of insoluble wax versus temperature can be derived by integrating the area
above the isotherms and below the crude wax profile. This clearly illustrates how sensitive wax
precipitation is to temperature. The critical temperatures are illustrated in Figure 5 and correlate
well with the amount of insoluble wax (i.e. pour point at 4%, non-Newtonian at 1%).
Obtaining a representative sample is very important for predicting wax problems. Bottom hole
samples are preferred to avoid loss of wax components in the tubing, especially during a low
flowrate well test.
26 May 1998 Page 17

Figure 5 - Insoluble Wax vs. Temperature

TEMPERATURE °F
+14 +32 +50 +75 +100 +125 +150
6.0
5.0
POUR
POINT
WEIGHT PERCENT INSOLUBLE WAX
4.0
NON-NEWTONIAN
3.0 ONSET TEMPERATURE
2.0
WAX
APPEARANCE
TEMPERATURE (CLOUD POINT)
1.0
0.0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
TEMPERATURE °C
Wax deposition rates are much more difficult to predict than wax precipitation rates. Due to flow
effects, the fraction of precipitated wax that deposits on the wall is usually very small and
controlled by mass transfer limitations. Contact production chemists for further details.
Wax deposition rates increase significantly with heat flux, which explains why many offshore drill
stem tests (DSTs) experience wax problems at the riser. Wax problems may also be more of a
problem in Winter.
A major problem with wax is deposition in the flowlines, causing an increase in pressure drop due
to the pipe wall roughness and reduced bore, even with regular pigging.
5.2.7.2.1 Wax Removal and Prevention

High production rates, high wellhead temperatures and insulation are the most effective means of
dealing with wax deposition problems. Although insulation and heat tracing are more applicable to
flowlines than wellbores, they are used in some arctic and northern wells. Heat can also be added
by using electrical submersible pumps. In fact ESPs are often relatively inefficient in heavy waxy
oils (e.g. 10% of the energy converted into hydrostatic energy). The rest of the energy is “lost” as
heat. Insulation can be achieved in the tubing through vacuum tubing in the extreme or the use of
nitrogen or lift gas in the tubing. However as most as the heat lost is through convection, a viscous
or non-Newtonian packer fluid may be easier.
26 May 1998 Page 18

Mechanical removal is often the best means of handling wax. Plunger lift, wireline scrapers/cutters
and rod and tubing scrapers are commonly used and are very effective methods.
Waxes are easily removed with aromatic solvents, such as toluene or xylene. A cheap solvent at
high temperature is more effective than an expensive solvent at low temperature. However,
solvents are a health and fire hazard, and they can destroy elastomers. Solvent spearheads
should be used ahead of stimulation fluids for reservoirs near the wax appearance temperature.
Care must be taken to avoid bullheading any of these fluids into the reservoir.
Hot oiling can also be effective if properly carried out. There is, however, a risk that wax removed
from the tubing can be deposited in the formation and cause damage. This can be minimised by
reverse circulating the tubing - as performed by Wytch Farm. Moreover, if a waxy base crude is
mistakenly used for hot oiling, it can exacerbate the problem. Surfactant treatments have also
been known to remove soft wax deposits.
Inhibitors can be effective as pour point depressants for alleviating restart problems, but are not
very effective for reducing wax deposition rates. This is because they must retain all the wax in
solution, while only a tiny proportion of that wax is actually deposited on the tubing wall. Millions of
dollars are wasted on chemical treatments and other gimmicks to try to alleviate wax problems.
Laboratory testing under representative conditions should be performed on inhibitors and their
economics should be carefully scrutinized. Caution must be exercised if asphaltenes are present,
since non-aromatic solvents can precipitate asphaltenes causing a much more severe problem
than was posed by the wax. However, in certain severe cases such as when a well might gel up
completely if shut-in, the use of downhole injection of pour point depressants might be justified.
The wax can also be removed by pumping fluids that mix and form an exothermic reaction.
19
Petrobas have used a Nitrogen Generating System (SGN) where the reaction is between two
nitrogen salt aqueous solutions. A large quantity of nitrogen gas is produced with heat release.
5.2.7.2.2 Impact on Completion

If wax is potentially a problem, the completion should be designed to maximize wellhead
temperature. Gelled oil based packer fluids, insulated tubing or a liquid-free annulus are good
techniques to keep the heat in the crude. Insulated tubing has been effective in preventing wax
from plugging offshore DSTs in the northern North Sea and Arctic. The liquid free annulus is
already present in gas lifted wells. The use of well temperature modeling tools such as Prosper
and Welltemp can be used for predictive purposes. Remember that the greatest temperature
difference between the tubing and the surrounding rock will be closest to the surface. There will
therefore be significant benefit in insulation at the top of the well, with diminishing returns as one
goes deeper.
Through flow line techniques (TFL) have been used to combat wax build up. TFL uses a dual pipe
20 21
arrangement so that tools can be pumped into the well , . Tools may be deployed to collect
downhole data, as well as scrapers or pigs. The circulation capability is very useful for waxy
crudes.
Plastic coated tubing can delay wax deposition and is therefore commonly used in marginal
waxing situations, such as the upper portion of moderate rate (500 to 3000 stb/d) oil wells
produced on gas lift.
In rod pumped wells, scrapers are the most effective means of controlling wax, but rod wear and
corrosion problems have been experienced with improper material selection and installation. Hot
oiling or solvent treatments require downhole casing-tubing access, which is easy in pumping
wells, but may require a valve or sliding sleeve in a packer completion. Wax may increase loads
on rods through increased friction and rod failure is therefore more likely. In some fields, rod
failure is much more common in winter for this reason.
19
“Detection of Formation Damage Associated to Paraffin in Reservoirs in the Recôncavo Baino, Brazil” C. N. Khalil SPE
37238 Feb 1997
20
“Experiences With TFL in the Snorre Field” B.E. Gunnarsson SPE 28682 Oct 1994
21
“Evolution of the Snorre Field Downhole Completions System” B. E. Gunnarsson SPE 28890 Oct 1994
26 May 1998 Page 19

Since nitrile is sensitive to aromatic solvents, composite seal stacks may be needed for downhole
elastomers in waxy wells.
5.2.7.3 Asphaltenes And Tar Mats

An asphaltene deposit is a hard, black, sticky substance which can plug tubing, block wireline
operations, increase pressure losses and damage formations. Although asphaltene problems are
not as common as wax or scale, they can be very serious -especially as the deposition is difficult
to prevent or remove. Asphaltenes are heavy aromatics with a molecular weight of 1000 or higher.
22
Asphaltenes are defined as the n-heptane insoluble and benzene soluble fraction of the crude
oil. Unlike paraffins, the deposition of asphaltenes is irreversible.
Asphaltene solubility increases with decreasing temperature. The solubility of asphaltenes versus
pressure exhibits an inflection at the bubble point. Above the bubble point, asphaltene solubility
decreases steeply with decreasing pressure. Below the bubble point, it increases, but not so
steeply due to competing mechanisms. Hence, the major asphaltene-related wellbore problems
occur upstream of the bubble point in the reservoir, perforations, casing or tubing. Asphaltenes
23
have been known to plug the tubing strings at the location of the bubble point .
Non-aromatic solvents, which dissolve wax, precipitate asphaltenes, as will certain untreated
acids.
24
As discussed by Lichaa , the asphaltene content is not a good indicator of problems since crudes
with 0.5% asphaltenes have created serious problems, whereas crudes with 17% have not.
Asphaltene solubility and deposition rates are very difficult to predict due to the complexity of the
thermodynamics and the difficulty in obtaining representative samples.
The presence of a tar mat can lead to significant compositional grading in the reservoir and result
in a large variation of bubble point and asphaltene concentration with depth, as discussed by
25
Hirschberg . The crude at the bottom of the column can be significantly undersaturated and
deposit asphaltenes in the perforations and tubing.
There are currently no inhibitors for asphaltene prevention, although some are under
development. Tubing deposits are usually removed mechanically, but will slowly dissolve in
aromatic solvents. Certain oil streams can also dissolve asphaltenes. Mechanical removal
requires a large monobore through the completion and favours the use of PBRs to provide near
full-bore access to the perforations with a mill. Asphaltenes are effectively removed with CT jetting
26
tools on Ula . All elastomers should be resistant to organic solvents. For example on Clyde, the
use of asphaltene solvents resulted in the destruction of the PBR seals and tubing - annulus
communication. Re-perforation is often the best solution to asphaltene deposition in the near
wellbore area. Varying the flowrate can change the bubble point location and hence minimize
deposition. Asphaltene problems usually disappear when the reservoir reaches the bubble point,
therefore high drawdowns are commonly used under these conditions. Aliphatic paraffin solvents
should be avoided where there is a potential asphaltene problem. Demulsifiers or dispersants
should be used in stimulation treatments and may be needed in completion fluids that are to be
injected into the pay.
Careful consideration should be given to knowing where the asphaltenes are deposited. By using
downhole gauges or lift curves, their deposition in the formation can be avoided. With asphaltene
deposition in the tubing, the location of nipples and safety valves should be considered.
22
“Influence of Temperature and Pressure on Asphaltene Flocculation” A. Hirschberg Society Petroleum Engineers
J.24(3) 1984
23
Clyde, Ula and Gyda fields
24
“Asphaltene Deposition Problem in Venezuela Crudes - Usage of Asphaltene in Emulsion Stability” P.M. Lichaa Oil
Sands (1977) p.p. 609-624
25
“Role of Asphaltenes in Compositional Grading in a Reservoir Fluid Column” A. Hirschberg JPT Jan 1988
26
Contact Geoff Weighill
26 May 1998 Page 20

5.2.7.4 Hydrates
Hydrates are solid crystalline substances formed by the combination of certain light gases (C1 -
C4, H2S, CO2) with water under pressure at relatively low temperatures (up to 30qC). Hydrates
resemble snow or ice in appearance and can plug tubing, reduce flow and stick or damage valves.
Downhole hydrates are most predominant in cold environments, such as offshore or in northern
locations. Under production conditions there is always some condensed water vapour present, so
that low rate, low temperature gas wells can easily become plugged with hydrates. Plugging of oil
wells is usually limited to start-up operations.
Figure 6 - Hydrate Disassociation Curves
TEMPERATURE °F
0 +15 +32 +50 +75
20
18
2500
16
14 2000
8
C3H
OH
Me
OH
5%
12
PRESSURE, MPa
20%
Me
PRESSURE, psia
+
4
CH
%
CH4
4+
1500
35
10
CH
4+
95%
CH
2S
8
H
%
20
1000
+
4
CH
6
%
80
4
500
2 H 2S
100%
0 0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
TEMPERATURE °C
Hydrate formation temperature increases with pressure and is extremely sensitive to light gas
composition (see Figure 6).
For practical purposes, if hydrate forming conditions prevail, the amount of hydrate can be
assumed to equal the amount of water present as a liquid. Hydrate formation tends to occur
around flow restrictions, such as couplings, DHSVs and chokes.
27
Hydrate prevention can be achieved by insulation, heating or inhibitor injection. Sour gas wells
are commonly equipped with concentric or parallel hot oil circulation strings over the top 3000 ft or
with insulating packer fluids. Downhole injection of inhibitors, such as methanol (MeOH) and
glycols (EG, DEG) which reduce the hydrate formation temperature by reducing H 2O fugacity, is
commonly used during offshore testing. Methanol performs better than glycol due to lower
viscosity, higher vapour pressure and higher suppression power (0.41 qC per wt % MeOH).
Dissolved salts also suppress the hydrate temperatures when formation water is produced.
27
e.g. BP Alaska Milne Point Schrader Bluff - contact Jim Fox
26 May 1998 Page 21

Once hydrates form, inhibitors will have only a slow-acting effect in dissolving them. Depressuring
is more effective than chemicals in removing hydrates.
Hydrates can cause problems in oil wells (especially subsea wells) if flowing temperatures are low.
When shut-in, a gas cap forms at the top of the well, and any leaks around the wellhead valves or
28
DHSVs may cause local hydrate formation. This can stick or damage the valves . To avoid this,
the tree should be designed to permit methanol injection into the vertical bore immediately after
29
shut-in. Also, start-up into a seawater-filled subsea flowline should be avoided.
Predicting hydrate conditions and inhibitor response is well established, and there are numerous
computer programs available. Therefore, experimental measurements are rarely required except
for optimizing inhibitor injection rates to reduce costs. Further details can be obtained from
production chemists.
5.2.7.4.1 Impact on Completion Design

In hydrate prone gas wells and subsea wells, provisions should be made for methanol injection
into the vertical bore during shut-in conditions to protect the DHSV and Christmas tree. Methanol
should be injected both immediately after shut-in and before start-up.
For low rate gas wells that may experience downhole hydrate problems under production
conditions, provision should be made to insulate the annulus or tubing, to install a hot fluid
circulation string or to permit downhole inhibitor injection.
For wells that are prone to hydrate problems, sealing elements should be tested for compatibility
with methanol, and non-equalizing DHSVs are recommended. Equalisation can be performed with
the methanol line - although only practical when the valve is shallow. Alternatively the valve should
be placed deep enough so that the temperature during shut-ins should be high enough to prevent
hydrates. Remember however that there will be a temperature drop (through Joule Thompson
cooling) across the equalisation valve when equalisation is performed with gas below the valve.
This temperature can be modeled. Dual hydraulic valves should be considered for major
Christmas tree functions (i.e. two wing valves and two master valves) in case of obstruction.
30
Hydrates are a particular problem in deepwater reservoirs , where the sea temperature at the
mud line is usually only a few degrees above 0qC (e.g. GoM at 3000 ft the sea temperature is
2qC). This combined with high pressures provides ideal conditions for hydrates. For example in
31
the GoM on the Auger field , the tubing / casing annulus is evacuated to nitrogen and the DHSV
is placed at 6,000 ft below sea level. Careful consideration must also be given for any areas of the
tree or upper completion that are difficult to inhibit (e.g. beneath swab valves).
5.2.7.5 Emulsions
Emulsions can reduce production due to their high viscosities and may cause formation damage
both in production and injection wells. An emulsion is a stable dispersion of two immiscible liquids
(e.g. oil/water), in which one phase (dispersed phase) exists as fine droplets suspended in the
other phase (continuous phase). The water in-oil emulsion is more common and problematic than
the oil-in-water emulsions.
Emulsions are formed by mixing/agitation (i.e. by turbulence in the perforations, at restrictions or in
pumps) or by emulsifiers. Emulsifiers are found in many fluids - especially oil based muds. They
are stabilized by surfactants (particularly cationic surfactants), asphaltenes or finely divided solids
(e.g., wax and clays). Emulsions are characterized by droplet size distribution and stability.
Smaller droplets give tighter or more stable emulsions. This is usually determined as water break-
out versus time or measured by voltage resistance across an immersed electrode.
28
“Subsea Well Development and Producing Experience in the Ekofisk Field” T. Jobin JPT April 1978
29
“Magnus Subsea Wells: Design, Installation, and Early Operational Experience” A. Dawson, M. Murray SPE Prod Eng
Nov 1987 p.p. 305-312
30
“Hydrate Inhibition Design for Deepwater Completions” J. Davalath SPE 26532 June 1995
31
“Auger Well Completions - Sand Control Installation and Mechanical Design” S.J. Norton and C. D. Smith OTC 7886
May 1995
26 May 1998 Page 22

Emulsions can be ‘broken’ by demulsifiers (e.g. anionic surfactants), by dissolving the finely
32
divided solids and by heat .
Water-in-oil emulsions can hold up to 70% water and have viscosities that are orders of
magnitude greater than the oil viscosity. This creates severe production problems, such as poor
inflow, high pressure drops, slow rod fall and overloaded ESP motors. Continuous downhole
emulsion formation can sometimes be prevented by better completion practices (i.e. more
perforations), but usually requires continuous chemical injection below the tubing shoe or pump
intake to break or invert the emulsion.
Injecting brines or acid into a formation with highly surface-active crudes (asphaltinic or paraffinic)
can produce severe emulsion blockage, which is very difficult to treat. Including the proper
combination of anionic or nonionic surfactants in treating fluids and using a spearhead of a
suitable aromatic solvent can prevent such problems. The compatibility studies, specified in API
RP 42, should be conducted on all completion stimulation and injection fluids to evaluate the
emulsion risks. This should also be applied to the mixing of oil based muds or base oils with acid.
Such conditions can be observed during acid stimulation of naturally fractured carbonates, where
large losses of whole mud can occur.
5.2.7.6 Sulphur
Elemental sulphur deposition can occur in the tubing and formation in some extremely sour (4 to
33
95%) natural gas wells. Sulphur solubility rapidly decreases with decreasing pressure and
temperature and increases sharply with the H2S concentration. Sulphur solubility is also affected
by the hydrocarbon gas composition. Since the melting point of sulphur is between 90 and 120qC,
some reservoir fluids are saturated in elemental sulphur, which can lead to deposition in the
perforations and lower tubing.
Sulphur deposition usually occurs downstream of the predicted location due to significant
supersaturation effects and to erosion by the flow. As increased flow velocities reduce sulphur
deposition, small tubing sizes are often selected in very sour wells. Thermal insulation, hot oil
strings or continuous solvent circulation are also generally required in these wells.
Sulphur deposits can sometimes be removed by shutting in the well for several days or weeks, by
injecting solvents (alkylpolydisulphide mixtures) or by hot oiling. However, they often have to be
drilled or jetted out with coiled tubing. It is therefore important to evaluate the sulphur deposition
and hydrate risks before testing or developing sour gas fields.
5.2.7.7 Sulphate Reducing Bacteria

Sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) are micro-organisms (desulphovibrio) found in surface water
4-
that convert sulphates (SO ) to H2S. They can create serious problems in any anaerobic
conditions, such as those downhole, and particularly with seawater injection. SRB can sour
reservoirs, cause severe corrosion and plug injection wells. Souring sweet reservoirs may require
replacement of tubulars and surface equipment not meeting NACE MR01-75 specifications. SRB
are cathode depolarizers (by accepting hydrogen ion) and therefore increase corrosion rates. They
also produce slimes and ferrous sulphides (a black solid) which may plug injectors.
SRB are anaerobic (require O2 free environment) bacteria which thrive between 0 and 80qC (20 to
40qC is optimum) and between 5.5 and 8.5 pH (7 is optimum ), Souring has been observed both
34
with fresh and salt water floods. Anaerobic fresh waters are ideal for SRB, although they can thrive
in 100 gm/l brines. Because of the high sulphate content, anaerobic seawater also encourages
rapid growth. Scale or slime deposits can shelter SRB from both oxygen and treatment. Optimum
growth conditions are created, even in hot reservoirs, due to the cooling caused by water injection
or fluid circulation.
32
“Emulsification and Demulsification Related to Crude Oil Production” D.G. Thomson et al Colloids and Surfaces 15
(1985) p.p. 175-189
33
“Sulphur Solubility in Sour Gases” E. Brunner JPT (Dec 1988) 1587-1592
34
“Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Their Activities in Oil Production” R. Cord-Ruwisch et al JPT (Jan 1987) p.p. 97-106
26 May 1998 Page 23

Microscopic counts or cultural techniques are the most reliable methods for determining the
bacteria activity. Alternating bactericides are the best means of controlling SRB. However, not all
bactericides are completely soluble in brines. API RP 38 provides methods for determining
bacteria counts and evaluating bactericides. Bactericides are a health and environmental hazard,
so special precautions are required in handling them. Bleach treatments are often more cost
effective in treating bacterial slimes in water injection wells and are commonly used ahead of acid
jobs.
Because of the risk of SRB activity, many companies adopt the policy that all offshore fields where
seawater is used for drilling, completion or injection fluids, should be designed using sour spec
materials (refer to Section 7a - Materials). In all cases, the risk of souring must be assessed prior
to development as the metallurgy implications will depend on the amount of H2S production.
Contact production chemists for more details.
5.2.7.8 Completion Fluid Chemistry

A major cause of downhole chemical problems is the loss of fluids that are incompatible with the
reservoir or formation fluids. Scale precipitation due to seawater injection, wettability alteration due
to cationic surfactants, clay damage due to salinity changes, or emulsion formation are just a few
examples. Acids require special considerations since the large fluctuations in pH can dissolve or
precipitate many components, such as iron compounds or asphaltenes. Completion fluids must
also be compatible with the wellbore components to prevent corrosion of the metals or
deterioration of the seals.
Compatibility can be achieved by examining reservoir fluid and rock characteristics and selecting
the appropriate completion fluid components. For example, if corrosion inhibitors (cationic) are
required, then non-ionic instead of anionic surfactants should be considered, provided that they
are compatible with the downhole elastomers and achieve the required level of protection.
Simple compatibility tests are adequate to identify many of these problems. Mixing completion
fluids with reservoir fluids in a standard high pressure mud cell at reservoir temperatures is an
excellent technique, which has saved many wells.
A more detailed discussion of this topic can be found in Section 10a - Completion Fluids.
26 May 1998 Page 24

5.2.8 Artificial Lift

Artificial lift influences the architecture of the completion primarily on the equipment required for
the well. This equipment must be installed and operated in such a way that efficiency and reliability
is maximised. Each artificial lift system will impact the completion and well design in different
ways. Artificial lift should be considered during the earliest stages of design - even if it is only a
possible option for future workovers.
5.2.8.1 Gas lift

Gas lift works by reducing the hydrostatic head of the reservoir fluids by adding gas. If gas lift is
being considered at any point in the well’s life then it must be addressed early on in the well and
particularly casing design:
1. Gas lift will be at its most efficient if injected at the maximum depth. The well performance and
economic considerations (pump pressure costs) should used to calculate injection depth. Note
the majority of vertical lift performance correlations are poor at predicting inclined well
performance. It is particularly difficult to estimate the benefit in injecting gas at deviations
beyond 60q.
2. Installing (and particularly recovering) gas lift valves at deviations beyond 60q may be
35
troublesome and require coiled tubing. For this reason if there is a benefit in injecting at these
depths (e.g. long high angle tangent sections of wells), a gas lift mandrel can also be placed at
wireline retrievable deviations.
3. Lift gas will displace the annular contents down to the deepest injection point. Subsequent
depressurisation (e.g. inadvertent blowdown) may expose the casing to large collapse loads.
The casing must be designed for these loads even if gas lift is only a potential outcome later in
36
field life. The cost of installing scab casing will be considerable .
4. The clearances of gas lift mandrels with the casing must be considered during the casing and
completion design. If possible avoid the use of 1" pockets as the valves (and fishing necks) are
37
necessarily smaller and less robust .
5. The lift gas must be dry if corrosion of the tubing / casing is to be avoided. This must be
stressed during the front end engineering and design stage of projects. There has been a
concern that there will be corrosion at the interface between the lift gas and annular fluid.
6. The HSE impact of gas lift must be assessed:
x The volume of gas in the annulus can be significant - particularly on a platform. Annular
safety valves or dual string completions can be used to protect the platform and personnel.
However they introduce additional risks (namely increased complexity and workovers) and
must be able to close quickly enough to reduce gas escapes. A risk assessment is
38
therefore normally required. For example Andrew and Harding have justified excluding
annular safety valves on platform wells as the volume of lift gas is low (shallow reservoir,
39
lower pressure gas, 7” tubing). The Magnus field on the other hand with deeper, higher
pressure wells uses annular safety valves on platform wells.
x Gas lift valves introduce a potential leak path from the reservoir to surface - particularly if
annular safety valves are not included. The reliability of the check valves and the frequency
and means of testing them must be addressed. Dual check orifice valves may for example
improve confidence in their reliability.
35
Foinaven field basis of completion design
36
Miller field retrofit gas lift completion designs - contact Cledwyn Hughes or Joann McKenzie
37
Experience from BP Alaska - Contact Lee Kong Lea
38
Contact Graham MacKay
39
Contact Production Technologist Magnus - Dave Cooke
26 May 1998 Page 25

7. When designing completions and considering mandrels numbers, spacing and valve types,
40
specific consideration must be made for flow stability . Heading may occur if valves are
incorrectly spaced or orifice sizes too large. Software programs and expertise is available from
41
BP Sunbury if required .
5.2.8.1.1 Non Conventional Gas Lift Completions

Although the conventional gas lift system injects gas down the casing - tubing annulus and oil is
produced up the tubing, there are a number of other options:
Figure 7 - Gas Lift Options
Conventional Annular Dual String Sidestring Internal Concentric

Gas Lift Gas Lift Gas Lift Gas Lift
Forties installed a coiled tubing gas lift system. A Y piece is added underneath the Christmas tree.
Coiled tubing is hung off from this, thus allowing gas lift without there being gas in the annulus.
This avoids any integrity issues associated with injecting gas down the annulus.
Another gas lift option is to use coiled tubing instead of conventional tubing. The major problem
with this is that if a large number of mandrels are required, a large number of CT connectors are
42
needed. This increases the cost substantially. BP Alaska have run coiled tubing gas lift
completions both the external upset coupling (conventional gas lift mandrel) and the spoolable
43
internal upset coupling. Texaco have also successfully installed coiled tubing gas lift strings
under pressure using a snubbing work window. By running the string under pressure, the
necessity for large numbers of unloading valves was avoided.
5.2.8.2 Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESPs)

A conventional ESP is run with the tubing. The system comprises a motor, a shaft seal, a fluid inlet
and a multistage centrifugal pump and a discharge head. The system is run with or without a
packer and the power cable is strapped to the tubing on which the pump is run.
The well performance aspects of ESPs are covered is section 4.
It is important that considerations for ESPs be made early in the field development. It is particularly
useful to involve one or more ESP vendors during the FEED process. This is because the facilities
implications of ESPs are significant, particularly with respect to power generation and
transmission.
The impact on overall well design of ESPs includes:
40
“Solving gas lift problems in the North Sea Clyde field” J. Pucknell, S. Goodbrand and A. Green SPE 28915 Oct 94
41
Tony Green BP Sunbury
42
“Lessons Learnt on Coiled Tubing Completions” R.K. Stephens et al SPE 35590 May 1996
43
“Field installed Coiled Tubing Gas Lift Completions” T. B. Transactions et al SPE 38404 April 1997
26 May 1998 Page 26

x The position of the ESP needs to be addressed in the well design. A straight section of the well
is beneficial, especially for long pumps. The position of the pump relative to the perforations is
also worth considering. For example placing the pump below the perforations will improve gas
44
handling , but may require shrouds for motor cooling - these shrouds may dictate a larger
casing size. Placing ESPs in very high angles (over 85 degrees) may also interfere with the
45
start-up conditions on the thrust bearings and may therefore reduce pump life. Placing the
production casing point as deep as possible may also be beneficial - allowing the pump to be
deeper and more efficient. However it may therefore be exposed to higher temperatures?
x The clearance inside casing / liner for pumps / motors, by-pass tubing, cable clamps and
protectors, tubing retrievable safety valves with power cable etc. must be considered at an
early stage as it may impact the casing design.
x Consider the need for through tubing access to the reservoir. This will dictate the need for a by-
pass system, which will dictate the casing / pump size combination as well as the pump
position.
x The installation method will have implications on the tree and wellhead. With conventional
tubing deployed pumps, a penetrator on the hanger is required for the cable. For cable
deployed pumps (or where the power cable is inside the coil and the produced fluids comes up
46
the tubing - coil annulus), the cable or coiled tubing must be hung-off at the tubing hanger , or
47
a horizontal tree used . For ESPs installed inside existing tubing and production is up the coil
48
or cable to tubing annulus there must be a seal upstream of the discharge head . If the power
cable can be run inside the coil or the ESP deployed on cable then this opens up the
opportunity of running and retrieving the ESP under pressure. This avoids any of the well kill
issues or the requirement for a fluid loss device. With the coil or cable run inside the tubing, the
impact on the subsurface safety valve means that alternatives will be required. Electrically
operated safety valves run with the ESP may be available.
44
“Operating electrical submersible pumps below the perforations” B.L. Wilson et al SPE 37451 March 1997.
45
“Captain field electrical submersible pump, condition monitoring and completion systems.” D.J. Cohen et al, SPE 8510
May 1997
46
“Coiled tubing deployed ESPs utilizing internally installed power cable - a Project update” R. Cooper SPE 38406 April
1997.
47
“Coiled tubing and ESP technology improve field evaluation cost” R.C. Penny, R.C. Stanley, J.C. Patterson SPE 38332
June 1997.
48
“Field Installation of Coiled Tubing ESP Completions” J.J. Tovar SPE 616688 April 1995
26 May 1998 Page 27

Figure 8 - ESP Deployment Options
P Pump P P Optional
P Packer P
Bypass
M M
M
M Motor M
Conventional run Packerless Coiled tubing Coiled tubing Coiled tubing

ESP with packer ESP with deployed ESP with deployed ESP with deployed
and bypass line. annulus venting. production up production up the (under pressure)
coil and gas annulus. ESP hung with power cable
production up the off packer or nipple. inside CT.
coil-tubing annulus.
The completion design itself will have to integrate with the ESP system:
x The installation and workover philosophy will impact the perforation and well kill philosophy.
The well will usually require perforating and killing prior to installation of the pump. The
exception to this might be the use of through tubing coiled tubing deployed ESPs. In order to
avoid potentially damaging well kills during workovers, the use of fluid loss control devices is
49 60
recommended , . For example, Wytch Farm have successfully used the Formation Saver
valve to prevent formation damage, the use of lost circulation materials (potentially damaging
to pumps) and to simplify the workovers.
x The data acquisition requirements for both reservoir and pump monitoring requires
consideration. Pump life can be extended by the use of quality data acquisition - especially
during pump start-ups. For example on Forties, the use of downhole suction and discharge and
flow rate measurement allowed the detection of the slow stalling of the pump. This enabled
modifications to the pump sizing procedures for future wells. The reservoir monitoring
45
requirements can now be integrated into pump condition monitoring . Venturi flowmeters (as
used on Wytch Farm for example) have been very effective and are relatively simple. They do
have to be correlated for the fluid passing through them.
x The high energy mixing of water and oil in the pump can create emulsions which lead to tubing
performance and separation problems.
5.2.8.3 Jet pumps

Jet pumps are simple devices which use a Venturi to pump fluids from the reservoir. The power
fluid is injected into the jet pump, usually via the annulus, although a side string or internal coiled
50
tubing string can be used . The power fluid is forced through a nozzle where in enters the throat
and draws in the reservoir fluid. It mixes in the throat and diffuser and is produced with the
reservoir fluid. Communication between the annulus and tubing is either with a ported nipple,
sliding side door or a straddle and tubing punch.
49
“Preventing fluid losses in ESP well completions: avoid formation damage and improve pump life” S.E. Ferguson et al
SPE 38041 April 1997.
50
“Case history of successful coiled tubing conveyed jet pump recompletion through existing completions” M.J. Hrachovy
et al SPE 35586 May 1996.
26 May 1998 Page 28

The power fluid can be any liquid. For greatest efficiency a light, relatively incompressible fluid is
preferred. Produced oil is ideal but is rarely used offshore, due to safety considerations. Onshore it
is ideal. Injection quality water is also commonly used.
The impact on the completion design of jet pumps is:
x The corrosion, pressure and temperature of the power fluid must be considered with the casing
and tubing design. For example casing may be exposed to high pressure colds fluids, or the
control line encapsulations exposed to hydrocarbon power fluids.
x The jet pump will require retrieval and replacement. Change-out frequencies of once every
50
three years is average . This should be achievable without a full workover.
x The jet pump creates a low pressure at the pump suction - this may exacerbate carbonate
scaling or asphaltene deposition and block up the pump. Likewise mixing of power fluid and
reservoir fluid may precipitate scale. Scale inhibitors may be required for continuous injection
into the power fluid.
x The power fluid flow path creates a potential leak path from the reservoir to surface. A check
valve or power fluid operated safety valve is therefore worth considering. A power fluid
operated safety valve can be installed below the jet pump to shut off reservoir fluids from the
tubing or annulus if power fluid pressure is lost.
x The high energy mixing of water and oil in the pump can create emulsions which lead to tubing
performance and separation problems.
x The power fluid is produced to surface. It must be separated and disposed of. Separation and
water handling requirements must account for this.
x The casing rating must be checked if the pump is powered from annulus side.
x The tubing stress analysis must be checked with a higher external pressure.
x There will be a hole angle limitation for wireline installation.
x There is the option for pump down system using ‘4 way valves’ (more common on land)
x The annulus must be clean before a reverse circulating jet pump is installed. Otherwise ports
or sleeves may become blocked.
26 May 1998 Page 29

5.2.9 Workovers and Reliability

When designing completions, their full life cycle must be considered. It is no use designing the
upper completion for maximum reliability and no workovers, if a through casing sidetrack is
envisaged every few years! A realistic assessment of all future intervention requirements is
required and the completion designed accordingly.
BP has a database of completion equipment reliability containing most of the UK wells and is
being expanded to cover worldwide assets as well. This can be used to see what is the likely
reliability of the system envisaged:
Table 2 - Example Estimate of Completion System Reliability
Item Expected Average Change-out Method
Lifetime*
Pre-packed screens 7 years Full workover and sidetrack
Downhole safety valve 12 years Tophole workover
(tubing retrievable)
(or insert valve if control line
is still OK).
Tubing 10 years Top hole or full workover
Packer 25 years + Full workover
ESP 2 years Dependent on system
PBR 20 years Top hole workover
Gas Lift Valve 5 years Wireline
*This takes no account of when items fail, only the average lifetime. A more detailed analysis,
looking at the run time distribution is recommended.
Note this table is an example and the figures are not representative of real statistics. In order to
use realistic numbers it is vital that the conditions the well is under is taken into account. For
example the average lifetime of tubing may be low, however this can be considerably extended by
using appropriate metallurgy. Likewise, the reliability of sand control will depend on the screens
themselves, their QA procedures, their installation and the reservoir conditions. By putting together
a table like this it has however a number of uses:
x Allows operating expenditure to be estimated.
x Allows identification of the areas where to focus on improving reliability.
x Allows the completion architecture to allow for workovers or well intervention.
BP has a reliability database of all BP North Sea completion equipment (and many other operators
51
as well) . This is being extended worldwide. This can be interrogated and relevant data extracted.
51
Contact John Queenan at Independent Completions Engineering Ltd.
26 May 1998 Page 30

5.2.10 Well Control / Plugging Philosophy

The completion architecture must allow for well control and plugging when required:
1. Personnel safety and environmental protection must be assessed and promoted for all stages
of the completion (installation, operation and removal).
2. The completion should have the ability to be plugged deep (i.e. ideally below a packer) if
required during the life of the well.
3. When removing the BOPs, prior to installing a tree (i.e. conventional as opposed to horizontal
trees), there should be a minimum of 2 independent tested mechanical barriers plus one other
52
barrier between the reservoir and environment .
4. If adjacent well drilling is being performed and there is a risk of collision, a barrier or safety
valve will be required for mitigation on wells capable of flowing hydrocarbons.
5. When installing the completion, it should always be possible to circulate down the completion.
It must also be possible to shut-in the well at surface. This is especially important if the
reservoir is not mechanically isolated. Consideration must therefore be given to control lines or
dual sections of tubing. This is usually accomplished by pipe rams or annular rams in the
BOPs. As a last resort, shear rams could be used. When running completions without a drilling
BOP (e.g. running CT completions with the tree installed), there must be a means of shearing
the tubing or coil if required.
6. The guidelines for safety valves are to install one under the following conditions:
x Platform wells capable of flowing hydrocarbons to surface.
x Wells completed through the permafrost.
x Sour wells capable of flow that are located close to a public place or where the wellhead
might be damaged by landslide or avalanche.
x As dictated by local regulations.
In other cases it is recommended that a risk assessment be performed to see whether the
benefit of a downhole safety valve is greater than its cost and associated risk if it has to be
worked over. For example downhole safety valves have been omitted from some Kuparuk
53 54 100,101
river Milne Point and Wytch Farm production wells. The risks that a downhole safety
valve (DHSV) protects against are a failure in the tubing between the DHSV and surface, or
some failure at surface that renders the surface safety valve (i.e. tree) inoperable. Therefore
the risks, consequences and mitigating factors must be assessed.
52
WEO plugging policy
53
“Removal of SSSVs from Kuparuk River Unit Wells Consequence Assessment” Eamonn Naughton BP Alaska
54
"Removal of SSSVs Milne Point Unit Wells - Consequence Assessment" HSE Assurance Department BP Exploration
(Alaska) Inc. December, 1994.
26 May 1998 Page 31

5.2.11 Casing Schemes

The casing scheme clearly has a large influence on the completion architecture. It is important
that the completion be designed in conjunction with the casing design and not isolation. It is usual
that compromises are required on both sides.
There is a strong interaction between the casing scheme and the completion in various ways
(Figure 9).
Figure 9 - Interaction between Casing and Completion Designs
The casing should be able to

withstand (and be tested to)
the maximum of the highest
A change in casing size annular pressure or the highest
may be required to continuous tubing pressure.
accomodate components
such as a downhole valve
or dual tubing strings.
The casing should be able to withstand

full annulus evacuation down to the
deepest operational gas lift valve
(if present).
The completion components
and control lines and
protectors have to fit inside
the casing.
The packer depth may be Production casing may be exposed

influenced by collapse loads to corrosive fluids and require
on the casing i.e. the packer appropriate metallurgy.
may require to be set below
mobile formations such as
chalk or salt. The packer, nipples and
artificial lift are influenced by the
casing setting depth.
The liner hanger / packer may be
exposed to production / Exposed casing may be exposed to
stimulation conditions and has to high collapse loads due to reservoir
be interfaced with the production depletion and high drawdowns
tubing (especially with artificial lift).
The liner must be designed in

a collaboration between the
drilling and completion engineer.
Exposed casing and liners must be
designed for the high pressures
during any stimulation: particularly
if there is a poor cement job.
There have been a number of problems where the lack of interaction between the drilling and
completion groups has led to a non optimum well design:
x Casing that hasn’t been designed to withstand gas lift conditions (evacuation of the annulus),
requiring scab casing having to be run when the wells were worked over to gas lift.
26 May 1998 Page 32

x Production casing being designed as 95/8" to surface, preventing 7" tubing retrievable safety
valves from being used.
x Casing being designed for natural flow conditions, when ESPs were introduced, the high
drawdowns would have potentially collapsed the casing below the pump, thus requiring a non
optimum choice of pump.
26 May 1998 Page 33

5.3 Completion Architecture

This section covers what the completion should look like going from the bottom of the well
(reservoir completion) to the top of the well (tree).
Each section is covered in turn and the impact that each section places on the other parts of the
well are discussed. Particular emphasis has been placed on the interfaces between the various
areas. Many of the problems in completions stem from the difficulties in ensuring that the optimum
well design is a combination of many areas and disciplines.
Note that although there may be reference to well performance aspects in this section, this is
covered in more detail in section 4. It is vital that the well performance aspects of the entire design
are covered in detail. For this reason, the completion design can never be a case of day 1, well
performance, day 2, architecture, day 3 stress analysis etc.
26 May 1998 Page 34

5.3.1 Reservoir Section

A number of options are available for completing the reservoir section of wells. The choice will be
influenced by:
x Well performance - maximising short term and term oil production potential and accessing
reserves (see section 4).
x Drilling and casing - for example a larger hole size and liner is usually preferred by drillers as
this gives flexibility for an additional casing if required by conditions and also uses stronger
(larger) drillpipe to run any tools into the liner (e.g. cleanout trips).
x Production problems (e.g. requirement for sand control).
x Well management (e.g. water shut-off, scale squeezes or stimulation).
x Cost (capital cost, installation cost, operating cost and risk).
These issues should have been addressed when considering the conceptual completion design.
At this point there should be a good idea of the type of reservoir completion required for the well.
However the practicalities and the issues will have only been addressed conceptually. Therefore
the details and if necessary choice of sub-type of reservoir completion should be assessed at this
stage.
Since the last revision of this chapter of the manual, the ability to drill complex or difficult
reservoirs at high angles or with long reservoir intervals has increased significantly. Horizontal
drilling of an unconsolidated reservoir rock from a semi-submersible is now routine for example.
The completion practices have however lagged somewhat behind and significant uncertainties
and risks remain - particularly with respect to the reservoir completion.
5.3.1.1 Cased and perforated

This completion method is the most common completion technique around the world.
It offers considerable advantages:
x Troublesome formations and potential gross hole collapse are isolated by casing and cement.
x Selective production / injection is feasible.
x Water / gas / sand shut-off options have a reasonable chance of success.
x Shallow drilling damage (few inches) and filter cake do not normally effect well performance
with a properly engineered perforation job.
x Perforation tunnels may be less sand production prone than open hole completions.
For these reasons it will normally be the preferred completion technique for vertical or moderately
deviated wells in consolidated formations.
The choice of perforating technique will be dependent on productivity considerations, costs, risks
and practicalities (e.g. logistics):
x Perforating Method.
x Underbalance / overbalance, kill or not.
x Long or short intervals.
x Subsea / platform / land.
x Shot density / charge weight / deep or large / phasing requirements.
5.3.1.1.1 Perforating Method
26 May 1998 Page 35

The method of perforating will have a large impact on the productivity and the cost. With many if
not most wells now being high angle or horizontal, the impact on perforating has been large. Not
only is the perforation interval now often much longer, but the hole angle is also beyond traditional
techniques. Greater consideration is therefore required at an early stage as to how to perforate.
55
More information can be obtained from the BP Near Wellbore Performance Manual .
55
“Near Wellbore Performance Manual” WEO-W08 November 1990
26 May 1998 Page 36

Table 3 - Perforation Methods
Method Advantages Disadvantages

Tubing x Long intervals can be x If access is required to the completed interval,
conveyed simultaneously guns will need dropping into a sufficient rat hole.
(shoot and perforated underbalance The extra rat hole will have a cost impact,
drop or shoot with large well phased especially if drilling is slow. If the guns are left in
and leave) guns. place, there should be sufficient clearance or be
56
x Run at the same time as flow through guns.
the completion, x Limited to low deviation (<70q), unless guns can
therefore time effective. be pushed into rat hole?
x Large guns with high x Require accurate space-out of the completion.
shot densities can be x Guns may be downhole a long time prior to firing
run (e.g. for cased hole (temperature considerations).
gravel packs).
x Completion becomes non monobore, restricting
future interventions (e.g. shut-offs).
x It is vital to get the guns and completion to depth,
otherwise the whole completion will probably
need recovering.
Drillpipe x Long intervals can be x Well performance may suffer with the
conveyed perforated in one go, requirement to kill the perforations prior to
(shoot and kill) even at high angles. retrieving the guns.
x Large guns with high x Kill pills or perforation debris may prevent
shot densities can be retrieval of guns or block the completion
run (e.g. for cased hole (especially ESPs)
gravel packs).
Through tubing x Cheap for short x The maximum interval that can be perforated in
conveyed intervals. one go is limited by the rig-up.
(wireline) x Re-perforating possible. x Underbalance may be limited by avoiding
blowing the guns up-hole. Underbalance may
only be achievable on initial runs.
x Gun size / type limited by completion restrictions.
x Limited to low deviations (< 70q).
57
Through tubing x High angle wells can be x Perforating length (per trip) is limited by the rig-
conveyed perforated underbalance up.
(coiled tubing and well kills avoided.
or HWO) x Re-perforating possible.
Through tubing x Long intervals can be x The reliability of such systems has not been
conveyed with perforated underbalance proven. If the valve fails to shut, the well will
58
downhole in one trip. require killing .
isolation valve x Can be coiled tubing or x Maximum perforation lengths may limited by
59
or swab valve drillpipe / tubing drag with CT .
conveyed (with HWO). x Introduces additional equipment into the
x Valve can be used for completion (valve, control line, hanger penetrator
setting packer? etc.)
Coiled Tubing x Long intervals can be x Untried / tricky on a semi-submersible.
(deployment perforated underbalance x Can be time consuming to retrieve guns.
systems) in one trip.
56
As supplied by Ocre Systems Scotland Ltd.
57
“Monobore Completions and Novel Wireline Perforating of High-Angle Wells in the Nelson Field” P.G. Griffin et al SPE
28916 Oct 1995.
58
Experience on North Sea Andrew field, where the isolation valve failed to shut properly on 1 out of 5 completions.
59
“Pierce Perforating Strategy” A. Banks - Gun length limited to 100 - 400m unless gun hang-off system used
26 May 1998 Page 37

Combinations of the above techniques can be very effective. For example, it is possible to have
tubing conveyed guns that are recovered through the tubing by coiled tubing - possibly in sections.
Alternatively tubing conveyed guns can be used for part of an interval, whilst wireline used for
another.
The perforating of short intervals at moderate angles is now routine. The perforating of much
longer intervals, often high angle or horizontal is increasing in importance, but is not without
problems. Due to the length of interval, the perforating cost will be a significant proportion of the
60
well construction budget. Experience on Wytch Farm shows that perforating a 1600m interval is
possible, although the amount of debris produced (perforation debris and kill pills) is significant.
61
The decision on perforating method should be a risked economic one . For example:
Table 4 - Example Cost Assessment for Perforating Options
Method Duration (days) Direct Cost (£k) 'NPV from Total Net
including productivity Present Cost
estimated NPT considerations (£k)
(£k)
Drillpipe TCP + well kill 4 410 570 980
Multiple (6) CT runs 6 350 0 350
Single CT run 4 250 -670 -420
(deployment system)
The well productivity implications can be difficult to quantify (see section 4), but can be based on
analogue wells / reservoirs or on empirical inflow performance correlations. The impact that the
resulting skin has on production profiles can then be estimated and the NPV implications
calculated.
The perforation philosophy will also directly impact the rest of the completion design:
1. Guns may have to be run through the completion. The minimum restriction in the completion
should accommodate the swell size of spent guns.
2. Tubing conveyed perforating guns if run with the completion will effect the space-out and also
the ability to run certain through tubing tools into the completion interval. A monobore well will
be difficult to achieve.
3. The underbalance required for perforating will have to be pumped into the test string or
completion. This could be with nitrogen, diesel or water and either circulated in before running
the completion, circulated in prior to setting a packer, through gas lift / circulating valves or with
coiled tubing inside the completion.
62
4. Perforation debris (typically 100-150 gm per charge ) will have to be produced through the
completion. The debris is predominately crushed formation, but also gun debris and kill pills.
Gun debris particle size can be reduced with controlled debris charges, but this will not reduce
the volume. However it will make the particles easier to remove - especially in deviated wells or
3
wells with pumps. Wytch Farm have successfully used 3 /8" “Cleanshot”™ charges on their last
60
6 ERD wells. The debris has been successfully produced through their ESPs and when
blockages do occur, they less severe than previous. Care must be taken with controlled debris
charges as without a special inhibitor they can react with CaCl2 brines to produce a cement like
substance. The Andrew field also experienced problems with NaCl brines where the debris
63
somehow aggregated . The completion design should accommodate production of this debris.
For example, the interface of the reservoir completion with the upper completion should avoid
sections of reverse taper where debris can build up.
60
“Advances in the Completion of 8km Extended Reach ESP Wells” H. Jariwala et al SPE 36579 Oct 96.
61
“Deployment systems and Down Hole Swab Valves” D.M. Sharman SPE 30406 Sep 95.
62
Source - Schlumberger
63
Contact Andrew Louden - Andrew Asset
26 May 1998 Page 38

5.3.1.1.2 Depth Control

There are various methods of depth control for perforating, some of which impact the completion
architecture:
x Open hole logs - usually gamma ray (GR) - tied in to the cased hole logs (GR and casing collar
locator (CCL)). The guns are then run with a CCL for depth reference. Pip tags (radioactive
markers) or short joints (‘pups’) can be added to the liner or casing to aid in depth control. GR
may be effected by radioactive scale build up, whilst CCLs can be affected by debris especially
from the perforations themselves.
x Guns run on drillpipe often with a wireline run and cased hole logs to confirm required depth for
firing.
x A tubing end locator run with coiled tubing (an overpull is required to pull back through the end
of the tubing). Similar devices can be used to identify nipples and other restrictions either in the
tubing or liner.
x Use Depth Correlation Subs (DCS) in liners. These offer mechanical depth correlation
64
especially for coiled tubing .
x A memory cased hole log run on coiled tubing followed by guns run on coiled tubing. Depth
control is not always very good. For example on a Bruce operation the guns were positioned
out by 6m. Accuracy is effected by changes in fluid and therefore changes in buoyancy and
must be accounted for as accurately as possible.
5.3.1.1.3 Perforating Underbalance or Overbalance

65
King et al (Figure 10, Figure 11, Figure 12 and Figure 13) developed a set of minimum
drawdown recommendations based on a field study of some 90 wells perforated with TCP. Unless
field experience indicates otherwise, these guidelines should be used to select the appropriate
drawdown for consolidated completions.
Figure 10 - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Gas Zones in Stable Sandstones
1000
MAXIMUM UNDERBALANCE
RESTRICTED TO LIMIT
SAND INFLUX
100
PERMEABILITY, mD
10
MINIMUM UNDERBALANCE
FOR EFFECTIVE CLEAN-UP MAXIMUM UNDERBALANCE
80% CASING COLLAPSE
OR TOOL LIMITS
OR RESERVOIR PRESSURE
WITH INCREASED
FLOW VOLUMES
.1
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
UNDERBALANCE, psi
64
“Application of Petroline Depth Correlation Sub in (Bruce) Phase II Wells” H. Crumpton Sep 1997 DRL/BRU/20/03
65
“A Field Study of Underbalance Pressures Necessary to Obtain Clean Perforations using Tubing Conveyed Perforating”
G. A. King et al SPE 14321 Sept ‘85
26 May 1998 Page 39

Figure 11 - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Oil Zones in Stable Sandstones
1000
MAXIMUM UNDERBALANCE
RESTRICTED TO LIMIT
SAND INFLUX
PERMEABILITY, mD
100
FOR EFFECTIVE CLEAN-UP
10
MAXIMUM
UNDERBALANCE
80% CASING COLLAPSE
OR TOOL LIMITS
OR RESERVOIR PRESSURE
(REDUCED FOR
THROUGH-TUBING GUNS)
1
100 500 1000 1500 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
UNDERBALANCE, psi
Figure 12 - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Unconsolidated Gas Sands
150
MAXIMUM
UNDERBALANCE
140 CAUSING EXCESSIVE SANDING
MINIMUM
UNDERBALANCE
FOR CLEAN-UP
T SONIC, 130
microseconds/ft
(CORRECTED FOR
GAS OR READ
120
IN ADJACENT
SHALES)
110
100
100 200 300 400 500 800 1000 2000
UNDERBALANCE, psi
26 May 1998 Page 40

Figure 13 - Recommended Underbalance for Perforating Unconsolidated Oil Sands

140
(POSSIBLY FROM ADJACENT SHALES)
130
T SONIC, microseconds/ft
MAXIMUM
UNDERBALANCE CAUSING EXCESSIVE SANDING
120 FOR CLEAN-UP
110
100
100 200 300 400 500 700 1000 2000
UNDERBALANCE, psi
In partially consolidated sands, the objective is to cause perforation enlargement (initial sand
failure) in order to remove the crushed zone, without inducing total collapse of the cavity or
sanding-in of the gun. This may require somewhat lower drawdowns during the clean-up periods,
although high instantaneous drawdowns may be highly beneficial in surging-out the crushed
66
zones. Colle has proposed that the optimum drawdown may be related to the sonic transit time,
which is commonly used as a cementation and compressive strength indicator. However, it is
preferable to use field experience or studies aimed at determining a safe drawdown for the
avoidance of sand production. The optimum flow volume required to clean up perforations is
subject to some debate. A minimum of one gallon of fluid flow per perforation is recommended,
although many engineers advocate flow volumes should be as much as five gallons per
perforation. Where possible, continual production clean-up for several hours at normal offtake
rates is highly desirable. Perforation clean-up can also be achieved using a surge chamber run on
67
tubing . The maximum drawdown for TCP perforating is determined by:
1. The collapse rating of the casing or tubing (see Chapter 6).
2. The collapse or differential rating of the tools or packer (usually 5000 to 7000 psi).
3. The conditions under which severe sand production will occur.
4. The reservoir pressure.
The perforation ratio skin, Sp, is used to compare the effectiveness of a perforated completion to
that of an undamaged open hole. Karakas and Tariq nomogram is the most extensively used
model for predicting perforation damage and in determining the relative effectiveness of different
perforating methods. This is discussed in further detail in Section 4b – Near Wellbore
Performance. Selection of the perforation intervals should involve input from reservoir and
production engineering and the production geologist.
Where multiple gun runs are involved, this underbalance is only assumed to apply for the first run.
If the well is flowed to maintain an underbalance, this should be noted in the files with all available
details.
66
“Increase Production with Underbalanced Perforation” E. Colle Petroleum Engineer International July 1998
67
“Analysis and Evaluation of Perforating Clean-Up Methods” J.M. Bonomo et al SPE 12106 1983
26 May 1998 Page 41

Although these guidelines make the use of underbalanced perforating and a clean-up flow
desirable for the optimum well productivity, there are many cases where the cost and impact of
such a course is not justified. For example, the cost or environmental impact of perforating
underbalance and cleaning up could be greater that the productivity gains.
In these cases, it is even more important to optimise the perforation practice:
1. Perforate underbalance if possible - this still allows the surging of the perforations and partial
clean-out (into the well bore) of some of the crushed zone. Even if the well has to be killed
afterwards, the initial surge will help.
2. Use a clean, damaging fluid. The cleanliness standards required can be assessed by core
flood tests. Use particle size analysis (e.g. Coulter counter) on the rig to assess whether the
standards have been reached.
3. Minimise the overbalance during and after the perforating. Having a low overbalance will make
it easier for the perforation debris and kill pills to be eventually back produced.
4. Use a suitable tested kill pill that has a lift off pressure that is achievable during production.
Circulate the kill pill into the well if possible. This allows the kill pill to be placed in the
perforations before any perforation debris is.
5. If living with losses at any stage ensure that the fluids added are clean.
5.3.1.1.4 Completion Interval Selection

What needs considering when deciding which intervals are to be perforated?
1. Zonal isolation requirements. Zonal isolation may be required from day 1 (e.g. isolation of an
aquifer or segregate production), or may be an option for future intervention (e.g. water shut-
off).
5 1
15ft of good bonding is required in 9 /8" casing for hydraulic isolation, or 5 ft in 5 /2" liners. At
least three times this interval is required for fracture stimulation. However the depth control
issues of the zonal isolation must be considered. For example a 10-20m + blank interval allows
zonal isolation plugs to be set by coiled tubing without electricline in high angle wells.
Segregate production may be an option (e.g. to separate fluids that might react, or for zones
with different productivities). However, the completion complexity and production implications
must be understood first.
2. Distance from fluid contacts. Reservoir simulation may be required. Shale barriers should be
left unperforated to prevent coning of unwanted fluids when completing near a contact. The
coning risks will be a function of vertical permeability, density contrast, the drawdown and the
choice of the perforated interval. However, partial penetration significantly increases skin when
less than 85% of the net pay is perforated (refer to Section 4b or the Near Wellbore
Performance). Fluid contact movement due to production should be considered in picking the
perforation interval (e.g. secondary gas cap development, gas cap expansion into oil rims,
bottom water encroachment, etc).
3. Net productivity. There is no point in perforating shales! In a heterogeneous reservoir,
especially where the perforating intervals are long, it is better to concentrate the perforating on
the better intervals and leave the rest. An examination of PLT (spinner) logs from previous
wells may help determine what is net pay. Note, most of the correlations for inflow performance
assume a limited number of intervals each with their own average kv/kh. This will often
therefore suggest that high shot density over the entire interval is optimum. In reality, the
vertical permeability barriers are frequently associated with shale stringers and changes in rock
quality over a broad range of intervals and can not be modeled with an average number. The
value of high shot density perforating over the entire intervals is therefore overestimated.
4. Stimulation flexibility. If stimulation of any sort is going to be considered, avoid blanket
perforating the entire or long intervals. For hydraulic fracturing, short intervals (less than 200-
300ft) are desirable (see section 5.3.1.4.1).
26 May 1998 Page 42

5. Sand prevention. If weak or poorly consolidated sandstones are perforated then they may
produce sand. This can be minimised by only perforating more consolidated rocks. The degree
of consolidation can be predicted by a comparison of core derived strength indicators
(unconfined compressive strength (UCS) or thick wall cylinder (TWC) compressive strength)
against sonic logs. The sonic logs can then be used in development wells to identify weak sand
layers. Unfortunately the most productive intervals are frequently the ones that produce sand!
Contact the rock mechanics experts in BP Sunbury for further details.
The effectiveness of selective perforation depends on vertical zonal isolation outside the casing.
To achieve hydraulic isolation requires only a limited section of good bonding (minimum 15 ft on
5 1
9 /8" casing and 5ft on 5 /2"). Experience has proven that reliable cement bond logs can be run,
with good quality control, provided the cement bond logs are run at least 18 to 24 hours after
cementing or when the cement has achieved its full strength, and before any pressure test or
68
change in well fluid density has taken place .
If a pressure change has taken place, a 'microannulus' is created. Its effect on the bond log can
be removed by applying a pressure to the well while the log is run.
5.3.1.1.5 Liner Size in Perforated Wells

There is often a large amount of debate as to the optimum liner or casing size across the
reservoir. The choice is usually a compromise between drilling, completion and reservoir issues.
Figure 14 - Liner / Reservoir Casing Size Selection
Minimum I.D. through

upper completion
Interventions:
•Constraining CT buckling
•Tractor access
Requirement for monobore access to the liner for:
•Zonal isolation (non inflatable)
•Selective chemical treatments Cementing:
•Through tubing clean-out trips •Importance of good cement job?
•Through tubing sidetrack •ECD during cementing
•Remedial work (straddles etc.) •Hole size
•Annular clearance
•Rotation during cement job
Fluid Mechanics:
•Liquid Loading
•Liner pressure drops
•Slugging
•Proppant / solids clean-out
Optimum Liner Size
Drilling: Casing Scheme:

•Impact of small drillpipe (twist-offs etc.) •Hole size
•Cement shoe drill-out? •Contingent casing strings
•Clean-out to completion fluid
Reservoir Performance:
•Gun size
•Gun performance
For example, on a land or platform well, where intervention to control water or gas is likely, the
requirement for reliable well intervention tools will be vital. This will push a monobore style
completion. Alternatively, an appraisal well in a difficult to drill area may benefit from as large a
hole size and liner as possible, so that contingencies are maintained.
68
“Guidelines for 90% Accuracy in Zone Isolation Decisions” D. D. Fitzgerald SPE 12141 1983
26 May 1998 Page 43

It is vital that decisions made on the reservoir casing are not made in isolation by the drilling
engineer or that short term wishes do not dominate long term requirements.
5.3.1.2 Open Hole

A pure open hole completion is one with no liner / casing or equipment in the production interval at
all. It is a cheap, but rarely used technique within BP. Its application depends on the entire interval
being stable enough to prevent hole collapse. With such a case, a pure open hole completion may
be advantageous over an open hole with pre-drilled / slotted liner.
Table 5 - Open Hole vs. Open Hole with Predrilled Liner
Advantages Disadvantages
Open Hole x Cheap x Potential for gross hole collapse
x If sized correctly relative to the and blockage - especially in
completion, may be possible to heterogeneous reservoirs.
run open hole zonal isolation
(with cement).
Open Hole with Pre- x Easier to run production logs. x Production logs (especially
drilled / Slotted Liner x Can use external casing spinners) may not produce
packers for future zonal representative results.
isolation. x Very difficult to isolate or treat
any sections of the hole unless
ECPs have been pre-installed.
The well productivity challenges associated with open hole completions may be significant. In
particular because of the lack of perforations, any damage inflicted on the near well bore region
will be critical. See section 4 for further details.
5.3.1.3 Sand Control

This section is designed as an overview of the various technologies available. With most sand
control applications, success can only be achieved by thorough planning and supervision. This
section does not cover the detail of fluids selection, materials quality assurance, installation
methods or well productivity issues. The review of BP’s in house sand control experts is strongly
recommended before proceeding with sand control completions.
The requirement for sand control completions has grown considerably in recent years within BP.
However, there is no point in using any form of sand control if it is not required!
5.3.1.3.1 Sand Production Prediction

69
There are a number of techniques for predicting sand production:
x Analogy. This relies of experience of similar local fields to indicate the likelihood of sand
production. It is valid if the reservoir is very similar, the conditions are the same and the wells
the same.
x Core inspection and testing. The simplest core analysis is the uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS) measurement. A more accurate measurement of a rock’s tendency to sand is the thick
wall cylinder test (TWC).
x Log analysis. Log analysis can be used directly to produce strength indicators from the sonic,
density and gamma ray log. Typically the log derived UCS will be 3-4 times the laboratory
measurements, although sometimes a good match is achieved.
69
“Sand Production Prediction Review: Developing an Integrated Approach” C. A. M. Veekins et al SPE 22792 1991
26 May 1998 Page 44

x Special well tests. Using surface or downhole sand detection, a well test can be designed to
detect sand production. However it is important that the drawdowns and completion techniques
are realistic to future conditions and that continual sand production is detected rather than any
initial partial collapse or perforation clean-up.
Once the actual strength of a rock is determined, the propensity to produce sand must be
assessed for future drawdowns and reservoir conditions.
The most widely used technique within BP is using a “desired” Thick Wall Cylinder Test (TWC)
70
derived from a semi-empirical formula . This formula applies for a randomly oriented perforation:
σ twc ≥ 0.74(σ v − BHFP)
where:
σ twc is the thick walled cylinder strength in psi, as determined in the laboratory or by
correlation.
σv is the vertical or overburden stress in psi.
BHFP bottom hole pressure in psi.

The overburden stress is:
σ v = ( D s ) + ( d ρw )
where:
D is the depth from the sea bed or ground level to the interval of interest if ft TVD.
s is the overburden stress gradient from the sea bed in psi /ft.
d is the sea water depth (if applicable) in ft.
ρw is the sea water pressure gradient in psi /ft.
Note the major control on sand production apart from rock properties is the bottom hole pressure.
This is under the (partial) influence of the completion engineer.
The TWC strength can be measured from core samples. It is also possible to statistically correlate
various log measurements with core derived strengths. The principal log measurements are sonic
transit time and density. This technique clearly requires some core and log data from appraisal
wells in the particular field.
More details on sand prediction can be obtained from the rock mechanics group at BP Sunbury.
5.3.1.3.2 Sand Production Mitigation

If the reservoir is clearly friable (e.g. falls into a pile of wet sand when taken out of a core barrel),
then some form of sand control will be required. In more marginal areas, sand production
mitigation can be considered:
1. Rate reduction: as seen in section 5.3.1.3.1, the bottom hole pressure has an influence on
whether an interval will produce sand or not. The bottom hole pressure is partially dictated by
production rate, therefore reducing the rate may limit sand production. This technique is used
in many wells where a “sand free rate” is determined from well testing and sand detection. It is
usually better however to be proactive in sand control rather than choking back wells and
suffering loss in production. The exception would be where the sand control method introduces
such a choke on production that the rate would have been below the sand free rate anyway!
2. Reservoir development: if the reservoir pressure can be maintained, sand production may be
limited. Although this may be a worthwhile goal in itself (e.g. for maximising recoverable
reserves), it will rarely make economic sense purely for sand production prevention.
70
“Improved Sand Production Prediction Method from Back analysis SNS Production Data” S.M. Willson 1996 XTP
Sunbury Report POB/020/96 March
26 May 1998 Page 45

3. Selective perforation: core studies and log correlations can be used to determine likely sand
71
production intervals. These intervals can then be avoided when perforating . Selective
perforating is being used on Forties wells where a nominal 1 Darcy permeability cut-off ( from
poro-perm cross plots) is used. This cut-off reduces the perforation interval by approximately
7%. Unfortunately the most productive intervals are usually the ones that are most sand prone!
Therefore some loss in productivity may result - and therefore decrease the bottom hole
pressure! This technique does require some forethought (and is not a reliable remedial
technique. An alternative to selective perforation is to hydraulically fracture the stronger sands
and use the fracture to communicate with the weaker sands. This technique has been pursued
72
by Statoil . This technique may however introduce more problems than it solves and requires
consideration of all the issues associated with stimulation (see section 5.3.1.4.1).
4. Optimised Perforation Design: The correct perforation design will reduce sand production.
First the drawdown can be reduced by high shot density deep penetrating guns, ideally over a
long intervals. High shot density charges are available that are designed to optimise the
overlap between adjacent perforation holes and maximise the perforation to perforation
73
distance . This should avoid interference and the collapse of the sand between the perforation
holes. The phasing of these charges is unusual in that it will vary between liner sizes and is not
an exact divisor of 360q. High shot densities may also increase the maximum drawdown that
74
can be applied before sand production starts . In addition, recent work and the technique
75
planned for certain Pierce field wells suggests that perforating using vertically oriented
perforations (in a high angle or horizontal well) will reduce the sand production potential.
5. Operating Practice: Some wells may produce sand initially and then sand production tails off.
The perforation tunnel (or void) stabilises as an arch is formed. How this tunnel behaves under
different drawdowns is difficult to quantify, but avoiding shocking the formation will clearly help.
Artificial lift techniques such as ESPs are particularly bad at shocking the formation as they are
difficult to start gradually. Opening up natural wells slowly is easier, but what is and isn’t good
practice is difficult to quantify.
6. Living with sand: If the well is likely to produce a “small” amount of sand, it may be easier to
live with the sand production rather than to install costly and difficult downhole exclusion. In
many cases, sand control will reduce well productivity (see section 4). If sand production is
likely, the facilities must be designed to handle it. This includes sand detection, sand removal
from separators, erosion minimisation and detection, and sand deposition in flowlines.
5.3.1.3.3 Sand Control Screens

This is the potentially the simplest form of completion technique for mechanical sand control in a
new well. It involves placing screens into the reservoir section and then letting the sand collapse
directly onto the screen. There are several issues that impact it use:
1. The screen hole size must be sized so that it blocks the reservoir sand and yet allows and
fluids in place to drain freely through them. Thus the fluid put in place prior to running the
screen must have the solids removed that could otherwise cause the screen to plug. If the
screens are set with drilling mud across the payzone, this mud therefore needs careful
conditioning. Alternatively the payzone can be displaced to a clear fluid, although this does
invite potential losses if the filter cake is damaged.
2. The filter cake that builds up in the wellbore must be removed either prior to installing the
screens or after. If the sand collapses on the screen, then the filter cake will be broken up.
71
“Magnus Sand Control Study - Downhole Sand Control Methods” BP internal report J.M. Gilchrist July 1993
72
“Propped Fracturing as a Tool for Sand Control and Reservoir Management” A. Bale et al SPE European Petroleum
Conference Nov 92
73
SPE 38639
74
“Forties Sand Production Study” S. Willson Feb 93
75
“Assessment of sanding Risk in the Pierce field” J. McCarthy BP SPR WDT/002/97 Jan 1997
26 May 1998 Page 46

3. If the open hole section contains shales, the screens may potentially be “smeared” with them -
especially if they are unstable. This will seriously reduce their permeability and historically has
limited this technique to relatively homogeneous completion intervals.
4. External casing packers (ECPs) are essentially the only form of potential zonal isolation - if
positioned correctly beforehand!
5. The screens are easily damaged when installed, either by high doglegs, mechanical debris, or
incorrect handling.
There are a large variety of screen types available. These range from the simple wire-wrap,
through pre-pack screens to the more recent multi-layer woven screens. The reliability of the
screens is highly variable. Some of the many failures have been attributed to:
x Incomplete packing or settling of the pre-pack sand in pre-packed screens.
x Inappropriate metallurgy coupled with acid washes.
x Damage when running the screens e.g. Sedgwick field.
x Quality control problems relating to welding procedures of the wire - particularly a concern for
certain corrosion resistant alloys (CRA). Particular problems have been experienced between
76
the screen and end ring .
The use of sand control screens without gravel packs has been routinely used in shallow relatively
77 78 76
homogeneous reservoirs such as Harding, Foinaven , Schiehallion, Alba, Gryphon , Troll and
some Gulf of Mexico fields. Here horizontal wells are used to minimise drawdowns and control
coning. Screen lengths of several thousand feet are routinely installed.
5.3.1.3.4 Gravel packs

Gravel packing, open hole or cased hole, is the most common method for mechanically controlling
sand production. Gravel packing utilizes accurately sized gravel to exclude formation sand. A wire
wrapped screen or slotted liner retains the gravel but allows the entry of fluids into the well. This
technique means that mixed lithology and fined grained rock sections can be effectively treated as
there is the gravel between the screen and the reservoir rock. Any problems associated with
external erosion due to incomplete collapse of the formation can also be avoided, although this
can still happen if the gravel pack does not give complete coverage.
Open Hole Gravel Packs
Open hole gravel packs as the name suggests consist of gravel placed between the open
formation and a retaining screen hung from the casing. The open hole may be created by milling
and under reaming casing as well as under reaming open hole. This completion has high
productivity compared to a conventional cased hole gravel pack and is particularly used in high
rate gas wells. It also finds application in long intervals of poor quality sand, where a cased hole
gravel pack has been historically difficult. However, like all open hole completions, it is not
possible to isolate future water or gas producing zones. In addition, some wellbores may be
unstable and have to be cased off prior to completion.
Cased Hole Gravel Packs
76
“Troll West Oil Province - Subsea Horizontal Completion Experience” D. Storegjerde SPE 35079 March 1996
77
“Foinaven Well Basis of Completion Design Document” G. Elliot 1997
78
“Gryphon Drilling and Completion Design” A. A. Stewart et al OTC 7428 May 1994
26 May 1998 Page 47

The cased hole gravel pack consists of a screen or slotted liner that is gravel packed inside a
perforated casing. This type of completion offers a higher degree of flexibility and is therefore the
most widely used. If a well has a relatively low potential for sand production, the formation can be
cased and perforated and the well produced. If sand production subsequently proves to be a
problem, a cased hole gravel pack can be performed at that stage. This can be possible without
79
removing the completion This type of completion also allows zonal isolation if this should be
required at a later stage.
The main drawbacks with cased hole gravel packs arise from the limited area open to flow through
perforations. Any effect which further reduces this area can lead to a severe reduction in
productivity - particularly with gas production. Perforations that do not get packed with high
permeability gravel at the time of the gravel packing operations, end up filled with formation
material when the well is put on production. These formation filled perforations are then essentially
plugged. Formation material (even very high permeability sands) will severely restrict flow into the
wellbore. When properly completed, cased hole gravel packs can be produced effectively at very
high rates. However, if the completion operation is performed incorrectly, the gravel pack will
provide a serious restriction to flow.
Gravel Packing Procedures
Attention to design requirements and operational detail are keys to successfully completing an
undamaged gravel pack well. Areas that require particular attention include:
x Cleaning the Casing - contaminants on the casing wall (scale, rust, cement, pipe drop etc) will
significantly reduce the permeability of the gravel pack. The casing must therefore be cleaned
prior to the gravel pack operation. This is usually achieved by means of a bit and scraper trip
with multiple circulations of clean solids-free non-damaging fluids. The work string should also
be washed (‘pickled’) with 5 to 10% hydrochloric acid.
x Workover and Completion Fluids - clear non-damaging brines are the preferred workover and
gravel pack fluids.
x Fluids for Gravel Pack Operations - The fluid carrying capacity can range from 1 lb/gal in
ungelled brine to 15lb/gal in high viscosity (greater than 350 cp) brine gelled with polymers,
such as HEC. Moderate to high gravel concentrations (8 to 12 lbs/gal) are generally selected
due to less damage risk than large volumes of fluids with low gravel concentrations and less
risk of bridging than the higher concentrations.
Gravel packing is performed under overbalance conditions as fluid leak-off into the formation
is essential. Filtered brines (2 micron absolute or finer) are normally used, with 1 to 2 lb/gal of
HEC or biopolymer (XC) being added to provide gravel carrying capacity. Fluid loss control
materials (LCM) may be needed during underreaming or after perforating since it can be
several hours before the gravel pack assembly can be run. The three main LCM candidates
are oil soluble resins (not used in gas wells), acid soluble carbonates (CaCO 3 chips) or water
soluble salt crystals (saturated salt systems). It is critical to be able to remove the LCM prior
to, or during, gravel packing, and the problems of removing acid soluble carbonates have
been well documented80
Experience has demonstrated significant benefits by pre-packing the perforations with gravel
prior to placing the LCM.
x Underreaming - in open hole gravel packing the casing is set above the pay. The casing point
should be selected so that overlying shales are cased off, thus avoiding heave and potential
contamination problems. The formation is then usually underreamed with non-damaging fluids
to remove drilling and cementing damage. The screen and blank extension is then hung from
the casing and centralized. The top of the screen is kept about 5 ft below the top of the
underreamed hole to compensate for settling. Gravel is then circulated into the annulus
between the formation and the screen.
79
“Planning, Execution and Verification of a Coiled Tubing Gravel Pack Job in the Statfjord Field” S. Zdenek et al SPE
31141 March 1996
80
“Soluble Fluid Loss Additives Can Reduce Well Productivities and Prevent Complete Gravel Placement” D. Sparlin and
R. W. Hagen SPE 14817 Feb 1986
26 May 1998 Page 48

x Perforating - Limited flow area is the main restriction to production in cased hole gravel packs
(CHGP). Hence, correct perforating design and execution plays a key role in the success of a
CHGP. To minimize the restriction, the highest possible perforation density that will not
damage the casing should be selected. The selected perforation charges should provide the
largest diameter possible, providing the penetration extends beyond the cement sheath. A shot
density of 12 spf with big hole charges (entrance hole greater than 0.7in) is recommended for
most CHGP applications. Clean up of perforations can be achieved with underbalanced
perforating (500 to 2000 psi). Clean-up of all perforations is vital so that leak-off through the
perforations is achieved and therefore gravel can be placed in all perforations
Perforation cavities can be enlarged with perforation washing techniques using brine or foam.
In underpressurized zones (<0.4 psi/ft) or very permeable zones (k greater than 500 md),
washing is risky due to the potential for large fluid loss and formation damage.
x Gravel Pack Placement and Retention - A gravel pack must stop the sand at the formation-
gravel interface to maintain maximum permeability in the pack. Any formation sand that enters
the gravel pack, or any mixing of sand and gravel during placement, can seriously reduce pack
81
permeability .
In order to prevent formation sand from entering the pack, the median diameter (D50) of the
gravel should not be greater than six times the median diameter of the formation sand, as
82
demonstrated by Saucier .
Likewise, the screen slot widths must be smaller than the smallest gravel particles. So for 20
to 40 ASTM mesh gravel (0.033 to 0.017 inches), the screen slot widths would normally be
0.012 inches.
Gravel placement typically involves pumping a gravel slurry down the tubing, through a
crossover tool and down into the screen-casing annulus to the lower telltale. When the telltale
screens out, a pressure increase is seen at surface, returns are shut off and the gravel slurry
is squeezed into the perforations.
The upper circulating position permits compaction of the pack and placement of additional
gravel reserve. Excess slurry in the tubing is then reversed-out. The main screen should
extend at least 5 ft beyond the upper and lower perforations to compensate for any
inaccuracies in depth measurement.
x Acidising - Acidising can be performed either before or after gravel pack placement. If acidising
is critical to the success of the completion, it should be performed prior to gravel packing. Post
gravel pack acidising is usually performed when a well fails to produce at an acceptable rate,
often to remove acid soluble LCM. Post gravel pack acid treatments have a high risk of
damaging the pack, with productivity increases often being obtained at the risk of sand control.
To avoid this, post gravel pack acid treatments should be pumped at low rates, remaining well
below fracture pressure.
x Gravel Packing Problems - Many problems can occur during gravel pack operations,
particularly related to formation damage, sand-gravel mixing, failure to remove LCM and
plugged screens. In thermal wells, steam breakthrough often causes erosion and/or corrosion
of the screen.
Quality control should be focused on gravels, screens, fluid cleanliness, LCM, polymers and
placement techniques, as these are critical to successful gravel packed completions.
5.3.1.3.5 Frac pack
81
“Porosity and Permeability of Unconsolidated, Upper Miocene Sands from Grain-Size Analysis” N. R. Morrow et al JSP
Vol 39 No 1 (1969)
82
“Considerations in Gravel Pack Design” R. J. Saucier JPT Feb 1974
26 May 1998 Page 49

Fracturing can occur naturally during gravel packing, particularly when squeezing with high sand
concentrations. This is not altogether undesirable since the resulting minifrac may bypass
damage. As a continuation of this many gravel pack wells are intentionally fractured during the
gravel placement. This technique (frac pack) is now routinely used - particularly in the Gulf of
Mexico - to produce wells with minimal skins. The skins associated with a cased hole gravel pack
are counteracted by the negative skins of a hydraulic fracture.
5.3.1.4 Stimulation
The reservoir and inflow performance aspects of stimulation are covered in section 4. This section
covers their impact on the completion architecture.
5.3.1.4.1 Hydraulic Fracturing

The reservoir performance aspects of hydraulic stimulation is covered in section 4. The tubing
stress analysis aspects are covered in section 6. However apart from optimising the reservoir
performance and making sure that the completion or test string doesn’t fail during the stimulation,
there are a number of other areas:
1. The ability to successfully hydraulically stimulate a well is dependent on the well deviation and
azimuth through the reservoir and the stress regime within the reservoir. In Alaska a study of
83
100 wells concluded that the optimum performance is obtained with wells under 10 degrees
from vertical or orientated along the fracture propagation plane. This means that the
requirement for hydraulic fracturing must be addressed at the start of the well design process.
The actual stress directions can be determined from break-out analysis of local wells - usually
using multi-arm caliper logs. If no local data is available, regional trends can be used.
2. The pressures and temperatures likely during the stimulation must be assessed against the
proposed completion design by tubing stress analysis (see section 6), but also for the casing
and liner. For the completion it is often possible that pressure is applied to the tubing - casing
annulus to reduce tubing stresses. This option is not readily available for liner or casing. The
particular areas that have to be considered during the casing design process are the casing
below the packer and the liner. If there are any areas of poor cement, it is likely that the casing
or liner will see the full differential between the reservoir or formation pressure and the
stimulation pressure. The casing design should therefore not unduly restrict pump pressures or
rates by failing to consider these effects. There have been a number of problems caused by
inadequate liners unduly restricting stimulation.
3. The perforation strategy must be carefully considered:
x The use of orientated perforations (180q phasing) in deviated wells has proved beneficial in
84
some areas . However when the same technique was tried in nearby Prudhoe bay, the
result was high treating pressures, early screen-outs and a low percentage of proppant
83 85
placed . Likewise in the North Sea , results have been largely disappointing. The opinion
86 87
within BP is that in the laboratory in highly deviated wells or where the stress direction is
well know and well constrained orientated perforating works. Elsewhere it doesn’t.
x Where oriented perforations are not used, use large shot density, big hole charges low
phase angled charges. The logic is that the greatest number of perforations aids in reducing
perforation friction. In certain areas (e.g. Cusiana) it is beneficial to use the deep penetrating
or hard rock charges rather than big hole charges.
83
“Deviated well Fracturing and Proppant Production Control in the Prudhoe Bay Field” Martins, J. P. et al SPE 24858
Oct ‘92
84
“Impacts of Oriented Perforating on Fracture Stimulation Treatments: Kuparuk River Field, Alaska” G. Pospisil SPE
29645 March 1995
85
“Propped Fracture Stimulation in Deviated North Sea Gas Wells” C. J. De Pater SPE 26794
86
Contact Martin Rylance
87
“Experimental Study on the Impact of Perforations on Hydraulic Fracture Tortuosity” Van-De-Ketterij SPE 38149
26 May 1998 Page 50

x When stimulating high angle wells, there are two choices of strategy: have the fracture plane
parallel to the well or perpendicular. This will depend on the orientation of the well and stress
regime. Clearly this impacts the perforation strategy to a huge extent. When the fracture plan
will be perpendicular to the well, a very short interval (few feet) should be perforated at very
high shot density (12 spf +). This may require the interval to be reperforated. The choice of
technique will depend on the reservoir geometry and the relative inflow performance merits
88
of each method .
x It is vital that only a limited interval is perforated. If stimulation is being considered, avoid
blanket perforating and avoid perforating close to water or gas. Each well will be specific, but
intervals greater than 200 feet have proved difficult to successfully stimulate. For longer
intervals, stacked fracs are required. Traditionally this has been achieved with sand (or
proppant) placed over the previously stimulated interval. This may require capping with
89
retrievable plugs in order to prevent subsequent moving of the sand . The upper interval
can then be perforated and stimulated. However there are a variety of other tools and
90 91
techniques involving retrievable bridge plugs, or other isolation tools , .
x It is sometimes considered that perforating overbalance will not effect the ultimate
productivity of the well. However, it is likely that removing the perforation debris by
underbalance perforating will help the stimulation in that perforation friction can be reduced
and you are assured that the perforations will be open prior to pumping. It there is perforation
debris, then a pre-stimulation acid wash may help.
4. If there are multiple intervals or the interval is too long to successfully stimulate in one go,
some form of multi-frac is required. This requires isolation of the lower interval once stimulated.
How this is done is influenced by the completion design. The simplest approach is to leave the
proppant across the previously perforated interval and then perforate the upper interval. This
requires a tacking of top proppant and clean-out to the new perforating depth. The subsequent
perforating if underbalance may move this sand plug and create problems. A sand cap may
therefore be required. Alternatively the isolation may be performed entirely with a mechanical
plug. This is often the case if the lower interval doesn’t require any stimulation - or the well is
flowed (and cleaned out) between stimulating the separate intervals. The most reliable plug will
be a monobore (non inflatable) tool - either a retrievable bridge plug, cement retainer, or
drillable plugs. This will influence the overall well design.
5. There is some debate as to the effect the liner size has on stimulation. A small liner could
cause a screen-out in the well or an increase in treating pressures if the liner is long.
Stimulation using 4.5" liners has however been tried and tested with no undue problems.
6. Proppant may erode tubing or components - especially those with small bores. This applies to
nipples and safety valves as well as the tree.
7. The wellhead and tree rating need not unduly restrict treating pressures. If the well is being
treated immediately following completion, then the well can be stimulated through the tubing
hanger running or landing string. Alternatively tree savers can be used to isolate the tree.
5.3.1.4.2 Acid Stimulation

There are a variety of acid stimulation techniques available:
88
“Hydraulic Fracturing of Horizontal Wells: An Update of Design and Execution Guidelines” O. Lietard SPE 37122 Nov
1996
89
“Sand Capping Options” - draft guidelines M. Rylance BP Colombia internal memo 1997.
90
“A Unique method of Perforating, Fracturing, and Completing Horizontal Wells” A. P. Damgaard SPE 19282 Sep 1989
91
“Multiple Proppant Fracturing of a Horizontal Wellbore: An Integration of Two Technologies” M.R. Norris SPE 36899
Oct 1996
26 May 1998 Page 51

x An acid wash designed to wash the perforations, liner, tubing, sand screens or open hole. The
purpose is to remove acid soluble damage that is in the completion or casing or in the very
near wellbore (e.g. in the perforations). The damage may be carbonate scales, or filter cake
that can be broken down with acid. The treatments are usually circulated in with coiled tubing.
Such a treatment is ideal where the acid will immediately contact the problem. The acid will
rarely invade deep into the reservoir and if it does it will only readily go where it is easiest. The
completion design effects the intervention only in that any elastomers or metals may be
effected by the acids or the circulating rates may cool the well and cause stress problems. For
example for sand control screens with a 304SS or 316SS metallurgy wire wrap, these may be
92
corroded by contact with acid, leading to failure. Such failures occurred on the Alba A07 well .
x Selective acid washes. The main problem with acid washes is that the acid will only go where it
wants. If acid is required to enter perforations or contact filter cake behind screens or slotted
liners, some form of diversion is required. This can be in the form of wash cups or seal stacks
run on coiled tubing or drillpipe, or more elaborate straddles and inflatable packers. Such
techniques allow a small interval to treated in isolation and ensures acid is forced where it is
required. The limitations are usually the pressure differentials of the packers. The completion
design will significantly help the process if it is monobore.
x Acid fracture treatments. When higher rates and pressures are required, the treatments usually
have to be bullheaded down the tubing and into the reservoir. This can be done using a
stimulation vessel or pump truck unit. The aim here is to treat the reservoir rather than just the
wellbore or near wellbore. Unlike hydraulic fracture treatments this does not necessarily imply
pressures greater than fracture pressure:
x An acid (normally hydrochloric) fracture treatment in carbonates. Here the rock is
fractured and the acid etches the fracture face.
x A matrix treatment. Normally for sandstones a mud acid with pre-flush of hydrochloric
acid is used. This partially dissolves the matrix or cement and improves local
permeability or removes acid soluble damage.
x Treatments for naturally fractured carbonates. These treatments are designed to clean-out
existing natural fractures that have been blocked during the drilling process. This involves
suspending the mud solids and either pushing them out into the reservoir or back producing
93
them .
5.3.1.4.3 Influence on Completion Design

All acid treatments will impact the completion design:
1. All flow wet components in the flow stream must be resistant to the acid and additives. This
means that elastomers (especially PBRs) must have appropriate acid ratings. Nitrile, for
example, will not be resistant to acid for long periods or at elevated temperatures. Note it is not
normally required to upgrade the packer element elastomers as they are unlikely to be
contacted by the dense acid. Contact Steve Groves or BP Sunbury for more details. The tubing
or casing and all metallic components must also be resistant to the acid. This is normally
achieved through the use of corrosion inhibitors. Different metallurgies may require different
corrosion inhibitors. Particular emphasis must be placed on sand control and the effect the acid
has on the screens.
92
“Chevron / BP Horizontal Well Failure Workshop” May 1997
93
“Use of High-Angle, Acid-Fractured Wells on the Machar Field Development” J.M. Gilchrist et al SPE 28917 Oct ’94
26 May 1998 Page 52

2. In order to be effective, the acid must be diverted to all parts of the wellbore requiring
treatment. This may be through intervention (straddles, wash cups etc) in which case the
completion should preferably be monobore. The major and most successful technique for
diversion is the use of ball sealers. These are pumped into the well after each acid stage. They
then seal these perforations that are taking fluid and divert it to those that are not. The process
is repeated up to 10 - 15 times with continuous pumping. This technique requires a dedicated
perforation strategy to be effective. The ball sealing efficiency is dependent on the number of
perforations open at any one time. Blanket perforating is not recommended and the total
94
number of perforation holes is ideally less than 300. Ball sealer efficiency can be predicted .
Perforating on the low side of the well is recommended for dense balls (sinkers) and on the top
side for lighter balls (floaters). Other diversion techniques include flakes, viscous fluids, wax or
resins, but are less dependable and are perhaps more applicable to difficult situations such as
open hole completions.
3. The tubing and liner stress analysis must account for the pressures and temperatures
encountered during the stimulation. The considerations are similar to those of hydraulic
fracturing. The risk of a ball out (total isolation of all perforations with balls) must be considered
if ball sealers are used. This will result in high surface pressures and either automatic pump
shut-down or release of PRVs.
5.3.1.5 Multi-laterals
The details and uses of multilateral technology is outside the scope of the completion design
manual. From a completion perspective, multilateral systems fall into various categories:
1. Open hole systems, where no completion system is used.
2. Systems where control of each lateral is possible. Such systems normally require isolation of
the junction or a junction set in impermeable rock.
3. Systems where re-entry of each lateral is possible.
Conventional technology in the form of sliding sleeves and multiple packers allows control of each
lateral in a simple manner (Figure 15).
Figure 15 - Simple Multilateral Isolation System
Sliding Side Door
Blast Joint Child Bore (open

hole or otherwise)
Parent Bore
Nipple
94
“Modeling of Ball Sealer Diversion” P.A. Bern joint industry project PEA-26/CEA-33
26 May 1998 Page 53

For systems requiring re-entry into more than one bore of the well, some form of selective entry
nipple or divertor is required. Some of the issues associated with multilateral technology are:
1. It is much easier to design a well for multilaterals, rather than retrofit later. The addition of
special millable casing section or orientation sections is then possible.
2. Isolation of the junction (and both bores) is achievable for low pressures but increases the
complexity.
3. The requirement for intervention into both bores complicates the systems considerably. If
possible integrate any intervention into the drilling of the child bore. For example, stimulation of
the child bore will be easiest after the bore has been drilled and lined. Carefully consider the
value of access to both bores against the full cost AND added risk.
4. Commingling of fluids will occur at the junction. This may easily lead to scale precipitation if not
inhibited against.
5. The installation method will depend on the actual equipment, however this will likely involve
some form of suspension of the parent bore. The suspension method must therefore be
resistant to debris.
5.3.1.6 Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

This category of reservoirs requires special consideration. If overbalanced drilling is performed,
during the drilling of these reservoirs, as each fracture is encountered there will be a loss of mud.
95
This can be used to identify the open fracture . Unfortunately, the mud invades the fracture until
the drilling overbalance is restrained by the yield strength of the mud or the fracture is plugged by
solids. If the solids are large enough and plug off against the fracture mouth, then they can be
easily removed by underbalance perforating. If they invade the fracture and plug the fracture
faces, they are harder to remove and an underbalance greater than the drilling overbalance will be
required.
For naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs, the completion technique will normally be
overbalanced drilling with identification of fractures through accurate mud loss data or open hole
logs such as dipole sonics or calipers. These intervals will then be selectively perforated
96
(overbalance or underbalance). The well can then be acid stimulated as discussed in section
97
5.3.1.4.2. This is effective in hard chalks and limestones . In softer rocks, the fractures can close
with time, reducing productivity.
For naturally fractured sandstones, there is no clear completion technique:
1. Overbalanced drilling, followed by open hole completion. This is the easiest technique to
implement. Unfortunately it is usual for one or two fractures to clean-up. This flow then limits
the drawdown that can then be applied to the other fractures. This is exasperated by long
reservoir sections where the heel of the well experiences the greatest drawdown and the toe
may see significantly less (“Lazy Toe” phenomena). This has been seen on the Clair field
where the toe of the well rarely flows at all.
2. Underbalanced drilling. If the fractures are not closed off during the drilling, the productivity will
be much higher. It is vital that the underbalance is maintained continuously in order to prevent
any losses into the reservoir. This applies during the completion phase as well. The usual
completion technique would be either barefoot if the rock strength is adequate or pre-drilled
liner. See section 5.3.1.7 for details on completing underbalance drilled wells.
3. Hydraulic fracturing. Depending on the orientation of the natural fractures with respect to
induced fractures, hydraulic fracturing can be very effective in regaining communication with
natural fractures. The completion must then be designed to be optimum for stimulation (section
5.3.1.4.1).
95
“Advances in Characterising Natural Fracture Permeability from Mud Log Data” C. Dyke et al SPE 25022 Nov ‘92
96
“Design, Execution and Evaluation of Acid Treatments of Naturally Fractured Carbonate Oil Reservoirs of the North
Sea” O. Lietard, J. Bellarby SPE 30411 Sep ‘95
97
“Banff - A high angle Fractured Chalk Development for the New Era” G. Sykes et al SPE 36915 Oct ‘96
26 May 1998 Page 54

4. Large drawdowns. As the fractures are plugged either with solids or by the yield strength of the
mud, having a large drawdown will promote effective clean-up. This drawdown need only be
temporary. There are a number of ways of maximising the drawdown:
x The use of artificial lift (either temporary or permanent).
x Nitrogen lifting the well during the clean-up phase.
x Lowering the wellhead pressure to the minimum during the clean-up phase.
x Running a blank uncemented liner. By using ECPs (External Casing Packers), different
reservoir sections can be hydraulically isolated. This allows a large drawdown to placed on
the liner by circulating base oil, diesel or nitrogen into the well. The liner can then be
perforated from the toe upwards. This allows a very large underbalance to be applied to the
toe. As each section is perforated (or punched), a plug could also be placed to allow each
section to have its own large drawdowns.
x Perforated cased and cemented intervals underbalanced. Large underbalances usually
require tubing conveyed guns to avoid being blown up hole. Again plugs may used to allow
underbalances to applied to more than one section.
x Instantaneous drawdown devices. These tools are wireline deployed and sit in a nipple.
They are activated (opened) by a pre-set pressure differential from below. The surge this
creates will propagate the drawdown down to the reservoir section. The drawdown above
the tool is created by circulating in nitrogen or lift gas.
5.3.1.7 Underbalance Drilling Completion Techniques

Underbalance drilling is a technique deployed to avoid fluids and solids invasion into the reservoir.
It finds application mainly in depleted reservoirs, naturally fractured sandstones and tight gas
reservoirs. The technique to drill can be conventional drillpipe and rotating BOPs or coiled tubing
drilling through a pre-installed completion.
If drilling through the completion, then the completion architecture must be optimum:
x Consider the requirement for gas lift through the completion in order to maintain a suitable
underbalance and lift fluids.
x The completion must avoid unnecessary changes in I.D. and therefore avoid areas where drill
solids can build up.
x The completion and liner I.D. should allow the drill bit and BHA through!
x Check well records for fish / debris left in sump before selecting candidate well for through
tubing drilling. Fishing jobs can significantly affect the economics of such a job, e.g. Ula
98
underbalanced CT well deepenings .
x If considering through tubing sidetracks, then a monobore completion is much preferred for
setting (and retrieving) whipstocks.
x The safety valve should be protected from the drill solids. This usually means that a protection
sleeve is run to isolate both the valve (if tubing retrievable) and also protect the seal bores that
would be used for a wireline retrievable valve or an insert valve in a tubing retrievable valve. If
the I.D. through the safety valve sleeve does not allow for the bit passage, then the sleeve can
99
be pinned above the BHA and allowed to “snap” into the nipple when running in .
x The stress analysis should reflect the potential cooling and potential evacuated tubing
conditions.
98
SPE 35544, “Underbalanced Coiled Tubing Drilling Experience on Ula Field”.
99
As used on West Sole for CT drilling - contact Charlie Leslie SPR
26 May 1998 Page 55

x If possible avoid the use of dynamic seals. The combination of cooling (contraction) and solids
means that there is a good chance of damage to seal bores through scoring. Such behavior is
commonly observed in water injectors for example where conditions are more benign. If a
dynamic seal is required then avoid an overshot (expansion joint) type as this allows solids to
settle in the seal area.
The reservoir completion must fit in with the underbalance drilling. If the reservoir has been drilled
underbalance, it will be counter productive if the reservoir has to be killed or fluids / solids are lost
to the formation during the completion phase. The easiest means of completing is barefoot.
However this requires a competent formation. The drilling has been performed without a
completion in place, it also means that a trip is required with a packer (wireline set) and plug to
isolate the reservoir prior to running the completion. Alternatively the completion can be run with
the reservoir exposed, but deployment of a completion in this manner is not recommended.
If a liner is required to prevent hole collapse, then the pre-drilled liner must be deployed
underbalanced. Well control then becomes an issue especially if the open hole section exceeds
the length that can be installed in a lubricator or riser. There are various options:
1. The liner can either be run unperforated using snubbing or coiled tubing (using flush joint
connections).
2. The pre-drilled holes can be plugged with a dissolvable material such as aluminum. Acid is
then circulated over the aluminum when the liner has been set. Tubing with dissolvable holes is
also available in coil form as well as jointed tubing, although the restriction will be the
metallurgy limits of coiled tubing (e.g. no 13Cr).
3. Use long interval perforating techniques to deploy the pre-drilled liner through a completion. For
example using the riser on a subsea well or a swab valve set in the completion.
26 May 1998 Page 56

5.3.2 Total Depth Requirements

The completion and intervention practices influences the total depth of the well:
1. Drilling and completion requirements such as cement or circulating shoes.
2. Logging may be required to the end of the well. A sump to allow all the tools access to the toe
may be required.
3. The perforating strategy influences the sump requirements. This is particularly the case for
tubing conveyed guns that are dropped off after firing.
4. Debris (perforating, or sand) - particularly the case for injectors where debris can not be carried
up by the well fluids.
5. Ball sealers if acid stimulating with sinking balls.
6. Hydraulic fracturing - any requirement to let excess proppant settle in a sump rather than be
cleaned out.
7. Any requirement for tools or components to be dropped into the sump. For example pump out
subs? If the well requires suspension for any period of time, there may be an advantage of
having a sump so that if tailpipe plugs can not be removed, the tailpipe can be cut off and
pushed into the sump.
Generally the larger the margin of error the better. However economic considerations will dictate
whether the extra cost of hole is justified.
26 May 1998 Page 57

5.3.3 Interface of the Reservoir with the Tubing

This is a crucial area of the completion design as it impacts the casing design, the completion
reliability and future operations / interventions.
The considerations for the interface are:
1. Is isolation of the casing required from production fluids? There might be two reasons for this:
Prevention of casing corrosion. This can be avoided by preventing production fluids from
contacting the casing. It can also be substantially reduced by preventing flow against the
casing and leaving a dead space. Contact BP Sunbury Metallurgists for further details.
Prevention of excessive burst or collapse pressures being applied to casing. High drawdowns
might produce high collapse loads. Stimulation (for example) might produce high burst loads.
2. Is isolation of the liner top required by the completion?
If the liner top would fail if exposed to production or stimulation pressures?
If the integrity of the liner top is questionable (e.g. poor cement job and no liner top packer)
If there is no liner top seal and one is now required with the completion.
3. Mechanical access to the reservoir. This can be by coiled tubing, slickline, electricline, drillpipe
and tractors:
Ensure that the tools are not restricted by changes in I.D. Coiled tubing may be restricted by a
gap between tubing and liner or by ineffective containment of buckling, tractors do not like
sections of 95/8" casing for example - speak with the coiled tubing, tractor or wireline company
before you commit to a particular design.
As with all components in the completion, ensure that internal tapers are acceptable. A taper of
45q is the maximum acceptable for all wells. For high angle wells, where the change in I.D. is
large, the taper should be 10q or 20q. The taper should apply for all edges whether going into or
out of the well.
Carefully consider the mule shoe design on the bottom of tubing. The use of a half mule is
generally not recommended and a full mule shoe preferred - this allows tools easier re-entry
without the need for any rotation. There have been may cases of intervention tools hanging up
when trying to re-enters PBRs, tailpipes etc. Schiehallion for example in 1998 experienced
problems with fin type centralisers and a half mule design. If in doubt, perform a test rig-up in a
yard and try out various intervention tools - before installing the completion in the wellbore!
4. The fluid passage between the liner and the tubing should be as smooth as possible.
This will avoid unnecessary turbulence, which leads to erosion or unnecessary pressure drops.
Sharp pressure drops can induce locally high scaling or asphaltene deposition.
With sections of large I.D. (e.g. sections of exposed production casing) there is an opportunity
for solids (perforation debris or sand) or liquids to drop out. This can cause flow stability
problems or lead to blockage of pipe.
Sections of large I.D. make clean-up interventions much harder. This is particularly the case for
coiled tubing treatments where circulation rates are restricted. Virtually all completions have a
high likelihood of requiring a coiled tubing clean-out at some point in the wells life.
5. Well isolation - the interface between the liner and tubing should allow for isolation of the well
below the packer if required. Ideally this isolation should also be available in the liner. This
allows for the packer to be pulled without killing the well.
6. Interface between the casing and tubing - the interface requirements between the liner and
tubing must not detract from the requirement to have a reliable interface between the casing
and tubing.
Considering the above requirements, the optimum design that satisfies all of these does not exist!
It is therefore a trade off of which is these requirements has the greatest importance. Options are
shown in Figure 16.
26 May 1998 Page 58

Figure 16 - Reservoir - Tubing Interface Options
a b c d e
Casing Set Packer Liner Set Casing Set Packer Casing Set Packer Liner Top
(No Liner) Packer Above Liner with Stab into Liner PBR
For example where complete isolation of the casing from static fluids is not required, the optimum
interface is option (d) in Figure 16. This allows a smooth passageway for fluids and tools and yet is
simple and reliable. It does however require that the tubing can fit inside a liner and that the
space-out can be easily achieved to within 1 or 2 tubing joints. For example, if a 5" liner and 5.5"
5
tubing are used inside 9 /8" casing, a few joints of 7" liner can be used with a liner hanger. The
5
5.5" tubing then enters the 7" liner and the packer set in 9 /8" casing. This requires a few joints of
7" pipe as well as a few joints of 5.5" flush joint pipe (- Example of the Liner - Tubing Interface for
a Monobore CompletionFigure 17).
Figure 17 - Example of the Liner - Tubing Interface for a Monobore Completion
5.5”
tubing
Static production fluid against casing
5.5” flush joint tubing inside liner
7” pipe (3 to 5 joints)
20 degree taper between liner sizes
5” liner
26 May 1998 Page 59

Where even static production fluid against the casing is unacceptable or the liner top can not be
exposed to excessive pressures, the simplest solution is to place the packer in the liner itself. This
may also be required for running TCP guns. Unfortunately, this obviously destroys any monobore
concepts and introduces a more jagged profile for fluids or intervention.
In order to avoid this, some designs have used the liner top PBR. The male member is run with
the tubing and simply stabs into the PBR. This design is simply to use and operate, given the
following cautions:
x If tools are being run through the PBR (e.g. liner clean-up trips), these may score the PBR and
prevent a seal.
x The seals can be damaged by running with the completion. This can largely be avoided by
effective centralizing immediately above the seals.
x There is now no opportunity to run a nipple beneath a packer for plugging prior to top hole
workovers. The liner must therefore be sized to accept suitable retrievable plugs - monobore is
recommended.
x The PBR is often large bore. This means that large compressive forces can be placed on the
bottom of the completion leading to large movements. This is particularly the case for water
injection wells (high pressures and cold fluids). In order to avoid this movement and therefore
potential leaks a large amount can be slacked of on a no-go in the PBR - ensure the PBR can
withstand these loads!
x The space-out requires a fixed top and bottom point. This requires that the PBR is stabbed
prior to making up the hanger. This is impractical for deep water depth subsea wells.
The other solution to this to incorporate seals between the liner and tubing - and use a packer as
well. This can result in a trapped volume and therefore potential stress analysis concerns (chapter
6). This can be alleviated by uni-directional seals - allowing trapped pressures to bleed off. The
advantage of this technique is that simply pressuring up on the tubing can be used to set the
packer.
26 May 1998 Page 60

5.3.4 Interface of Tubing With Casing

The various options for connecting the tubing with the casing are shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18 - Tubing to Casing Interface Options
Packer and Packer and

Packer and Liner Top
Packer and Expansion direct tubing No packer
anchor latch PBR
PBR Joint connection
The first question is: is a seal between the tubing and casing required at all. It us usually
advantageous to isolate the casing to tubing annulus from production fluids. This is for corrosion
mitigation and as a barrier in the case of a wellhead or tree integrity problem.
However under certain circumstances, avoiding a packer is useful and justified. The main
advantage is in pumped wells. Production of gas up the annulus allows for better pump
performance and lower bottom hole pressures. From a safety and integrity view, packerless
100 101
completions should be risk assessed , and account for the following:
1. Whether the well is capable of flow to surface without the assistance of a pump? However
Wytch Farm have still justified packerless completions on wells that can flow unaided to
surface.
2. The corrosion and integrity monitoring aspects of the production casing should be addressed,
bearing in mind wet gas production and varying liquid levels. There should also be no historical
concerns over casing, liner or liner hanger condition from drilling, completion, or other
interventions.
3. The protection of the wellhead and Christmas tree to prevent damage by heavy lifts or vehicles
/ vessels etc.
4. Any aquifers are protected from hydrocarbons. For example Wytch Farm specify that there two
casing strings across the aquifer.
5. The consequences of a leak at the tree or wellhead should be assessed.
6. There is a monitoring system in place for all annuli and the Maximum Allowable Annulus
Surface Pressures (MAASPs) are alarmed or similarly protected.
For these reasons, packerless completions tend to be used almost exclusively on land wells.
100
“Wytch Farm Removal of DHSVs and Production Packers (Risk Assessment)” Report ESR.96.SA.022 Garry
Stevenson Jan 1997
101
“Removal of DHSVs and Production Packers Engineering Support, BP Wytch Farm Ref:WP024/001” Craig Paveley
Sep 1996
26 May 1998 Page 61

If a seal between the tubing and casing is required, this will be either with a packer or a seal into
the liner top PBR (as discussed in section 5.3.3). It has often been viewed that the most reliable
completions avoid the use of expansion devices. For example, the Foinaven and Schiehallion
fields do not use any expansion device and use heavier weight tubing to counteract the large
102
forces. However the reliability of expansion devices is reasonable:
x The failure rate of PBRs and expansion joints is on average 0.01 for all well types and seal
assembly types. The failure rate is the average failure probability per year and does not
account for the failure time distribution.
x Most of the failures reported have been on water injection wells (failure rate is 0.03) , where
there is large thermal cycling and movement of the expansion device. Production wells seal
assemblies have a failure rate of 0.005.
The reliability of the expansion device must be put in perspective compared to other completion
items and the intervention philosophy. For example on cased and perforated water injection well
with good corrosion control, the expansion device may be the most unreliable component. On a
production well with sand control (for example), it is likely that the sand control may be the item
most likely to fail.
The use of an expansion device will be for any of two reasons:
1. To allow for movement in the tubing caused by pressure or thermal loads (stress analysis).
2. To provide a tubing disconnect that is effective and allows for relatively straight forward
reconnect.
The tubing disconnect capability may alternatively be provided by:
1. An anchor latch that unlatches by a predetermined upward or rotational force. The reliability of
these devices with appropriate elastomer selection is generally excellent if they can be
designed to prevent premature disconnect (e.g. during a scale squeeze) and yet disconnect
when required. The ability to get torque or upward force to the packer may be limited by
completion components or the well profile.
2. LH premium connection. This avoids any elastomers, but requires sufficient torque can be
applied from surface in order to unlatch. This is not always possible.
3. Chemical cutters. The reliability of this method is directly proportional to the clearance
between the cutter and the tubing. This implies that the nipples through which the cutter
passes and the joint of tubing to be cut are of similar I.D. For example in the GoM Mars
103
field , there were a significant number of problems with chemical cutters either not fully
penetrating the tubing or not firing.
4. Mechanical cutters. These cutters can be run on coiled tubing or drillpipe and use rotating
knives and hydraulic power. The generally provide an excellent cut and do not have the same
I.D. constraints of chemical cutters. They do of course require coil or pipe and are therefore
harder to mobilize than wireline conveyed tools.
If a cutter is used as a disconnect then the means of reconnecting must also be considered. A
stacked packer arrangement is usual (Figure 19).
102
Source Sintef Reliability Database
103
Personal communication Ronald Plott Houston
26 May 1998 Page 62

Figure 19 - Stacked Packer Following Cut Tubing
tubing
connections
Before cutting After cutting Stacked Packer with

seal-less overshot
Such a technique requires cutting the tubing below a connection (using a CCL for depth control). It
also requires the overshot to fit over the cut tubing without hanging up. The cut must therefore be
smooth.
If an expansion device is used, then there are two types (PBR or expansion joint). The PBR has
the female member on the bottom part and the seals attached to the male part. The expansion
joint has the female member as the upper component and the seals are attached to this. The
advantages and disadvantages of each are shown in Table 6.
Table 6 - Considerations of PBRs vs. Expansion Joints
Advantages Disadvantages
PBRs x When connected, debris from inside the x When connected, debris from
tubing will not fall into the seal bore. outside the tubing may collect on
x Generally easier to re-enter once the seal bore.
separated.
Expansion x When connected, debris from outside the x When connected, debris from inside
Joints tubing will not fall into the seal bore. the tubing may collect on the seal
x As the seals are on the female member, bore.
the seal bore can be made small (as low x When intervening down through the
as the O.D. of the tubing). expansion joint, there will always be
x The seals are protected from wear when a larger I.D. interval and lip that has
being run or retrieved. to be passed through.
x The female member can be modified to
form an effective debris cap if deep well
suspension is required.
x The expansion joint can be designed to
have a top no-go as well as a bottom no-
go.
Note that an expansion joint is NOT an upside down PBR! It is vital that the seals are always on
the recoverable item!
26 May 1998 Page 63

The other considerations for expansion devices that may impact the completion architecture are:
x Will the expansion device be run pinned and how does this impact the installation and packer
setting method.
x Will the installation be designed to keep the seals static during normal operations. NB this can
be aided by surface slack-off after the packer has been set. However this impacts the
installation procedures and is not practical in a subsea well.
26 May 1998 Page 64

5.3.5 Upper Completion
5.3.5.1 Tubing - Annulus Access Requirements

There has been some debate about the need for access between the annulus and the tubing.
There are two cases to consider:
1. Circulation or injection of fluid from the annulus to the tubing, when the tubing is not going to be
pulled.
2. Circulation or injection of fluid from the annulus to the tubing, when the tubing is going to be
pulled.
When the tubing has to be pulled anyway (i.e. worked over), there will be a need to displace the
hydrocarbons out of the tubing. This can be accomplished by bull-heading, but circulation is more
efficient. The techniques for circulation are either using coiled tubing (if readily available) or more
commonly using a tubing punch and circulating through the annulus. Tubing punches may be
mechanical (run on slickline and activated by jarring) or electrical (similar to perforating guns).
This is a tried and tested technique.
If the tubing is not going to be pulled annulus to tubing communication may be required for other
reasons:
1. Installation of a jet pump or hydraulic submersible pump.
2. Gas lift.
3. Prevention of over pressurisation of the annulus.
4. The injection of fluids (e.g. inhibitors wash water etc.).
5. Changing out the annulus fluid (e.g. inhibitor injection or thermal insulation).
6. Emergency procedures call for the bull-heading of the formation, but this is difficult to achieve
by bull-heading through the tubing?
7. A reservoir zone is being temporarily isolated by packers and tubing. This may be to allow for
separate production of two or more zones or to allow for selective stimulation or treatment of
individual zones.
There are two solutions to these issues:
1. Running a permanent component in the completion that allows communication when required.
This is either a sliding sleeve or a mandrel with check valve or gas lift valve. The major
problem with sliding side doors is that their reliability has not been good. They are usually good
when installed. When they are required however they are either difficult to open or difficult to
close again. This is usually because of scale, corrosion or debris. Side pocket mandrels have a
much greater reliability as the seals are fully recoverable and the seal bore isolated from the
tubing flow path.
2. Running a tubing punch when communication is required and then a straddle when the hole
needs isolating. For example it is possible to run a gas lift valve or jet pump integral to the
straddle. This allows for remedial artificial lift.
5.3.5.2 Positioning of Downhole Safety Valves

The requirement for downhole safety valves (DHSV) are briefly discussed in section 5.2.10.
The type of valve falls into two main categories:
1. Surface controlled downhole safety valves. These use control line pressure to open the valve.
The valves may be wireline or tubing retrievable.
26 May 1998 Page 65

2. Flow controlled downhole safety valves. For production wells these are operated by flowrate
(and hence a pressure drop across the valve) exceeding a predetermined level, thus closing
the valve. They are not considered as reliable as surface controlled valves and are harder to
set up and test. They however find application in remedial operations, primarily to avoid or
delay a full workover. For injection wells, the valves are glorified check valves that close on no
flow or reverse flow. Again they can be wireline or tubing retrievable.
5.3.5.2.1 Production Wells

The statistics on reliability indicate that tubing retrievable downhole safety valves are more reliable
than wireline retrievable valves. Mean time to failures are approximately 6 years for wireline valves
and 15 years for tubing retrievable valves. Tubing retrievable valves are also full bore and allow for
easier access. Tubing retrievable valves can usually be converted into wireline retrievable valves
through wireline intervention.
Tubing retrievable surface controlled subsurface safety valves are therefore the most reliable and
common valves. Their position is dictated by various considerations:
3 1
1. The valve O.D. often impacts casing designs. For example 7" valves require 10 /4" casing. 5 /2"
5
valves may also not fit inside 9 /8" casing if large cables or lines are required to go round the
1
valve or if a pressure rating of 10,000 psi or more is required. 4 /2" valves may not fit inside 7"
casing.
2. They should be below platform piles or the probable crater depth in the event of a blowout.
3. If they are of a self equalising design, they should ideally be positioned below the hydrate
formation depth (determined from the geothermal gradients).
4. If adjacent drilling is going on with simultaneous production, the downhole safety valve can be
used during the drilling of the top hole section. It is closed to mitigate the consequences of a
collision. This avoids the need to run plugs into and out of the well.
5. As determined by local regulations.
6. Most designs prefer to be located in straight sections of wells.
7. The setting depth of the valve must be such that in the event of a control line leak, the valve is
fail close. This is a function of the valve design and the annulus fluid. It is also vital that the
control system is capable of opening the valve with the highest expected tubing pressure at the
valve. There have been instances of control systems that have been designed with inadequate
pressures.
5.3.5.2.2 Injection Wells

If a surface controlled valve is used, many of the same considerations apply as for production
wells.
For injection valves (subsurface controlled safety valves), the ideal position is below the packer on
water injection wells. This means that even with a tubing leak, the valve still offers full isolation of
the reservoir. However with a gas injector this could lead to a large inventory of gas above the
valve that would be liable to escape even if the safety valve shuts. Subsurface injection valves are
available in either wireline or tubing retrievable versions.
5.3.5.3 Nipples and Their Impact on the Completion Architecture

The different types of nipples systems, their manufacturers and merits is not considered in any
detail here. See section 8 for more details. However there are two basic categories:
1. Selective: This nipple system uses identical nipple through out the completion and therefore
the through bore can be maintained. Their main problem is tight clearances making them
difficult to use in any well with deposits, corrosion or debris.
2. Non selective (or no-go): This system uses progressively smaller nipples and unique locks.
The size reduction is typically 0.1" to 0.2" per nipple. This can clearly impact the completion
architecture - particularly the monobore approach.
26 May 1998 Page 66

Although with the development of plugs that can be set in blank tubing and liners, there is no
absolute requirement for nipples, they are still included as they are relatively inexpensive and
usually simple to use. They can also be positioned exactly where required, avoiding some of the
depth control problems with slick tubing set tools. Nipples are therefore commonly situated:
1. In the tubing hanger for isolation of the well prior to removing pressure control equipment such
as trees or BOPs.
2. As a ported nipple for setting a wireline retrievable subsurface safety valve or above a tubing
retrievable downhole safety valve for setting an insert safety valve.
3. Above a packer for pressure testing the tubing prior to setting a hydraulic set packer - if
required.
4. Below a packer for deep isolation for top hole workovers and for setting a conventional
hydraulic set packer.
With a no-go nipple system and this requirement for 4 nipples, the working monobore concept is
void if the tubing is the same size as the liner. The two solutions are:
1. Fewer or larger nipples. For example, the hanger nipple can be larger if it is accessed through
a riser that is larger than the tubing. Alternatively the nipple above the packer can be left out.
1
2. Using a liner /2" smaller in I.D. than the tubing. For example a 5.5" tubing would use a 5" liner.
Note the definitions of “monobore” vary. However for a “working monobore” approach, the
definition used here is: “the access to the well is such that the use of non inflatable plugs is
possible across the reservoir completion interval”.
26 May 1998 Page 67

5.3.6 Interface with Tree and Wellhead
5.3.6.1 Wellhead
The wellhead transfers the casing and completion loads to the ground via the surface casing and
provides a seal system and valves to control access to the tubing and annulus. It is made up of
one or more casing head spools, the tubing head spool and hanger and the Xmas tree.
Wellhead specifications are laid out in API Specification 6A, which was extensively revised in
October 1989.
It will primarily be the responsibility of the casing design to specify the requirements for the
wellhead. The completion will however impact the wellhead selection in a number of ways:
x Loads will be transferred from the tubing to the wellhead through the tubing hanger. This is not
normally a problem unless the wellhead is on a Tension Leg Platform (TLP) - see section
5.2.2.3 for more details.
x With a surface wellhead, there may be the requirement for injection into the annulus through
the wellhead (gas lift, jet pumps, inhibitors or injection water). The metallurgy and size of the
port will need to be considered for pressures drops, erosion and corrosion aspects as well as
pressure and temperature limits. Additional valves (actuated or manual) may be required for
integrity assurance or control.
x Certain parts of the wellhead will be exposed to annulus fluids (i.e. the production casing
hanger). This may impact their metallurgy.
x The monitoring of the annuli pressures may be required. This is relatively easy on an
accessible surface wellhead. For a subsea wellhead (section 5.2.2.4), this may require special
non intrusive sensors.
5.3.6.2 Tubing Hanger

The tubing hanger’s function is to transfer the weight of the tubing to the wellhead and to contain
the casing - tubing annulus fluid.
There are five types of tubing hanger system in common use:
x Mandrel (doughnut) compression hangers (metal-to-metal or elastomeric type).
x Ram type tension hangers.
x Slip and seal assemblies.
x Direct suspension from the tree - e.g. horizontal trees.
x Sub-mudline tubing hangers or tubing hanger packers.
The main problem with hanger selection occurs where the tubing is to be landed in tension (e.g. in
some gas wells and rod pumping wells), when this is applied mechanically rather than
hydraulically.
The number of vertical bores required through the tubing hanger for flow or supply conduits,
control lines, chemical injection lines and cables should be specified. These can be sealed with a
stab seal or an annular seal ring seal on an extended neck hanger. On subsea wells, a vertical
bore is also required for the annulus access, and proper orientation of the hanger with respect to
the guide base must be addressed.
The method by which the main bores will be plugged at surface during removal of the BOPs or
Christmas tree should be considered. There are two main options:
x Use of a plug profile in the hanger. This can be for either a plug or check valve run on rods, or
more commonly today a conventional nipple profile. It is particularly useful to have a tubing
hanger running tool and landing string that is slightly larger than the tubing being run. This
allows the use of a nipple profile that does not impact the rest of the completion.
26 May 1998 Page 68

x Use a wireline profile located below the hanger. This arrangement is most useful in subsea
wells if when running plugs into the nipple the running tool would sit inside the tree and if stuck
104
may prevent closure of valves . Note: by having the nipple below the hanger, it is harder to
access if plugs are stuck or debris falls on top of plugs. On a subsea well annulus bore, the use
of nipple below the hanger is recommended as in this case a stuck plug can if required be
punched above.
5.3.6.3 Christmas Tree

The type of Christmas tree to be used has a large impact on the completion costs, the completion
design and the intervention capabilities. Ensure the completion aspects are fully covered before
agreeing to the tree design.
Surface Trees:
x Conventional flanged trees are used on most land and low-to-moderate rate offshore wells.
x Solid block trees are sometimes used offshore, especially for high pressure or high rate wells
under critical service conditions since they reduce the number of turbulence raisers and
potential leak points. Under highly turbulent conditions, a Y configuration is available for the
side outlets.
x Horizontal trees. In this configuration the tree is installed before the BOPs. The casing and
tubing is then installed through the tree. All the tree valves are located on the side of the
vertical bore and are therefore ‘horizontal’.
Subsea Trees:
x ‘Conventional’ dual bore trees. These have two vertical bores for access to the production
tubing and the annulus. They are designated by the size of the bores e.g. 4 x 2, 5 x 2 or 7 x 2.
As the access to the annulus is through the tree, any special considerations such as gas lift
must be addressed.
x Horizontal. As in the surface horizontal trees, the BOP is run above the tree.
As a completions designer, the choice between horizontal and conventional trees must NOT be
left solely to the drilling engineer! Horizontal trees have the key advantage that the tree does not
have to be pulled in order to pull the tubing. This has the potential to save considerable time and
money when performing interventions such as ESP replacements. In addition, as all the valves are
away from the vertical bore, the installation and landing off of additional strings inside the tubing is
easier. This opens up more opportunities for retrofit gas lift, coiled tubing deployed pumps and
velocity strings.
A second master valve is usually required for sour and critical wells and where valve servicing is
difficult (e.g. on subsea and satellite wells). This may also be specified in local regulations. Some
companies specify a second manual master valve below any valve that is part of the ESD system
to facilitate servicing because of the risk of wear from spurious shutdowns.
Two side outlets are usually specified for sour high pressure and critical wells to allow permanent
installation of a kill line. This may also be specified in the local regulations, facility safety
philosophy or certification requirements. It is also convenient for valve equalization and well clean-
up.
Where frequent through-tubing workover or wireline operations are expected, a swab valve is
usually specified. Alternatively, the swab valve can be temporarily installed onto, or in place of, the
tree cap during well entry operations.
The production wing valve, choke and flowline valve arrangement must consider how the well is to
be brought on and shut down, how offtake will be controlled and how the main ESD valves will be
equalized. If a motorized adjustable choke is used, this should normally be of the full closing type
that can withstand the jet erosion during opening.
104
“Schiehallion Wells Basis of Design” contact P. Jackson
26 May 1998 Page 69

The pressure losses across the Christmas tree, choke and flowline connection must be
considered in the well deliverability analysis (Chapter 4) and can often be significantly reduced at
the maximum well capacity by avoiding turbulence and sudden direction changes.
The location of chemical injection points and the rate of fluid supply should be addressed,
particularly where chemical injection is required into the tubing to protect the DHSV and tree from
gas hydrates (refer to Section 5.2.7) or to equalize the ESD valves before opening.
If the tree valves are automated, it is highly desirable to have a staged ESD sequence in which the
wing or flowline valve closes first to stop the flow, before the SCSSV and master valve start to
close. In cold climate gas wells, it is common for the lowest of the master valve to be further
delayed on low level alarms to ensure that some methanol is dumped onto the SCSSV before the
well is fully isolated.
26 May 1998 Page 70

5.4 References
1. “Mars TLP A1 Completion Design Document” Shell GoM 1996 - supplied by R. Plott BP
2. Experience from Hutton TLP in North Sea
3. “Meeting the challenges of Deepwater Subsea Completion Design”
4. “Non intrusive Sensors - an answer to annulus pressure monitoring in subsea wellhead
equipment” F.C. Adamek et al OTC 7747 May 1995.
5. As performed by Foinaven - contact Huawen Gai or Grahame Elliot
6. John Mason - Schiehallion Asset
7. Omega Ltd., Aberdeen
8. Metrol technology
9. Trade Mark of Sensor Highway Ltd.
10. Enterprise Nelson field
11. “The effect of Extended Reach High Angle Drilling Trajectories on Wireline Operations” D.
Andrews internal filenote
12. “Applied Water Technology” Patton 1991
13. “Production Operations II: Well Completions, Workovers and Stimulation” T.O. Allen and A.
P. Roberts 1982
14. “Phosphonate Scale Inhibitor Adsorption / Desorption and the Potential for Formation
Damage in Reconditioned Field Core” M.M. Jordan et al SPE 27389 Feb 1994
15. “Magnetic Fluid Conditioner (MFC) Tool” Halliburton Brochure 1995
16. Previous Experience of Chemical Injection via Gas Lift” Drew McMahon BP Internal Report
1997
17. “Economic and Technical Advantages of Revolutionary New Chemical Delivery System for
Fractured and Gravel Packed Wells” P.J.C. Webb SPE 38548 Sep 1997
18. Trademark of DuPont Chemicals
19. “Detection of Formation Damage Associated to Paraffin in Reservoirs in the Recôncavo
Baino, Brazil” C. N. Khalil SPE 37238 Feb 1997
20. “Experiences With TFL in the Snorre Field” B.E. Gunnarsson SPE 28682 Oct 1994
21. “Evolution of the Snorre Field Downhole Completions System” B. E. Gunnarsson SPE 28890
Oct 1994
22. “Influence of Temperature and Pressure on Asphaltene Flocculation” A. Hirschberg Society
Petroleum Engineers J.24(3) 1984
23. Clyde, Ula and Gyda fields
24. “Asphaltene Deposition Problem in Venezuela Crudes - Usage of Asphaltene in Emulsion
Stability” P.M. Lichaa Oil Sands (1977) p.p. 609-624
25. “Role of Asphaltenes in Compositional Grading in a Reservoir Fluid Column” A. Hirschberg
JPT Jan 1988
26. Contact Geoff Weighill
27. e.g. BP Alaska Milne Point Schrader Bluff - contact Jim Fox
28. “Subsea Well Development and Producing Experience in the Ekofisk Field” T. Jobin JPT
April 1978
29. “Magnus Subsea Wells: Design, Installation, and Early Operational Experience” A. Dawson,
M. Murray SPE Prod Eng Nov 1987 p.p. 305-312
30. “Hydrate Inhibition Design for Deepwater Completions” J. Davalath SPE 26532 June 1995
26 May 1998 Page 71

31. “Auger Well Completions - Sand Control Installation and Mechanical Design” S.J. Norton
and C. D. Smith OTC 7886 May 1995
32. “Emulsification and Demulsification Related to Crude Oil Production” D.G. Thomson et al
Colloids and Surfaces 15 (1985) p.p. 175-189
33. “Sulphur Solubility in Sour Gases” E. Brunner JPT (Dec 1988) 1587-1592
34. “Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Their Activities in Oil Production” R. Cord-Ruwisch et al JPT
(Jan 1987) p.p. 97-106
35. Foinaven field basis of completion design
36. Miller field retrofit gas lift completion designs - contact Cledwyn Hughes or Joann McKenzie
37. Experience from BP Alaska - Contact Lee Kong Lea
38. Contact Graham MacKay
39. Contact Production Technologist Magnus - Dave Cooke
40. “Solving gas lift problems in the North Sea Clyde field” J. Pucknell, S. Goodbrand and A.
Green SPE 28915 Oct 94
41. Tony Green BP Sunbury
42. “Lessons Learnt on Coiled Tubing Completions” R.K. Stephens et al SPE 35590 May 1996
43. “Field installed Coiled Tubing Gas Lift Completions” T. B. Transactions et al SPE 38404 April
1997
44. “Operating electrical submersible pumps below the perforations” B.L. Wilson et al SPE
37451 March 1997.
45. “Captain field electrical submersible pump, condition monitoring and completion systems.”
D.J. Cohen et al, SPE 8510 May 1997
46. “Coiled tubing deployed ESPs utilizing internally installed power cable - a Project update” R.
Cooper SPE 38406 April 1997.
47. “Coiled tubing and ESP technology improve field evaluation cost” R.C. Penny, R.C. Stanley,
J.C. Patterson SPE 38332 June 1997.
48. “Field Installation of Coiled Tubing ESP Completions” J.J. Tovar SPE 616688 April 1995
49. “Preventing fluid losses in ESP well completions: avoid formation damage and improve
pump life” S.E. Ferguson et al SPE 38041 April 1997.
50. “Case history of successful coiled tubing conveyed jet pump recompletion through existing
completions” M.J. Hrachovy et al SPE 35586 May 1996.
51. Contact John Queenan at Independent Completions Engineering Ltd.
52. WEO plugging policy
53. “Removal of SSSVs from Kuparuk River Unit Wells Consequence Assessment” Eamonn
Naughton BP Alaska
54. "Removal of SSSVs Milne Point Unit Wells - Consequence Assessment" HSE Assurance
Department BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. December, 1994.
55. “Near Wellbore Performance Manual” WEO-W08 November 1990
56. As supplied by Ocre Systems Scotland Ltd.
57. “Monobore Completions and Novel Wireline Perforating of High-Angle Wells in the Nelson
Field” P.G. Griffin et al SPE 28916 Oct 1995.
58. Experience on North Sea Andrew field, where the isolation valve failed to shut properly on 1
out of 5 completions.
59. “Pierce Perforating Strategy” A. Banks - Gun length limited to 100 - 400m unless gun hang-
off system used
26 May 1998 Page 72

60. “Advances in the Completion of 8km Extended Reach ESP Wells” H. Jariwala et al SPE
36579 Oct 96.
61. “Deployment systems and Down Hole Swab Valves” D.M. Sharman SPE 30406 Sep 95.
62. Source - Schlumberger
63. Contact Andrew Louden - Andrew Asset
64. “Application of Petroline Depth Correlation Sub in (Bruce) Phase II Wells” H. Crumpton Sep
1997 DRL/BRU/20/03
65. “A Field Study of Underbalance Pressures Necessary to Obtain Clean Perforations using
Tubing Conveyed Perforating” G. A. King et al SPE 14321 Sept ‘85
66. “Increase Production with Underbalanced Perforation” E. Colle Petroleum Engineer
International July 1998
67. “Analysis and Evaluation of Perforating Clean-Up Methods” J.M. Bonomo et al SPE 12106
1983
68. “Guidelines for 90% Accuracy in Zone Isolation Decisions” D. D. Fitzgerald SPE 12141 1983
69. “Sand Production Prediction Review: Developing an Integrated Approach” C. A. M. Veekins
et al SPE 22792 1991
70. “Improved Sand Production Prediction Method from Back analysis SNS Production Data”
S.M. Willson 1996 XTP Sunbury Report POB/020/96 March
71. “Magnus Sand Control Study - Downhole Sand Control Methods” BP internal report J.M.
Gilchrist July 1993
72. “Propped Fracturing as a Tool for Sand Control and Reservoir Management” A. Bale et al
SPE European Petroleum Conference Nov 92
73. SPE 38639
74. “Forties Sand Production Study” S. Willson Feb 93
75. “Assessment of sanding Risk in the Pierce field” J. McCarthy BP SPR WDT/002/97 Jan
1997
76. “Troll West Oil Province - Subsea Horizontal Completion Experience” D. Storegjerde SPE
35079 March 1996
77. “Foinaven Well Basis of Completion Design Document” G. Elliot 1997
78. “Gryphon Drilling and Completion Design” A. A. Stewart et al OTC 7428 May 1994
79. “Planning, Execution and Verification of a Coiled Tubing Gravel Pack Job in the Statfjord
Field” S. Zdenek et al SPE 31141 March 1996
80. “Soluble Fluid Loss Additives Can Reduce Well Productivities and Prevent Complete Gravel
Placement” D. Sparlin and R. W. Hagen SPE 14817 Feb 1986
81. “Porosity and Permeability of Unconsolidated, Upper Miocene Sands from Grain-Size
Analysis” N. R. Morrow et al JSP Vol 39 No 1 (1969)
82. “Considerations in Gravel Pack Design” R. J. Saucier JPT Feb 1974
83. “Deviated well Fracturing and Proppant Production Control in the Prudhoe Bay Field”
Martins, J. P. et al SPE 24858 Oct ‘92
84. “Impacts of Oriented Perforating on Fracture Stimulation Treatments: Kuparuk River Field,
Alaska” G. Pospisil SPE 29645 March 1995
85. “Propped Fracture Stimulation in Deviated North Sea Gas Wells” C. J. De Pater SPE 26794
86. Contact Martin Rylance
87. “Experimental Study on the Impact of Perforations on Hydraulic Fracture Tortuosity” Van-De-
Ketterij SPE 38149
26 May 1998 Page 73

88. “Hydraulic Fracturing of Horizontal Wells: An Update of Design and Execution Guidelines” O.
Lietard SPE 37122 Nov 1996
89. “Sand Capping Options” - draft guidelines M. Rylance BP Colombia internal memo 1997.
90. “A Unique method of Perforating, Fracturing, and Completing Horizontal Wells” A. P.
Damgaard SPE 19282 Sep 1989
91. “Multiple Proppant Fracturing of a Horizontal Wellbore: An Integration of Two Technologies”
M.R. Norris SPE 36899 Oct 1996
92. “Chevron / BP Horizontal Well Failure Workshop” May 1997
93. “Use of High-Angle, Acid-Fractured Wells on the Machar Field Development” J.M. Gilchrist
et al SPE 28917 Oct ’94
94. “Modeling of Ball Sealer Diversion” P.A. Bern joint industry project PEA-26/CEA-33
95. “Advances in Characterising Natural Fracture Permeability from Mud Log Data” C. Dyke et al
SPE 25022 Nov ‘92
96. “Design, Execution and Evaluation of Acid Treatments of Naturally Fractured Carbonate Oil
Reservoirs of the North Sea” O. Lietard, J. Bellarby SPE 30411 Sep ‘95
97. “Banff - A high angle Fractured Chalk Development for the New Era” G. Sykes et al SPE
36915 Oct ‘96
98. SPE 35544, “Underbalanced Coiled Tubing Drilling Experience on Ula Field”.
99. As used on West Sole for CT drilling - contact Charlie Leslie SPR
100. “Wytch Farm Removal of DHSVs and Production Packers (Risk Assessment)” Report
ESR.96.SA.022 Garry Stevenson Jan 1997
101. “Removal of DHSVs and Production Packers Engineering Support, BP Wytch Farm
Ref:WP024/001” Craig Paveley Sep 1996
102. Source Sintef Reliability Database
103. Personal communication Ronald Plott Houston
104. “Schiehallion Wells Basis of Design” contact P. Jackson
26 May 1998 Page 74

BP Completion Design Manual
Section 6 Tubing Stress Analysis
Updated version
December 1996
Written by: Jonathan Bellarby

BP Completion Design Manual Section 6 - Tubing Stress Analysis
6.1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................3
6.2. Material Properties ............................................................................................................................4
6.2.1. Stress and Strain.........................................................................................................................4
6.2.2. Hooke's Law and the Modulus of Elasticity ..................................................................................5
6.2.3. Yield Stress .................................................................................................................................6
6.2.4. Poisson's Ratio ...........................................................................................................................6
6.2.5. Anisotropic Behaviour .................................................................................................................7
6.2.6. Effect of Temperature on Materials’ Yield Stress .........................................................................7
6.2.7. CRA Material Properties..............................................................................................................7
6.2.8. Materials Property Summary .......................................................................................................8
6.3. Stresses in Oil Well Tubulars .............................................................................................................9
6.3.1. Designing for the Service Life of the Tubing ................................................................................9
6.3.2. Tubing Manufacturers Tolerance...............................................................................................10
6.3.3. Calculation of Primary Axial Forces and Length Changes..........................................................10
6.3.4. Calculation of Radial and Tangential Stresses ........................................................................... 22
6.3.5. Helical Buckling .........................................................................................................................23
6.3.6. Bending Stress Due To Deviated Well.......................................................................................29
6.3.7. Calculation Of Maximum Axial Stress ........................................................................................29
6.3.8. Collapse ....................................................................................................................................31
6.3.9. Burst .........................................................................................................................................35
6.3.10. Triaxial Stresses......................................................................................................................36
6.3.11. Combination Completions........................................................................................................39
6.3.12. Tubing to Casing Friction ........................................................................................................42
6.3.13. Tubular Connections ...............................................................................................................45
6.4. Recommended Minimum Acceptable Tubing Design Factors ..........................................................46
6.4.1. Test Conditions Definition .........................................................................................................46
6.4.2. Other Conditions Definition .......................................................................................................46
6.4.3. Design Factors Rationale ..........................................................................................................47
6.4.4. Test Condition Design Factors ..................................................................................................47
6.4.5. Other Conditions .......................................................................................................................48
6.4.6. The use of the BP Design Factors.............................................................................................50
6.4.7. Completion Components and Design Factors............................................................................50
6.5. WS-Tube .........................................................................................................................................52
6.5.1. Computing Requirements and Installation: ................................................................................54
6.5.2. Applications...............................................................................................................................54
6.5.3. Methodology..............................................................................................................................54
6.5.4. Input Screen 1 - Tubing Description ..........................................................................................54
6.5.5. Input Screen 1.1 - Tubing Properties .........................................................................................55
6.5.6. Input Screen 2 - Well Geometry ................................................................................................55
6.5.7. Dual String Packers...................................................................................................................56
6.5.8. Input Screen 2.1 - Well Geometry Options ................................................................................56
6.5.9. Input Screen 3 - Analysis Features ............................................................................................56
6.5.10. Input Screen 3.1 Analysis Options ...........................................................................................57
6.5.11. Input Screen D Deviation and Dogleg Data .............................................................................57
6.5.12. Input Screen 4 - Load Cases ...................................................................................................57
Page 1
6.5.13. Modelling Special Conditions...................................................................................................60

6.5.14. Results: ...................................................................................................................................62
6.5.15. WS-Tube Defaults (and How to Change Them).......................................................................62
6.6. Worked Example .............................................................................................................................63
6.6.1. Data Gathering..........................................................................................................................63
6.6.2. WS-Tube Input..........................................................................................................................63
6.6.3. WS-Tube Screens.....................................................................................................................63
6.6.4. Interpretation of Results ............................................................................................................65
6.7. References ......................................................................................................................................68
6.8. Contacts ..........................................................................................................................................70
Page 2
6.1. Introduction
The cost of tubulars and completion components is often a large portion of the total well cost and can
be as high as 20% of the total. The tubing and the completion forms an integral part of the safety of the
well. Failure of the completion can result in injuries, fatalities, major expenditure and considerable loss
of production. Tubing stress analysis is a major requirement of any completion design.
Tubing stress analysis should never be a black box approach, where a completion is entered at one
side and safety factors are generated at the other. This is always a risk with modern computer design
and analysis packages. The completion design engineer should have a good understanding of the
principles involved and be able to properly interpret the results.
The tubing stress analysis computer program in use by BP worldwide is WS-Tube. This forms part of
Enertech’s Wellcat package. This section of the manual should be used in conjunction with the Wellcat
manual.
Although this section of the manual primarily covers tubing stress analysis, there is also an interaction
with the casing stress analysis. There are two main areas of interaction:
• Loads transferred to the casing through packers and hangers.
• The casing must be able to withstand the same pressures as the tubing.
This section of the manual has been designed in conjunction with the tubing stress analysis course run
for BP by Independent Completions Engineering Ltd.
Page 3
6.2. Material Properties

6.2.1. Stress and Strain
Casing, tubing and drill pipe are manufactured from ductile steels. The strength of a steel is generally
indicated by its yield stress or ultimate tensile stress.
API calls these properties yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (psi), whereas this document uses
the term strength only for load capacity (lbs).
Stress is generated in a component when a force is applied. Stress can be considered as an internally
1
distributed force, or a force per unit area .
The yield stress of a joint of tubing depends on the selection, treatment and processing of the material.
A tensile test is normally used to determine the strength of a material. Tensile test procedures for
casing and tubing are described in API Specification 5CT2 and ASTM A-370: Mechanical Testing of
Steel Products3.
If a tube is loaded in axial tension by a force, the following equation can be used to calculate the axial
stress in the tubing:
Equation 1
F
σ=
Ao − Ai
where:
σ = stress, psi
F = axial force, lb
Ao-Ai = cross-sectional area, in2
When a tube is subjected to a tensile load, the tube becomes longer. The amount of elongation or
deformation is called strain. The equation for strain is:
Equation 2
∆L
∈=
L
where:
∈ = strain
∆L = change in length, in
L = original length, in
1
Avallone, E A and Baumeister, T: Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York (1986)
2
API Spec 5CT: Specification for Casing and Tubing, First Edition, API, Dallas (March 1988)
3
ASTM A370: Mechanical Testing of Steel Products, ASTM, Philadelphia
Page 4
6.2.2. Hooke's Law and the Modulus of Elasticity

Ductile materials like steel exhibit elasticity. Elasticity is the property of a material which allows it to
retain its original shape and dimensions when the load is relieved. According to Hooke's Law, the stress
in a material is proportional to the strain which produced it, up to certain limits, i.e. the yield stress.
Consequently, provided that the stress is less than the yield stress of the material the following
relationship is true:
Equation 3
σ=E∈
The constant of proportionality E is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus (approximately
30 x 106 psi for steel). The modulus of elasticity indicates the stiffness or rigidity of a material. Table 1
shows the modulus of elasticity for a variety of materials.
Figure 1 - Stress - Strain Diagram
The tensile test uses a specimen of known dimensions. The original length and area of the gauge used
to measure the displacement or strain are determined before the test is performed. Axial tension is
gradually applied to the specimen while the load and strain are recorded. The results of this test are
presented in a stress-strain diagram. A stress strain diagram (Figure 1) is shown for a typical oil field
tubular material. The following points of interest can be seen:
Proportional Limit: The stress-strain diagram starts to deviate from a straight line at this point, i.e.
prior to this point, the stress/strain ratio is constant and equals Young’s modulus.
Elastic Limit: There will be no permanent deformation in the material if the load is relieved at this
point.
Yield Point: At some point the strain increases very rapidly with little or no increase in stress. This
point is called the Yield Point.
Page 5
Ultimate Tensile Stress: The maximum stress achieved during the tensile test and shown on the
stress-strain diagram is called the ultimate tensile stress.
6.2.3. Yield Stress

The API specifies that the yield stress, Yp, is the tensile stress required to produce an elongation of 0.5
to 0.65%, depending on the material grade of a test specimen2.
Figure 2 - Example Determination of Yield Stress by the API Method
The yield stress corresponds to a definite amount of deformation or strain under load. For the API
method, a line is drawn perpendicular to the strain axis starting at the strain that corresponds to a
deformation of 0.5 to 0.65%, 0.005 in/in to 0.0065 in/in, depending on the material grade. The yield
stress is defined as the stress where this line intersects the stress-strain curve for the material.
6.2.4. Poisson's Ratio

Experiments have shown that when a tube is loaded in axial tension this not only generates an axial
strain but also results in a radial compressive strain. These two strains are proportional to each other in
the elastic region and can be related by the following equation:
Equation 4
radial strain
µ=−
axial strain
The constant, µ, is called Poisson's ratio (approximately 0.3 for carbon steel and corrosion resistant
alloys (CRA)). The relationship also holds true for axial compression except that radial expansion
occurs. This radial strain effect, resulting from axial tension or compression, is often referred to as
ballooning in tubulars (see section 6.3.3.8).
Page 6
6.2.5. Anisotropic Behaviour

Many CRA tubulars exhibit anisotropic properties, i.e. the material has different mechanical properties
in different directions. This is especially true of the cold-worked alloys like 22 Cr and 25 Cr duplex
stainless steel and many of the austenitic stainless steels and high nickel-alloys. The yield stresses in
the tangential and radial directions are generally lower than the axial yield stress for anisotropic
tubulars. Normally, only the axial yield stress is determined through testing. Consequently, the
4
tangential and radial yield stresses are often unknown .
One implication of the anisotropic behaviour of CRA tubulars is that the Von Mises Equivalent (VME)
stress intensity calculation (as discussed in section 6.3.10) is not a completely accurate prediction of
yielding of the pipe. Nevertheless, calculation of the VME stress and VME stress intensity design factor
is recommended.
According to CABVAL (a tubular goods supplier in the USA), limited tests have shown that the API
equations can be used to calculate the minimum internal yield pressure and collapse ratings of cold-
worked tubulars.
6.2.6. Effect of Temperature on Materials’ Yield Stress

The yield stress of tubulars decreases at high temperature.
Cold-worked corrosion resistant alloys (CRA) materials in particular can experience a significant
decrease in yield stress at elevated temperatures. This occurs because as the material is cold-worked
to increase its strength, energy is stored in the material in the form of large numbers of dislocations and
other defects which are generated in the metal during deformation. Consequently, the cold-worked
material is unstable in the sense that, given the proper opportunity, its energy will be lowered by
returning to the undeformed state. By heating the material, the energy barrier which prevents this return
5
to a lower energy state is overcome. This process is called annealing . The annealing process is often
utilized to improve the properties of cold-worked materials. However, this process of heating the
material can result in a reduction in yield stress. The same situation can occur downhole, especially in
high temperature wells, resulting in an undesirable lowering of the material yield stress.
Since this effect cannot be prevented, it must be considered during the analysis process. WS-Tube has
the ability to specify temperature dependent yield, either as a fixed %/°F reduction in yield stress, or as
varying reduction dependent on the temperature.
6.2.7. CRA Material Properties

As wells are drilled deeper into more aggressive producing environments, the use of corrosion resistant
alloy (CRA) tubing has increased. Since these CRA materials can be very expensive, proper design
and analysis of the tubing string is critical. Also, the wells where CRA tubing is used often have very
high pressures and produce lethal concentrations of H2S gas. Consequently, failures of the production
tubulars must be avoided at all costs.
The term CRA tubulars covers a wide range of materials which can be broadly divided into four
6
groups :
• Martensitic stainless steels - 13 Cr or 420 AISI.
• Duplex stainless steels - 22 Cr and 25 Cr.
• Austenitic stainless steels - 38% Ni, 28% CR and others.
• Nickel-base alloys - Alloy 825, Alloy G-3, C-276, etc.
4
Payne, M L and Hurst, D M: ‘Heavy Wall Production Tubing Design for Special Alloy Steels’, paper SPE 12622 presented at
the 1984 SPE Deep Drilling and Production Symposium, Amarillo (April 1-3, 1984)
5
Brick, R J, Pense, A W and Gordon, R B: Structure and Properties of Engineering Materials, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York (1977)
6
Cabval, Corrosion Resistant Alloy Tubular Guide (1986)
Page 7
Guidelines for selecting the appropriate CRA material are presented in Chapter 7 - Selection of
Tubulars. This sub-section is intended to assist the designer in the proper method to analyse CRA
tubing strings.
The equations and methods described in this chapter can be applied to CRA tubing strings. However,
the effects of anisotropic behaviour and the reduction of yield strength with temperature must be
considered.
The modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, anisotropy temperature dependent yield, coefficient of
thermal expansion and density of CRA tubulars are different than the values of these material
properties for low alloy carbon steel (LACS) grades. These properties must be considered when
analysing a CRA tubing string design. The WS-Tube program allows for changing all of these
properties.
CRA tubing strings can be analysed in the same manner that LACS strings are considered, provided
that the correct material property values are used in the calculations.
Table 1 lists the material properties for many of the commonly used tubulars. The tubular
manufacturers can be contacted for the properties of materials which are not listed in the table.
6.2.8. Materials Property Summary

The properties of interest in tubing stress analysis are summarised in Table 1. Specialist advice should
be sought from the tubing manufacturer for high alloy tubing.
7
Table 1 - Properties of Commonly Used Materials
Temperature Coefficient of
Dependent thermal expansion
yield (%/°F) (10 /°F)
-6
Alloy Density Modulus Poisson’s Anisotropic up to 200°F - up to 68°F -

200°F 400°F °
572°F
3
Description (lb/in ) of Ratio yield 212 F
Elasticity
6
(10 psi)
Carbon Steel 0.282 28.9 0.3 None 0.05 0.05 6.7 6.4
13 Cr 0.282 28.9 0.3 None 0.05 0.05 5.7 6.0
Martensitic SS
8
Super 13 Cr 0.282 28.9 0.3 None 0.05 0.05 5.7 6.0
22 Cr Duplex 0.282 28.3 0.32 Hoop = 0.05 0.08 6.6 6.0
SS 0.95x
Longitudinal
25 Cr Duplex 0.282 28.3 0.32 Hoop = 0.05 0.08 5.7 6.0
SS 0.95x
Longitudinal
32% Ni, 28% Cr 0.29 27.5 0.32 8.4 9.3
Austenitic SS
Alloy 825 0.294 28.3 7.8 8.5
Alloy G-3 0.30 28.9 8.1 8.1
Alloy C-276 0.321 29.8 6.7 7.1
** SS - stainless steel
7
Sourced by John Martin - BP Sunbury
8
Experimental data from Sumitomo March 1996 on two samples (only) gives a lower temperature dependent yield (0.03)
Page 8
6.3. Stresses in Oil Well Tubulars

Forces act on tubing in three dimensions, so to accurately analyse the stress state, all three dimensions
must be considered. A cylindrical co-ordinate system is therefore used to describe the stresses, i.e.
axial, radial and tangential.
There are four possible failure modes for the pipe body:
1. Parting of the tubing under axial load.

2. Bursting of the tubing due to internal pressure.
3. Collapse of the tubing under external pressure.
4. When the combined stress, or triaxial stress, exceeds the yield stress of the tubing.
In some cases the tubular connections may be weaker than the pipe body, in which case further
calculations will be necessary. Most premium connections like NEW VAM and NS-CC are essentially
structurally equivalent to the pipe body and no further analysis is required. However, particularly under
compressive loads, some premium connections can lose their gas tight seal.
In addition to the failure mechanisms outlined above, it is also necessary to analyse the stability of the
tubing. Since a tubing string is very long in comparison with its diameter, it lacks the rigidity to
withstand compressive loads. Hence, a very small compressive load can cause the tubing to buckle. As
the tubing is constrained by the casing, the tubing buckles into the shape of a helix. Although the tubing
is said to 'buckle', it does not necessarily lead to a failure and may indeed be beneficial (e.g. reducing
loads on packers). Helically buckled tubing can, however, prevent the running of wireline tools (section
6.5.9) and compromise the integrity of the tubing connections. If the instability becomes too severe, the
pipe can yield and permanently corkscrew (section 6.3.5).
To determine whether a tubing string has sufficient strength, the actual loads are compared to the API
rated load capacity at critical points in the string. This comparison is expressed as a ratio or design
factor for each failure mode, i.e.:
Axial Tension Design Factor: The ratio of the rated axial tensile strength to the actual axial tension
force in the string. It is equivalent to the ratio of the material's yield stress to the total axial stress.
Burst Design Factor: The ratio of the calculated burst pressure rating to internal pressure minus
external pressure.
Collapse Design Factor: The ratio of calculated collapse pressure rating to external pressure minus
internal pressure.
Triaxial Stress Design Factor: The ratio of the material's API yield stress to triaxial stress.
The above analysis is complicated by the fact that radial and tangential stresses also have components
in the axial direction and the yield stress in the collapse failure mode reduces with axial tensile stress.
6.3.1. Designing for the Service Life of the Tubing

A tubing string is subjected to various load conditions throughout its life. When the well is initially
completed, there is a force distribution resulting from the weight of the tubing, the hydrostatic force
exerted by the completion fluid and the prevailing pressures and temperature at the time the tubing is
landed. During production or well operations, changes in pressure and temperature occur in the tubing
and annulus. If the tubing is free to move, these changes will cause a change in length. If the tubing is
not permitted to move (i.e. the tubing is anchored), forces are generated in the tubing and act on the
packer and wellhead to prevent these length changes from occurring.
The prevailing conditions when the completion is landed are normally regarded as the 'base case'.
Subsequent changes in pressure, pressure gradients and temperature can then be superimposed on
this base case to give the associated load on the tubing or service load. The service life of the tubing is
then described by a series of service loads.
Page 9
To properly assess the stress state of the tubing, a three-dimensional analysis must be performed. API,
9
unlike WS-Tube or TDAS, does not take account of the combined or triaxial stress . The analysis
presented in this section shows how to determine both the API load capacity design factors and the
triaxial stress design factors. In addition, the accurate calculation of tubing movement is also presented
in order to determine the appropriate seal length in completions which allow tubing movement 10.
6.3.2. Tubing Manufacturers Tolerance

All tubing is manufactured within strictly controlled tolerances. This is your guarantee that the weight,
OD and thickness are within well defined limits. The most common system of tolerances is the API
(Table 2), however more strict tolerances are used by certain manufacturers and these may be used
where appropriate. BP has its own procurement philosophy11, but this follows API dimensional
tolerances found in API 5CT.
Table 2 - API Dimensional Tolerances for Tubing
Property Tolerance
Outside diameter
OD: 4” and smaller +0.03”
OD: 41/2” and larger +1.00%
-0.50%
Wall thickness -12.50%

Weight:
Single lengths +6.50%
-3.50%
Car load lots* -1.75%
* A car-load is considered to be a minimum of 40,000 lb (18,144 kg).
Inside diameter, ID, is governed by the outside diameter and wall thickness.
The impact that these tolerances has is discussed under the consideration of design factors (section
6.4).
6.3.3. Calculation of Primary Axial Forces and Length Changes

If the tubing is free to move, changes in temperature and pressure induce length changes in the string.
The following conventions have been used in the equations presented in this document:
1. Increases in length are considered positive and reductions in length are negative.
2. Axial tensile forces are positive and axial compressive forces are negative.
For tubing that is free to move, changing conditions will cause changes in both the forces acting on the
tubing and the overall tubing length. All effects like weight, pressure/area, fluid friction, tubing plugs,
ballooning and temperature will change the length. However, ballooning and temperature, unlike the
others, will not induce axial forces in the string.
9
API Bul 5C3: Bulletin on Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe and Line Pipe Properties, Fourth Edition, API,
Dallas (February 1985)
10
Snyder, R E and Suman, G O Jnr: ‘High Pressure Well Completions’, Part 7, World Oil (February 1, 1979)
11
BP Exploration OCTG Tubular Specification v.3 J.K. Duxbury Nov. 1996 (in prep)
Page 10
The axial forces induced in anchored tubing are the sum of the axial forces induced if the tubing were
free to move plus the axial forces created by resisting the overall length change. The method WS-Tube
uses to calculate these forces is to first calculate the movements as if the tubing were free to move and
then calculate the force, using Hooke's law and taking account of buckling (where required), to restore
the end of the tubing to its original position or to the position at the extreme of its allowable movement.
The sum of the axial force calculated assuming free tubing movement and the force required to oppose
the change in length then becomes the resulting axial force in anchored tubing.
This method allows for solving limited movement cases such as when the tubing is spaced out 2 ft in an
expansion joint which does not allow movement down once the stop has been encountered.
6.3.3.1. Weight
Consider the section of tubing shown in Figure 3 at an inclination angle of 'A'. The weight of the tubing
acts in the vertical direction down. This force can be divided into two components: one acting parallel to
the pipe axis and one acting perpendicular to the pipe axis. These components can be expressed
mathematically.
Figure 3 - Weight of Tubing
Equation 5
FWT = W cos A
Page 11
Equation 6
N = W sin A
where:
W = weight of the tubing, lb
The component N is resisted by the wellbore, and if friction is neglected, N does not affect the axial
force profile in the string. Since cosA equals the change in vertical depth divided by the change in
measured depth for the inclined part of the well:
Equation 7
FWT = W ' TVD
where:
W' = weight per unit length of the tubing, lb/ft
TVD = vertical distance below the point of interest to the bottom of the tubing
Note, friction forces between the casing and the tubing are neglected in nearly all cases. However, for
highly deviated wells, the friction force (section 6.3.12) can be significant and must be considered for
overpulls, particularly where retrievable packers and pinned anchor or expansion devices are to be
used (see section 6.5.13.1).
6.3.3.2. Pressure / Area

Figure 4 - Pressure Acting on Exposed Tubing Areas
Page 12
An open ended tube freely suspended in a fluid is subjected to hydrostatic pressure (Figure 4). The
result of this pressure acting on the cross-sectional area at the bottom of the string is a compressive
axial force in the tubing. This is often referred to as the buoyancy effect and is described by the
following equation:
Equation 8
FB = − p( Ao − Ai )
where:
p = pressure at the bottom of the string, psi
Ao = area corresponding to the nominal pipe OD, in2
Ai = area corresponding to the nominal pipe ID, in2
It should be noted that the formulas used to calculate the effect fluids have on reducing rig hook loads
(buoyancy charts) will give the correct surface or hook load. This technique will however incorrectly
model the force distribution within the length of the completion.
For example, the force on the bottom of a 5.5” 17 lb/ft string exposed to a 7,500 psi pressure:
π
FB = − 7,500
4
(55. 2 − 4.892 2 )
= − 37,218 lbs
= 37,218 lbs compression
6.3.3.3. Crossovers
The geometry of a simple crossover is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 - Forces on a Tubing Crossover
Like any change in cross sectional area, crossovers introduce an additional axial force on the
completion. The force is proportional to the change in cross sectional areas on the inside and outside of
the tubing:
Page 13
Equation 9
FXO = pi ∆Ai − po ∆Ao
where:
∆A = change in cross-sectional area, in2
Note that this force acts at the crossover and therefore introduces a discontinuity at the crossover.
For example a crossover between 5.5” 17 lb/ft and 4.5” 17.6 lb/ft tubing subject to a 4,000 psi external
and a 9,000 psi internal pressure is subject to a change in axial force of:
π
FXO =
4
[
9 ,000 × (4.892 2 − 3.958 2 ) − 4 ,000(55 ]
. 2 − 4.52 )
= 27 ,012 lbs
6.3.3.4. Expansion Devices

Where expansion devices are used, pressures will still act on any exposed areas. When there is a
higher internal pressure than external, this pressure will generate an upward force on the tubing above
the expansion device and a downward force on the tubing beneath the expansion device.
Figure 6 - PBRs and Expansion Joints
The force acting on the upper tubing is given by Equation 10:
Page 14
Equation 10
FPR = po ( Ab − Ao ) − pi ( Ab − Ai )
where:
pi = tubing pressure at the bottom of the string, psi
po = annulus pressure at the bottom of the string, psi
Ab = area corresponding to the ID of the packer seal bore, in2
What is critical to get right is the seal bore area (Ab)(Figure 6). This is the areal dimension of the parts
that move relative to each other:
• For an expansion joint this would normally be the OD of the male member, as the seals are normally
on the female member.
• For a PBR, this would normally be the ID of the female member, as the seals are usually on the male
member.
Apart from this subtle difference, PBRs and expansion joints are treated in the same way.
It is usual to position expansion devices above packers and indeed in most commercial stress analysis
programs (including WS-Tube and TDAS), the expansion joint is always assumed to be at the packer
itself.
The same analysis can be used with any device which joins two sections of tubing even if no relative
movement is possible. For example, anchor latches and pinned expansion devices have a seal bore
and a shear release device (shear ring, pins, screws etc.) between the two parts. The force acting on
the release mechanism due to the pressure at the device is calculated with the above equation.
For example a 5.5” 17 lb/ft string has an expansion joint with a seal bore of 6”. A 9,000 psi internal
pressure and a 4,000 psi external pressure generates an axial force on the upper tubing of:
π 2 π
FPR = 4 ,000
4
( . 2 ) − 9 ,000 × (6 2 − 4.892 2 )
6 − 55
4
= 67 ,242 lbs
or a compressive force of 67,242 lbs.
If this was an anchor latch above a packer, then the anchor would have to be pinned above this value
(see section 6.5.13.1).
Page 15
6.3.3.5. Tubing Plugs

Figure 7 - Tubing Plugs
Tubing plugs are yet another example of where the pressure acting on an area can generate a force.
The force is simply proportional to the pressure differential across the plug and the cross sectional area
of the inside of the tubing:
Equation 11
FPLUG = ∆p PLUG Ai
where:
∆pPLUG = pressure differential across the plug, psi
For example a 5,000 psi pressure differential on a plug inside 5.5” 17 lb/ft tubing generates a force at:
π
FPLUG = 5,000 × × 4.892 2
4
= 93,979 lbs
6.3.3.6. Piston Effect

The pressure / area effect alters both the axial forces in the string and results in tubing movement if
movement is allowed. The force generated through pressure acting on area can be caused by any of
the pressure area phenomenon mentioned tubing ends, crossovers, expansion devices and plugs). The
change in length (often termed as the piston effect) is calculated with Hooke’s law as follows:
Page 16
Equation 12
LF
∆L =
E ( Ao − Ai )
where:
L = measured depth of the tubing
F = force (due to plug, expansion device, crossover etc.)
For example in section 6.3.3.5 a 5,000 psi pressure differential across a plug in a 5.5” tubing would
generate a 6.55 ft downward movement on a 10,000 ft string if free to move.
6.3.3.7. Temperature Effect

A property of steel and alloys which relates the change in temperature to the change in length is the
coefficient of thermal expansion. For low alloy carbon steel the coefficient of thermal expansion is equal
to 6.7 x 10-6 /°F. The change in length caused by a change in temperature for both uniform and
combination completions is calculated as follows:
Equation 13
∆LTEMP = CT ∆TL
where:
CT = coefficient of thermal expansion, 1/°F
∆T = average change in temperature, °F from the base case to the load case
L = length of tubing
If the tubing is free to move, there is no axial force associated with a change in temperature.
If the tubing is anchored, a force will be exerted on the tubing to oppose the length change. The force is
given by Hooke’s law:
Equation 14
− ∆LTEMP E ( Ao − Ai )
FTEMP =
LP
= − CT E∆T ( Ao − Ai )
For example a 5.5”17 lb/ft string subject to a 50°F cooling would exert a force of:
FTEMP = 48,044 lbs
For combination completions, the above equation is applied to each section separately and the results
added to determine the force on the packer.
6.3.3.8. Poisson's Effect - Ballooning

Radial expansion or contraction of the pipe, caused by a change in pressure, results in length changes
of the tubing string.
Page 17
Figure 8 - Ballooning and Reverse Ballooning
The change in length is a function of the average change in pressure from the base case within each
section of constant OD and wall thickness. The length change is calculated as follows:
Page 18
Equation 15
− 2 µL P
∆LBAL = (∆p A − ∆p A )
E ( Ao − Ai )
i i o o
where:
∆p = the change in pressure compared to the base case
For combination completions, the above equation is applied to each section and the length change for
each section is algebraically added together to obtain the total length change due to Poisson's Effect for
the entire string.
If the tubing is free to move, there is no axial force associated with ballooning.
If the tubing is anchored, the force required to prevent the tubing movement from ballooning is
calculated as follows:
Equation 16
FBAL = 2 µ ( Ai ∆pi − Ao ∆po )

For example, a 5.5” string subject to an internal pressure change of 5,000 psi generates a force:
 π 
FBAL = 2 × 0.3  4.892 2 × × 5,000
 4 
= 56,388 lbs ( tension)
6.3.3.9. Fluid Friction

The term fluid friction should not be confused with the term "tubing friction". Fluid friction is caused by
fluids moving inside the tubing and the associated friction between the fluid and the tubing wall. Tubing
friction is the friction between the tubing and the casing itself.
When fluid is pumped down the tubing string, fluid friction tends to lengthen the string. Likewise, when
fluid is flowed up the tubing, the string shortens. The friction between the flowing fluid and the pipe wall
also results in a pressure drop along the length of the tubing. This pressure drop can be determined
with the use of a multiphase flow program, or in the case of a stimulation treatment, the treating
12
company can provide this data . For simple water injection wells, the use of standard pressure drop
curves can be used. An example of frictional pressure drop curves for 5.5" tubing are shown below with
a variety of different tubing roughness'.
12
Brown, S A: ‘Oil Well Tubing, Stress and Strength Analysis’, BP Petroleum Development (NWE) (October 1985)
Page 19
Figure 9 - Example Frictional Pressure Curves for a 5.5" Water Injector
Frictional Pressure (psi) per 240 Ceramcote and TK236 PCT

220
Clean 13%Cr 5.5" Tubing
200
180 Clean Carbon Steel 5.5" Tubing
160 Light Corrosion 5.5" Tubing
1000 ft.
140
120 Corroded / Scaled Tubing 5.5" Tubing
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
Water Injection Rate (bpd)
If the tubing is free to move, the frictional pressure force at any given depth is given by:
Equation 17
− ∆p
FFR = AL
∆L i
where:
L = length below the point being considered (above for fluid injection), ft
Note, for a flowing well, ∆p/∆L is assumed to be positive.
For example for a 10,000 ft 5.5” 17 lb/ft string under water injection of 30,000 bpd and with light
corrosion the force is:
90 π
FFR = + × 4.892 2 × × 10,000
1000 4
= 16,916 lbs (tension)
This force causes a change in length which is calculated from Hooke’s law as follows:
Equation 18
  − ∆p  2 
  ∆L  L p Ai 
∆LFR = 
 2 E ( Ao − Ai ) 
 
Page 20
12
As discussed by Brown , the above equation does not consider the change in kinetic energy of the
fluid. In some cases this can be significant, such as during production of well fluids where gas break-out
and other effects cause a significant change in the fluid's kinetic energy. Note, the length change due to
fluid friction is normally only considered critical during hydraulic fracturing, or high rate water injection
through small tubing and in this case the equation is valid. However it is usual to use friction reducers
during hydraulic stimulation and therefore service company advice is required. The factor of 2 in the
denominator accounts for the fact that the force is distributed along the length of the string and the
average force, which is half the maximum force, on any single element of the tubing is used to
determine the change in length13.
If the tubing is fixed at the packer, the force is the sum of the forces calculated assuming free tubing
movement and the force induced to resist the movement due to fluid friction:
Equation 19
− ∆p (− ∆LFR )E ( Ao − Ai )
FFR = Ai L +
∆L Lp
 − ∆p   Lp 
=  Ai  L − 
 ∆L   2
where:
L = the completion length
Lp = the length to the packer.
WS-Tube (and TDAS) do not have the ability to account for fluid friction, despite having all the input
data available. Frictional pressure drops are used, but solely to calculate the actual pressures inside the
tubing. For most applications, the fluid friction axial forces are small and can safely be ignored.
However it should be included for small diameter high rate wells.
6.3.3.10.Slack-Off and Overpull

When the packer and tubing hanger have been set, the base case forces are locked in to the
completion. All subsequent load cases produce forces which are relative to this base case. The easiest
way to adjust the base case axial load is to use slack-off (or less commonly overpulls). This is usually
performed by setting the packer and then slacking off (or overpulling) some weight onto the packer.
This weight is the slack-off weight. In practice this is achieved by setting the packer with the hanger
some distance out of the bowl. It is this distance (or stick-up) which determines how much slack-off is
applied to packer when the hanger is lower into the bowl.
The stick-up (initial change in tubing length due to slack-off or overpull) is calculated with Hooke’s law:
Equation 20
FSO L p
∆LSO =
E ( Ao − Ai )
For example slacking off 25,000 lbs on a 5.5” 17 lb/ft 10,000 ft string, gives a stick-up of 1.74 ft.
It is this stick-up distance which will be entered in the completion program. If more than one packer is
used (e.g. Annular Safety Valves) then each packer can have its own slack-off and stick-up. WS-Tube
will automatically calculate stick-up lengths when a slack-off is entered.
13
Maddison, D F and Murray, P: ‘A Review of Tubing Stress Calculations Performed by the BP In-House Tubing Design
Program’, BP Petroleum Development (NWE) (June 1986)
Page 21
Slacking off on the tubing results in initially buckling the pipe. The appropriate equation from the Helical
Buckling section (section 6.3.5) is used to calculate the length change component from buckling.
The reduction in length from slacking off, or the increase in length from picking up is subtracted from
the total length change from the load case to determine the overall change in length.
6.3.3.11.Total Primary Axial Force

The total axial force is the sum of the primary axial forces and is calculated as follows:
Equation 21
FTOTAL = FWT + FPR + FTEMP + FBAL + FXO + FFR + FPLUG + FSO
6.3.4. Calculation of Radial and Tangential Stresses

The inner and outer radial and tangential stresses are calculated from Lame's equations for thick walled
cylinders.
The radial stress is given by:
Equation 22
pi Ai − po Ao ( pi − po ) Ai Ao
σr = −
( Ao − Ai ) ( Ao − Ai ) A
where:
A = area corresponding to either inner or outer radius, in2
For the inner radius (A = Ai ) this reduces to:
Equation 23
σ r ,i = − pi
and for the outer radius (A = Ao ):
Equation 24
σ r , o = − po
The tangential stress is given by:
Equation 25
pi Ai − po Ao ( pi − po ) Ai Ao
σt = +
( Ao − Ai ) ( Ao − Ai ) A
For the inner radius this reduces to:
Equation 26
pi ( Ai + Ao ) − 2 po Ao
σ t ,i =
Ao − Ai
and for the outer radius:
Page 22
Equation 27
2 pi Ai − po ( Ai + Ao )
σ t ,o =
Ao − Ai
6.3.5. Helical Buckling

When a tube is loaded in axial compression, it will shorten in accordance with Hooke's law. However, if
the tube is sufficiently long, which is almost always the case for well tubing, as the compressive force
increases, a critical force will be reached that corresponds to an unstable condition. At this critical and
higher compressive load, any amount of crookedness of the tube or slight movement of the load will
cause the tube to helically buckle.
In the presence of internal and external pressures, tubing behaves as if it was subjected to a force
called the effective buckling force. This force is given by:
Equation 28
(σ + σi )
FEFF = FTOTAL −
2
t
( Ao − Ai )
= FTOTAL + ( po Ao − pi Ai )
The effective buckling force is sometimes also referred to as the excess axial force.
The criteria used for buckling is:
• If FEFF is negative, the tubing behaves as though it is in compression and helical buckling will occur.
This concept can be difficult to understand since it is hard to visualise how the radial and tangential
stresses affect buckling. A full description is included in the reference12.
If the tubing is free to move and only subjected to pressure/area forces, the effective buckling force at
packer depth reduces to:
Equation 29
FEFF = A p ( p o − pi )
Hence, in this situation buckling can only occur if the internal pressure is greater than the external
pressure.
Note, to maintain the correct sign for length changes (shortening is negative), use the absolute value of
FEFF in the buckling equations.
If the effective buckling force, FEFF, is negative at packer depth, then FEFF will approach zero moving up
the string as a result of the increasing tension due to tubing weight. At some depth, FEFF will become
zero. This point is defined as the 'neutral point'. Equation 28 shows that this is where the total primary
axial stress is equal to the average of the radial and tangential stresses.
Below the neutral point the pipe is buckled, whereas above this point the pipe is straight14.
14
Lubinski, A, Althouse, W S and Logan, J L: ‘Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers’, Journal Petroleum Technology (June
1962)
Page 23
Figure 10 - Buckled Tubing
The neutral point is determined as follows:

Equation 30
FEFF
n=
W '+ Gi Ai − Go Ao
where:
n = distance between the neutral point and the bottom of the string, ft MD
G = fluid pressure gradient, psi/ft
Free Tubing Movement
If the tubing is free to move and the neutral point is within the tubing string, the change in length due to
helical buckling is given by:
Page 24
Equation 31
− C 2 FEFF 2
∆LHB =
8 EI (W '+ Gi Ai − Go Ao )
where:
C = radial clearance between the tubing and the casing, in
I = tubing moment of inertia, in4
π
=
64
(OD4 − ID4 )
When the neutral point is calculated to be above the top of the string, the entire string is buckled and
the equation for length change is:
Equation 32
− C 2 FEFF 2 L L 
∆LHB =  n  2 − n  
8EI (W '+ Gi Ai − Go Ao )  
where :
L = length of the tubing string, ft
Anchored Tubing
If the tubing is anchored, helical buckling can still occur. The associated change in length relieves part
of the compression exerted on the packer. The force relieved is referred to as the unbuckling force.
Since the length change due to helical buckling is a non-linear function of the effective buckling force, it
is not possible to solve for the force due to unbuckling directly. Instead, an iterative procedure is used
to determine the total end mechanical force, the tubing-to-packer force, when helical buckling occurs in
anchored tubing. The force due to unbuckling is then the difference between this tubing-to-packer
force, FT-P and the total primary axial force, FTOTAL, calculated from Equation 21.
Equation 33
FUNB = FT − P − FTOTAL
The method of superposition is the basis for the iterative procedure which is used by WS-Tube to
determine FT-P 15. A primary reason for using this method is that it allows for solving for a restoring force
for limited movement completions where the restoring distance is different to the distance moved.
If buckling occurs in a service condition and the tubing is fixed at the packer, or cannot move by the
amount of total length change calculated, it is not correct to simply determine the force required to
restore the end of the tubing to the required location through a combination of buckling and elastic
strain. If the pipe is buckled when it is free to move, a change in force and hence effective buckling
force, causes a non-linear change in length which depends on where the system is on the force versus
length curve, see Figure 11. In Figure 11 it can be seen that the incremental force changes F1 and F2
are equal, yet L2 is greater than L1 because the absolute force existing when the incremental force is
added is different. Consequently, the absolute effective force must be established to properly determine
the length change.
15
Watkins, D M and Klementich, E F: ‘A Buckling Algorithm’, presented at the 1986 ASME Petroleum Division Workshop on
Design and Application of Sub-surface Equipment and Oil Sands/Heavy Oil, Calgary (September 21-23,1986)
Page 25
Figure 11 - Change in Length versus Change in Force with Buckling
A detailed description of the solution method follows:

1. Calculate the total length change due to primary axial forces (from Hooke's Law with FTOTAL) and
helical buckling (from FEFF) with the tubing end free to move, i.e. FT-P = 0.
2. If the tubing end falls within the limits of allowed movement, the solution has been determined,
movements are known and FT-P = 0.
3. If the tubing end falls outside the limits of allowed movement, calculate the restoring length,
∆LRESTORE , to place the end of the tubing in the closest acceptable position. ∆LRESTORE equals the
total calculated length change minus the allowed movement.
4. Determine the absolute minimum and maximum values of FT-P for restoring the end of the tubing the
distance ∆LRESTORE. These forces are used as the limiting values in the iteration. If ∆LRESTORE is
positive, FT-Pmin = 0 and FT-Pmax is determined from Hooke's Law only. If ∆LRESTORE is negative, FT-Pmax
= 0 and FT-Pmin is determined from Hooke's Law.
5. If the length change due to FT-Pmin or FT-Pmax brings the tubing end to the closest acceptable position,
the forces and movements are known. This is the case when there is no buckling.
6. Alternatively, iterate between FT-Pmin and FT-Pmax until the length change is the same as the restoring
length, ∆LRESTORE.
7. Assemble the axial force profile.
This is the procedure adopted by computer packages such as WS-Tube. Unfortunately hand
calculations of this method are difficult, due to the amount of iteration required.
Bending moments due to buckling or instantaneous doglegs generate axial stresses in the tubing.
Bending induces axial compressive stresses in one side of the pipe and axial tensile stresses in the
other side of the pipe, see Figure 12. The equation for the axial stress due to bending is as follows:
Page 26
Equation 34
∆θ
σbend =±E×r ∆L
5730 × 12
where:
r = pipe radius where the stress is calculated, in
∆θ
= dogleg severity, deg/100 ft
∆L
Figure 12 - Bending Stresses in a Small Element of Tubing
In order to calculate the bending stresses due to buckling, the pitch, radius of curvature and dogleg
severity must first be determined.
16
The pitch is the distance in feet between spirals on the helix and is calculated with Equation 35 :
Equation 35
1
 8 EI  2
P=π  
 FEFF 
16
Hammerlindl, D J: ‘Movement, Forces and Stresses in Packers’, Journal Petroleum Technology (February 1977)
Page 27
17
The radius of curvature of the helix in feet is given by :
Equation 36
P 2 + 4π 2 C 2
rc =
4π 2 C
and equivalent dogleg in degrees per 100 ft:
Equation 37
∆θ 5730
=
∆L rc
12
The dogleg calculated with Equation 37 is plugged into Equation 34 to determine the bending stresses
due to buckling, σHB.
These stresses are confined to the bends only and hence they do not affect the axial force profile in the
string.
However, bending stresses may contribute to tubing failure by yielding the material and they are
therefore taken account of in the Von Mises equivalent (VME) stress and, hence, in the triaxial design
factor.
Triaxial stress, or VME stress, will be discussed in a later section.
Buckling of production tubing strings can be tolerated in many cases provided that the stress intensity
in the pipe is at acceptable levels. Buckling is generally acceptable provided that the peak VME stress
in the pipe, including the axial bending stresses due to buckling and deviation, are less than the
specified minimum yield stress of the material with an appropriate design factor.
Basically, there are two instances when buckling of production tubing is unacceptable even if the VME
stress intensity is acceptably low:
• When tools must be run through the tubing, e.g. before and after perforating with a through-tubing
perforating gun.
• When the equivalent dogleg severity from buckling compromises the structural integrity or sealability
of the tubing connections.
Obviously, if the tubing is severely buckled, the running of tools in the tubing is complicated. Preferably,
during conditions where it is necessary to run tools in the tubing, the tubing should not be buckled.
However, it is generally possible to run tools in pipe which is only mildly buckled.
The maximum free passage length for a tool in a helix shaped tube is calculated with the following
formula18:
17
Lindsey, E H, McLarnan, C W and Nickel, J A: ‘Determining Clearances in Helically Buckled Tubing’, World Oil (June 1980)
18
Kwon, Y W: ‘A Precise Solution for Helical Buckling’ paper IADC/SPE 14729 presented at the 1986 TADC/SPE Drilling
Conference, Dallas, February 10-12, 1986
Page 28
Equation 38
 
Ltool
P 
= cos−1 
(IDd − ODtool )
π   C + IDd  
  2  
where :
Ltool = rigid length of a tool that can pass through the buckled tubing, ft
ODtool = tool diameter, in
IDd = tubing ID or drift diameter, in
-1
Note, cos [...] is in radians.
The free passage length value can be used as a guide to determine if the amount of buckling will
prevent the running of tools. Keep in mind that tools are not completely rigid and therefore the free
passage length calculated with Equation 38 is conservative.
Remember, if buckling is a problem, it is possible to decrease the buckling intensity or eliminate
buckling by applying external surface pressure which tends to straighten the pipe. Also, buckling can be
lessened by using a lower initial slack-off weight if this is feasible. The use of expansion devices may
also tend to increase buckling loads, particularly where there are high internal pressures. Consideration
should be given to removing expansion devices, or using as small a seal bore as possible on the
expansion device (see section 6.3.3.4).
Depending on the buckling intensity and on what connection is used on the tubing, the structural
integrity or leak resistance of the connection may be impaired. Properly designed specialty service
metal-to-metal seal, threaded and coupled (MTC) connectors like NEW VAM, VAM ACE, NKK NK-3SB,
Mannesmann TDS, Nippon NS-CT, Fox, etc., have been proven acceptable with doglegs up to 25°/100
ft and they are probably capable of maintaining structural and leakage integrity with doglegs as high as
40°/100 ft.
For bending capacity of other connections, see Chapter 7 - Selection of Tubulars.
6.3.6. Bending Stress Due To Deviated Well

In deviated wells, or in wells with doglegs, axial bending stresses have an axial component similar to
bending stresses due to helical buckling.
The bending stress due to deviation is normally modelled by specifying a maximum dogleg severity,
either estimated or taken from a well survey. WS-Tube (section 6.5.11) allows the user to specify this
dogleg severity for entire intervals, e.g. in the build portion of the well only or everywhere below the
kick-off point.
There are no length changes associated with bending due to the deviation of the well.
The axial stress due to well deviation, σDEV, is then calculated by use of Equation 34.
6.3.7. Calculation Of Maximum Axial Stress

The maximum axial stresses, σa,i and σa,o, are the sum of the total primary axial stress and the stresses
due to helical buckling and hole deviation at the inner and outer tubing walls:
Page 29
Equation 39
FTOTAL
σa = ± σ HB ± σ DEV
Ao − Ai
The signs of σHB and σDEV are chosen to maximize the absolute value of σa.
6.3.7.1. Axial Tension Design Factor

Assuming that a tubing connection which is equivalent to or stronger than the pipe body is used, the
axial tension design factor is calculated as follows:
Equation 40
Yield Strength
DF TENSION =
Maximum Axial Stress
Note, this assumes that the tubing joints are as strong or stronger than the tubing.
The axial tension design factor (Equation 40) includes the effects of buckling and deviated wells. This is
different to the axial tension design factor that is included in TDAS.
Page 30
6.3.8. Collapse
There are four possible API collapse failure modes:
1. Yield strength collapse.
2. Plastic collapse.
3. Transition collapse.
4. Elastic collapse.
In addition, the triaxial analysis (section 6.3.10) considers the affect of axial tension on collapse
resistance.
The appropriate collapse mode is determined by comparing the ratio of the tubing's OD/t with the
calculated values of OD/t which indicate the transition between the modes.
Unfortunately, the values of OD/t vary with axial stress and so have to be calculated at each point in the
tubing where there is a change in loading. The flowchart in Figure 13 and subsequent text based on
API Bulletin 5C39 detail the process.
Figure 13 - Collapse Failure Flowchart
Axial tension stresses lower the collapse resistance of the pipe. The API adopted method to determine
the collapse resistance of tubulars loaded in axial tension is to reduce the yield stress using the
following formula:
Page 31
Equation 41
 1
 2 
   F 
2
 F   − 0.5   Y
Ypr =  1 − 0.75 TOTAL TOTAL
  ( Ao − A i )Yp

 


 ( Ao − A i )Y  p
p 
 
Note, axial compressive stress increases the collapse resistance of the pipe. However, the API method
does not consider this increase in collapse resistance under axial compressive loading.
6.3.8.1. Yield Strength Collapse Pressure Formula

The yield strength collapse pressure formula was derived on a theoretical basis. The equation yields the
external pressure which generates a tangential stress on the tube inside surface equal to the yield
stress of the material based on the Lame equation for thick walled cylinders. As such, the equation
does not yield a true collapse pressure. The formula is as follows:
Equation 42
 OD 
 − 1
pc ,Yp = 2 Ypr  t 
  OD  2 
  t  
 
The yield strength collapse pressure formula applies for OD/t ratios up to the value of OD/t calculated
with the following formula:
Equation 43
1
  C 
2
( A − 2) 2 + 8 B +   + ( A − 2)
OD   Ypr  
=
t Yp − P  C
2 B + 
 Ypr 
The factors A, B and C can be calculated with the following equations:
Equation 44
A = 2.8762 + 010679
. × 10−5Ypr
+ 0.21301 × 10−10 Ypr 2 − 0.53132 × 10− 16 Ypr 3
Equation 45
B = 0.026233 + 0.50609 × 10−6 Ypr
Page 32
Equation 46
C = − 46593
. + 0.030867Ypr
− 010483
. × 10− 7 Y 2 pr + 0.36989 × 10−13 Ypr 3
6.3.8.2. Plastic Collapse Pressure Formula

The plastic collapse pressure formula was derived from a statistical regression analysis from 402
collapse tests on K-55,1440 on N-80 and 646 on P-110 seamless casing. The minimum collapse
pressure is calculated as follows:
Equation 47
 A 
 OD − B 
pc , P = Ypr  −C
 t 
 
The equation is applicable for OD/t ratios ranging from the OD/t value calculated using Equation 43 to
the OD/t value calculated with the following equation:
Equation 48
OD Ypr ( A − F )
=
t p − T C + Ypr ( B − G )
The factors F and G are calculated as follows:
Equation 49
 B 
3
 3 
46.95 × 10 6 A 
  B 
 2 +  A  
 
F =
  B 
2
B
 3  3 
A −  B  − A 
Ypr    1
  B   A    B 
 2 +  A    2 +  A  
  
Equation 50
FB
G =
A
Page 33
6.3.8.3. Transition Collapse Pressure Formula

When the minimum collapse pressure ratings calculated with Equation 47 are plotted versus the OD/t
ratio, the curve does not intersect the minimum elastic collapse pressure curve. The transition collapse
pressure equation was developed to overcome this anomaly. The equation for the minimum collapse
pressure in the transition zone from plastic to elastic collapse is as follows:
Equation 51
 F 
 OD − G 
pc , T = Ypr  
 t 
 
This equation is applicable for OD/t ratios ranging from the value of OD/t calculated with Equation 48 to
the value of OD/t calculated with the following formula:
Equation 52
 B
2+ 
 OD   A
  =
 t  T−E B
3
A
The elastic collapse pressure formula was derived on a theoretical basis. Collapse testing verified that
the elastic collapse pressure represented an upper boundary for collapse pressures. The minimum
value was taken as 71.25% of the theoretical values yielding the following equation:
Equation 53
46.95 × 106
pc , E = 2
 OD   OD  
    − 1
 t   t  
An example of calculated collapse pressure resistance versus OD/t ratios for N-80 tubing is given in
Figure 14.
Page 34
Figure 14 - Calculated Collapse Pressure Resistance for N-80 Tubing
The collapse design factor is given by:

Equation 54
pc Collapse Pressure Resistance
DFCOLLAPSE = =
( po − pi ) Differential Collapse Pressure
Page 35
6.3.9. Burst
Barlow's equation for thin-walled pressure vessels is used to calculate the internal pressure resistance
of the pipe body. The equation yields the pressure which generates a tangential stress in the pipe or
coupling wall equal to the minimum specified yield stress of the material. Note, Barlow's formula is
generally used for pressure vessels with a wall thickness that is approximately one-tenth or less of the
vessel's radius. Barlow's formula assumes that the stress resulting from internal pressure is uniformly
distributed across the wall thickness. If the wall thickness is greater than one-tenth the radius, Barlow's
formula is conservative. The following formula is used to calculate the internal yield pressure for the
pipe body:
Equation 55
2Ypt
pb = Tol
OD
where:
t = wall thickness, in
OD = external diameter of the tubing, in
Tol = wall thickness tolerance.
The tolerance is included because the burst rating depends on the minimum wall thickness. Axial
ratings, for example, in contrast, depend on the average wall thickness. The API specify that this
tolerance is 0.875 (Table 2). However some manufacturers will routinely make pipe to higher
specifications at no extra cost, whilst others will charge a premium for better tolerances (e.g. special
drift pipe). As corrosion will impact minimum wall thicknesses significantly (especially pitting), then any
corrosion allowance should be included in the tolerance figure. WS-Tube allows the user to change the
Wall Thickness Tolerances (section 6.5.5).
The burst design factor is given by:
Equation 56
pb Minimum Internal Yield Pressure
DFBURST = =
( pi − po ) Differential Burst Pressure
Page 36
6.3.10. Triaxial Stresses

Axial force and pressure loads generate triaxial stresses in tubing rather than biaxial or uniaxial
stresses as inferred by the API load capacity equations. The three principal stresses for a cylinder or
tube are axial, radial and tangential (see Figure 15).
Figure 15 - Principal Stresses in a Tube
An accurate and widely accepted criterion for predicting the onset of yielding of ductile, isotropic
materials is the distortion-energy theory. This theory is also called the shear-energy theory or the
Hencky-von Mises theory. The Hencky-von Mises theory is based on energy concepts.
The total elastic energy is divided in two parts: one associated with the volumetric changes of the
material and the other causing shearing distortions. A yield criterion for combined stress is established
by equating the shearing distortion energy at the yield point in pure tension to that under combined
stress. Well documented experiments have shown that the Hencky-von Mises theory predicts yielding
of ductile, isotropic materials with a high degree of accuracy.
The mathematical statement of this theory for a cylinder is given below. The VME stress, σVME, is
calculated as follows:
Equation 57
{ [ ]}
1
σVME = 0.5 (σ a − σ t ) + (σt − σ r ) + (σ r − σ a )

2 2 2 2
The triaxial stress intensity design factor is given by:
Page 37
Equation 58
YP Minimum Specified Yield Stress
DFVME = =
σVME VME Stress
In the absence of bending, the peak VME stress always occurs at the pipe inside surface. If bending
due to buckling or instantaneous doglegs occurs, the peak VME stress can occur on the pipe inside or
outside surface. As stated previously, bending generates axial compressive stresses in one side of the
pipe and axial tensile stresses in the other side of the pipe. The procedure to calculate the peak VME
stress in tubing subjected to bending moments is as follows:
1. Calculate the radial and tangential stresses on the pipe ID and OD using Lame's equations
(Equation 23, Equation 24, Equation 26 and Equation 27).
2. Calculate the bending stresses due to helical buckling and hole deviation on the pipe ID and OD
using Equation 34.
3. Calculate the maximum axial stresses on the pipe ID and OD using Equation 39.
4. Calculate the VME stress at the four locations shown in Figure 16.
The peak VME stress is the maximum of the four calculated above.
Direct comparison of the peak VME stress to the yield stress of the material provides a single
equivalent design factor for all the simultaneous loads imposed on the string.
Figure 16 - Locations for VME Stress Calculations with Bending
A method has been developed to represent the triaxial load capacity of the pipe on a two-dimensional
graph. The triaxial load capacity diagram is a representation of the VME triaxial stress intensity in
relation to axial force and either internal or external pressure. Since the triaxial stress is defined by
these three independent variables, a normalization procedure is used to create a two-dimensional
representation. The normalization operation used to create the diagram shows the planes where
external pressure equals 0 psi as the top half or burst region of the figure. The plane where internal
pressure is 0 psi corresponds to the lower half or collapse region of the diagram.
Page 38
The anticipated service loads along the length of the string can be plotted on the triaxial load capacity
diagrams19. For different burst pressure loads, the normalized internal pressure generating the same
triaxial stress with the same axial force as the combined load, but at 0 psi external pressure, is
calculated and plotted on the diagram. An analogous procedure is used to obtain a normalized external
pressure under differential collapse pressure loading. Additionally, the specified API load capacity
design factors for pressure (burst and collapse) and axial tension can be graphically represented. A
direct visual comparison can be made between the anticipated service loads and the API load capacity
and VME stress intensity design factors 19.
An triaxial load capacity diagram is shown Figure 17. A real life triaxial load capacity diagram for a
simple completion is shown in the WS-Tube example (Figure 40). The following parameters are useful
in understanding the diagram:
The API operating window is the area enclosed by the API pressure and tension capacity of the pipe,
adjusted by suitable design factors. The biaxial effect of tension on collapse resistance is included.
The VME stress curve defines the stress level in the pipe in terms of internal or external pressure and
axial force. The inner dashed curve shows the application of a design factor to the peak VME stress.
A service load line shows the variation in the stress intensity in a tubing string over the length of the
string.
Figure 17 - Triaxial Load Capacity Diagram
19
Johnson, R, Jellison, M J and Klementich, E F: ‘Triaxial-Load-Capacity Diagrams Provide a New Approach to Casing and
Tubing Design Analysis’, SPE Drilling Engineering (September 1987)
Page 39
If the tubing is free to move, the total change is calculated by summing the individual components and
subtracting the length change from slacking off:
Equation 59
∆LTOTAL = ∆LPR + ∆LPLUG + ∆LTEMP + ∆LBAL + ∆LFR + ∆LHB − ∆LSO
If the tubing is latched into the packer, a tubing-to-packer force, FT-P , is generated to oppose the tubing
length change.
The equation for FT-P is as follows:
Equation 60
FTP = − ∆FTOTAL + FUNB
=−
(∆L TOTAL − ∆LHB )E ( Ao − Ai )
+ FUNB
Lp
Note, the length change due to buckling is not included in the length change used with Hooke's law.
In hand calculations, the force due to unbuckling, FUNB, is often ignored, and hence, Hooke's law only is
used to determined the tubing-to-packer force. In most cases the difference between the 'exact'
solution and the 'approximate' solution is acceptably small.
The packer-to-casing force is simply the tubing-to-packer force plus the plug forces acting on the
packer. It can be calculated as follows:
Equation 61
( )
FP − C = FT − P + Ac − Ap ∆po
where:
Ac = area defined by the casing ID, in2
∆po = pressure differential across the packer, psi
Page 40
6.3.11. Combination Completions

A combination completion consists of one or more of the following (see Figure 18):
• More than one size of tubing.
• More than one size of casing.
• More than one fluid in the tubing or annulus.
Figure 18 - Example of a Combination Completion
The main consideration when performing tubing stress analysis for combination completions, is to split
the tubing string up into a number of sections with only one tubing size, casing size and fluid gradient
and to analyse each section separately using the equations previously presented.
It is important that nearby changes in casing and tubing (e.g. at the top of the liner in Figure 18) are
included accurately. This is because if the tubing crossover is more than a few feet above the top of the
casing crossover, then there will be a section of tubing which is relatively unconstrained. This will
potentially lead to a small section of tubing where the buckling loads are large.
Page 41
Although this kind of analysis does not introduce any new theory, the following highlights some of the
areas to consider:
6.3.11.1.Free Tubing Movement

At changes in geometry, the concentrated change in force at the crossover is algebraically added to the
change in force at the bottom of the section. If the tubing is free to move, this total force change is used
to calculate the length change above the geometric discontinuity using Hooke’s law (Equation 3), but
substituting Lp with the actual depth. This process is continued up the string at each geometry change.
6.3.11.2.Anchored Tubing
If the tubing is free to move, the change in axial force, FXO’ only affects the pipe above the geometric
discontinuity. On the other hand, if the pipe is anchored, the axial force is redistributed above and
below the geometry change according to the following ratios:
Equation 62
 L 
∑  A 
o − Ai  below
Rabove =
 L 
∑  A 
o − Ai  total
 L 
∑  A 
o − Ai  above
Rbelow =
 L 
∑  A 
o − Ai  total
where:
Σ (...)below = the sum of all the sections below the point of interest
Σ (...)total = the sum of all the sections in the string
The amount of the change in force that is distributed above the geometry change is Rabove FXO whereas
below it is Rbelow FXO’.
Note, the change in force will be positive (tensile) on one side of the crossover and negative
(compressive) on the other side.
6.3.11.3.Length Changes
If a tubing string in a combination completion is loaded in axial compression it will shorten due to
Hooke’s law and buckling as discussed previously.
The length change due to Hooke’s law is calculated for each section and the results are added
together. The length, force, cross-sectional area and modulus of elasticity of each section are used in
the calculation. Note, the force used is the same for each section.
To calculate the length change from buckling, the neutral point is first determined by applying Equation
30 to the bottom section (section 1). If the calculated value of n is greater than the length of the bottom
section, this section is completely buckled and the neutral point is not in this section. If this is true,
assume the neutral point is in the next section and use this equation:
Page 42
Equation 63
FEFF 2
n= +L
(W '+Gi Ai − Go Ao )2 1
FEFF − L1(W '+ Gi Ai − Go Ao )1

= + L1
(W '+G A − G A )
i i o o 2
where:
FEFF2 = effective buckling force at the bottom of section 2, lb
L1 = length of section 1, ft
FEFF = effective buckling force at the bottom of the string, lb
(...)1 = parameters for section 1
(...)2 = parameters for section 2
If the calculated value of n is less than L1 + L2, then the neutral point is in section 2. If n is greater than
L1 + L2, both section 1 and 2 are totally buckled and the procedure is repeated on section 3:
Equation 64
FEFF 3
n= + L1 + L2
(W '+G A i i − Go Ao ) 3
FEFF − L1 (W '+Gi Ai − Go Ao )1 − L1 (W '+ Gi Ai − Go Ao ) 2

= + L1 + L2
(W '+G A i i − Go Ao ) 3
This procedure is continued until the neutral point is determined. If n is greater than the length of all of
the sections, the neutral point is above the top of the string and the tubing string is totally buckled.
After the neutral point is determined, the movement due to buckling is calculated by applying Equation
30 to each section which is completely buckled and Equation 29 to the section which is partially buckled
and algebraically summing the results to obtain the total movement from buckling. Note, the values of
the parameters used in the equations are for the section being considered.
Page 43
6.3.12. Tubing to Casing Friction

Tubing to casing friction can often be safely ignored for most load cases. The reason for this, is that
tubing to casing friction will often act in your favour. It can, for example, limit loads seen or tubing and
particularly on packers. Unfortunately, over the life of a well, it is likely that forces transferred from the
tubing to the casing by friction will be dissipated and forces eventually transferred down or up the well to
the hanger or packer. Tubing to casing friction in these cases is best ignored. In some other cases
friction may be important - it has the ability to localise loads which would otherwise be distributed
through out the tubing. For example in stimulation conditions where the greatest cooling occurs at the
bottom of the well, if there is friction, the axial loads are not fully distributed through out the tubing and
axial loads at the bottom of the well may be worst than if friction is ignored23. For this reason it is useful
to perform a stress analysis both with tubing to casing friction included and when it is ignored.
There are a number of cases where it is vital to separately consider tubing to casing friction in a stress
analysis. These are considered more fully when considering different load cases and in section 6.5.13.
6.3.12.1.Downhole Compression from Surface Slack-off

This should be considered when metal-to-metal seal packers are used which require a minimum
compressive axial force to energize the seal20.
Initially, all the weight slacked-off at the surface is transmitted to the bottom of the string. However, as
the slack-off force is increased, the tubing helically buckles and a normal force is generated between
the tubing OD and casing ID. Consequently, frictional forces are generated which reduce the axial
compressive force along the length of the buckled pipe. As the slack-off force increases, the frictional
force increases up to some maximum value where the frictional forces generated by buckling are high
enough to support the weight of the pipe (see Figure 19).
20
String Design, Seminar-by-Mail, ‘Determining Downhole Compression Generated by Surface Slack-off’, Hydril (1985)
Page 44
1
Figure 19 - Axial Compressive Force on the Packer vs. Surface Slack-off Force (3 /2 in Tubing in
7 in Casing)
At this point the compressive force has reached a maximum value since additional slack-off will be
21
completely supported by the frictional force on the buckled pipe .
The maximum compressive force is calculated as follows:
Equation 65
1
 Weff EI  2
Fmax = 
 3Cf 
where:
Weff = effective weight/foot of the pipe (nominal weight minus buoyancy), lb/ft
f = coefficient of friction
C = radial clearance between the tubing and casing, in
I = tubing moment of inertia, in4
To estimate the axial compressive force at the bottom of the pipe, two ratios are defined:
21
Mitchell, R F: ‘Frictional Forces in Helical Buckling of Tubing’, Paper SPE 13064 presented at the 1984 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Houston (September 16-19, 1984)
Page 45
Equation 66
surface slack - off
X=
Fmax
Equation 67
axial compression on bottom
Y=
Fmax
Once Fmax and X have been calculated, Y can be determined from Figure 20, or with the following
equation:
Equation 68
e2 X − 1
Y=
e2 X + 1
Figure 20 - Y vs. X for Downhole Compression Calculations
Page 46
6.3.12.2.Drag in Deviated Wells

Wellbore friction can generate significant drag forces in the tubing string in high angle and horizontal
wells. This can be especially important during running or pulling of the string since high drag forces
could prevent the tubing from reaching bottom when running in, or result in an axial tension failure
whilst pulling out.
Calculation of drag forces22 for tubing in deviated wells will be briefly discussed.
The accurate calculation of drag force is difficult without a realistic value for the coefficient of friction
between tubing and wellbore. Equation 69 and Equation 70 illustrate the principles behind drag force
calculations. WS-Tube has a limited capability of modelling the friction effects during pulling of tubing
(section 6.5.13.1), however if drag forces are expected to be a significant factor in the tubing running,
then an appropriate drill string simulator should be used. However, the accuracy of the prediction even
with the simulator is dependent on the assumed friction coefficient.
Figure 21 shows the forces acting on a tubing element in a deviated well. To calculate running and
pulling forces in the string, the proper method is to start at the bottom of the string and proceed upward
in relatively small length increments (generally, 100 ft increments are acceptable). The first step is to
calculate the normal force, Fn and then calculate the incremental tension force, ∆Ft. The incremental
tension force is subsequently added to the axial force at the bottom of the tubing element.
22
Johancsik, C A, Friesen, D B and Dawson R: ‘Torque and Drag in Directional Wells - Prediction and Measurement’, Journal
Petroleum Technology (June 1984)
Page 47
Figure 21 - Forces Acting on a Tubing Element in a Deviated Well for Drag Calculations
The effective tubing weight per element length (or buoyed weight per element length) W eff, is used in
the equations for Fn and ∆Ft.
The component of the pressure area force acting parallel to the pipe axis only acts at the bottom of the
tubing and at any changes in cross-sectional area.
The component of the pressure area force acting perpendicular to the pipe axis is distributed along the
length of the pipe.
Consequently, to calculate drag forces the following equations can be used:
Page 48
Equation 69
( )
1
Fn = (Ft ∆α sin θ ) + Ft ∆θ + Weff sin θ 

2 2 2
 
where:
Fn = normal force acting on tubing element
Ft = axial tension force acting at the lower end of tubing element, lbf
∆α = increase in azimuth (compass bearing) angle over length of element, radians
∆θ = increase in deviation angle over length of element, radians
θ = average inclination angle of tubing element, radians

Note, since we are working from the bottom of the string, the value of ∆θ will normally be negative.
Equation 70
∆Ft = Wactual cosθ ± µ f Fn

where:
Wactual = tubing weight in air per tubing element
µf = friction coefficient between drillstring and wellbore (0.1 to 0.4)
The plus or minus sign allows for tubing movement up or down. The plus sign is for movement up, or
pulling on the string, where friction increases the axial tension in the tubing. The minus sign is for
motion down. Coefficients of friction for tubing inside casing vary tremendously23. The friction
coefficient for clean metal-to-metal surfaces is between 0.3 - 1.0. When there is fluid, however this will
be lower and between 0.2 - 0.4 unlubricated and as low as 0.05 when lubricated. Consequently, since
the well will normally be full of mud or some other fluid, the friction coefficient should be below 0.4.
23
R.F. Mitchell “ Comprehensive Analysis of Buckling With Friction” SPE 29457 1995 SPE Production Operations Symposium
Oklahoma City April 2-4 1995
Page 49
6.3.13. Tubular Connections

In areas like the North Sea, the use of premium connections is becoming standard practice. The
mechanical properties of premium connections normally exceed the pipe body yield strength and are
therefore not critical to the integrity of the string. However most premium connections are designed
using finite element analysis using the ultimate tensile strength rather than the yield strength. Therefore
it is still likely that the failure mode of the string under excessive axial tension will be a failure of the
coupling. Many premium connections will also leak when under large compressive loads. The
connection manufacturer should be contacted for further details. Note that WS-Tube has the ability to
enter connections data directly.
When using non premium connections (standard API connections), the structural integrity and leak
resistance of the connections will likely be the limiting factor in a tubing stress analysis. Premium
connections are therefore highly recommended for most tubing strings. Selection and stress analysis of
tubular connections will be covered in Chapter 7 - Selection of Tubulars.
Page 50
6.4. Recommended Minimum Acceptable Tubing Design Factors

The BP design factors are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 - BP Tubing Stress Analysis Design Factors
Burst Collapse Axial Triaxial

Test conditions 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
Other Conditions 1.25 1.1 1.33 1.25
In addition to satisfying the BP design factors, it is recommended that any tubing stress analysis
includes the following points:
1. All tubing should be de-rated for the wall thickness tolerance when considering burst loads.
2. Appropriate metallurgical properties should be used. This includes temperature dependent yield and
anisotropy where appropriate.
3. Where tubing is subject to overpulls this should be included explicitly in the analysis with an
appropriate friction factor and an allowance made for the tolerance of the shear device. Overpulls
include retrieving the tubing from the well and shearing a pinned expansion joint or anchor latch.
4. Where tubing is exposed to corrosive fluids and corrosion resistant alloys are not used, an
appropriate allowance should be made in the tubing stress analysis.
5. The analysis should include details of dog leg profiles where known. If details are not known (for
example if the well has not been drilled), then anticipated maximum dog leg profiles should be used.
6. Connections should be explicitly considered even when premium connections are used. There are
cases when the connections are weaker than the tubing, particularly under axial compression.
7. The casing must be able to withstand the same loads as the tubing. This means that if the tubing
leaks, the casing must be able to hold any pressure in the tubing-casing annulus without leaking.
Details of how to undertake all of these actions in WS-Tube as well as details of appropriate load cases
will be included in the “BP Completion Design Manual” Update.
6.4.1. Test Conditions Definition

Test conditions are defined with the following criteria:
1. The tubing must be new, or newly inspected with correspondingly well defined properties such as
minimum dimensions, minimum weights, wall thickness tolerances and metallurgical properties.
2. The tubing must be mechanically isolated from the reservoir with no hydrocarbons in or outside the
tubing. Examples are plugs below the tailpipe or an un-perforated liner / casing.
3. The conditions (such as the pressure and temperature) must be defined so that the maximum
tubing stresses can be predicted accurately.
Examples of “test conditions” include tubing and annulus pressure tests in completion fluid with an un-
perforated liner or setting the packer.
6.4.2. Other Conditions Definition

“Other Conditions” are defined as any condition not satisfying the “Test Conditions” requirements.
Examples of “other conditions” would include all normal service loads (production, injection, stimulation
etc.) and overpulls (defined as any action to pull the tubing). Although in a overpull (for example to
shear a pinned expansion device) the pressures and temperatures are usually well defined, the friction
is not well defined and this acts to increase required axial loads. Therefore maximum tubing stresses
can not be predicted accurately.
Page 51
6.4.3. Design Factors Rationale

The purpose of design factors is to ensure that tubing is selected and used in a manner that prevents
inadvertent or premature failure. The selection of the actual design factor values must account for the
following requirements:
1. To ensure that service loads do not exceed mill test loads. Mill test loads (API or otherwise ) are not
normally to the nominal rating of the pipe.
2. To allow for unexpected events such as stuck pipe.
3. To allow for modelling uncertainties such as difficulties in predicting temperature profiles, the
accuracy of the Martin Decker gauge, or the shear rating of a hydraulic set packer.
4. To allow for features that are not included in an analysis e.g. if corrosion is not explicitly included.
5. To account for the consequences of failure. For example, tubing burst has a greater safety
implication than tubing collapse.
6.4.4. Test Condition Design Factors

The justifications for using lower design factors for test conditions than during normal service are:
1. The conditions to which the pipe is exposed are accurately known during the installation phase of a
well completion.
2. The pipe is new and in good condition.
3. The tubing is not exposed to hydrocarbons, therefore the consequences of failure are less severe
than normal and the effects of hydrocarbon fluids (especially sour service) are not present.
4. This allows higher test pressures to be used if required. The advantage of this is that it is common
for service loads to have different depths where stresses are at their peak compared to test
stresses. This is usually caused by different pressure gradients between test and service loads. If
higher test pressures can be safely used it allows the maximum test stresses to be higher than the
service stresses at more points in the tubing.
6.4.4.1. Test Conditions Burst Design Factors

The main constraint with tubing burst is that pipe is not exposed to higher loads than the API test
pressure. The hydrostatic test pressure is equivalent to 80% of nominal pipe. As burst safety factors
are based on de-rating the pipe by the wall thickness tolerance (normally 87.5%), a design factor of
1.094 prevents tubing being exposed to pressures higher than the hydrostatic test pressure. Therefore
a burst design factor of 1.1 is acceptable.
The burst safety factor is dependent on the minimum wall thickness. Therefore the wall thickness
tolerances must be applied to all burst loads. The standard tolerance is the API wall thickness tolerance
for new tubing at 12.5%. However some manufacturers manufacture to lower tolerances at no extra
cost or for a premium price. These tolerances can be used where appropriate. Likewise special criteria
can be used for inspection, so that only low tolerance tubing is used. Rejects from the inspection
process can then be used in less arduous conditions (e.g. higher or lower in the well).
6.4.4.2. Test Conditions Collapse Design Factors

A relatively low collapse design factor is acceptable as the consequences of collapse are less severe
than for tubing burst. There is still merit however in maintaining design factors greater than 1.0, to allow
for potential small errors and uncertainties (e.g. accuracy of pressure gauges etc.). Therefore a design
factor of 1.1 has been chosen.
Page 52
6.4.4.3. Test Conditions Axial Design Factors

Again a relatively low design factor is justified. The main variables in axial loads are pipe bending,
temperature effects, overpulls and uncertainties about friction. Pipe bending will be modelled by
inclusion of appropriate dog leg severity. Temperature effects should be known, or at least not affect
the stresses (for example, temperature changes only effect axial loads once the packer has been set).
Overpulls do not satisfy the criteria for the test conditions (because the conditions are not accurately
known). The constraints of sour conditions also do not apply during test conditions as they will be no
hydrocarbons in the string. Because of all these effects, a low design factor can be used for the test
conditions. A design factor of 1.1 is therefore appropriate.
6.4.4.4. Test Conditions Triaxial Design Factors

Triaxial design factors consider the combined effects of axial and collapse loads. In keeping with the
casing design manual24, it is now considered inappropriate to use a triaxial analysis as a means of
determining burst loads. Recent work25 suggests that the burst of pipe is independent of the axial load.
Therefore there is no need to derate the wall thickness when considering triaxial loads. As a design
factor of 1.1 has been used for axial, burst and collapse loads, a triaxial design factor of 1.1 is also
appropriate.
6.4.5. Other Conditions

6.4.5.1. Burst Design Factor
As the burst safety factor is related only to tubing properties and pressure differentials, a relatively low
design factor should be acceptable as pressure differentials can usually be estimated fairly accurately
or at least conservatively.
The tubing should be derated for the wall thickness tolerance (API or manufacturer’s as appropriate).
This is discussed more fully in section 6.4.4.1. As the burst of tubing is so closely related to the
minimum wall thickness, then any process that effects this should be included. For example corrosion
(specifically pitting attack) must be accounted for if corrosion is expected. The use of standard formula
(e.g. DeWaard and Milliams26) can be used to predict corrosion rates, based on CO2 levels,
temperature and pressure. These are usually highly conservative, but offer a useful first pass.
Alternatively specialist advice can be sought from metallurgists or the BP research centre. Other
processes likely to affect the burst resistance are erosion, wear (particularly for casing) or mechanical
damage such as tong marks and wireline induced damage.
As corrosion and other forms of wear can be difficult or impossible to predict then a certain amount of a
safety margin is required. This does not allow corrosion or damage to be ignored in tubing stress
analysis as pitting in particular can be excessive in high temperature and acidic (CO2) environments if
inappropriate tubing is selected. A burst design factor of 1.25 has been selected based on these key
uncertainties, but every effort should be made to quantify these uncertainties and therefore reduce any
risk.
6.4.5.2. Collapse Design Factors

A relatively low collapse factor is acceptable because of the following conditions:
• Annulus pressures are usually known to a greater degree of accuracy than tubing pressures.
• Collapse although unwanted and costly does not normally impose risks to personnel.
24
BP Casing Design Manual 1996
25
An Analytical Model to Predict the Burst Capacity of Pipelines Stewart G, Klever FJ and Ritchie D Offshore Mechanics and
th
Arctic Engineering 13 International Conference Houston 1994.
26
DeWard, C and Milliams, D: ‘Prediction of Carbonic Acid Corrosion in Natural Gas Pipeline’, First International Conference on
the Internal and External Protection of Pipes, University of Durham, 1975.
Page 53
• The collapse rating is more dependent on the average wall thickness and therefore collapse is less
affected by processes such as corrosion.
A collapse safety factor of 1.1 has been selected based on these considerations.
Despite these ameliorating conditions, tubing collapse is still a major cause of workovers. One of the
most common causes of collapsed tubing is the trapped annulus phenomena. The well annuli will heat
up considerably during production conditions or after injection has ceased. If the volume change
associated with the heating is prevented from escaping, then enormous pressures can be exerted.
(hundreds of psi for small even a 10°F temperature increase). Therefore consideration for annulus
expansion should normally be made in the design and operations of wells. WS-Tube has an easy to use
feature that allows quantification of this trapped annulus volume phenomena (see section 6.5.12.4).
In addition to the trapped annuli phenomena, consideration should be given to maximum allowable
annulus surface pressures (MAASPs). MAASPs should be calculated so that under worse case
conditions the tubing does not collapse, the casing does not burst and surface pressure limits (e.g.
wellhead pressure ratings) are not exceeded. The worst case condition for tubing collapse is normally a
completely evacuated tubing. However, if this is very unlikely (for example in most oil wells) then
maximum reservoir drawdown conditions could be used (see section 6.5.12.8). When a MAASP has
been calculated it should be specifically covered and explained in well operation procedures.
6.4.5.3. Axial Design Factors

Axial forces are generated by a large combination of effects. For this reason they are harder to
accurately predict than burst or collapsed loads. Pressure, temperature, well doglegs, buckling and
friction can all contribute to axial loads. A relatively high axial design is therefore preferred as many of
these effects are hard to predict under operational conditions. In addition, the connection strength is
based on ultimate tensile strength rather than yield strength, therefore axial loads on connections do
not have the same leeway that axial loads on tubing has. This becomes important when considering the
cumulative effects of hydrocarbons, age in service and load uncertainty.
Where pipe is exposed to sour conditions it should conform with NACE specifications. The NACE test
requirement is exposure of the tubing to a NACE sour solution with a stress of 75% of the material yield
stress. In order to prevent exposing the pipe to higher service loads than these test loads, an axial
design factor of 1.33 is required. This design factor fits in well with a relatively high axial design factor
required to manage uncertainties in axial loads.
A large axial design factor used to be used to give an “appropriate allowance” for overpulls. However it
is possible to quantify overpulls with either WS-Tube or drill string simulators (section 6.5.13.1).
Overpulls, unlike all other conditions, have the tubing to casing friction working to increase axial loads.
Therefore this must be explicitly included in the modelling. Therefore so long as these cases are
specifically included a design factor of 1.33 should be acceptable and still gives a reasonable overpull
margin. In addition, with techniques such as chemical cutters, very large overpulls can normally be
avoided.
It should be noted that bending and buckling stresses are also included in the axial safety factor in WS-
Tube (but not in TDAS). Therefore the reliance on using the triaxial analysis to check for loads imposed
by buckling has been reduced.
Page 54
6.4.5.4. Triaxial Design Factors

The triaxial design factor is supposed to account for the combination affects of axial and burst/collapse
loads. It should therefore account for the uncertainties and consequences of failure under burst,
collapse or parting (axial failure). Therefore a relatively high triaxial design factor should be used.
However recent work 25 suggests that the bursting of tubing is independent of axial loads. As the
buckling of tubing is now included in axial loads as well as triaxial loads (section 6.4.5.3), the reliance
on the triaxial analysis has been significantly reduced. It is still required however for examining the
effects of axial loads on collapse resistance. A relatively low design factor of 1.25 is therefore
appropriate without the necessity to include the deration for wall thickness tolerances.
6.4.6. The use of the BP Design Factors

Although the BP design factors are guidelines, it is expected that the guidelines will normally be
followed. However, engineering and judgment must still be used to ensure that the tubing stress
analysis is a representation of the realistic conditions experienced during the life of the well rather than
a blind application of corporate policy. It is therefore vital that attention is paid to accurately modelling
both the well tubing and the loads it is exposed to. After all, tubing failures have shown to be caused
more by a failure to predict or model events (for example corrosion or annulus expansion) than by a low
design factor.
6.4.7. Completion Components and Design Factors

The guidelines for design factors for tubing should be relatively straightforward. However there are a
few specific issues when it comes to completion components such as packers, PBRs, and safety
valves.
6.4.7.1. Safety Valves

Safety valves are covered by API guidelines (API 14A) which states that the burst pressure is
equivalent to 1.5 times the rated working pressure. This will apply to the body and valve (flapper or
ball). In other respects (e.g. tensile limits) it will be treated as any other completion component.
6.4.7.2. Other Completion Components

Manufacturers will normally make completion components with equivalent working ratings of the
appropriate tubing or tubing connection. A safety factor is then added on. This safety factor is usually
small (around 1.1)27. This is usually adequate for two reasons:
• Completion components are usually manufactured to a much higher dimensional tolerances than
tubing. Tolerances for completion components may be 0.001” as opposed to 12.5% for the API
tubing thickness.
• A 1.1 safety factor above working pressure ensures that the components are stronger than the
tubing or tubing connection.
Where components are not specified as being of equivalent or greater strength than the tubing or
tubing connection then great care should taken. Examples include:
1. The stated pressure rating on DST test equipment may not have the same safety factor as used for
the tubing. The safety factor may be as low as 1.0.
2. Some components (especially packers and PBRs) will have a separate triaxial envelope (combined
axial and burst / collapse loads). This envelope may not be the same as the tubing. Triaxial effects
on packers in particular may be large as they can be subject to high simultaneous compression and
burst loads.
27
Personal communication Graham Taylor Baker Oil Tools.
Page 55
6.5. WS-Tube
WS-Tube is Enertech’s tubing stress analysis software. It is one of a suite of programs called "Wellcat"
for tubing / casing design and analysis. BP has a corporate license for Wellcat. This section should be
used in conjunction with the BP tubing stress analysis course, which is designed around the use of WS-
Tube.
WS-Tube is currently a DOS based program with a form based interface. It allows the user to enter
data for a variety of well types and then analyses the results under a variety of load cases. The
following features are available in WS-Tube:
• Single, or dual completions.
• Single, dual or multiple packers - either hydraulically or mechanically set.
• Expansion devices with limited or unlimited movement.
• Default and user definable metallurgical properties, including temperature dependent yield.
• Plugged or unplugged tubing and annulus.
• Standard and user definable load cases.
• Graphical output of results including burst, collapse, axial and triaxial safety factors.
• Calculation of packer forces, stick-up heights and tubing movement.
WS-Tube can sometimes be confusing and awkward to use, although most of the data entry is self
explanatory.
This section shows how WS-Tube works and takes the user through the main screens. A worked
example is also examined.
A generic process for performing a tubing stress analysis using WS-Tube is shown in Figure 22.
Page 56
Figure 22 - Generic Process for Performing a Tubing Stress Analysis using WS-Tube
Determine the optimum casing and tubing sizes, grades, and metallurgy
Design optimum completion accounting for artificial lift and packer position(s)
Start with standard grade and weight tubing with no slack-off
Write outline installation procedures, defining how the completion is

run, how the packer is set and any expansion devices spaced out
Define load cases (pressure tests, production, injection,

stimulation, evacuated tubing, tubing leaks, etc.)
Obtain metallurgy data

and corrosion allowance Heavier weight Slack-off
or higher grade weight on
tubing
Perform WS-Tube analysis packer?
Acceptable loads Use of Modify

No
on the tubing expansion operating or
devices? installation
Yes procedures
Acceptable loads on the Options

packers, and those
No
transferred to the casing?
Yes
If expansion device or anchor used determine optimum shear rating to Not

avoid premature shearing or failure of string prior to delibrate shearing Possible
Possible
Analyse overpull conditions and tests prior to setting packer. Unacceptable loads
Acceptable loads
Determine intervention limits caused by bending and buckling
Page 57
6.5.1. Computing Requirements and Installation:

• Requires a PC with DOS or Windows '95.
• Requires a math's co-processor (you can check this by running "Checkup.xlm" in the
excel\library\checkup directory).
• Version 4.5 and above now runs from windows with a network. There is an icon on the installation
disks you can also copy across to launch the program
• Type install at the a: prompt and select custom installation. Select c:\enertech for the path directory.
• The most common computing problem is now printing (especially with a network). This will continue
to be a problem until the windows version arrives. Try altering the settings section and give
Enertech a call if you have further problems. Network printing is possible.
• Use 'Alt' 'Tab' to minimise WS-Tube to an icon. You can also change the settings when its
minimised i.e. change from 'Full Screen' to 'Window'. However in “Window” mode it will be slower.
6.5.2. Applications
WS-Tube can be used to analyse a variety of tubing stress related problems.
1. Check that tubing will not failure under a variety of load conditions.
2. Check that pinned expansion devices or anchor latches will not shear when you don't want them to,
but will shear when you do want them to. Calculate the shear settings required to achieve this.
3. Calculates movement of free tubing or expansion devices.
4. Check that buckling will not cause access problems for toolstrings (wireline / CT etc.)
5. Calculate tubing hanger stick-ups required for completions (if applicable).
6. Calculate loads imposed on the casing by tubing.
7. Calculate the effects of thermal expansion on a trapped annular volume.
6.5.3. Methodology
This section is not designed to replace the WS-Tube manual, but provide useful additional data not
found (or difficult to find) in the manual.
Examples of screen input for a simple completion are given in section 6.6.
6.5.3.1. General
• All depths are measured depth BRT (unless specified otherwise).
• Use Shift F1 to toggle between metric and oil field units (the default units can also be changed at
the set-up screen).
• Use 'Draw' (F5) to check the input is what you think it should be.
6.5.4. Input Screen 1 - Tubing Description
Total Depth: Reference point only for bottom hole conditions. Suggest use mid point of completed
interval.
Grade: Use CRA or USR for anything other than plain carbon steel.
Packer Type: Use mechanical if packer set prior to shearing PBR etc.
Is the Tubing Latched?: No for expansion devices above the packer.
Coupling: Normally leave blank for most premium couplings (except certain large OD high strength
tubulars). There is a separate couplings screen, but there is no option to enter coupling OD for buckling
analysis.
Page 58
6.5.5. Input Screen 1.1 - Tubing Properties

See Table 1 for the most appropriate metallurgical properties.
Ultimate Tensile Strength: Don't use unless you have non premium connections.
Critical Dimensions: Oilfield pipe is manufactured to certain tolerances, usually to the API tolerances
(Table 2). The critical tolerance is the thickness tolerance which should be applied to the burst load
(section 6.4).
If corrosion is predicted, here is the place to enter it26. Corrosion rates can be predicted with equations
such as DeWard and Milliams (section 7a), or by contacting appropriate local or Sunbury RCS
metallurgists and corrosion engineers. Maximum pit depth should be used for burst loads, maximum
general wall loss should be used for collapse and axial loads. If significant weight loss is expected, the
tubing ID (i.e. the weight) could always be upgraded (or you could invest in better tubing).
6.5.6. Input Screen 2 - Well Geometry
Packer Data: The bug that gave wrong results with a packer hung tailpipe has now been corrected
(version 4.51 onwards). However there is now a new bug which takes a mechanical set packer option
and calculates results based on hydraulic set plug, if the packer was previously specified as a hydraulic
set packer! To correct this, use a hydraulic set packer with 15 psia set pressure.
Packer depth: If a tailpipe is included then the tubing is not continuous through the packer. This fixes a
previous bug in version 4.5.
Plug Depth: Used for specifying where the plug is for hydraulically setting the packer. Leave blank if
the plug is in the tailpipe. There used to be a bug which gave wrong numbers here, but this has been
corrected (version 4.51). If the plug depth is in the liner, then completely different results will be created.
This has applications where a packer is set by stinging a tailpipe into the liner PBR.
Packer Bore diameter: This is the seal bore diameter of the PBR, expansion joint or shear release
anchor. This number is critical for sizing PBR’s shear rings etc. (the bigger the seal bore the greater the
forces).
Slack-off Force: This is the surface slack-off force. For over-pulls (say to shear an anchor) use a large
negative number and a multiplier for friction (0.25 is a general figure for pipe in casing). A warning for
values greater than +-50,000 lbs is generated, but can be ignored (tap return a few times).
Production Casing: The correct ID is required for buckling calculations. Temperature calculations also
use this data and simple assumptions (only one casing string), but are usually fairly conservative
anyway (too much cool down or heat up) so excessive detail is not necessary. View the schematic to
make sure its correct, as casing input is a bit quirky. If it's not right, then there is a separate "Pipe's"
screen (screen 1 or 2 hit F4, F8) where more detail can be added. This can be used to correctly input
liner hanger and cement top data.
If you change the casing size, there's a bug that can effect the tubing. To rectify this delete and re-enter
the tubing data.
Initial Conditions: Add more detail on screen 2.1
The default surface temperature of 80°F is a bit tropical for North Sea conditions. The defaults can
however easily be changed (section 6.5.15).
The hanger depth is the best way of entering subsea wells (referenced to BRT).
Page 59
6.5.7. Dual String Packers

The dual packer assumed in WS-Tube is purely to anchor the second string. It does not anchor the first
string and assumes that this string is continuous and free to move. In reality, both strings are fixed,
therefore it is suggested that both a dual packer AND a second PBR packer is placed at the same
point.
Unfortunately this then doesn't correctly model the hydraulic setting of the dual packer, as it will allow
the second string to stretch more than reality. Therefore as this force is usually very small (with small
string set dual packers), I suggest that it is ignored - the alternative is to model both packers (the dual
and the second PBR packer) as hydraulic set, but with an appropriately reduced setting pressure.
6.5.8. Input Screen 2.1 - Well Geometry Options
Complex initial conditions can be entered here (e.g. bullheading diesel prior to setting packer - section
6.6.3.4.).
Annular clearance could be useful (remember buckling does not take account of the OD of external
upsets at couplings) but each point (up to 3) has to entered separately. If buckling is severe then
change the ID of the casing accordingly and accept that the temperature modelling is going to be
slightly out). Beware however that couplings will have no effect if the helical pitch is very short (less
than two times length of single joint). The formula for the helical pitch (Equation 35) can be used as
required.
6.5.9. Input Screen 3 - Analysis Features
Design Factors: The default design factors that come with WS-Tube are not BP's. Please use the
correct BP tubing design factors (section 6.4). The BP design factors can be set by the user as defaults
(section 6.5.15).
Tool Passage: Useful, if conservative (rigid tools) for estimating intervention restraints caused by
deviated and buckled tubing. Remember buckling can still occur when the string is entirely in tension.
Packer Fluid: Useful (if simplistic) for temperature modelling. No modelling capability of the effect of
annular lift gas on temperature though. The default packer fluid properties are not realistic for water. I
suggest values of 0.6 cp for viscosity and a yield point of 0 are used.
Analysis Options: Friction - sounds useful but only considers tubing to casing friction due to buckling
and deviation. Friction usually acts for you (section 6.3.12), i.e. designs are usually conservative if
friction is ignored. However there are cases when this is not the case and it is worthwhile doing a quick
check with tubing to casing friction included for all load cases. Over-pulls (section 6.5.13.1) always need
to include friction. The friction will be highly dependent on the tortuosity of the well, so include dogleg
severity as accurately as possible.
Annulus Expansion: Very useful for certain cases. Turned off for 'normal' cases. It does not take
account of any free gas in the annulus and uses default data for the three different completion fluids
(oil, water or brine). There is the opportunity to enter fluid data directly, although the three fluid type
options usually give fairly accurate results. Unfortunately annulus expansion is either on or off for all
load cases together, therefore it’s main use is to check to see whether temperature increases can
cause problems with annulus expansion and tubing collapse. Further consideration of the importance of
annulus expansion is given in section 6.5.12.4.
The options for annulus expansion are to include “rigid pipe” or not. This refers to whether the
ballooning of the casing is addressed or not. The (reverse) ballooning of the tubing itself is always
included. With cemented casing the pipe (casing) will be rigid and this will generate a worst case.
Paslay Dawson Deviation: This is the effect of deviation on the ability of pipe to buckle28.
28
Wellcat User Manual version 4.52 Enertech
Page 60
6.5.10. Input Screen 3.1 Analysis Options

Multiple Packer: Fairly straightforward and useful for annular safety valves (ASVs). If you want to
delete a second packer, delete all the data in this section (including defaults). The plug depth for a
multiple hydraulic set packer has a significant effect on the residual stresses left after the packer has
set. For example, a plug depth at the depth of the packer being set will leave residual tension above
that depth and residual compression below. If the packer is however set with a plug positioned much
deeper than the packer being set, then the residual forces will be much reduced and will be zero if the
plug is positioned below a previously set packer. The multiple packer option can be used to model
setting hydraulic set packers by using a liner top PBR (Figure 23).
Figure 23 - WS-Tube Configuration for Intervention Free Setting of Hydraulic Packers
Perforation Data:
Perforation Depth - mid point of completion interval or reservoir pressure datum depth - used for
production load cases. Can be defaulted if same depth used for total depth.
Static Reservoir Pressure - Not used in WS-Tube.
6.5.11. Input Screen D Deviation and Dogleg Data
This screen can be a little confusing. Standard MD / TVD pairs should be entered and this automatically
generates the correct well profile. This profile would then be used to calculate true vertical depths. If
dog-leg data is added it must be by using the dogleg field (or "dogleg severity field, but top and bottom
intervals must then be specified). It is very important to get dogleg severity correct, as bending (and
hence axial and triaxial) stresses may be high. If accurate dogleg severity data is not available (e.g.
because the well has yet to be drilled) then it is best to make conservative assumptions based on
projected well profiles. For example if the build rate is 4°/100 ft, then the driller’s target may be a dogleg
severity of under 6°/100 ft. This 6°/100 ft dogleg severity can then be used in WS-Tube.
Page 61
6.5.12. Input Screen 4 - Load Cases

What load cases should be considered?
When new to tubing stress analysis, or when unusual conditions are encountered all possible
combinations of pressure, temperature, plugs, fluids, flowrates, annular conditions and pumps should
be entered. Remember the triaxial stress ellipse: worst cases are combinations of collapse and tension
or burst and compression.
The following conditions should normally be considered:
6.5.12.1.Initial Conditions
These are automatically included in the output as load case 0 in WS-Tube. Although this load case is
rarely severe on its own it may have a significant effect on the loads of all subsequent cases. Therefore
it is important to get the pressures and temperatures correct at the time of setting the packer. When it
asks for initial conditions it means the conditions prior to pressuring up the tubing for setting the packer
(for hydraulic set packers). The actual surface pressure at the time the packer slips bite the casing is
specified separately in the packer sections. Note that initial conditions should not be confused with the
term packer fluid. The packer fluid is assumed to be the fluid in the tubing-casing annulus after the
packer has been set. The initial conditions and the packer fluid will however normally be the same fluid.
If your load's on a pinned PBR (for example) are excessive and close to limits then consider what effect
any circulating will have prior to setting a packer. This may cool (or heat) the completion and therefore
put residual compression or tension into the string. Such modelling can be done using Welltemp and
imported directly in WS-Tube. Do not assume that circulating cold fluid down the well will on average
cool the completion. It can do the opposite.
6.5.12.2. Tubing Pressure Tests

This will either be before or after the packer has been set. Often, both tests are performed. Normal
operation loads should be lower than test loads, but savings in material can be made if test pressures
are limited. 1,000 psia above the maximum tubing head pressure is a useful start for tubing tests.
6.5.12.3.Annulus Tests
The main purpose of this test is to test packers or tubing hangers. Ideally the test pressure should be to
the same criteria as tubing tests (particularly if packers are only being tested from above).
6.5.12.4.Production Conditions
The production multiphase calculations in WS-Tube are highly simplistic (Duns and Ros). However they
are usually conservative and therefore are a useful first pass. A high flow rate gives higher
temperatures (therefore compression) but lower pressures (therefore collapse). Consideration should
be given to likely annulus pressures. High annulus pressures, coupled with high drawdowns, can
produce large collapse loads. The appropriate annulus pressure to use will depend on the well
procedures and equipment designed to limit annulus pressures (i.e. the regular monitoring and bleeding
down of annulus pressures, or the inclusion of a gas lift valve). If a high drawdown case coupled with
high annulus pressures creates a potential collapse condition, then this warning must be passed on and
the maximum safe annulus pressure included in the well operations procedures. The amount of annulus
expansion and the potential pressures this causes if the fluid is not free to escape can be very large
(over 50 psi /°F). The annulus expansion option in WS-Tube can be used to check the effect of a
trapped annulus (see section 6.5.9). Alternatively, a simply equation (Equation 71) can be used to
check annulus pressure increases.
Page 62
Equation 71
E∆T
∆P =
C
where :
E = coefficient of thermal expansion of the annular fluid
C = compressibility of the fluid
∆T = average temperature change in the annulus
Note that this equation has a few simplifications:
1. A constant coefficient of thermal expansion.
2. A constant compressibility. In reality, both these variables are function of pressure and temperature.
3. The casing and tubing are both rigid and do not balloon. In reality the tubing will reverse balloon and
possibly the casing will balloon. Therefore this equation will over estimate the effect.
Typical values for fluid compressibility are 3x10-6 / psi for water based fluids, and 7x10-6 /psi for oil
based fluids.
Typical values for thermal expansion are shown in Table 4.
Table 4 - Typical values for the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Fluid Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Water 2.1 x 10-4 °C-1
CaCl2 (1.4 s.g.) 4.3 x 10-4 °C-1
NaCl (1.14) 4.6 x 10-4 °C-1
Muds 4-12 x 10-4 °C-1
Therefore for a water filled annulus with rigid tubing and casing, the pressure increase is 70 psi /°C.
6.5.12.5.Shut-in Conditions.
The worst case is normally a high flow rate followed by a quick shut-in (load case S in WS-Tube. This
generates the highest temperatures. Note the shut-in modelling in WS-Tube is very limited (assumes
constant fluid pressure gradient). The calculation of maximum shut-in pressures is a complex process
in oil wells. The assumption of a gas gradient to surface on top of the maximum anticipated reservoir
pressure should cover the worst case, but is often unduly conservative. For a more realistic case, the
highest predicted GOR can be used, coupled with a high flowrate to predict (e.g., in THoR) in-situ well
fluids with the maximum amount of gas. However, the process of converting these production in-situ
fluids quantities to water/oil/gas interfaces is complex due to transfers between the gas and oil phases
as the fluid segregates and the pressures change. If there is no production data to go on, and the gas
gradient to surface poses unacceptable stresses on the tubing, then appropriate multiphase flow
experts in BP RCS should be contacted for specialist advice.
6.5.12.6.Overpull Cases
Don't use the overpull case - it gives wrong tubing to packer forces and will ignore friction. Instead set
up a separate file and use a negative slackoff and include a factor for friction (section 6.5.13.1).
Page 63
6.5.12.7.Pump In to Kill
Pump-in to kill is more easily performed as injection. It may not be a serious case anyway, as killing the
completion usually precedes pulling a completion.
6.5.12.8.Evacuated Tubing
Evacuated tubing is often a severe test of tubing, particularly for deep and high pressure wells. If the
evacuated tubing case poses large restrictions on the choice of tubing, then consider modeling
maximum drawdown conditions instead. For a gas well this will likely be a fully evacuated tubing, but for
a naturally flowing oil well, then the minimum tubing bottom hole pressure is likely to be with the
maximum amount of free gas and no water production.
6.5.12.9.Stimulation
Stimulation in its various forms can be a severe test of a completion or test string. There are various
issues that must be looked at:
1. The worst cases are often those that involve the lowest temperatures and therefore the longest
injection period. These cases are best modelled using the injection load case in WS-Tube.
2. High loads can also be generated with a low density fluid such as the pad fluid when trying to open a
fracture. This can generate high surface pressures.
3. Consider fracture screen-out cases when examining proppant based stimulation. The maximum
pressure will be limited by the pressure relief features at surface. Therefore the worst bottom hole
pressure will be this surface pressure and the maximum fluid density.
4. Take care when considering stimulation through a completion especially a subsea completion, or
any completion with activated valves which are not pump through. One of the potential problems is
the hydraulic hammer effect. If a valve suddenly closes (e.g. loss of hydraulic fluid), then the
hammer effect may generate instantaneous pressures that are higher than the surface relief
pressure. This may over pressurise the tubing. Process design software can be used to quantify this
effect, or the appropriate experts within the BP Research Centre can be contacted. This effect may
mean that the pressure relief valves have to be set at a lower value than would normally be the
case.
6.5.12.10.Point Loads on Tubing

If you want to model point loads on the tubing (e.g. hanging off a velocity string from a nipple), increase
a 1 ft section of tubing to the appropriate weight, but keep the OD and ID constant. This will correctly
model the effect the point load has on the completion. The actual insert tubing can then be modelled
separately.
6.5.12.11.Load Cases Prior to Setting the Packer

If you want to model conditions prior to setting a packer, or pulling tubing etc., you need a separate file
(section 6.5.13.2).
6.5.12.12.Special Cases
Consider a few unusual cases where appropriate e.g. a plug above a shear release anchor in a gas well
with cold tubing evacuated above the plug is not usually recommended!
The ability to specify temperature conditions from a previous load case is really good, but the prior load
case needs to be a production load case (not for example a shut-in condition).
6.5.13. Modelling Special Conditions

There are a number of conditions which can not be modelled with a single WS-Tube run.
Page 64
6.5.13.1.Overpulls, Anchor Latches and Pinned Expansion Devices

Despite the addition of an overpull load case in WS-Tube, it is best to set up a separate file to model
overpulls. This is because tubing to casing friction must be considered in an overpull, whereas normally
it can safely be ignored. Secondly, the current WS-Tube set-up does not output tubing to packer forces
with the overpull load case. The tubing to packer force (see section 6.6.4.5) is equal to the force seen
on an anchor or pinned expansion device when the loads from the tailpipe have been subtracted.
Therefore it is important to extract this force, as this force must be greater than the shear device
parting strength (plus a margin of error).
The easiest way to set up a separate file is to analyse all other loads first of all. The file is then saved as
another name, the load cases deleted, tubing to casing friction is added and a negative slack-off is
added in order to model an overpull. Estimating the correct friction factor to use will depend largely on
well fluids. A friction factor of 0.3 should cover most eventualities as friction can be high when running
completions in brine or water. A more accurate and detailed approach can be made by using a
drillstring simulator. Trial and error is used to determine whether an optimum shear setting is possible.
It is important that three conditions are met:
1. There is no danger of the shear device parting prematurely. In order to conform this, then the load
cases prior to intentionally shearing the shear device must be analysed. For example if a hydraulic
set packer is being used with a pinned expansion joint, consideration must be given to what may
happen if the packer does not set. In the worst case this may result in the packer and tailpipe being
blown off the bottom of the string.
2. There must be a sufficient overpull transferred to the shear device. The overpull must account for
the tolerance of the shear mechanism (between 5 and 10%) and tubing to casing friction.
3. The loads on the top of the string are not exceeded during the overpull. It is important that both
triaxial and axial loads are acceptable as the beneficial effect of any internal pressure can not be
100% relied on.
If the overpull case is a problem, then there are a number of options:
• Use pressure to help free the shear device. The operational safety constraints with this must
however be considered and it is wise to have the pressure at the shear device at not at surface.
This can be achieved by locking in the pressure by setting a plug above the shear device, or by
closing the safety valve and bleeding off above it. Having pressure on the string at surface whilst
performing the overpull is not recommended as the jolt from the shear device shearing may be
considerable.
• Increase the weight or grade of the tubing at the top of the well.
• Using slack off weight on the shear device. This potentially allows a lower shear rating to be safely
used without risking premature parting of the shear device.
• Do not deliberately shear a pinned expansion device when installing the completion. If this option is
pursued then load cases must be analysed up to the point when the expansion joint shears. In
particular, just before the expansion device shears, the loads on the rest of the tubing may be very
high. Such cases must include the tubing to casing friction. Including this friction will limit a transfer
of force to the expansion device (by transferring it directly to the casing) and therefore may delay the
shearing of the expansion device. High loads may therefore be experienced, particularly at the top of
the completion.
Page 65
6.5.13.2.Pressure Tests Prior to Setting Packers

It is common to test tubing prior to setting a packer. This is normally achieved by using a plug above
the packer. In this case the tubing is usually completely free to move. This has to be set up as a
separate file with the packer positioned at the bottom of the tubing string and the tubing not being
latched to the packer. A plug load case (user entered load) can then be used to examine tubing
movement and stresses. It is relatively common for this load case to be a limiting factor, as the piston
effect on the plug may exert high loads on the top of the completion.
6.5.13.3.Space-out of the Completion When using Hydraulic Set Packers

Hydraulic set packers introduce movement in the completion as they set. If the completion is spaced
out to interface with a liner (e.g. stabbed into the liner top), then the downward movement associated
with setting the packer must be considered and included in the space-out. This is particularly important
with mandrel movement packers, where the packer will not set if this downward movement is
prevented.
In order to calculate the movement, then the WS-Tube file should be set up with unlimited downward
movement at the packer. A load case with a plug set above the packer and tested to the maximum
pressure at which the slips will bite will result in a predicted downward movement equal to the maximum
movement the completion will see as the packer sets.
6.5.13.4.Running Tubing Into the Well

Getting tubing to the bottom of a deep extended-reach-well is a concern for a few completions,
particularly when the completion is run into open hole sections. WS-Tube is incapable of modelling
such a case. An appropriate drillstring simulator should therefore be used.
6.5.13.5.Retrievable Packers
Although most packers are now permanent, there are still many applications where a retrievable packer
is very useful. Examples include drill stem tests (DSTs) and electrical submersible pump (ESP) wells.
Retrievable packers are commonly retrieved by a straight pull. In this respect they behave exactly like a
anchor latch and can be analysed in exactly the same way. The same considerations occur including
being able to retrieve the packer when you want to without parting the tubing and avoiding prematurely
pulling the packer.
Retrievable packers usually work whereby an upward pull acts on a mandrel which is pinned to the
packer body. Shearing the pins allows the slips to retract and the completion to be pulled. This can be
analysed by using the seal bore diameter of the mandrel / packer bore. This dimension can be obtained
from the packer manufacturer. The seal bore is then included as the packer bore dimension in WS-
Tube. The seal bore is the bore of part of the packer which seals and moves the slips when the packer
is retrieved. It is not necessarily the dimension where the two parts are pinned together (Figure 24).
The analysis is then treated in exactly the same way as in the overpull of a pinned expansion device
(section 6.5.13.1).
Page 66
Figure 24 - Modelling of Forces on Retrievable Packers
6.5.14. Results:
Pressure / Temperature Plots: Very useful to see if the load cases are what you intended.
Design limit plots should only be used if there is no temperature dependent yield, as they assume a
constant yield point.
Movement, Stress and load Tables, this is the definitive print out.
The total tubing movement in load case 0 is the slack-off distance required to give the specified slack-
off force. It accounts for tubing elongation whilst setting the packer. It obviously does not take into
account any movement of a packer mandrel relative to the packer slips after the packer set pressure
has been reached (with Baker's SABL for example this is 1").
Page 67
The tubing to packer force is the force on any anchor (e.g. pinned PBR), if the packer seal bore size
has been correctly entered.
6.5.15. WS-Tube Defaults (and How to Change Them)

The standard values found in WS-Tube, are often different from those used by BP. Examples include
design factors and metallurgical properties. It is straight forward to change the defaults - Enter WS-
Tube and on the first screen hit F4 (keys), F10 (def). This allows the user to enter any default data,
even load cases, or depths. Once all the data is changed, hit F3 (main) to save changes. All future new
WS-Tube files will then start with this default data.
Page 68
6.6. Worked Example

This worked example is a relatively simple completion. The purpose is to show typical data entry, a few
potential pitfalls and how to interpret the results. The example was performed on WS-Tube version
4.52, but the data entry comments will largely still be valid for later versions (including the windows
version).
6.6.1. Data Gathering

This example is a single string completion. It is an oil production well, which may be converted to a
water injector later in field life.
Page 69
Figure 25 - WS-Tube Example - Completion Schematic
The completion schematic (Figure 25) contains most of the information required. In addition, the
following is required and is used in this example:
Casing data: 9 5/8" 47 lb/ft, liner 7" 29 lb/ft.
Page 70
Tubing 4 ½" 12.6 lb/ft 13 Cr with premium (NV) connections.

Packer hydraulically set (slips bite at 1,400 psia), but PBR then sheared out.
PBR above packer, with a seal bore size of 5.25" and 20’ movement allowed up, no movement allowed
down.
Pressure tests 5,000 psi prior to setting packer against nipple above PBR, 5,000 psi after packer set
(against liner). 4,000 psi annulus test.
Bottom Hole Static Temperature 250°F. Surface temperature 40°F.
Production conditions - 28 API oil at 10,000 bpd, 1,000 scf/stb GOR, 150 psi surface pressure.
Shut-in conditions 3,000 psi with gas gradient.
Injection conditions - 15,000 bpd water injection rate at 4,000 psi injection pressure.
6.6.2. WS-Tube Input

The main screens for data are shown below, with the appropriate data entry. Most of the entry is self
explanatory.
6.6.3. WS-Tube Screens

The DOS version of WS-Tube is split into various separate screens, each with sub screens where more
detail or options can be added.
6.6.3.1. WS-Tube Screen 1 (Tubing)

Figure 26 - WS-Tube Screen 1
With the Grade being 13 Cr, a yield has to be entered, the ID is however calculated automatically.
(Note that the ID is not automatically recalculated if you change the weight).
Page 71
6.6.3.2. WS-Tube Screen 1.1 (Tubing Properties)

Figure 27 - WS-Tube Input - Screen 1.1
The data on this screen should already be set up using the BP defaults (section 6.5.15). Metallurgy
properties for standard grades can be found in (Table 1).
Page 72
6.6.3.3. WS-Tube Screen 2 (Packer and Casing)

Figure 28 - WS-Tube Input - Screen 2
The seal bore diameter is critical to the stresses.

The casing data is used primarily for buckling considerations. Therefore although it is possible to enter
casing data exactly (i.e. having a overlap between casing and liner), it is easier to move the casing
shoe up slightly.
The hanger is slightly below the reference depth (rt.), therefore the fluid depth is also at this level.
Page 73
6.6.3.4. WS-Tube Screen 2.1 (Offshore and Initial Conditions)

This page is optional and shows how the temperature profile for an offshore well to be modified from a
straight line. In this case the seabed is 250 ft below the rotary table.
If complex initial conditions are used (e.g. bullheading diesel prior to setting the packer), then the
bottom table can be filled in with varying fluid gradients at different depths.
Page 74
6.6.3.5. WS-Tube Screen 3 (Analysis Features)

Figure 30 - WS-Tube Input - Screen 3
The design factors can be changed from WS-Tube defaults to BP defaults (section 6.4).
6.6.3.6. WS-Tube Screen 3.1 (Deviations and Multiple Packers)

Page 75
The page allows for entry of multiple packers and deviated wells. The perforation depth is used for
Production Load Cases (section 6.6.3.9).
6.6.3.7. WS-Tube Screen D (Well Profile Data)

Figure 32 - WS-Tube Input - Screen D
This page shows how deviation data is entered. Note that although the md, TVD pairs will correctly
generate the well profile and hence correct pressure profiles, the max. dogleg or dls fields must be used
in order to correctly model bending stresses. In this well, an appropriate allowance was made for the
drillers directional tolerance and the planned maximum build rate was only 2.5°/100 ft.
6.6.3.8. WS-Tube Load Cases

Figure 33 - WS-Tube Input - Load Case Selection
Page 76
A variety of load cases has been entered. A full examination of the load cases can be made by
downloading the example file from BP’s Intranet. Certain load cases however require some explanation.
6.6.3.9. Production Load Case

Figure 34 - WS-Tube Input - Production Load Case
This load case allows for a quick examination of production stresses. A conservative multi-phase flow
prediction is made, based on oil, gas gravities etc. If more realistic modelling is required then links to
Welltemp, or data from THoR can be used. Another load case has been used to examine the effects of
having annulus pressure whilst producing.
6.6.3.10.User Entered Loads (Evacuated above a DHSV)

Figure 35 - WS-Tube Input - User Entered Load
This load case was set up to model the effects of pressure differentials across a closed downhole safety
valve (DHSV). It was constructed by taking the pressure and temperature profiles from the shut-in load
case and then using these in a user entered load. The plug is entered and the pressure above the plug
modified accordingly. Note that if the plug has been entered correctly, then the full results table will
show two different loads and pressures at the plug depth. This is not picked up simply by looking at the
pressure plots.
Page 77
6.6.4. Interpretation of Results

The first task is to check that the pressure (internal and external) and temperature profiles are correct.
This is particularly important with complex completions - multiple packers for example.
A variety of plotting options are available, as well as the ability to print a full report detailing pressures,
temperatures and safety factors for all load cases.
6.6.4.1. Burst Safety Factor Plot

Figure 36 - WS-Tube Output - Burst Safety Factors
As can be seen from Figure 36, the worst case is the 5,000 psi pressure test. However all loads are
within acceptable limits.
Page 78
6.6.4.2. Collapse Safety Factor Plot

Figure 37 - WS-Tube Output - Collapse Safety Factors
Again, as can be seen from Figure 37, the collapse safety factors are fairly straightforward, with the
production with annulus pressure case being the worst case. All safety factors are within acceptable
limits, although it does show that there is not too much margin if predicted annulus pressures are
exceeded.
Page 79
6.6.4.3. Axial Safety Factor Plot

Figure 38 - WS-Tube Output - Axial Safety Factors
The axial safety factor plot (Figure 38) shows that all loads are within acceptable limits. It does also
show a number of interesting features:
1. The worst case is, perhaps surprisingly, the pressure test case. This is because in this case, the
pressure is acting at the expansion joint and compresses the 4.5” string. This causes buckling,
which is exacerbated by having 4.5” tubing relatively unconstrained in 95/8” casing.
2. The effects of dog leg severity can be seen particularly well at 1,000 ft, where an increase in dogleg
severity causes an increase in axial loads.
3. The maximum safety factors occur in the middle of the tubing, with high tensile loads at the top of the
tubing and high compressive loads at the bottom of the tubing.
6.6.4.4. Triaxial Loads

Triaxial loads should first be examined by using the triaxial safety factor plot.
Page 80
Figure 39 - WS-Tube Output - Triaxial Safety Factors
The triaxial safety factor plot (Figure 39) in this case unfortunately shows a potential problem. This is
the pressure test case. The cause of the problem can be most easily seen on the triaxial ellipse (Figure
40). The combination of axial compression and burst causes the triaxial stresses to be excessive and
may lead to tubing failure. Although it is now not believed that the axial loads have a great affect on
bursting (section 6.4.4.4), it may not be wise to completely ignore it. It should be noted that the triaxial
stress ellipse does not include temperature dependent yield effects and is therefore inaccurate at high
temperatures.
Page 81
Figure 40 - WS-Tube Output - Triaxial Stress Ellipse
There are a number of options (in no particular order of preference) that could be pursued in this
example in order to produce acceptable stresses:
1. Use stronger weight, a larger size, or higher grade tubing?
2. Limit the pressure test?
3. Do not use an expansion device at all?
4. Do not test the completion against the liner, or against a tailpipe plug, but against a plug above the
expansion joint.
5. Use an expansion device with a smaller seal bore?
6. Constrain the buckling by using a different casing / liner configuration?
6.6.4.5. Tubing Movement

There is a plot showing expansion device movement (Figure 41). In this example, the maximum
movement is about 15 feet. This large amount of movement is a consequence of all the forces in this
load case generating string contraction (compression, cooling, buckling and ballooning).
Page 82
Figure 41 - WS-Tube Output - Expansion Joint Travel
For more details and to see what loads are exerted from the tubing to the packer (and to the casing),
the full results tables can be viewed (example in Table 5). It is important to check that these loads are
within the capabilities of the packer system (packer, anchor and slips) and the casing. WS-Tube
outputs both the tubing to packer force and the packer to casing force. The tubing to packer force is the
force exerted from the tubing both above and below the packer. When there is no tubing below the
packer, this tubing to packer force equals the force exerted at the expansion device. Therefore if a
pinned expansion device or anchor latch is used, this is the force the shear device will see. In the
example shown, the tubing to packer force for this load case is the tailpipe weight as the expansion
device is open. The packer to casing force is the tubing to packer force plus the effect of a high
differential pressure acting on the packer from below.
Page 83
Table 5 - WS-Tube Output - Example of Tubing Movement and Packer Forces
LOAD CASE # 4
Max. rate injection
***** TUBING ANALYSIS RESULTS *****
TUBING MOVEMENT
TOP BASE HOOKE'S BUCKLING BALLOO THERMAL TOTAL BUCKLED

LAW N LENGTH
(ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
34. 12550. -3.88 -1.21 -3.31 -6.42 -14.82 7435.
TUBING TO PACKER FORCE = 2340. lbf down
PACKER TO CASING FORCE = 126880. lbf up
ALLOWABLE TOOL LENGTHS
TOOL DIA LENGTH DEPTH FORCE

(in) (ft) (ft) (lbf)
3.500 8.6 12550. 670.2
The full output also allows the effects of buckling and doglegs. In this case, the buckling severely limits
the length of toolstring that can be run during water injection. Even accepting the assumption about
rigid toolstrings, this may pose operational constraints.
Page 84
6.7. References
1. Avallone, E A and Baumeister, T: Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, Ninth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York (1986)
2. API Spec 5CT: Specification for Casing and Tubing, First Edition, API, Dallas (March 1988)
3. ASTM A370: Mechanical Testing of Steel Products, ASTM, Philadelphia
4. Payne, M L and Hurst, D M: ‘Heavy Wall Production Tubing Design for Special Alloy Steels’, paper
SPE 12622 presented at the 1984 SPE Deep Drilling and Production Symposium, Amarillo (April 1-
3, 1984)
5. Brick, R J, Pense, A W and Gordon, R B: Structure and Properties of Engineering Materials, Fourth
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York (1977)
6. Cabval, Corrosion Resistant Alloy Tubular Guide (1986)
7. Sourced by John Martin - BP Sunbury
8. Experimental data from Sumitomo March 1996 on two samples (only) gives a lower temperature
dependent yield (0.03)
9. API Bul 5C3: Bulletin on Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe and Line Pipe
Properties, Fourth Edition, API, Dallas (February 1985)
10.Snyder, R E and Suman, G O Jnr: ‘High Pressure Well Completions’, Part 7, World Oil (February 1,
1979)
11.BP Exploration OCTG Tubular Specification v.3 J.K. Duxbury Nov. 1996 (in prep)
12.Brown, S A: ‘Oil Well Tubing, Stress and Strength Analysis’, BP Petroleum Development (NWE)
(October 1985)
13.Maddison, D F and Murray, P: ‘A Review of Tubing Stress Calculations Performed by the BP In-
House Tubing Design Program’, BP Petroleum Development (NWE) (June 1986)
14.Lubinski, A, Althouse, W S and Logan, J L: ‘Helical Buckling of Tubing Sealed in Packers’, Journal
Petroleum Technology (June 1962)
15.Watkins, D M and Klementich, E F: ‘A Buckling Algorithm’, presented at the 1986 ASME Petroleum
Division Workshop on Design and Application of Sub-surface Equipment and Oil Sands/Heavy Oil,
Calgary (September 21-23,1986)
16.Hammerlindl, D J: ‘Movement, Forces and Stresses in Packers’, Journal Petroleum Technology
(February 1977)
17.Lindsey, E H, McLarnan, C W and Nickel, J A: ‘Determining Clearances in Helically Buckled Tubing’,
World Oil (June 1980)
18.Kwon, Y W: ‘A Precise Solution for Helical Buckling’ paper IADC/SPE 14729 presented at the 1986
TADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, February 10-12, 1986
19.Johnson, R, Jellison, M J and Klementich, E F: ‘Triaxial-Load-Capacity Diagrams Provide a New
Approach to Casing and Tubing Design Analysis’, SPE Drilling Engineering (September 1987)
20.String Design, Seminar-by-Mail, ‘Determining Downhole Compression Generated by Surface Slack-
off’, Hydril (1985)
21.Mitchell, R F: ‘Frictional Forces in Helical Buckling of Tubing’, Paper SPE 13064 presented at the
1984 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston (September 16-19, 1984)
22.Johancsik, C A, Friesen, D B and Dawson R: ‘Torque and Drag in Directional Wells - Prediction and
Measurement’, Journal Petroleum Technology (June 1984)
Page 85
23.R.F. Mitchell “ Comprehensive Analysis of Buckling With Friction” SPE 29457 1995 SPE Production
Operations Symposium Oklahoma City April 2-4 1995
24.BP Casing Design Manual 1996
25.An Analytical Model to Predict the Burst Capacity of Pipelines Stewart G, Klever FJ and Ritchie D
Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering 13th International Conference Houston 1994.
26.DeWard, C and Milliams, D: ‘Prediction of Carbonic Acid Corrosion in Natural Gas Pipeline’, First
International Conference on the Internal and External Protection of Pipes, University of Durham,
1975.
27.Personal communication Graham Taylor Baker Oil Tools.
28.Wellcat User Manual version 4.52 Enertech
Page 86
6.8. Contacts
Tubing Stress Analysis Courses - J. Bellarby
Independent Completions Engineering Ltd.
Tel: 44 1224 248200
Enertech - Aberdeen Office

Tel: (01224) 707101
Houston Office
Tel: (713) 789 0055
WS-Tube Installation - Installation is via the BP Intranet

(http://technet.rec.bp.com/~wso/).
Any problems call David Stevens Sunbury
4036
Wellcat updates, manuals, user guide, - Joan Apergis Sunbury 4851
dongles etc.
Casing Design Stress Analysis - S. Parfitt

BP Exploration, Aberdeen
Tel: (01224) 833654
Material Properties - John Martin

BP Sunbury
Contributions from - Ingebret Mossige

Shona Goodbrand
Fraser Elliot
Eamonn O’Connell
Steve Whitehead
John Martin
Joe Duxbury
Steve Parfitt
Page 87
BP Exploration Selection of Tubulars – Chapter 7
Completion Design Manual CONTENTS
BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION 1
TUBING SPECIFICATIONS 2
APPLICATION OF TUBULAR SPECIFICATIONS 4
BP STANDARD 145 4
TUBING NOMENCLATURE 8
TUBULAR GRADES 10
CORROSION MECHANISMS 11
NATURE OF CORROSION REACTIONS 11
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE (SOUR CORROSION) 13
CHLORIDE STRESS CORROSION CRACKING 14
DISSOLVED OXYGEN 15
CARBON DIOXIDE (SWEET CORROSION) 16
EROSION/CORROSION 17
GALVANIC CORROSION 17
CREVICE CORROSION 18
CORROSION FATIGUE 18
LIKELIHOOD OF CORROSION MECHANISMS 18
TUBULAR CONNECTIONS 20
INTRODUCTION 20
TUBULAR CONNECTIONS 20
DESCRIPTION OF CONNECTIONS 21
CONNECTION REQUIREMENTS 29
Selection of Tubulars – Chapter 7 BP Exploration
CONTENTS Completion Design Manual
TECHNIQUES
TUBING SELECTION 33
CONNECTION SELECTION 34
INTRODUCTION 34
CONNECTION TYPES 34
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERIC CONNECTIONS 37
TUBULAR MATERIAL SELECTION 43
WORKED EXAMPLE
SOUTHERN NORTH SEA GAS DEVELOPMENT 45

MATERIALS 45
TUBULAR CONNECTION 46
SUMMARY AND PRACTICAL GUIDELINES
TUBULAR SELECTION 47
CONNECTION SELECTION RULES OF THUMB 47
MATERIALS 47
CONTACTS, REFERENCES, ETC
CONTACTS 49
REFERENCES 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY 50
Completion Design Manual BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION
The correct selection of tubulars is critical to achieving a long

completion life. Failure of a tubing or casing string can result
in major expenditures and even injuries or loss of life. The
flowchart in the Techniques section (Figure 7.7) describes the
process required to fully specify the tubulars. In the previous
sections of the manual, the following tubing parameters have
been determined:
• Tubing inside diameter to give optimum well performance

(Chapter 4).
• The design of the casing-tubing and tubing-surface

interfaces (Chapter 5).
• The required strength level and weight (Chapter 6).
The process described in this chapter covers the following:
• Determining the appropriate chemical composition based

on the desired completion life and corrosion/erosion
potential.
• Selecting the cost-effective grade based on compositional

and mechanical strength requirements.
• Selecting the appropriate connection.

• Reviewing tubing handling and connection make-up
procedures.
• Guidance in selecting the appropriate specifications based

on service category from the BP Engineering Standard
(*Reference 7.1) 145* and API Specification 5CT* to ensure fitness for
(*Reference 7.2) purpose and the required reliability, ie quality level and
inspection requirements. The BP Engineering Code of
(*Reference 7.3) Practice CP 46* will cover this in more detail.
Thus, at the end of Chapter 7, the tubulars should be fully

designed and specified. The main difficulty in selecting
tubulars is that often the operating environment cannot be
precisely defined. This is especially the case when conditions
can change over the completion life. The problem then
becomes how to balance costs (both capital and operating)
against the risk of tubing failure. The aim of the chapter is to
describe the decisions to be made and make the engineer
aware of some of the potential pitfalls.
Page 1
BACKGROUND Completion Design Manual
TUBING SPECIFICATIONS
API publishes a number of specifications, standards and

recommended practices containing the minimum
requirements that the industry should follow in the
manufacture and use of␣ oil well tubular goods. Table 7.1 lists
the appropriate API␣ publications presently available. In
addition to the API␣ requirements, BP has developed an
Engineering Standard BP 145 for Casing and Tubing and an
Engineering Code of Practice CP 46. These two documents
are written around the API Standard 5CT and are intended to
supplement the API requirements.
APPROPRIATE API TABLES FOR SELECTION

OF TUBULARS
Document Edition Title
API Bull 5A2 6th Edition Bulletin on Thread Compounds
(1988)
API Spec 5B 13th Edition Specification for Threading, Gaging
(1988) and Thread Inspection of Casing,
Tubing and Line Pipe Threads
API RP 5B1 3rd Edition Recommended Practice for Gaging and
(1988) Inspection of Casing, Tubing and Line
Pipe Threads
API Spec 5CT 1st Edition Specification for Casing and Tubing
(1988)
API RP 5CI 16th Edition Recommended Practice for Care and
(1988) Use of Casing and Tubing
API Bull 5C2 20th Edition Bulletin on Performance Properties of
(1987) Casing, Tubing and Drill Pipe
API Bull 5C3 6th Edition Bulletin on Formulas and Calculations
(1989) for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe and Line
Pipe Properties
API Bull 5C4 2nd Edition Bulletin on Round Thread Casing Joint
(1987) Strength with Combined Internal
Pressure and Bending
API Spec 5D 1st Edition Specification for Drill Pipe
API RP 7G 13th Edition Recommended Practice for Drill Stem
Design and Operating Limits
API RP 37 2nd Edition Recommended Proof-Test Procedure for
Evaluation of High-Pressure Casing and
Tubing Connection Designs
Table 7.1
Page 2
BP 145 Part 1 covers seamless casing and tubing, whereas

Part 2 covers welded casing and tubing. Experience in BP
revealed a number of areas in which API standards like 5CT
are lacking. This led to a requirement for a more rigorous
specification of BP 145.
BP Engineering Code of Practice CP 46 gives detailed

guidance on the specification of tubulars to BP 145
Parts␣ 1␣ and 2. However, the general guidelines for the use
of␣ API Specification 5CT and BP 145 are as follows:
Category I
Category I covers production tubulars and casing which
are␣ covered by API 5CT and BP Engineering Standard 145
Parts 1 and 2, including premium connection tubulars.
Category II
Category II includes tubulars intended for hostile or unusual
conditions and are not therefore fully covered by API 5CT
and␣ BP␣ 145. These tubulars are often manufactured to
proprietary grades and require a more stringent specification
than BP 145. Environments which require Category II
tubulars include:
• Reservoir pressures in excess of 10 000 psi.

• High partial pressures of H2S, ie above 0.05 psi.
Materials would include high strength sour service, high

strength 13%Cr stainless steel (ie grade above 80 000 psi),
high collapse grades, duplex stainless steel and high alloy
materials.
For tubulars in Category II, BP 145 should be supplemented

with the appropriate additional specifications. These
specifications should be developed on an individual basis in
conjunction with a tubing specialist and metallurgist. Some
additional specifications and guidelines are already in
(*Reference 7.4-7.6)
existence within BP Engineering and BP XWH*. These may be
suitable for developing specifications for Category II tubulars,
although it is BP’s intention to try to influence API to cover
these and other proprietary grades.
In addition to the above guidelines, it is important to

recognize that local or national statutory regulations in the
country of operation must be complied with, and these may
impose additional or limiting requirements.
Page 3
APPLICATION
OF␣ TUBULAR
SPECIFICATIONS
It is considered unacceptable to divide the use and selection
of tubulars geographically since many geographical areas
will␣ exhibit a variety of different downhole operating
environments. The critical aspect for tubular design and
selection is centred purely on the expected service duty the
tubular is expected to see. Only these parameters can guide
the engineer into deciding which aspects of the standards
and specifications need to be applied.
For the purposes of this document, no attempt is therefore

made to differentiate between the requirements of different
geographical locations. The emphasis is on the correct usage
of both API 5CT, BP 145 Part 1 and accompanying CP 46 as
and when applicable.
BP
STANDARD␣ 145
It is the intention that BP 145 Part 1 should be BPX’s
standard worldwide technical recommendation for the
specification of tubular procurement. This standard is not
policy, but all users are encouraged to read, understand and
use the relevant sections of the standard.
The latest edition of BP 145 and CP 46 will address the

reasons for requirements over and above 5CT. Drilling
(*Reference 7.7)
Operations Bulletin no 41* also presents information on the
background to BP 145.
This bulletin provides the necessary information to

operational centres and end-users on:
• Problems associated with standard API tubulars.
• The history and evolvement of BP 145.
• The general important coverage of BP 145.
• Experiences with BP 145.
• Recommendations and actions required to ensure pipe is

fit for purpose.
Page 4
History
of ␣ BP 145
Over the past ten years, Drilling has become increasingly
concerned about the number of both API and non-API
tubular problems/failures. Many of these failures were
highlighted in the North Sea area, though similar problems
existed in other areas.
By 1985 these problems had:
• Seriously compromised the inherent safety of personnel,

the environment, drilling rigs and BP wells.
• Cost BP EXE millions of pounds (some £10.6m for the

period 1982 to 1985 alone) in direct and indirect costs.
• Tied up valuable BP manpower resources in remedying

and investigating field failures.
• Justified BP’s implementation of an in-house specification

BP 145 and extensive auditing of tubular manufacturers.
• Highlighted limitations of tubular manufacturers’

technology.
The main causes of the problems were identified as:
• Inadequate quality control of metallurgy.

• Inadequate and poor mechanical properties.
• Poor quality control on critical tubular dimensions.
• Poor quality of threaded connections.
In order to tackle these problems, BP’s only practical

recourse was to impose more stringent tubular specifications
and control on the manufacturers in order to guarantee an
acceptable level of quality. BP 145 was developed to address
these problems.
Scope of BP 145
BP 145 is intended to be BP Exploration’s standard
worldwide reference for specifying and procuring tubulars.
Although it is recognized that BP 145 may not be fully
employed in all situations, it still provides the appropriate
quality standards to ensure that tubulars are fit for purpose,
and it should be referred to when local conditions permit.
BP␣ 145 currently covers the following areas:
Page 5
• It specifies BP’s general requirements for seamless and

welded casing, tubing and drillpipe.
(*Reference 7.8) • It is supplementary to API Specifications 5CT and 5D*

where these are found to be less than adequate.
• It covers both carbon steel and 13%Cr L80 tubular

materials.
• It refers to new casing, tubing and drillpipe. As the

specification calls for additional mechanical testing to
ensure adequate fracture toughness, there are practical
difficulties in retrospectively applying the specification to
ex-stock tubulars.
• It covers other end-user requirements such as coupling

make-up torques, pipe dimensions, (eg, special clearance
couplings, special drift), pipe marking, tubular
cleanliness, coatings and thread protection. None of these
issues are fully addressed in the API specifications.
• It ensures all BP tubulars meet a minimum acceptable

standard. Often, tubulars are bought for stores stock with
little or no knowledge as to their eventual application,
operating or service conditions.
The BP Engineering Code of Practice CP 46, provides

guidance on the application and use of BP 145. Originally
issued in 1987, CP 46 is currently under revision.
Experience
with␣ BP 145
Placing a higher quality level on manufacturers has inevitably
resulted in some difficulties. However, since the
implementation of BP␣ 145 in XEU’s operations, there has
been a significant improvement in the quality of tubulars. As
a result, no problems or field failures have occurred with any
tubular manufactured to BP 145. Adopting BP 145 does have
an impact on the tubular procurement process, and the
following points should be recognized:
• An increased level and quality of supervision and

inspection is often required. This can usually be achieved
without a significant cost penalty.
Page 6
• There can be problems in maintaining minimum stores

stock levels of BP 145 tubulars in times of high industry
demand and with an uncertain and highly flexible drilling
programme.
• The need to place tubular orders early enough to allow

sufficient manufacturing lead time to supply tubulars of
the quality required by BP Standard 145.
• The numerous impracticalities, increased technical

support and involvement, additional expense and
necessary supplementary testing that is often required to
retrospectively ensure ‘stockist’ pipe is ‘fit for purpose’.
• Additional workload, responsibility and pressure imparted

on technical staff to waive all or parts of BP Standard 145
to allow manufacturers to meet unrealistic operationally
driven tubular delivery deadlines.
The need for tighter tubular specifications has been

recognized by the API, and BP have passed on their
experience with BP 145 to assist in the drafting of new
specifications. The progress in upgrading API 5CT to meet
the␣ international needs of the operators is encouraging.
Page 7
Completion Design Manual SUMMARY AND PRACTICAL GUIDELINES
TUBULAR
SELECTION
BP 145 provides a worldwide reference for the specification
and procurement of tubulars. Employing BP 145 will result in
a higher quality level for tubulars and will reduce the number
of failures. It is, however, recognized that it may not always
be possible to apply BP 145 due to local conditions or
inadequate timing, etc. If this is the case, reference should be
made to CP 46, and departures from BP 145 should be
discussed with a tubing specialist.
CONNECTION
SELECTION
RULES OF
THUMB
• For oil wells up to and including 5000 psi API connections
can be considered.
• For gas and gas/condensate wells pressures up to

3000␣ psi, API connections can be considered.
• For oil wells up to 7500 psi, consideration can be given to

API connections with elastomeric back seals.
• For pressures in excess of 7500 psi in oil wells and

pressures in excess of 3000 psi in gas wells, premium
connections must be used.
The majority of new production tubulars in the North Sea

now have premium connections.
MATERIALS
Various corrosion and cracking mechanisms are possible in
the materials utilized for downhole equipment, eg H2S
corrosion, H2S cracking (SSC), hydrogen embrittlement,
chloride stress corrosion cracking, oxygen corrosion, carbon
dioxide corrosion, erosion/corrosion, galvanic corrosion,
crevice corrosion and corrosion fatigue.
In practice, service experience has indicated that some of the

possible corrosion mechanisms are far more likely than
others. CO2 corrosion has been a problem and needs to be
addressed (see Worked Example). Stress corrosion cracking in
its various forms (H2S cracking, hydrogen embrittlement,
chloride cracking) has also occurred. Corrosion fatigue is
Page 47
SUMMARY AND PRACTICAL GUIDELINES Completion Design Manual
normally only a problem with drilling tubulars. Other

possible mechanisms have been less of a problem
historically.
CO2 corrosion has historically been a problem with wet gas

systems. The significant resulting corrosion has been
combated by the use of corrosion resistant alloys. More
recently, corrosion in wet oil systems has also been
experienced.
Recent experience on the Forties field has indicated that C02

corrosion can be a significant problem as the reservoir
matures and the production of formation water increases.
This dramatic increase in corrosion potential is caused by
both CO2 dissolved in the formation water and the presence
of bicarbonates.
The guidelines for assessing the corrosivity of well fluids and

the corrosion resistance of materials presented in this
section, must always be used with care. They are not hard
and fast rules and they will not always be applicable.
Specialist materials engineering advice should be sought
when possible if there is doubt over material or
environmental conditions.
Page 48
Completion Design Manual CONTACTS, REFERENCES, ETC
CONTACTS
Tubing Specialists: Mick Bwye, Drilling Technology,
Aberdeen x3651
Stan Jones, TCSU, Houston
Connection Specialist: Joe Duxbury, Drilling Technology,

Aberdeen x3566
Metallurgist: Peter Rist, London 7042
Elastomer Specialist: Dave Potts, Structural Materials

Branch, Sunbury x2154
REFERENCES
7.1 BP Engineering Standard 145 – Casing, Tubing and
Drill Pipe (July 1987)
7.2 API Specification 5CT: Specification for Casing and

Tubing, 1st Edition (1988)
7.3 BP Engineering Code of Practice CP 46 – Guide for the

Specification of Casing and Tubing (April 1988)
7.4 SOPC Specification 2011: Specification for MC-90 and

MC-95
7.5 SOPC Specification 2012: Specification for MC-110

and MC-125
7.6 SOPC Specification 2016: Specification for Nickel

Based Alloy (UNS 10276) Plain End Tubing, Casing
and Coupling Stock
7.7 Drilling Operations Bulletin no 41: Vam, Technical

Bulletin
7.8 API Specification 5D: Specification for Drill Pipe, 1st

Edition (1988)
7.9 API Recommended Practice RP 14E: Recommended

Practice for Design and Installation of Offshore
Production Piping Systems, 4th Edition (April 1984)
Page 49
CONTACTS, REFERENCES, ETC Completion Design Manual
7.10 NACE Standard MR-01-75-1988: Standard Material

Requirements for Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant
Materials for Oilfield Equipment, National Association
of Corrosion Engineers, Houston
7.11 World Oil: ‘1989 Tubing Tables’, World Oil (January

1989)
7.12 API Recommended Practice RP 37: Recommended

Practice Proof-Test Procedure for Evaluation of High-
Pressure Casing and Tubing Connection Designs, 2nd
Edition (February 1980)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tuttle, R N and Kane, R D: H2S Corrosion in Oil and Gas
Production – A Compilation of Classic Papers, National
Association of Corrosion Engineers
De Ward, C and Milliams, D: ‘Prediction of Carbonic Acid

Corrosion in Natural Gas Pipelines’, First International
Conference on the Internal and External Protection of Pipes –
University of Durham, 1975
Thomas, S, De Ward, C and Smith, L M: ‘Controlling Factors

in the Rate of CO2 Corrosion’, UK Corrosion, 1987
Drilling Operations Guideline: Tubing Preparation and

Running Procedures, 3rd Revision 08/87
Plastics and Rubber Institute, Standard Classification System

for Materials Used in Elastomeric Seals for the Oil and Gas
Industry, Offshore Engineering Committee Draft Proposal,
dated 30.11.89
Handbook of Plastics and Elastomers, Harper C A, (Editor-in-

chief), McGraw-Hill Book Company New York 1975
Handbook of Elastomers, New Developments and Technology,

Ed, Bhowmick A K and Stephens H L, Marcel Dekker Inc,
New York 1988
Seals and Sealing Handbook, Second Edition, Trade and

Technical Press Limited, Morden, Surrey, UK, 1986
Flitney, R K, Nau, B S and Reddy, D: ‘The Seal Users

Handbook’, Third Edition, BHRA The Fluid Engineering
Centre, Cranfield, Bedford, UK, 1984
Page 50
Parker-Hannifin (UK) Limited, Precision O-Ring Handbook,

5705E, January 1986
Parker-Hannifin (UK) Limited, Fluid Compatibility Table,

5703E, January 1985
DuPont Engineering Guide to the DuPont Elastomers, E-

2676, 1982
Mastromatteo, R, Morrisey, E, Mastrometteo, M E and Day, H

W: ‘Matching Materials Properties to Application
Requirements’ Rubber World, 1983, 187 (5), 24
Howard, M J: ‘The Desktop Database, Elastomers’, Second

Edition, International Plastics Selector Incorporated, San
Diego ISBN 0-8470-6101-9, 1980
Schwartz, S S and Goodman, S H: ‘Plastics Materials and

Processes’, Van Nostrand Rheinhold Company, New York
Page 51
TUBING NOMENCLATURE
Outside Diameter (OD)

All well tubulars follow the API specifications in standardizing
on outside diameter. Hence, 4 1/2in tubulars have an OD of
4 1/2in. In addition, API defines tubing as having an OD
from 1 1/20in to 4 1/2in. Tubulars with OD of 4 1/2in or
greater are classified as casing.
Length Range (R)

Tubulars are manufactured in lengths termed ‘joints’.
The␣ API specification only allows tubing joints to be
manufactured in two length ranges. However, some mills can
produce Range 3, and, where practicable and possible, this
range is preferred.
• Range 1 : 20 to 24 feet
The API casing standard allows three ranges, namely:
Weight per Foot (lb/ft)

As discussed in Chapter 6, the ability of a tubular to
withstand stress is governed by its mechanical strength
(grade) and wall thickness. Since API standardizes tubulars
on OD, an increase in wall thickness decreases the inside
diameter (ID) and obviously increases the weight. Tubulars
are therefore specified in terms of OD and weight of pipe per
linear foot. However, some suppliers do exceed API tolerances
on OD in order to minimize the reduction in ID. The API
specifies a limited number of standard weights for any
particular tubular size. However, non-API heavy walled
tubing is also available for high strength applications. These
tubulars have proprietary grades, and the stress analysis
should be discussed in detail with the individual
manufacturer.
Page 8
Drift (D)
It is important that all production/completion tubulars are
drifted in accordance with BP 145. This should allow the safe
passage of any equipment and will ensure injection and
production rates are not impeded.
Page 9
TUBULAR GRADES
Tubulars are frequently designated with a singular or double

letter prefix, ie J or HC. API grades use the single letter, while
proprietary grades utilize double letters.
Generally it is true to say that for both API and proprietary

grades, these letters have very little relevance in determining
the physical properties of the tubular. To some extent the
proprietary grades do have some significance, but these are
particular to specific manufacturers.
Example: • XT155 is eXtra Tough 155ksi material from

British Steel
• SM155 is SuMitomo 155ksi material
This is effectively the same pipe, but with a different

designation.
There is no definable system for the use of letters as prefixes

or suffixes in the tubular grade designation. Hence, unless
the user is completely knowledgeable about the letters used
in tubular descriptions, they should not be used to identify
pipe properties.
It is strongly advised that that the unfamiliar seek expert

advice, either from the manufacturer or tubular specialist.
The numbers following on from the letters are important and

do have a significant meaning. The number immediately
following the API or proprietary grade prefix letters is the
minimum specified yield stress of the pipe.
Example: N80 : 80 is 80 000 psi minimum yield stress.
This figure is important since it provides information as to

the minimum tensile properties of the pipe and is also a
function of most of the pipe’s other physical properties,
ie␣ burst and collapse. It should not be confused with the
ultimate␣ tensile strength (UTS), which is not used in pipe
identification. The minimum yield stress value is used in all
tubular stress analysis.
Page 10
CORROSION MECHANISMS
In selecting the appropriate tubular materials, it is important

to recognize the detrimental effect of corrosive components in
the well fluid. This section discusses the nature of oilfield
tubular corrosion and details the common mechanisms.
NATURE OF
CORROSION
REACTIONS
All forms of corrosion in oilfield tubulars, including the action
of hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, chlorides and dissolved
oxygen, require the presence of water. The water may only be
present in very small quantities, but is nevertheless
necessary for the corrosion process. Corrosion in all its forms
is basically a result of an electrochemical process with a
source of potential voltage and a complete electrical circuit.
The source of the voltage in the corrosion process is the
energy stored in the metal as part of the original refining
process. The electrical circuit is formed from the part of the
metal surface which acts as an anode, the electrolyte (the
water containing ions) and the part of the metal surface
which acts as a cathode. This combination is known as a
corrosion cell. Figure 7.1 shows a schematic of a corrosion
cell. Heterogeneities in the metal and differing surface
concentrations of electrolyte lead to different parts of the
metal acting as anodes or cathodes.
At the anodic part of the metal surface, the iron dissolves

and␣ the surface becomes corroded. The chemical reaction is
as follows:
Fe → Fe++ + 2 electrons
The cathode is the portion of the metal surface which does

not dissolve, but is the site of a complementary reaction in
the corrosion process. The exact nature of the reaction is
dependent on the composition of the electrolyte and, in
particular, the presence of dissolved gases. Dissolved gases
like CO2, H2S and O2 in the water, drastically increase the
corrosion rates.
The distribution of cathodic and anodic parts of the metal

surface is fundamental to the type of corrosion. The reasons
why different parts of the same metal surface act in different
Page 11
ways are complex. However, the simplest explanation is that

it results from heterogeneities in the metal surface, in surface
films or in the electrolyte. If the corrosion cells (anodes and
cathodes) are distributed randomly over the metal surface,
this will result in uniform corrosion. If the cells are limited to
local areas, localized corrosion, ie pitting or crevice corrosion,
will result.
ELECTROLYTE
ANODE
Fe Fe ++ +2e
e
ELECTRON CURRENT
FLOW FLOW
e
2H ++ 2e H2
CATHODE
METAL
Figure 7.1 – Schematic of a Corrosion Cell
There are a number of different failure mechanisms

associated with the basic corrosion process. However, these
mechanisms can be broadly split into three groups:
• Uniform loss of metal.
• Localized metal loss in the form of discrete pits or

larger␣ areas.
• Cracking or brittle failure of the metal due to corrosion

without perceptible metal loss. This damage is generally
termed environment assisted cracking and covers such
mechanisms as stress corrosion cracking, corrosion
fatigue and the various forms of hydrogen damage.
Page 12
The following paragraphs deal with the corrosion related

failure mechanisms associated with the major contaminants
found in wellstream fluids. A more detailed review of the
mechanisms and the remedial measures available to
minimize corrosion are presented in Section 7a.
HYDROGEN
SULPHIDE (SOUR
CORROSION)
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) can occur naturally in the reservoir,
be produced in packer fluids or can be generated later as a
result of contaminants being injected into the reservoir. The
major contaminants that can sour a reservoir are sulphate
reducing bacteria (SRB) and bisulphates. The source of
these␣ contaminants is fluid injected into the reservoir,
eg␣ waterflooding. SRB are anaerobic bacteria which produce
H2S by metabolizing sulphate ions. There is an increasing
awareness in the industry that the introduction of
bisulphates into the reservoir can also produce H2S as a
result of a chemical reaction.
The general mechanism of this type of corrosion can be

described by a simple chemical equation, although this is not
the complete reaction.
H2S + Fe + H2O → FexSy + 2H
Hydrogen Iron Water Iron Hydrogen

Sulphide Sulphide
FexSy indicates chemical variations.
This corrosion mechanism can lead to three failure types:
• Corrosion of the iron to iron sulphide.

• Hydrogen embrittlement.
• Sulphide stress corrosion cracking (SSC).
Corrosion of Iron to Iron Sulphide

The iron sulphide produced by the above reaction usually
forms as a black powder or scale on the surface of the tubing.
This scale tends to cause a local acceleration of the corrosion
as the iron sulphide forms a stronger corrosion cell with the
remaining steel and usually results in deep pits. Unlike SSC,
this corrosion reaction is only of practical importance if the
concentration of H2S is in the order of mol percent rather
than ppm.
Page 13
Hydrogen Embrittlement
The atomic hydrogen liberated by the above reaction can be
absorbed by the metal, resulting in a loss of material
toughness or ductility and a potential failure. This cracking
mechanism can occur whenever atomic hydrogen is liberated
by a corrosion reaction, but is generally worse in sour
environments. This is because H2S acts as a poison to
prevent recombination of hydrogen atoms into molecules at
the metal surface and aids the permeation of the atomic
hydrogen into the bulk material.
Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking

Although the mechanism of sulphide stress corrosion
cracking is not completely understood, it is recognized that a
combination of H2S, water and a susceptible material under a
tensile stress can lead to a catastrophic brittle failure.
Sulphide stress corrosion cracking is affected by a complex

interaction of many parameters, including:
• The chemical composition of the material, its mechanical

properties, heat treatment and microstructure.
• The pH of the aqueous phase.
• The concentration of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and total

pressure.
• The residual and applied tensile stress.
• The temperature.
• Exposure time.
Remedial measures to avoid sulphide stress corrosion

cracking are detailed in Section 7a.
CHLORIDE
STRESS
CORROSION
CRACKING
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is an interaction between
chemical and mechanical forces that produces a failure that
otherwise would not occur. The result of the combined effect
is a catastrophic brittle failure of a normally ductile metal.
Bromide and chloride ions can cause SCC of certain
Page 14
corrosion resistant alloys (CRA), especially austenitic

stainless steels, at wellstream temperatures. These ions can
be present in formation water, injection water and brines
used as completion, workover and packer fluids.
In general, use of high density brine containing CaCl2, CaBr2

and ZnBr2 as packer fluids should be avoided. These fluids
do not prevent tubing leaks since most leaks occur near the
surface where the hydrostatic pressure provided by the
brine␣ is not sufficient to overcome the shut-in pressure
encountered. Furthermore, they often compromise the
production casing string design if a near surface tubing leak
occurs, since the internal casing pressure deep in the well
will become very high.
High density brines can, however, be used as completion and

workover fluids. The brines should be formulated with the
appropriate inhibitor and circulated out of the well after the
workover or completion operations are performed.
DISSOLVED
OXYGEN
Dissolved oxygen has the greatest corrosive effect of all the
dissolved gases and can cause severe corrosion at very low
concentrations (much less than 1.0 ppm). Fortunately,
oxygen is not naturally present in formation waters and can
only be introduced by contact with air. Oxygen is unlikely to
play a major role in the corrosion of production tubulars.
However, despite efforts to exclude oxygen from injected
water, it still provides a significant contribution to the
corrosion of water injection tubulars.
This process can be described in simplistic terms by the

following equation, although in reality the electrochemical
changes are more complex:
Anode Reaction: Fe → Fe++ + 2e–
Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–
Combining the two: 4Fe + 6H2O + 3O2 → 4Fe(OH)3
Iron + Water + Oxygen → Ferric

Hydroxide
Page 15
CARBON
DIOXIDE (SWEET
CORROSION)
Dry CO2 is non-corrosive to metals and alloys. However, in
the presence of liquid water, CO2 forms weak carbonic acid
which will corrode steel by the following process:
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Carbon Water Carbonic
Dioxide Acid
Fe + H2CO3 → FeCO3
Iron Carbonic Iron Carbonate
Acid (corrosion product)
The severity of carbon dioxide corrosion is influenced by a

number of factors, including:
• CO2 concentration.
• Water content.
• pH.
• Pressure.
• Temperature.
• Flow velocity.
• Scale and corrosion deposits.
• Presence of oxygen, chlorides and H2S.
The lower the system pH, the more adverse is the CO2
corrosion.
The partial pressure of CO2 can be used as a yardstick to

predict the severity of potential sweet corrosion problems.
Partial pressure = Total pressure × mol percent CO2.
Based on the above, the following rules of thumb apply:
• Partial pressure above 30 psi indicates a high potential for

corrosion.
• Partial pressure between 7 and 30 psi indicates corrosion

may be a potential problem.
• Partial pressure less than 7 psi indicates corrosion is

unlikely to be a problem.
Page 16
The CO2 partial pressures quoted are guidelines. There are,

however, situations, eg carbonate in formation water, where
CO2 corrosion can occur at lower levels, eg Forties.
Further information on prediction of corrosion rates in wet

gas containing carbon dioxide is contained in Section 7a of
this manual.
EROSION/
CORROSION
As the name suggests, erosion/corrosion is a corrosion
mechanism where the corrosion damage is exacerbated by
velocity effects. Velocity limits to avoid erosion in downhole
tubulars and associated equipment are normally considered
(*Reference 7.9) in terms of API Recommended Practice RP 14E*. This RP
relates the maximum allowable erosional velocity to the fluid
density and a constant (the C factor).
Based on limited BP operating experience and some test data

from manufacturers, currently recommended C factors for
various materials are as follows:
• Carbon steel : 135.
• 13%Cr stainless steel : 200.
• Duplex stainless steel : 236.
Further background information relating to erosional volocity

limits is covered in Section 7a.
GALVANIC
CORROSION
Galvanic corrosion is the preferential corrosion damage
which can occur when two dissimilar materials come into
electrical contact via a conducting medium. The susceptibility
towards galvanic attack is influenced by a number of factors.
These include:
• Conductivity of the aqueous medium
• Relative surface area of the materials in contact
• Presence of surface films
• Comparative positions of the metallic materials in the

‘galvanic series’.
Page 17
Further details on the background to galvanic corrosion are

covered in Section 7a.
CREVICE
CORROSION
Crevice corrosion is the preferential localized corrosion
damage which can be observed in the crevices present in
hydrocarbon production and processing systems. The local
environment produced within the crevice can be quite
different to that in the bulk of the wellstream fluids. The
resulting chemical differences in the crevice provide a
concentration effect which promotes the corrosion damage.
The crevice may be present at a junction between dissimilar

materials, a common material or a combination of metal and
non-metal.
CORROSION
FATIGUE
Corrosion fatigue, as the name suggests, is the type of fatigue
cracking which takes place when materials are subjected to
cyclic stresses in a corrosive environment. The presence of
this corrosive environment can reduce, or even eliminate
entirely, the fatigue limit which is exhibited by many
materials in air. As a result, fatigue cracks are likely to
initiate at lower stresses and grow more easily in a corrosive
environment.
LIKELIHOOD OF
CORROSION
MECHANISMS
Although a variety of corrosion mechanisms can occur under
the fluid conditions present downhole, in practice some
mechanisms are far more common than others. Some
possible mechanisms are very unlikely to be observed.
Corrosion resulting from water or wet gas containing carbon

dioxide is probably the most frequently observed corrosion
mechanism in practice. In wet gas systems, the present of
CO2 corrosion even at low partial pressures has led to the
extensive use of CRA materials for such conditions (eg 13%Cr
stainless steel).
Generally, corrosion resulting from the presence of hydrogen

sulphide in an aqueous environment is far less common.
However, sulphide stress corrosion cracking (SSC) can occur
at very low concentrations of H2S downhole because of the
Page 18
high total pressures which can be present. As a result,

materials resistant to SSC are often specified for BP
tubulars␣ and completion equipment. Sulphide stress
corrosion cracking resistant materials are essentially
designed to meet the requirements of the NACE sour
(*Reference 7.10) service␣ standards MR-01-75*, and the requirements of
the␣ standard are covered in more detail in Section 7a.
Chloride induced SCC is principally a problem with

austenitic stainless steels of the 18Cr/8Ni type. Materials
for␣ downhole tubulars and completion equipment are
usually␣ of different generic types, and chloride is not
normally a significant problem.
Corrosion fatigue is not in practice a problem for production

tubulars and completion equipment because the cyclic
stressing necessary to produce corrosion fatigue is not
normally present. Corrosion fatigue of drilling tubulars
in␣ their threaded tool joints is a significant problem which
can be addressed by reducing the corrosivity of the drilling
fluids, reducing working stresses and inspecting threads
more thoroughly for incipient cracks before failure occurs.
Galvanic corrosion is always a possibility with the mixture

of␣ materials which can be found in a downhole design, but
in␣ practice, significant problems have not been observed.
Crevice corrosion is also a possibility, but again in practice,

major problems have not been reported under downhole
conditions.
Page 19
TUBULAR CONNECTIONS
INTRODUCTION
The drilling, completion and production of oil/gas wells is
highly dependent upon the capability of the tubulars used.
Since the tubular performance is governed by the connection
performance, casing and tubing string designs cannot be
completed until connections have been selected.
As recently as 40 years ago, well depths over 10 000 ft were

uncommon, and bottom hole pressures in excess of 2500 psi
were unusual. However, oil or gas producing wells have
become deeper and the operating conditions have become
more severe. Wells in excess of 15 000 ft in depth (some over
20 000 ft in depth) and bottom hole pressures in excess of
10␣ 000 psi are often encountered. The early production from
oil and gas wells, ranging in depth to 5000 ft or less, did not
require the use of high strength tubular joint connections.
Most applications could be served with standard API
connections. However, for exploration and production from
the deeper and higher pressure formations, connections with
unique or special features that are not available with API
connections are required. One of the special features is high
resistance to fluid leakage at elevated temperatures in
corrosive environments.
With the progress of technological know-how and scientific

improvements in materials and product design, a variety of
tubular connections are now available for critical service
applications. The job of the drilling and production engineer
is to select the best (at the time of selection) of the available
connections, based upon its performance capability as well as
its overall cost and availability.
TUBULAR
CONNECTIONS
Machined threads at the end of the tubulars allow joints to
be assembled into strings. These threaded connections must
provide pressure integrity and have sufficient strength to
withstand the tubing body stresses.
The API specifications only apply to API tubing and casing

connections and do not apply to the non-API proprietary
connections like VAM. Non-API connections, sometimes
Page 20
termed premium connections, have been designed to

overcome some of the limitations in the API equipment,
including:
• Providing greater axial strength.

• Smaller connection OD.
• Improved pressure integrity (gas tight sealing).
Although premium connections can provide significant

advantages over API connections, they are more expensive.
However, API connections should only be considered for
Category I tubulars.
DESCRIPTION OF
CONNECTIONS
Tubular connections are like complex pressure vessel
closures in that they are required to maintain structural
integrity and gas/fluid sealability. The structural integrity
of␣ these connections is accomplished by␣ the:
• Threads.
• Seals.
• Shoulders.
There are three main types of connections listed in order of

structural performance. They are:
• Integral upset.
• Threaded and coupled.
• Flush joint.
Integral upset tubulars, eg Hydril, are manufactured from

one piece of pipe. They are similar in appearance to drillpipe,
but are far superior in terms of structural performance.
The connections in threaded and coupled tubulars are
manufactured from the same materials as the pipe body.
Flush joint connections, eg F 445, are also manufactured
from one piece of pipe. However, due to the design of the
connection (internally and externally flush), it does not
possess the same strength as either the integral upset or
the␣ threaded and coupled connection.
Each connection type has its applications, depending on

the␣ conditions.
Page 21
The design of a tubular connection is similar to other

machine design processes. Design of tubular connections is
based on the following simplifying assumptions:
• The material is ductile.
• Service loads are applied statically. In other words, service

loads are neither dynamic nor applied by impact.
• Service temperature neither exceeds the creep range

(about 600°F (316°C)) nor falls below the nul ductility
transition temperature (below about –4°F (–20°C)) under
load conditions.
Typical loading conditions that affect structural integrity of

connections are tension or compression, internal or external
pressure differential, surface and production temperature
and corrosion. For helically buckled tubing and in high angle
directional drilling, bending must also be considered. The
same loading conditions also affect sealing integrity of
connections, but in different ways. For example, axial tension
can break, pull-out or jump-out a connection by exceeding its
structural strength. It can also cause leakage of some
connections by plastically deforming threads or reducing the
contact bearing pressure of the sealing surfaces. Therefore,
tubing designers more often desire tensile strength greater
than pipe body in order to avoid distortion of seals.
Threads
Any thread form has basic features that include height
(depth), stab flank angle, load flank angle, root radii, crest
radii and surface finish. All threads follow a helix, whether
cylindrical or tapered, and so possess pitch and lead.
Threads are then matched to opposing threads with either
precise interference, clearance or a combination of both.
There are many different types of connections and thread

variations that have been marketed. However, the basic
thread forms in use today may be classified as:
• 8-round thread forms.

• Buttress thread form.
• Shortened (stub) ACME thread form.
• Reversed flank thread form.
Tubular connections in the past have utilized sharp V thread

forms. Line pipe and bolts and nuts still use this thread form
Page 22
(see Figure 7.2). The thread form offers adequate

performance␣ on non-upset pipe for oil wells ranging in depths
up to 5000␣ ft.
Figure 7.2 – Line Pipe Thread Form
This thread has been replaced with a V-type thread

incorporating radiused crests and roots (see Figure 7.3),
currently identified as API standard 8-round, which offers
better machining characteristics and improvements in
resistance to galling during make-up.
Figure 7.3 – 8 Round Thread Form
Page 23
As well depths became greater, joint strength requirements

increased. Pipe ends were upset in order to improve the
tension load resistance of the pin member. In order to avoid
adding restriction to inside joint diameter, it was essential to
increase the outside diameter of the coupling over that of the
non-upset connection.
One of the earliest changes to a special thread form was

found on extreme line casing. This form was obtained from
the ACME power thread (see Figure 7.4) by shortening the
thread height and altering the flank angles.
Figure 7.4 – ACME Thread Form
This modified ACME type of thread offered a load-bearing

flank that resulted in a stress condition which did not require
such heavy well sections in the box or pin members. This
permitted a reduced outside diameter without a
corresponding reduction in joint strength. Furthermore, the
extreme line joint is one of the earliest joint connections
designed with an independent metal-to-metal sealing
element. This joint was also incorporated as one of the API
standard connections. It is not as widely used or available
today and has been replaced by proprietary premium
connections.
With the desire to increase the joint strength without having

to use upset pipe, additional developments were initiated.
Load-bearing thread flank angles were further changed, and
the thread root ‘runouts’ were modified so that joint strengths
were closer to the full parting load of the pipe body, without
Page 24
using upset pipe. The buttress thread connection (see

Figure␣ 7.5 ) was the result of this continued development.
Figure 7.5 – Buttress Thread Form
The buttress connection is one of the most widely used oil

well casing connections for less critical applications. Like the
8-round and extreme line connection, it is also an API
standard connection. The load flank of the buttress
connection is almost perpendicular (3° angle) to the axis of
the joint. The flank angle is less than the friction angle
(about␣ 7°) so that the load flank resists radial separation due
to Poisson’s effect from axial tension.
In 1955, Armco Steel Corporation introduced a significantly

different thread form on their seal-lock products. The new
form comprises a slightly negative angle on the load-bearing
flank of the thread, ie the angle between the face of the load
flank and axis of the joint is less than 90°. The merit of
reversed angle load flank threads (see Figure 7.6) is that they
are believed to draw the pin and box connections radially
together when subjected to axial tension. In this manner,
they can act to resist pin and box separation under high axial
tension. The threads must be sheared or distorted plastically
before separation can occur. Therefore, joint strengths
equivalent to the full pipe body may be obtainable without
the use of upsets. This is now the basis of the hook well
thread, eg Vam Ace.
Page 25
Figure 7.6 – Reversed Angle Load Flank Thread Form
Premium connections are essentially modified versions of

the␣ buttress thread form, incorporating a metal-to-metal
shoulder seal.
Seals
Pressure sealing in tubing and casing connections can be
achieved with a number of different mechanisms:
• Thread seals.
• Plastic (elastomeric) seals.
• Metal-to-metal seals.
Regardless of the sealing mechanisms, the ability to seal

depends on:
• Component geometry.
• External forces and reactions.
• Sealing materials.
• Surface topography.
• Coatings, including lubricants.
Thread seals are the most commonly used for less critical
environments and are the most economical to manufacture.
With the advent of Teflon, plastic seals became extensively
used. Metal-to-metal seals have generally been used to seal
the more difficult to contain fluids in extreme service
conditions, and are becoming standard in the North Sea.
Page 26
Thread Seals
API 8-round and buttress are typical of connections that
depend on thread seals. The connection is designed in such a
manner that when threads are assembled, the annular
clearance between mating crest and root is a crescent-shaped
space, having a nominal 0.003in clearance. With proper
thread compounds which must plug this annulus, the joint is
capable of performing an adequate control for leak resistance,
provided appropriate torque is applied to the connection.
Thread compound sealability is a function of application

procedure, temperature and time. The grease base of API
modified thread compound (75% content by volume) is the
greatest limitation of 8-round threads. It can react with
cleaning solvents, condensates, carbonic acid, hydrogen
sulphide and ethane. It dries out with temperature and time,
decreasing its resistance to the flow of gases or condensate. A
suggested upper limit of temperature is approximately 210°F
for long term applications. API modified compound is 67%
metal filler by weight. It is possible to increase leak resistance
by minimizing clearance between mating thread elements.
This may, however, cause thread wear or galling where
service requirements include repeated make-up.
Plastic (Elastomeric) Seals

This type of connection relies on a Teflon seal ring in the
groove between mating surfaces. The ring is free to expand or
contract with temperature in the direction of fluid flow, so
that the metal connector walls are not significantly stressed
by thermal effects. The seal materials have, in general,
thermal coefficients of expansion that are several times that
of steel. High flowing temperatures can create enough
expansion pressure from the Teflon to separate pin and box
threads and extrude the edges of the ring from its groove.
Upon cooling, the seal ring contracts, but its shape has
changed, and it is no longer tight in its groove. A loose seal
ring can result in leakage. Experience to date (mainly in the
USA) has shown that plastic seals are satisfactory up to
7500␣ psi. Above this, metal-to-metal seals should be utilized.
However, in the North Sea and in the rest of the world, metal-
to-metal seals are predominantly used above 5000 psi.
Metal-to-Metal Seals
Metal-to-metal seals are of either shouldering type, sliding
(flank) type or a combination of the two. The two types of
Page 27
metal-to-metal seals depend on a designed interference for

the initiation of the sealing interface during assembly. The
sliding sealing elements may consist of a curved surface pin
seal mating to a conical female seal surface. The purpose of
the curved seal is to concentrate the radial interference force
to ensure an intimate contact with the female (box) member
of the connection. Shouldering metal seals, like VAM, utilize
mostly compressive axial strain to maintain the sealing
interface.
Metal-to-metal seals have proved to be not only reliable, but

also durable. These independent sealing elements have been
used on various products and subjected to practically every
conceivable type of service in oil and gas completions. As long
as the metal-to-metal seal coupled or integral joint casing or
tubing is not pulled onto yield, not over-torqued, and handled
with care, they offer high temperature, high pressure and gas
tight performance. Depending on the joint material used, they
may be almost indestructible as far as wear or galling after
repeated use is concerned. However, they are least capable of
field repair and cost the most to make and gauge.
Pressure Energized Metal-to-Metal Seals

Pressure energization refers to an increase in contact
pressure at the sealing interface that is caused by an
increase of pressure of the fluid being sealed. A pressure
energized seal can utilize relatively low contact stress to
initiate the sealing interface because the contact pressure
increases at a greater rate than the fluid pressure.
Surface Topography
Surface finish topography is an important factor controlling
fluid sealability. Smooth surfaces tend to permit ‘channelling’
through the lubricating film between the surfaces. Surfaces
having roughness greater than 32 microinch, appear to trap
lubricant in the surface discontinuities which act somewhat
like a gasket with a multitude of tiny high points breaking up
continuity of lubricating film, thus preventing channelling. A
good surface roughness range for seal finishes was found to
be from 32 to 125 microinches.
Shoulders
The principal function of the shoulder in the sealing
mechanism is to absorb and retain the load generated by the
torque. This is commonly referred to as a pre-load and is
Page 28
extremely important when energizing the metal-to-metal seal

in premium connections.
Other types of shoulder are referred to in various proprietory

connections, and these are commonly used as ‘land-off’
shoulders and assist the seal shoulder. These shoulders do
provide some interference and some assistance in sealing.
However, despite manufacturers’ claims, this should not be
considered as a reliable seal.
CONNECTION
REQUIREMENTS
Depending on application, a connection may have to satisfy
all or some of the following requirements:
• Sufficient joint strength.

• Adequate sealing force.
• Resistance to damage when re-run.
• Resistance to galling.
• Quick and easy make-up.
• Smooth ID transition.
A connection has to maintain sufficient structural integrity

and resistance to leakage over all the applied service loads,
including fraccing, workovers, drilling bridge plugs etc. Most
premium connections have better structural properties than
the pipe body, although this should be confirmed with either
a tubing specialist or the manufacturer.
Joint Strength
Connection tensile strength is defined as either:
• The product of the minimum specified ultimate strength

and the minimum critical section area of the connection
or
• The minimum pull-out or jump-out load of the connection
depending on which has the lesser value.
The joint tensile breaking strength exhibited by physical

testing is equal to the product of the ultimate strength and
the critical section area of the specimen being tested. Jump-
out is a connection failure by disengagement of the threads
that occurs before parting of the pipe wall. Failure by thread
jump-out initiates at the engaged pin thread nearest the end
Page 29
of the coupling. The material yielding, due to high axial

tension plus the radial strains at the thread load flank (due
to Poisson’s effect), acts to separate pin and coupling. The
disengagement of the first engaged pin thread starts a chain
reaction through the remaining engaged threads and finally
results in complete separation of the connection.
Leak Resistance
If a joint is to be leak resistant, the two sealing elements of
the connection must be in intimate contact to such a degree
that the interference force (unit bearing pressure) will always
be equal to or greater than the pressure differential across
the joint. This means that the leak resistance of a joint is
directly related to the amount of interference of the sealing
mechanism.
Damage
Resistance
The connection should be resistant to damage, including
wear or galling, from multiple make-up and break-out of the
joint. This is especially the case for tubing strings being
repeatedly recovered from the well.
Galling
Galling resistance of two interference surfaces is essential for
repeated connection leak tightness. Galling is a form of
adhesive wear which involves ‘junction welding’ of two
metallic surfaces and subsequent shearing of these
junctions, resulting in a characteristic gouged surface. When
a joint is made up with interference, two mated members
may slide a relatively large distance. The sliding distance and
the interference force are the two major contributory factors
for inducing galling. A reduction in either of these
contributory factors will reduce the tendency to gall.
When quenched and tempered, or high alloy (CRA) pipe is

used, a special (deburring) finishing treatment is a minimum
requirement for resisting galling. Natural galling resistance of
connections on normalized carbon steel tubulars is forfeited
when quenched. In order to resist galling, connections must
be specially finished and carefully handled and run. One
finishing technique is fine sand, ceramic or glass bead
blasting of CRA, or tumble blasting of alloy steels. Coatings
also help connections to resist galling. Alloy steels are usually
phosphated or zinc plated with a chemical conversion
coating. CRA couplings are often copper or nickel plated.
Page 30
Slow turning of completion assemblies by hand during initial

make-up is a necessity. API modified thread compound
should be used for improved galling resistance. However, it
must be well mixed and clean (free of sand or grit).
Quick and
Easy␣ Make-Up
To keep rig time to a minimum, any connection should be
easy to make up. However, when connection damage is a
potential problem, taking care and time when running the
string will pay dividends.
Smooth
Connection
ID␣ Transition
The internal profile of the connection should be sufficiently
smooth to prevent erosion/corrosion. When the flow velocity
(and entrained solids) become significant enough to wash out
connections due to cavitation or flow erosion, greater
consideration must be given to eliminating the recess in the
coupling at the end of the pins.
Low
Assembly␣ Stress
Low connection assembly stresses are preferred where
sulphide stress corrosion cracking (SSC) is expected (see
background on materials). SSC requires high tensile stress in
the presence of hydrogen. Connections that perform well in
SSC service usually exhibit low tensile stresses across the
box connection section during assembly. Connection make-
up could impart high tensile circumferential (hoop) stresses
in the box (coupling) of tapered, interference threads.
Adaptability
The connection must be able to be repaired in the field.
Page 31
Completion Design Manual TECHNIQUES
TUBING SELECTION
Determine tubing ID
Develop structure of
completion
Perform tubing
stress analysis
Determine weight
and grade of tubing
Is
mechanical
YES
strength Incorporate tubing
requirement movement
excessive
?
NO
Is the
NO selected
Determine optimum grade the
weight and grade most cost
effective
?
YES
Determine corrosion
mechanisms
Does
selected grade NO
have sufficient Evaluate corrosion
corrosion protection mechanism
resistance
?
YES
Select appropriate
connection
Is the
connection NO Evaluate connection
stronger than strength against
the pipe service loads
body
?
YES
Write technical
specification based on
service category
Figure 7.7 – Tubing Selection Process
Page 33
TECHNIQUES Completion Design Manual
CONNECTION SELECTION
INTRODUCTION
Selection of the appropriate connection should be based on
the following factors:
• The intended application for which the connection will

be␣ used.
• The performance capabilities of the connection in its

intended application.
• Availability to location. Refurbishment and rethreading

facilities for used pipe.
• Cost.
• Local Government requirements/constraints.
The drilling or production engineer should procure

connections from reputable manufacturers, ensure protection
for connectors through all stages of inspection, storage and
shipment and verify final integrity of assembled connections
during field handling, running and testing.
Unfortunately, the user faces a difficult task in selecting a

connection for the particular size, weight and grade suitable
for the intended application for the following reasons:
• A large number of candidate connections that at first sight

would appear to meet the downhole requirements.
• The connection industry often rates its connections

nominally, rather than on minimum dimensions and
minimum strength values.
• Often, little or no data is available to support the

manufacturer’s performance claims.
CONNECTION
TYPES
Production casing traditionally consists of production liners,
production and tie-back casing. The primary attribute of
production casing connections is their ability to withstand all
well conditions without leaking or parting. Production casing
Page 34
and tubing connections must contain production fluids, and

therefore require high sealing capability.
Sealing requirements differ for liquids, steam and gas/

condensates. Long-term gas or condensate sealing at high
temperature can only be accomplished with metal-to-metal or
plastic seals. With the progress of technology and scientific
improvements in material and product design, a variety of
connections are now available for critical service applications.
The thread compound in connections that rely on thread

seals, is susceptible to deterioration with temperature and
time and to corrosive degradation. Plastic seals can extend
the sealing range up to 375°F. Metal-to-metal seals extend
the sealing range further up to 650°F.
For production casing, five generic connections are

normally␣ used:
• API 8-round (STC or LTC).
• API buttress (BTC).
• Metal-to-metal seal, formed and integral (flush) (IFJ).
• Metal-to-metal seal, threaded and coupled (MTC).
• Metal-to-metal seal, upset and integral (or coupled) (MIJ).
STC and LTC are acronyms for short and long thread
coupled, respectively.
The API connections for production casing may or may not

have plastic seals.
Three generic tubing connections are normally used on

production tubing:
• API 8-round (EUE).
• Metal-to-metal seal, threaded and coupled (MTC).
• Metal-to-metal seal, upset and integral (or coupled) (MIJ).
EUE is an abbreviation for externally upset end tubes.
Page 35
The␣ API connections on production tubing may or may not

incorporate plastic seals.
API EUE is the basic tubing connection. The premium/

non-API connections usually incorporate a metal-to-metal
sealing. Premium connections provide extensive
improvements in comparison to the above standard
connections in:
• Pressure ratings.
• Tensile capacity.
• OD clearance.
• Gas and fluid sealability.
The other improvements that are less frequently required

include:
• Controlled assembly stress.

• Smooth ID transition.
• Use of internal plastic coatings. (This, however, is not
universally accepted in BP.)
API BTC that run out on the pipe OD, provide the greatest
possible tensile resistance for connections on plain (non-
upset) end pipe, with some loss of sealability. Upsets provide
additional metal from which greater tensile capacity can be
achieved, in excess of the pipe body capacity. This is
important when pulling casing beyond its tensile overpull
rating or pulling tubing beyond its yield point. It ensures that
seals and threads are not distorted plastically and
subsequently leak. Providing the metal-to-metal seal coupled
connection is not pulled to yield, over-torqued and is handled
with care, it will provide a reliable seal. Flush type
connections are designed to maximize clearance downhole,
requiring that tensile efficiency be sacrificed. However, such
connections are usually run as shorter strings that do not
require full pipe body tensile efficiency. Flush connections
without cold-formed ends can only meet full pipe body
internal pressure ratings when the thread is designed for the
specific weight of pipe, and the thread and pipe OD are not
eccentric. Therefore, fully internal pressure rated flush
connections are normally cold-formed. Boxes are expanded
to ensure adequate wall thickness over the primary seal.
Pins are swaged (nosed down) and bored to ensure uniform
deformation of the pin during assembly.
Page 36
CHARACTERISTICS
OF GENERIC
CONNECTIONS
General characteristics of the generic casing/tubing
connections cited above, are summarized in the following:
API 8-Round STC, LTC and EUE

• Good availability and price.
• Liquid sealability up to about 210°F.
• Plastic elastomeric seals can improve gas tightness up

to␣ 375°F. They are, however, not fully endorsed
throughout BPX.
• Gauges are widely available for rework and pipe salvage.
• Subject to galling from cross-threading, out-of-roundness

and other causes in larger sizes (9 5/8in).
• High assembly circumferential (hoop) stress in coupling.
• Tensile efficiency (STC, LTC) = 70 or 75% of pipe body.
• Tensile efficiency (EUE) = 115 or 120% of pipe body.
API BTC (Buttress Thread)

• General availability good (coupling stock readily available).
• Poor gas tightness above 200°F.
• Tin plating improves leak resistance to 350°F.
• Subject to galling from cross-threading, out-of-roundness

and other causes in larger sizes (9 5/8in).
• High assembly circumferential (hoop) stress in coupling.
• Tensile efficiency = 85 or 95% of pipe body.
Metal-to-Metal Seal, Threaded and Coupled

• Oversize casing coupling stock less available for
most␣ grades.
Page 37
• Gas tightness characteristics good.
• Special clearance couplings manufactured from higher

grade material can provide additional hole clearance.
• Susceptible to handling damage of the seal, therefore

precautionary measures must be taken.
• Pins must be bored concentric to seals for effective

gas␣ sealing.
• Particularly suited to use on cold worked high alloys that

cannot be upset.
• Assembly circumferential (hoop) stress in coupling can be

controlled since sealing in the threads is not a requisite.
• Tensile efficiency at least equal to BTC or equal to

pipe␣ body.
Metal-to-Metal Seal, Upset and Integral (or Coupled)

• Costly.
• Poor availability of couplings and limited upset recuts for

pipe salvage.
• Susceptible to handling damage of the seal, therefore

precautionary measures must be taken.

gas␣ sealing.
• Tensile efficiency generally equal to or greater than

pipe␣ body.
Metal-to-Metal Seal, Formed and Integral (Flush)

• Hole clearance characteristics excellent, flush with OD
of␣ pipe.
• Availability and ease of salvage.
• Gas tightness good.

gas␣ sealing.
Page 38
• Tensile efficiency 50 or 75% of pipe body.
Weld-on, Upset and Integral

• Very costly.
• Elimination of mill end with weld-on box.
• Coarse threads to resist cross-threading or galling.
• Continuous threaded product resists disengagement

under severe bending.
• Grades limited to weldable (line pipe) or H-40 and K-55.
• Tensile efficiency generally greater than pipe body.
• Susceptible to preferential corrosion at the weld.
There are many candidate casing/tubing connections on the

market. Up-to-date tubing connection tables were published
(*Reference 7.11) in the January 1989 edition of ‘World Oil’*. The tables
contain lists of special purpose (premium) tubing connections
and their manufacturers.
The correct selection of tubular connections for any given

environment is extremely important. It is, however, not an
exact science, and therefore is not a simple decision. There
are many considerations which need to be taken into
account. These are mainly the expected downhole operating
environment.
BPX, Drilling Technology Division in Dyce has, along with

XWH (BP America) Houston and Sunbury, embarked on a
testing programme to help qualify connections for completion
usage. It is important to realize that manufacturers’ testing is
(*Reference 7.12)
normally only required to meet the API RP 37* requirements,
or part thereof. This type of testing, allied with finite element
analysis, does not always realistically simulate downhole
conditions. Where it is felt that API tests do not meet our
needs, eg Miller, additional testing should be initiated.
It is therefore recommended that if there is any doubt about

the type of connection to be used, DTD’s Tubular Specialist,
J␣ Duxbury, Dyce should be contacted for advice.
Page 39
It should be noted that the preceding text and the following

flow charts are guidelines, and that local experience,
regulations or conditions may impose additional
requirements.
Page 40
KNOWN DATA
Pipe body description
(pipe OD, wall thickness,
material grade
and strength) MATERIAL SELECTION
FLOW CHART
YES
Is material CRA?
NO
Fluids?
GAS/CONDENSATE OIL/WATER
Pressure YES
Pressure YES
p > 3000 psi p > 5000 psi
NO
YES
Temperature
T > 375°F
NO
Temperature
T > 375°F
Tensile rating YES
requirement
> 100%
NO NO
NO YES
BTC EUE
API connection
with
elastomeric Metal-to-metal
seal seal premium
connection
SEE FIGURE 7.9
Figure 7.8 – Flowchart for Selecting API or Premium Connections
Page 41
Metal-to-metal
seal premium
connection
Are multiple makes

and breaks
anticipated
(ie test strings
frac/work strings)?
NO YES
Is hole clearance Metal-to-metal

a consideration/ seal integral
limiting factor? upset connection
NO YES
Metal-to-metal Metal-to-metal
seal threaded seal integral
and coupled flush
connection connection
Other considerations are flow velocity of the conveyed medium which governs
whether or not internal flushness is required, tensile strength capabilities etc.
Figure 7.9 – Flowchart for Selecting Premium Connection Type
Page 42
TUBULAR MATERIAL SELECTION
Known Data:
• Pipe size
• Material strength
• Connection type
GAS/
CONDENSATES Fluids OIL
carried
Is H2S YES Is CO2 YES Is H2S

Category II YES
partial partial partial
pressure tubulars.
Use duplex pressure pressure
> 0.05 psia > 15 psia > 0.05 psia
? or higher
? ?
NO NO
Use carbon Is CO2

NO steel tubulars partial
to BP145 pressure
and NACE NO > 15 psia
?
Use 13% YES

chrome
stainless
steel?
> 95k psi < 80k psi

13% chrome
is not 13% chrome
Required Category I
recommended. strength
Use duplex tubulars to
grade BP145
or higher
80 to
95k psi
13% chrome
Category II with NOTE – CO2 partial pressure of 15 psi is a
special requirements guideline. There are situations, eg carbonate
developed with in formation water, where CO2 corrosion can
metallurgist occur at lower levels.
Figure 7.10 – Tubular Material Selection Process
Page 43
Completion Design Manual WORKED EXAMPLE
SOUTHERN NORTH SEA GAS DEVELOPMENT
MATERIALS
The first BP Southern North Sea gas development was the

West Sole gas field which was developed in the late 1960s.
The original West Sole wells utilized standard API 55 and 80
grade carbon steels for production tubing, without any
additional requirements for corrosion resistance or notch
toughness. West Sole development pre-dated all the work to
be undertaken later on CO2 corrosion of carbon steel
tubulars, NACE sour service requirements and North Sea
tubular brittle failures.
Within two to four years of production start up on West Sole,

severe CO2 corrosion of the carbon steel tubulars was
detected, with complete perforation and parting of the
tubulars in some of the early wells.
In order to combat the severe corrosion problem experienced

in West Sole production tubing, it was necessary to examine
the various remedial measures available, which at the time
(about 1970) were as follows:
1) Corrosion inhibition.
2) Internal plastic coating.
3) Internal nickel plating.
4) Tubing replacement by carbon steel.
5) Tubing replacement by corrosion resistant alloys.
A laboratory testing of possible corrosion inhibitors (Option 1)

proved inconclusive. The service history with internal plastic
coatings (Option 2) at the time was generally unsatisfactory.
Nickel plating of the tubing bore to provide an internal
metallic coating (Option 3) was undertaken, but with only
limited success. The use of the same replacement carbon
steel (Option 4) was not a viable long-term solution.
Using replacement tubing in a corrosion resistant material

(Option 5) was considered to be an optimum solution. In the
absence of significant quantities of H2S, 13%Cr martensitic
stainless steel was used. This material was installed in water
wetted areas and has provided good long-term service for
many years.
Page 45
WORKED EXAMPLE Completion Design Manual
The next BP Southern North Sea wet gas development was

the Q8 field, offshore Holland. In the light of West Sole
experience, 13%Cr martensitic stainless steel was again
selected for this sweet field. However, in order to achieve the
higher strength level required for Q8, a P105 grade material
was ordered. During running of the string, two failures were
experienced. These failures proved to be of a brittle nature
and the inherent materials toughness was poor. The poor
notch toughness was attributed to the low temperature heat
treatment imposed on the 13%Cr steel in order to achieve the
increased strength required for Q8. The P105 tubing was
replaced by the lower strength 80 grade, with better impact
toughness properties.
For the latest Southern North Sea gas development, Cleeton

and Ravenspurn South, 13%Cr 80 grade steel was again
used. Material was purchased to BP Standard 145 Part 1
with a specified minimum impact toughness level to avoid the
previous brittle failure problems.
This combination of 80 grade 13%Cr steel with notch

toughness requirements is the current recommended route
for wet gas gas fields containing CO2 with negligible
quantities of H2S. For fields containing CO2 plus significant
H2S, eg Miller, 13%Cr steel is not sufficiently resistant to
stress corrosion cracking, and more resistant materials need
to be specified.
Future recommendations for CO2-containing wet gas

developments, may include higher strength 13%Cr steel
where downhole pressures require this combination, eg
Marnock. However, the strength is likely to be limited to
90␣ grade material, and supplementary requirements to
ensure acceptable impact toughness and corrosion resistance
will be necessary. The present use of higher strength 13%Cr
steel (ie␣ above 80 grade) anywhere in the world is fairly
limited – mainly in small diameters for the USA market.
TUBULAR
CONNECTION
Full engineering evaluation and testing of tubular
connections is relatively new, and an example is not currently
available. A worked example detailing the connection
selection for Miller will be included in the first update of
the␣ manual.
Page 46
Completion Design Manual SECTION 7a – MATERIALS
CONTENTS
CORROSION MECHANISMS 1
INTRODUCTION 1
SULPHIDE STRESS CORROSION CRACKING 1
DISSOLVED OXYGEN 6
CO2 CORROSION 6
EROSION/CORROSION 9
ELASTOMERS 11
BACKGROUND 11
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE OF ELASTOMER CLASSES 20
FAILURE MECHANISMS 30
SEALS SELECTION 35
MATERIALS SELECTION CRITERIA 37
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES 41
FURTHER HELP AND INFORMATION 42
REFERENCES 43
CORROSION MECHANISMS
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 7 of this manual deals with the various corrosion
mechanisms which can occur in a conducting environment
and considers the likelihood of corrosion occurring in practice
from such mechanisms in oil and gas production duties.
Section 7a covers some of the referenced corrosion
mechanisms in more detail.
SULPHIDE
STRESS
CORROSION
CRACKING
As already introduced in the Background section of
Chapter␣ 7, fluids containing liquid water and hydrogen
sulphide are designated as sour environments and may cause
sulphide stress corrosion cracking (SSC) of susceptible
materials. SSC is affected by a complex interaction of many
parameters. These include:
• The chemical composition of the material, its strength,

heat treatment and microstructure.
• The pH of the aqueous phase.
• The concentration of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and

total␣ pressure.
• The residual and applied tensile stress.
• The temperature.
• Exposure time.
The susceptibility to SSC decreases with increasing pH. This

decrease in susceptibility starts at a pH of approximately 6,
and at pHs above 9.5, SSC failures generally do not occur.
The effect of pH is probably more significant during drilling
operations where the pH of the mud system can be controlled,
than for completion and production operations where
controlling the system pH is more difficult or indeed
impossible.
Page 1
SECTION 7a – MATERIALS Completion Design Manual
Chloride content is reported not to significantly affect the

susceptibility to SSC of low alloy carbon steels. However,
chlorides can increase the severity of the environment for
alloys like 13%Cr, which have a strong adverse effect on
passivity from chloride ions.
The composition, heat treatment and mechanical working of

the steel affect the cracking tendencies of the material. In
general, the lower the material yield strength, the less
susceptible the material is to SSC. However, this
generalization is not necessarily true when comparing
materials of different compositions and heat treatments.
Hardness measurements are often used as an indicator of a
material’s suitability for use in cracking environments since
hardness can be easily and non-destructively determined,
although strictly both chemical composition and mechanical
properties have to be taken into account.
The generally accepted industry guidelines of what

constitutes a sour environment and what materials are
considered to be SSC resistant are contained in NACE
(*Reference 7a.1) Standard MR-01-75-88*. This standard is largely based on
(*Reference 7a.2)
work detailed in various technical papers*. Designers of
tubing strings for SSC service are encouraged to␣ become
familiar with the contents of this book, specifically the papers
dealing with tubular products, and with the NACE␣ standard.
It is important to remember that NACE Standard MR-01-75

is only a guideline and has a number of limitations.
Furthermore, certain materials listed as safe within the NACE
document can still fail by SSC as a result of deficiencies in
the basic material specification. However, it is considered to
be a good general basis for the selection of materials for sour
service conditions.
A well fluid can only become sour if water is present in liquid

phase in the presence of H2S. The simplistic criteria for a
sour oil, gas or multiphase environment presented by NACE
are as follows:
Sour gas systems are defined as those where the system

pressure is 65 psia or greater and the partial pressure of H2S
in the gas is greater than 0.05 psia. The partial pressure of
H2S is defined as:
Page 2
(Equation 7a.1) H 2S = mol% H 2S × total system pressure

Partial pressure of
100
The NACE standard covers crude oil systems with the

following limitations:
• A maximum gas/liquid ratio of 5000 scf/bbl.
• A gas phase content of maximum 15% H2S.
• An H2S partial pressure in the gas phase of maximum

10␣ psia.
• A surface operating pressure of maximum 165 psia.
Figure 7a.1 or 7a.2 can be used to determine whether the

environment is sour as defined by the NACE standard.
If SSC is expected to be a problem, either at initial production

from naturally occurring H2S or later as a result of the
reservoir souring, a careful evaluation of the appropriate
metallurgy must be carried out in conjunction with a
company metallurgist.
GRAINS H 2 S PER 100 SCF
1 10 100 1000
10 000
0.
05
PS
IA
TOTAL PRESSURE, psia
PA
1000
R
TI
A
L
PR
ES
SU
SULPHIDE STRESS CRACKING REGION

R
E
100
65 PSIA TOTAL PRESSURE
10
MOL % H 2 S IN GAS .001 .001 .01 .1 1 10
ppm H2 S IN GAS 1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
Figure 7a.1 – Sour Gas Systems
Page 3
GRAINS H 2 S PER 100 SCF

1 10 100 1000
10 000
0.
05
PS
IA
PA
R
SULPHIDE STRESS CRACKING REGION
TOTAL PRESSURE, psia
TI
A
1000
L
PR
ES
SU
R
E
265 PSIA TOTAL PRESSURE
10
PS ES
IA SU
PR
PA RE
100
R
TI
A
L
15%
10 H 2S
MOL % H 2 S IN GAS .001 .001 .01 .1 1 10

ppm H 2 S IN GAS 1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
Figure 7a.2 – Sour Multiphase Systems
Avoidance
of SSC
Control of SSC can be accomplished by one or more of
the␣ following:
• Use of metallic materials and processes described in the

NACE standard.
• Controlling the environment.
• Isolating the components from the sour environment.
The requirements for SSC resistant materials are

summarized below.
Carbon and low alloy steels are acceptable at hardness levels

up to 22 HRC, provided they contain less than 1% Ni and
meet the other requirements of the NACE standard in the
following heat treatment conditions:
• Hot rolled – for carbon steels only.

• Annealed.
• Normalized.
• Normalized and tempered.
Page 4
• Normalized, austenitized, quenched and tempered.

• Quenched and tempered.
Experience has shown that the quenched and tempered

materials are generally preferred for use in SSC environments
over the other treatment methods, all other factors being
equal.
Low alloy steels in the Cr, Mo class (AISI 41XX and the
modifications) are acceptable as tubulars and tubular
components up to 26 HRC in the quenched and tempered
condition.
Austenitic, ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are

acceptable at hardness levels up to 22 HRC, provided they
meet the other requirements of the NACE standard. Duplex
(austenitic/ferritic) stainless steels are acceptable up to
28␣ HRC in the solution annealed condition. The requirements
for precipitation hardening stainless steels are discussed in
section 3.8 of the NACE standard.
In general, the non-ferrous alloys are acceptable at hardness

levels up to 35 HRC maximum provided they meet the
requirement of the NACE standard. Consequently, these
alloys can be used in sour applications where higher strength
levels are required.
Note, the NACE MR-01-75 philosophy, which states that

metallic coatings, conversion coatings and plastic coatings
are not acceptable for preventing SSC of base metals, has
been adopted by BP, and these techniques should therefore
not be used.
The NACE standard also covers requirements for the

fabrication of items suitable for use in a sour environment,
especially welding. Where welding processes are permitted
(eg␣ for joining or overlaying), the procedures must be shown
to produce a component which leaves both the weldment and
the base material in a suitable hardness condition and with
the weldment hardness complying with that specified for the
base material.
Page 5
DISSOLVED
OXYGEN
As indicated in the relevant part of Chapter 7, dissolved
oxygen has a dramatic influence on corrosion and can cause
severe damage even at very low concentrations. This attack
often shows itself as pitting corrosion.
The rapid acceleration of corrosion in the presence of oxygen

occurs for two main reasons:
1) Oxygen acts as a depolarizer. By combining with electrons

present at the cathode surface, the oxygen permits the
corrosion reaction to take place at a faster rate than
without oxygen. In the presence of the dissolved oxygen,
the corrosion rate is mainly related to the rate at which
the oxygen can diffuse to the cathode surface from the
electrolyte.
2) If the environment is less acidic than about pH 4 (ie the

pH value is greater than 4), the Fe(OH)3 produced by the
combined reaction is insoluble in water and the hydroxide
precipitates out. In order to maintain the chemical
equilibrium, the anode reaction from iron (Fe) to ferrous
ions (Fe2+) proceeds at a faster rate. This results in a
higher corrosion rate.
If the Fe(OH)3 precipitate, which results from the combined

corrosion reaction, forms mainly on the surface of the anode
itself, a protective film can be produced. This protective film
will then limit the rate of the corrosion reaction resulting
from mechanism 2) above. In practice, however, such a
protective film does not occur to any great extent in formation
water due to the presence of other chemical species in the
fluids. Consequently, if oxygen is present, the oxygen
corrosion reaction can proceed rapidly from either or both of
the above two mechanisms.
CO2 CORROSION
Uniform
Corrosion
The most common form of CO2 corrosion is uniform weight
loss corrosion of steel. The literature and data on the subject
can be roughly divided into two groups: those for bare steel
and those for which a reaction product layer is formed. The
data on bare steel is most applicable to high fluid flowrate
Page 6
situations. As reaction products form, the uniform corrosion

decreases, but localized corrosion can become a problem.
The uniform corrosion rate increases with increasing CO2

concentration, although not in direct proportion. The addition
of CO2 also tends to lower the system pH which also
increases the corrosion.
The uniform corrosion proceeds by a coupled electrochemical

reaction. The uniform corrosion rates presented in the
literature are extremely high at high CO2 partial pressures. In
most cases, it is unlikely that these high corrosion rates
would persist over time in actual applications since a
somewhat protective film is normally formed by the corrosive
reaction. The data is, however, useful because:
• It represents an upper limit on the uniform corrosion that

can occur.
• The protective film can be dislodged, exposing bare metal

to high corrosion rates.
• High corrosion rates are possible in areas of high flowrate.
In general, CO2 corrosion rates increase with increasing

temperature.
Localized
Corrosion
In sweet oil well or gas condensate well applications,
localized␣ corrosion can be a more serious problem than
uniform corrosion. Localized corrosion occurrence requires
the resistance of an imperfect reaction product layer on the
metal surface.
A rule of thumb for sweet oil and gas condensate wells is that
a CO2 partial pressure of 30 psi usually results in corrosion,
and below 7 psi the well is considered as non-corrosive.
Localized CO2 corrosion results in pitting of the metal.
Ringworm corrosion sometimes occurs in oil well tubing.

Ringworm corrosion is associated with the carbides near the
ends of the upsets. The corrosion is localized in this area and
can be several times higher than the corrosion rate over the
length of the tube. This type of corrosion can be eliminated
by normalizing over the entire tube length after upsetting.
Page 7
Stress Cracking
and Corrosion
Fatigue
Normally, CO2 or carbonic acid alone are not considered as
cracking agents. However, under certain extreme conditions,
cracking may occur in wet CO2 environments. Cracking is
probably increased by the presence of other corrosive agents.
Corrosion fatigue is the cracking of a metal due to the

combined action of a corrosive environment and repeated or
alternate stress. Under corrosive conditions, there is no
endurance or fatigue limit below which the metal can be
cyclically stressed indefinitely without failure. The corrosion
fatigue limit is normally defined as the maximum value of
stress at which no failure occurs after a large number of
(approximately 107) cycles. The life of oil well sucker rods is
often limited by corrosion fatigue.
CO2 appears to act as a catalyst for the formation of

surface␣ cracks in the steel, lowering the endurance limit of
the material.
Prediction of
CO2 Corrosion
On a more scientific basis than the NACE rules of thumb,
presented in Chapter 7, corrosion studies have been
undertaken in wet gas systems containing varying levels of
carbon dioxide. Corrosion data for API 5L grade and X52
pipeline steel in carbonic acid were obtained using laboratory
weight loss and electrochemical corrosion testing techniques.
The test results reported*, provided a predictive model for
(*Reference 7a.3)
maximum CO2 corrosion rates as a function of temperature
and CO2 partial pressure. The maximum predicted corrosion
rate from the test data is defined by the equation:
Log V = 7.96 – 2320/(T + 273) – 0.00555T + 0.67 Log p

(Equation 7a.2)
where: V = maximum predicted corrosion rate,

mm/year
T = temperature, °C
p = CO2 partial pressure, bara
In the reported tests, there was no evidence of protective film

formation on the steel surface. There was some attempt to
include an effect of velocity by including a multiplication
factor of 2 at high velocity (defined as above 8 ft/sec).
Page 8
Although this model has some limitations, particularly at

temperatures above about 60°C where corrosion rates are
often found to remain approximately constant with increase
in temperature, it has been used extensively in the North Sea
for wet gas system materials selection design. Details of the
initial development work and subsequent modifications can
be found in the applicable references.
(*Reference 7a.4) More recent work along the same lines* has attempted to
quantify the influence of additional factors such as water
content, product scales, pH, hydrocarbon content, flow
regime and inhibition effects.
EROSION/
CORROSION
It is generally acknowledged that the velocity formula
(*Reference 7a.5) contained in API RP 14E* for erosional velocity limits is
conservative and that higher C factors could be used,
particularly with higher alloy corrosion resistant materials.
The problem remains, however, in that it is not clear by how
much RP 14E is conservative.
Based on practical operating experience within BP North Sea

Operations, it is evident that pipework transporting
multiphase fluids at velocities greater than the recommended
maxima is operating satisfactorily without extensive erosion
damage. The pipework in question (in Forties and Magnus
fields) is checked regularly for wall thickness changes.
This service history information infers that for BP carbon

steel pipework transporting multiphase fluids containing
limited quantities of sand, API RP 14E is conservative by
some 35%. On this basis, the C factor utilized for carbon
steel is 135.
For duplex stainless steel, BP does not yet have sufficient

operating experience. However, results from limited erosion
testing undertaken by suppliers of these materials, indicate
that duplex stainless steel can be used at C factors twice
those for carbon steel. Using the BP factor of 135 for carbon
steel and a (conservative) 75% increase for duplex steel, a
C␣ factor of 236 is achieved.
For 13%Cr steel, operating experience on West Sole downhole

tubulars has indicated that a C factor of 280 can be achieved
without erosional problems. However, in view of the lower
limit on a more corrosion resistant alloy (duplex stainless) a
Page 9
limit of 200 has been used for 13%Cr steel, at least until
more service data is available.
All the recommended C factors are intended for situations

involving essentially sand-free operation. The BP operating
experience is not applicable to significant levels of sand
production, where lower C factors will be required.
Page 10
ELASTOMERS
BACKGROUND
Introduction
Elastomers (rubbers for sealing) and polymers (engineering
plastics for back-ups) are used in many fluid sealing
applications in downhole and surface equipment. This
section covers their use in completion equipment.
A wide range of elastomers and plastics is available, and seal

material selection is always a compromise resulting from
consideration of the service duties and the performance
needs. This section is designed to provide help and
information to enable the engineer to make a basic material
selection or appraise the material on offer from an equipment
manufacturer.
Many of the malfunctions of subsurface oil field equipment

have been traced to seal failure. Seal materials and seal
designs, often among the least expensive components, are
often the limiting factors in equipment performance. Failures
in elastomer seals downhole can result in high workover
costs. In order to minimize these failures, all the contributing
factors should be assessed and the correct elastomer seal
material should be chosen for the intended duties. To do this,
the well conditions need to be defined as fully as possible and
the performance of the elastomers, their properties and
environmental resistance should be understood. Working
closely with the equipment supplier or the elastomer section
at Sunbury, will ensure the optimum material selection
is␣ made.
The selection process detailed in this section is as follows:
• Define well conditions.
• Select elastomer class for compatibility with:

– Heat resistance.
– Oil resistance.
– Service liquids resistance.
– Gas duties resistance.
Page 11
• Select elastomer grade based on pressure level for

required performance properties.
Tables 7a.4, 7a.5 and 7a.6 provide quick guides to aid

elastomer selection.
Elastomers (eg Nitrile, Viton, Aflas, etc) possess the ability to

recover from applied stress over a significant deformation
range. Plastic material (eg PTFE, Ryton, PEEK, etc) do not
possess this quality and deform irrecoverably by plastic flow.
In general, elastomers are used for the sealing elements and
plastics (suitably filled to reduce deformation) are used as
back up rings to prevent extrusion under high pressure
service.
The same environmental considerations apply to the plastic

materials as to the elastomeric material, consequently the
term ‘elastomer’ is used to include both types where
appropriate.
The essential quality of elasticity in a rubber allows it to have

an advantage over metallic counterparts in the degree of
conformability to a rough or uneven sealing surface. Also, an
elastomer is incompressible and has the ability to deform
under constant volume to provide a seal in constrained
housings, whilst still exerting a positive sealing force.
Elastomers can be readily fabricated in a variety of shapes

and sizes, eg O-Rings, T-seals, Chevrons and Lip Seals etc,
depending on the application requirement, and may be
assembled with relative ease due to their elastic nature.
Unlike metals, corrosion is not a significant problem with
elastomeric materials.
Definition of
Well Conditions
The information required to specify an elastomer is listed
below. This data should be collated from the Statement of
Requirements for the well and refined during the conceptual
design phase:
Page 12
Bottom hole temperature (closed in/flowing)

Surface temperature (closed in/flowing)
Temperature extremes (max/min)
Temperature profile (static/cyclic, frequency)
Reservoir pressure
Wellhead pressure (closed in/flowing)
Pressure profile (variation, frequency, rate)
Production fluid composition (and variation)

Hydrocarbons
Aromatics
Water
Gas/oil ratio
Injected fluids composition (strength, duration,

frequency)
Inhibitors (corrosion and scale)
Control line fluids
Completion fluids
Acids and chemicals
Temperature of injected
fluids downhole
Produced gas composition

Hydrocarbons
Hydrogen sulphide
Carbon dioxide
Differential seal pressure (level, rate, frequency)
Seal movements (travel, rate, frequency)
Lifetime required (between workovers)
In addition, the seal design in which the elastomer is

incorporated should also be considered, ie O-ring, T-seal,
V-packing etc.
Page 13
Effects of
Typical
Downhole
Environments
Produced Fluids
Crude oil with natural gas or natural gas with condensate are
most typical. High aromatic content oils and chlorinated
hydrocarbons can cause excessive swelling, loss of strength
or even dissolution in some rubbers (eg natural rubber,
EPDM, butyl, silicones etc). Absorbed gases at high pressures
could give rise to blistering or rupture in seals when rapidly
decompressed. Formation water is frequently present, as is
seawater both as a result of waterflood breakthrough and in
water injection wells. Seawater may cause hydrolysis
degradation in some elastomers (eg acrylics, urethanes).
Temperature and Pressure

Surface temperatures can be low when the well is shut in
(sea temperatures 2° to 6°C), but downhole equipment
normally functions at service temperatures between 80°F
(27°C) and 400°F (204°C). Temperature is important because
materials strength properties generally reduce and
environments become more aggressive with increases in
temperature. Two opposite effects on performance are
possible as a result of temperature. Materials may soften and
extrude where no chemical reaction occurs, or they could
harden with age and become brittle under chemical attack.
Both mechanisms can lead to failure.
Differential pressures are typically a maximum of 15 000 psi.

The level of pressure determines the mechanical properties
required within the grade of elastomer class and whether
back up rings are required.
Corrosion and Scale

Moderately corrosive environments are typical. Wells often
contain significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) which
readily causes blistering in some elastomers when rapidly
decompressed. H2S may chemically attack the cure sites in
the elastomer, which can lead to hardening and rupture by
embrittlement. The selection of corrosion resistant alloys is
becoming more common, but inhibitors are often added to
injection water and completion fluids. Low levels of inhibitors
are normally used, and chemical attack on seal materials by
these low levels at low temperatures is normally not a
Page 14
problem. However, some film forming amine based corrosion

inhibitors can be aggressive, and attention should always be
drawn to the assessment of their effect on the seal material
(especially Nitriles and Vitons).
Control Line Fluids

Mineral oil hydraulic fluids are common. Low viscosity ‘Arctic’
grades are frequently used where they may encounter low
surface temperatures. Water based fluids with about 50%
glycol are also used. Appropriate seal material selection can
normally overcome any problems with control line fluids, but
there may be a conflict of interests where a seal may
experience water based control line fluid on one side with oily
produced fluids on the other, eg in subsea safety valves.
Completion Fluids
Treated seawater is a typical completion fluid. The treating
chemicals are normally used at low concentrations, and
CaCl/CaBr systems do not usually affect seal materials.
However, care must be taken when dense acidic systems
(eg␣ ZnBr) are used because of their very marked hardening
effect on nitrile rubbers. Fluoroelastomers, like Aflas or Viton,
are unaffected. Highly alkaline fluids, such as K2CO3, can
affect Viton elastomers through hydrolysis.
Acids and Chemicals

Consideration must be given to the effects on seals materials
of future acidization and any other chemical injection
additives. Normal seal exposure is limited to short term but
some of the additives can be very aggressive (acids,
surfactants, aromatics, iron chelating agents etc).
Properties of
Elastomers
Elastomers are essentially long molecular chains in which
the development of strength and recoverability is governed by
the level of crosslinks present between the chains. These
crosslinks are formed by curing the rubber using sulphur or
peroxide cure systems. The extent of curing, or molecular
length between crosslinks, gives rise to important variations
in mechanical properties as shown in Figure 7a.3.
Page 15
STATIC MODULUS
EXTRUSION RESISTANCE
BLISTER RESISTANCE
HIGH SPEED
DYNAMIC MODULUS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
HARDNESS
TENSILE STRENGTH
TEAR STRENGTH
FATIGUE LIFE
TOUGHNESS
HYSTERESIS
COMPRESSION SET
FRICTION COEFFICIENT
ELONGATION
CROSSLINK DENSITY (DEGREE OF CURE)
Figure 7a.3 – Effect of Degree of Curing on Elastomer

Mechanical Properties
Elastomer Types␣ and Compounding

A wide range of elastomer material ‘types’ or ‘classes’
(eg␣ EPDM, Nitrile, fluoroelastomer etc) is available to cope
with particular service requirements. Within these classes it
is possible to compound specific grades to yield individual
performance characteristics.
An elastomer ‘compound’ is the term used to describe the

rubber ‘grade’ which is manufactured from a recipe of
ingredients that comprise the base rubber class, reinforcing
agents, curing agents and other additives (eg lubricants, anti-
oxidants etc).
Some unreinforced elastomers can undergo crystallization

under strain, eg natural rubber, chloroprene, butadiene etc,
and have inherent strength as a high plateau value across a
wide range of temperature and strain rate. However, many
elastomers are subject to very poor mechanical strength in
their unreinforced state. It is only when some degree of
reinforcement is made through compounding with fillers and
curing systems that the majority of elastomers can achieve
serviceable strength and performance over a wide range of
conditions.
Page 16
This is why the chemist spends so much time on optimizing

his compound recipes to achieve grades with enhanced
performance at operating temperatures.
Table 7a.1 shows a typical compound recipe based on a

Nitrile rubber.
TYPICAL NITRILE RUBBER COMPOUND
Additive Parts Function of Additive

by weight
Nitrile N28C50 100 Base rubber (28% acrylonitrile)

Zinc Oxide 5 Activator for sulphur
Stearic Acid 1 Lubricant, retarder
Regal SRF (N762) 50 Carbon black filler (semi-reinforcing)
Silica VN3 15 Fine silica filler (for heat resistance)
Flectol H 2 Anti-oxidant
CBS 1.5 Fast curing accelerator Sulphur
TMT 2.5 Sulphur donor compound Cure
Sulphur MC 0.5 Sulphur accelerator System
Dutrex 729 10 Process aid (to give better low
temperature and resilience properties)
Table 7a.1
A large number of possible ingredients are available for

compounding, and this leads to an infinite number of
potential compounds. The art of compounding is to optimize
the properties of the compound to suit the particular
performance requirements. Various compounding factors
influence material properties, eg the molecular weight of the
base rubber, the degree of cure, the filler type, its structure
and loading. The effects of these factors on properties are
seen in Table 7a.2.
Page 17
CHANGE IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMERS

WITH INCREASE IN VARIOUS FACTORS RELATED TO
STRUCTURE AND COMPOUNDING
Property Change Mol Wt Degree Filler Filler Filler

for Increase in: Rubber of Cure Load S Area Structure
Hardness NC UP UP UP UP
Modulus UP UP UP UP UP
Tensile strength UP MAX MAX UP NC
Elongation UP DOWN DOWN NC DOWN
Compression set DOWN DOWN UP UP UP
Tear strength UP MAX MAX UP NC
Fatigue life UP MAX MAX DOWN UP
Abrasive resistance UP MAX MAX UP UP
Impact strength UP MAX MAX UP UP
Extrusion resistance UP UP UP UP UP
Blister resistance UP UP UP UP UP
NC : No significant change in value

UP : Property increases in value
DOWN : Property decreases in value
MAX : Property goes through a maximum
Mol Wt : Molecular weight of rubber
S Area : Surface area of filler (inverse of particle size)
Table 7a.2
There are, of course, some compatible properties which can

be achieved together in compounding (eg high modulus and
hardness with high filler load and high cure), but equally,
there are properties which can only be obtained at the
expense of some other characteristic (eg extrusion resistance
cannot be achieved from low strength, soft materials).
Consequently, all compounds or elastomer grades are a
compromise of properties.
Classification of Elastomers
Elastomer seals materials may be classified by their
resistance to heat and oil as indicated in Table 7a.3 where
the standard ASTM notation system for elastomer class and
examples is given.
Page 18
ELASTOMER CLASSIFICATION BY RESISTANCE

TO␣ HEAT AND OIL
ASTM Ref Elastomer Class Example
1 Non Oil Resistant – General Purpose

NR Natural rubber SMR
IR Synthetic isoprene Natsyn
BR Butadiene rubber Cariflex
SBR Styrene-butadiene rubber
2 Non Oil Resistant – Medium Heat Resistance

IIR Butyl rubber Vistanex
EPM Ethylene-propylene (satuarated) Dutral
EPDM Ethylene-propylene-diene (unsaturated) Nordel
3 Oil Resistant – Low Temperature

TR Polysulphide Thiokol
AU/EU Polyurethane (ester/ether) Adiprene
4 Oil Resistant – General Purpose

CR Chloroprene rubber Neoprene
NBR Nitrile rubber Buna-N
HNBR Hydrogenated nitrile rubber Therban
CM Chrlorinated polyethylene Duralon
CSM Chlorosulphonated polyethylene Hypalon
CO Epichlorohydrin Hydrin-100
ECO Epichlorohydrin copolymer Hydrin-200
5 Oil and Heat Resistant

ACM Polyacrylic Vamac
FCM Tetrafluoroethylene-propylene Aflas
FKM Fluoroelastomer Viton
FFKM Perfluoroelastomer Kalrez
6 Silicone Rubber
SI Silicone rubber
FSI Fluorosilicone rubber
Table 7a.3
The elastomers indicated in Table 7a.1 are shown graphically

in Figure 7a.4 as a function of their heat resistance (upper
service temperature limit) and % volume swell in oil. In most
downhole seals applications, 25% to 35% is the maximum
volume swell in oil that is tolerable for a static seal. Dynamic
Page 19
seals will only tolerate considerably less (<15%). Only those

elastomers with volume swell values of less than 35%, which
lie to the right of the dotted line, will be considered as useful
for seals in hydrocarbon duties.
KALREZ
TOO HIGH A SWELL
OK FOR SEALS
FOR USE AS SEALS
HEAT RESISTANCE
°C °F GROUP 4
GROUP 6 FCM FKM
250 482
MQ
225 437 VMQ PVM
FMQ
200 392
GROUP 2 EMA ACM
175 347 EPM
CSM
150 302 EPDM GROUP 4
125 257 NBR

GROUP 1
100 212 CR
NR GROUP 3
70 158 AU / EU TR
SBR BR
HIGH 170 120 100 80 60 40 20 10%
% OIL VOLUME SWELL IN OIL
Figure 7a.4 – Elastomer Classification Based on Heat and Oil Resistance
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESISTANCE OF
ELASTOMER
CLASSES
This section gives a brief review of properties and
environmental resistance for the commercial elastomers most
commonly used in completions equipment. Some of the
harder seal materials used for back-ups are also included.
Under recommended service, reference is made to each

elastomer’s resistance to aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons. The vast majority of produced fluids are
alliphatic hydrocarbons, eg methane. Aromatic
hydrocarbons␣ occur less frequently and incur benzene
ring␣ type compounds.
Page 20
Group 2
Elastomers
(Medium Heat
Resistance, Non
Oil Resistant)
EPDM – Ethylene-Propylene-Diene (NORDEL)
• Tradenames
Nordel DuPont
• Service Temperature
–50°C to 150°C (200°C max in steam)
• Recommended Service
EPDM has outstanding resistance to weathering. It is
particularly resistant to superheated steam, water, glycol
based control fluids, many organic and inorganic acids,
cleaning agents, alkalies, phosphate ester based hydraulic
fluids, silicone oils and greases. Also EPDM has resistance
to many polar solvents such as alcohols, esters and
ketones.
• Not Recommended
EPDM has very poor resistance to hydrocarbons.
• Physical Properties
Appropriate compounding of EPDM could result in
elastomer systems capable of performing continuously up
to 175°C, although 150°C is more usual. Intermittent
exposures can be tolerated up to a temperature of 200°C.
Group 4
Elastomers
(General
Purposes Oil
Resistant)
CR-Polychloroprene (NEOPRENE)
• Tradenames
Neoprene Dupont
Butaclor Distugil
(–55°C) –45°C to 100°C (130°C short term)
Page 21
The chlorine is responsible for the general resistance to
oxygen. Outdoor weathering of neoprene does not have a
significant effect on its elastomeric properties. It is
unaffected by aliphatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, glycols
and fluorinated hydrocarbons. It has a good resistance to
most inorganic chemicals including dilute acids and
concentrated caustics. Neoprene also displays reasonable
oil resistance, although this is not as good as that noted
for Nitrile rubber.
Neoprene also has good resistance to silicone oils, grease

and to water.
• Not Recommended
Polychloroprene is not resistant to chlorinated
hydrocarbons, organic esters, aromatic hydrocarbons,
phenols and ketones. It is also severely attacked by
concentrated oxidizing acids like nitric or sulphuric acids,
as well as strongly oxidizing agents such as potassium
dichromate.
Neoprene is a tough, strong, resilient rubber with good
resistance to abrasion. It has lower permeability than
natural rubber.
NBR – Acrylonitrile-Butadiene Rubber (NITRILE RUBBER)

Best known as Nitrile rubber or Buna-N.
• Tradenames
Breon BP Chemicals Ltd
Hycar B F Goodrich Chemical Co
Krynac Polysar Ltd
Nysyn Copolymer Corpn
Perbunan Bayer AG
Copolymers of acrylonitrile (ACN) and butadiene were first

used as synthetic stocks before World War II (Buna-N). In
NBR the ACN content may vary from 20 to 50%, but more
typically 28 to 41% by weight, and this affects the
performance properties.
(–55°C) –30°C to 100°C (130°C short term)
Page 22
NBRs are resistant to aliphatic hydrocarbons, vegetable
and mineral oils and greases, hydraulic fluids, many
dilute acids, alkalis, salt solutions and water.
• Not Recommended
Nitrile rubbers are not recommended for service in
hydrocarbons with a high aromatic content, chlorinated
hydrocarbons, polar solvents such as ketones, acetone,
acetic acid, esters, strong acids or with control fluids
based on glycols. Zinc bromide brines also have a very
serious hardening effect on Nitrile rubbers.
The properties are greatly affected by acrylonitrile content
as shown as below:
As acrylonitrile content increases:
D Tensile Strength I
E Resilience N
C Oil Resistance C
R Low Temp Flexibility R
E Hardness and Modulus E
A Compression Set A
S Brittle Temperature S
E Abrasion Resistance E
Heat Resistance
Nitriles are noteworthy because of their resistance to

hydrocarbons. They are relatively inexpensive and are used
extensively in applications requiring oil resistance.
HNBR – Hydrogenated Nitrile Rubber (THERBAN)

• Tradenames
Therban Bayer A G
Zetpol Nippon Zeon
Camlast Cameron
–25°C to 150°C
Page 23
HNBR elastomers have better heat ageing characteristics
than Nitrile rubbers, but otherwise they have many
similarities on their dependence on acrylonitrile content
for their physical properties. They normally have good
resistance to oils, diesel, kerosene, hydraulic fluids and
inorganic salts (except zinc bromide). HNBR has better
resistance to sour conditions than conventional Nitrile
rubbers and has very good ageing and weathering
properties.
• Not Recommended
HNBR elastomers are swollen in highly aromatic oils and
are not so resistant to hydrocarbons in general compared
to conventional Nitrile rubbers. They can also be affected
by corrosion inhibitors, zinc bromide brines and strong
acids. HNBR is used in seals for valves and BOPs.
CO and ECO Epichlorohydrin Homo- and Copolymers

(HYDRIN)
• Tradenames
Hydrin B F Goodrich Co
–40°C to 135°C
Both CO and ECO epichlorohydrins are resistant to
mineral oils and greases, aliphatic hydrocarbons, silicone
oil, grease and water at room temperature. They are also
resistant to ageing and weathering. Their low permeability
to gases make them particularly appropriate for gas
applications.
• Not Recommended
Epichlorohydrins are not resistant to aromatic and
chlorinated hydrocarbons, ketones and esters, hydraulic
fluids and glycol based control fluids.
Page 24
Group 5
Elastomers
(Heat and Oil
Resistant)
FKM Fluoroelastomer (VITONS)
• Tradenames
Viton DuPont
Fluorel 3M Company
Technoflon Montecatini
Fluorocarbon elastomers were the most significant

advance to come out of the 1950s and are noted for their
high temperature capabilities and general chemical
resistance. It is important to understand that there are
several chemically different types of fluoroelastomers. The
Viton group is divided into three main types: A, B and G.
The Viton-A family consists of copolymers of vinylidene

fluoride and hexafluoropropylene. This general purpose
copolymer family is further subdivided into A, E and
speciality series and includes for instance Viton-AHV, a
high molecular weight fluoroelastomer, and Viton-E60, an
extrusion resistant grade. Viton A types are cured using
amines and exhibit good resistance to compression set.
The Viton-B family offers improved heat and fluid

resistance at some sacrifice in compression set resistance
compared with the A family.
In general, the Viton-G family have improved steam and

acid resistance compared to conventional types of Viton.
Viton-GF, a newer addition to this range, has received
much attention in oil field applications due to its
improved resistance to hydrocarbons, volume change and
property retention.
(–40°C) –20°C to 200°C (250°C)
The fluoroelastomers all have excellent chemical and
solvent resistance. They are very resistant to aliphatic
hydrocarbons, chlorinated solvents, animal, vegetable and
mineral oils, gasoline, kerosene, dilute acids, alkaline
Page 25
media and aqueous inorganic salt solutions. They exhibit

good weather resistance.
These fluoroelastomers retain their physical properties
well over a wide temperature range and have low gas
permeability rates and extremely low water absorption.
They exhibit good tensile strength and tear resistance.
Special grades are available with improved decompression
resistance.
• Not Recommended
They have only fair general resistance to alcohols (be
careful with methanol dewatering), aldehydes, ketones,
esters and ethers and are not compatible with polar
solvents such as acetone, methylethylketone or ethyl
acetate. Certain amines may also cause problems, as
will␣ hydraulic fluids based on glycol, superheated steam
and low molecular weight organic acids, eg formic and
acetic acids.
If organic amine corrosion inhibitors are to be used, then

Viton and Fluorel are not recommended for seals where
there is the possibility of movement. This is because
amines were the first curing systems used for these
elastomers, and the presence of added amine corrosion
inhibitor will continue to cure the elastomer until it
hardens and becomes brittle. The effect is less marked
with the peroxide cured Viton-GF types.
FCM Tetrafluoroethylene – Propylene Copolymer (AFLAS)

• Tradenames
Aflas Asahi Glass Co
Fluoraz Greene Tweed
–40°C to 230°C (300°C short term)
FCM elastomers are not affected by most strong acids,
bases, ketones, alcohols, high temperature lubricating
oils, hydraulic fluids and glycol based control fluids. They
have good resistance to sour petroleum products, steam,
water, inorganic salts (including zinc bromide) and
Page 26
sodium hypochlorite. Some grades have better resistance

to amine based corrosion inhibitors than Viton type FKM
elastomers.
• Not Recommended
Volume swell in crude oils is somewhat high for a
fluoroelastomer (10 to 20%, compared with 1 to 5% for
Vitons. Nitrile rubbers swell by some 10 to 35%). This can
cause problems when using Aflas in a dynamic seal. Aflas
is not resistant to chlorinated hydrocarbons.
FFKM Perfluoroelastomer (KALREZ)

• Tradenames
Kalrez DuPont
Chemraz Greene Tweed
These compounds have the chemical resistance properties

of PTFE (Teflon) and the elastic properties of Vitons. The
processing of both is exceptionally difficult. As a result of
this, the price is much higher than fluoroelastomers.
Thus, Kalrez and Chemrax (20% cheaper) are only used in
applications where nothing else will survive.
0°C to 260°C Kalrez
–20°C to 230°C Chemraz
Kalrez has almost universal chemical resistance. It is
resistant to sour petroleum products, acids, bases, steam
and has excellent oxygen and weathering resistance. It
has exceptionally low weight loss in high vacuum
applications under high temperatures.
Kalrez has poor strength and should be used with

mechanical back up even at low temperatures. It is
extremely difficult to mould, and it is only recently that
larger sections (up to 7.5in) have become available, eg for
packer elements etc. Both Kalrez and Chemraz are only
sold as fabricated units.
Page 27
Hard Polymer
Materials
(for␣
Back-ups etc)
The following materials cannot be used as primary seals.
PEEK Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)

• Tradenames
Victrex ICI Ltd
Kadel Union Carbide
Up to 250°C continuously (315°C short term).
PEEK polymers are resistant to virtually all organic and
aqueous chemicals. They exhibit significant chemical
resistance and high performance at elevated
temperatures. They are also tough and highly wear
resistant.
• Not Recommended
Concentrated nitric or sulphuric acids at elevated
temperature.
PEEK can be fabricated by conventional melt processing
methods such as injection moulding, extrusion and melt
spinning. It may be used in the virgin state or reinforced
with glass or carbon fibres.
This unique combination of properties makes PEEK
polymers attractive in a wide range of demanding
applications. They are not elastomeric and are used as
hard seals, back up rings, cable insulation and electrical
components. In the oil industry they find uses as casings
for various logging tools, support rings and anti-extrusion
rings for downhole V- and O-ring seals.
Page 28
FPM Fluorocarbon Polymers (TEFLON PTFE etc)

These polymers are plastics rather than elastomers. The most
useful of these types are listed below:
• Tradenames
PTFE Teflon DuPont
Fluon Allied Chemical Co
Halon DuPont
FEP, ETFE Tefzel DuPont
PFA Teflon DuPont
PCTFE Kel-F 3-M Co
PVDF Foraflon Atochem
Coflon Coflexip
PVDF Furakawa Electric Co
Kynar Pensalt Chemicals
PTFE –190°C to 290°C
FEP, ETFE –190°C to 200°C
PFA –190°C to 280°C
PCTFE –60°C to 190°C
PVDF –60°C to 130°C (melts at 143°C)
PTFE, FEP and ETFE can be regarded as chemically inert
for all oilfield applications. The other compounds,
although not totally inert, exhibit a high degree of
resistance.
Primarily used as back-up rings for elastomer seals.
PPS Polyphenylene Sulphide (RYTON)

• Tradename
Ryton
Up to 230°C
Polyphenylene sulphide (Ryton) can be compounded with
a variety of materials to reduce its brittle nature and to
improve the sealability. It has been used for back up rings
for V-packings and O-rings and, suitably compounded, it
may be used as seal elements in V-packings.
Page 29
FAILURE
MECHANISMS
This section outlines some of the failure modes that can
occur in seals, how they are caused and how they can be
corrected to prevent future failure.
Extrusion
Damage
The pressure ranges given by the extrusion diagram in
Figure␣ 7a.5 below, show allowable pressures for various
degrees␣ of elastomer hardness and indicate when to use
back-up rings.
10 000
8000
6000
4000
BASIS FOR CURVES
3000
1. NO BACK-UP
(ANTI-EXTRUSION) RINGS
FLUID PRESSURE, lb/in 2
2000
EXTRUSION 2. TOTAL DIAMETRAL
CLEARANCE MUST
INCLUDE CYLINDER
EXPANSION DUE
1000 TO PRESSURE
800 3. 100 000 CYCLES AT
RATE OF 150 PER MINUTE
600 FROM ZERO TO
INDICATED PRESSURE
400
NO EXTRUSION
300
HARDNESS
SHORE A 70 80 90
DUROMETER
200
100
0 008 016 024 032 040
TOTAL DIAMETRAL CLEARANCE, in
Figure 7a.5 – Extrusion Resistance Related to Pressure and Hardness
Page 30
In its housing before pressurizing, an unsupported seal sits

slightly deformed between the gland and sealing surface.
On␣ pressurizing (100 to 1500 psi), the seal acts like an
incompressible fluid, exerting a pressure on the gland
proportional to the system pressure and so forms a closure.
If␣ the system pressure exceeds the seal strength, a small
volume of material will be forced into the clearance gap. This
extrusion may lead to seal failure and leakage follows rapidly.
Extrusion is characterised by a ‘peeling’ or ‘nibbling’ of the

O-ring surface and is the most common cause of O-ring
failure.
This type of failure is exaggerated in dynamic applications

where material is clamped in the clearance gap and sheared
off completely. However, it must be remembered that in static
applications, extrusion will occur at high pressures and is
accentuated when pressures fluctuate and the seal housing
components stretch under load.
Resistance to extrusion for differing materials may be

compared by using modulus values at 100% elongation.
Alternatively, hardness may be used to select appropriate
maximum pressure levels.
For pressures above 1500 to 3000 psi, back up rings should

be used. T-seals and V-seals always have back up rings
associated with them, and extrusion is not such a problem as
with unsupported O-rings.
Causes of extrusion failure:
• Unnecessarily large clearances.

• High pressure.
• Soft seal material.
• Physical or chemical changes which weaken/soften seal.
• Eccentricity.
• Sharp edges on seal gland.
• Wrong seal size.
Corrective actions:
• Tighten tolerances.
• Use a back up ring.
• Increase seal material hardness.
• Check medium compatibility.
• Prevent eccentricity.
Page 31
• Strengthen machine parts to prevent ‘breathing’.

• Gland radii from 0.10 to 0.40 mm.
• Select T-seal or V-seal geometry with suitable back up.
Compression
Set Failure
Compression set, the partial or total loss of elastic memory of
an elastomer, is a common failure mode. It is characterized
by a double sided flattening of a seal (radial or axial
according to application) and can be clearly seen after
disassembly.
The problem is caused by selection of the wrong compound.

The elasticity of a seal depends not only on the formulation,
but also on the working temperature, type and length of
deformation and ageing caused by a medium, eg air, steam,
acid, petroleum etc.
Compression set damage can be described as the loss of

crosslink sites between the molecular chains or as the
creation of new sites, brought about by temperature or
chemical changes.
Compression set damage clearly visible at low temperatures

is generally reversible, and at higher temperatures, the
elasticity may return to effect a seal again.
The causes of high temperature compression set and loss in

sealing power are connected and can be described as follows:
Causes of compression set failure:
• Seal compound has poor compression set.

• Wrong gland dimensions.
• Working temperature higher than expected.
• Higher deformation through tight gland area.
• Contact with non-compatible medium.
(assembly grease or service fluid).
• Poor seal material quality.
Corrective actions:
• Select elastomer with low compression set.

• Select elastomer according to working conditions.
• Reduce system temperature at seal.
• Check compatibility of seal with environment.
• Use correct gland dimensions.
Page 32
Explosive
Decompression
Damage
Under high pressure, gases will diffuse into elastomers. On
rapid decompression, the absorbed gases expand quickly
causing high levels of internal stress which may cause
internal rupture and blistering to occur on the sealing
surface. A seal may also swell on decompression, but with
time may return to its original shape without leaving any
external evidence of decompression damage. This is
potentially dangerous since serious internal fissures can be
present, but remain undetected, which will affect the sealing
performance.
This problem may be solved or at least reduced in the

following ways:
• Lengthen the time for decompression.

• Reduce working pressure at seal.
• Design for smaller seal cross-section.
• Select a seal material with higher strength, higher
modulus and higher hardness.
• Use specially compounded grades having known
resistance to explosive decompression.
Blister damage has been reported for a wide range of

elastomers under hydrocarbon duties, particularly under gas
alone but also in gas/oil mixtures. The presence of carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide is especially prone to causing
problems on rapid decompression (they are both easily
liquefiable gases and have solubility parameters approaching
those of the elastomer seal materials).
Wear
Wear is probably the most understandable form of seal
failure in dynamic seals. In a static application, damage
through wear is caused by pulsating pressure which induces
the O-ring to abrade on relatively rough surfaces or edges of
the gland.
Causes of wear failure:
• Incorrect surface finish.

• Poor lubrication.
• High temperature.
• Too high a deformation.
Page 33
• Impurities in system fluid.

• High or pulsating pressure.
Corrective actions:
• Correct surface finish.

• Use a hard coated surface.
• Select an improved machining process.
• Change system fluid to one with better lubricity.
• Select a compound with higher wear resistance.
• Select a material with internal lubrication or design
lubrication pockets or reservoirs.
• Clean system and filter fluid.
Chemical
Degradation
Chemical degradation depends on a number of factors
which␣ include temperature, concentration and duration of
exposure. Mechanical properties of a seal material can be
seriously changed by a chemical reaction. The timescale for
the change is ultimately a function of the severity of service
conditions and may be slowly progressive to catastrophically
fast.
Two different processes can occur when a seal is exposed to a

chemical environment:
• Bond scission results in chemical bonds being broken in

the elastomer causing softening, weakness and a gummy
seal material.
• Crosslinking results in bond formation causing a harder,

more brittle and often cracked seal. The elastic properties
are often lost beyond a point where the seal ceases to
function. Leak paths through a cracked seal can lead to
failure.
The effect of increased temperature will be to speed up the

reaction rates, but more importantly the mechanical
properties of an elastomer are normally reduced with
increasing temperature. Hence, it is important to select
materials with both sufficiently high chemical and thermal
resistance.
Page 34
Assembly Failure
Even if all the above hints and rules are observed, failure can
still occur due to poor workmanship practices adopted on
assembly of the seal into its housing. A seal is a precision
product and should be treated with respect. Careful assembly
will repay the user in trouble free operation. The alternative is
an expensive and possibly dangerous failure.
Causes of assembly failures:
• Using undersized seal.

• Twisting, cutting or shearing of seal.
• Assembly without the correct tool.
• Assembly without lubrication (care – compatibility).
• Assembly in dirty conditions.
Corrective actions:
• Break all sharp edges.

• Leading edge chamfer of between 15 to 20 degrees.
• Cleanliness.
• Check seal size before assembly.
• Assembly as a stack of seals where possible.
SEALS
SELECTION
This section gives a summary description of types of
downhole seal arrangements with an example set of typical
seals and notes on materials qualification.
Completion
Seals
The three basic seal types are as follows:
• Radial compression seals, eg O-rings and T-seals, are

used in both static and dynamic applications. O-rings are
typically used as static body connection seals, both with
or without back up rings as dictated by the pressure and
temperature. T-seals are normally used as dynamic seals
to take advantage of the unique design to limit rolling in
the gland. They always incorporate back-up rings.
Page 35
• Axial compression seals are used as packer element seals.

Elements are set after the packer is run to the desired
depth in the well. The large cross-section of the seals
when set, bridge large extrusion gaps and seal against
poor casing surface finishes.
• Pressure energized seals, such as V-packing stacks, are

used in both static stab and dynamic applications, such
as the external seals on wireline safety valves, lock and
gas lift valves.
A typical set of seals for a North Sea well is given in the

example below. The actual nature and hardness of the seal
material chosen will depend on the application and the
service duty.
O-rings Viton 95A durometer with PEEK back-ups

T-Seals Viton with PEEK back-ups
V-Packing Aramid fibre reinforced Nitrile used in
combinations with other rings of
molybdenum disulphide reinforced Teflon,
Ryton and PEEK
Soft seats Moly reinforced Teflon or 90A durometer
Viton for sandy service
Packer Elements Nitrile
Many other material and seal options are available.
Qualification
Proven field history is the best qualification.
Laboratory simulation tests are available. Sunbury can

evaluate various material performance properties after
exposure to a wide range of service conditions, for candidate
materials. Facilities are available to screen materials for
environmental resistance to both fluids and gases up to
20␣ 000 psi and 200°C with up to 25% H2S concentration
coupled with decompression control.
Equipment manufacturers should conduct pressure tests on

the final products. For example, API Standard 14A requires a
10 minute pressure test at 150% of the rated pressure and
two growth tests of 2 hours for stab in or dynamic seals.
Page 36
Repeated decompression tests may also be carried out. It is

better to evaluate the material in the seal configuration
wherever possible.
Quality control is essential to good sealing practice.
Suppliers should be approved by the Quality Assurance

Department, should have a QA programme that meets
industry standards (see at end of this chapter) and all seals
should be traceable to the material batch. Routine quality
control tests should be performed to assure that each
shipment of seals meet the specifications. These should then
be verified by the suppliers inspector who will issue
certificates of compliance and actual test reports on each
shipment of seals.
The following information should be obtained from the

equipment manufacturer for possible future reference:
• Seal equipment type (Unit, maker, drawings)
• Seal design (Static/dynamic, O-ring, V-ring,

T-ring)
• Seal material (Class, grade, supplier, part no,

batch no, cure date, shelf life)
MATERIALS
SELECTION
CRITERIA
The listed physical properties are desirable in the following
applications:
• Dynamics seals require:

– Good abrasion resistance.
– Good tear resistance.
– Good compression set resistance.
– Good gas impermeability.
– Good resilience.
• Static seals primarily require:

Page 37
MATERIALS SELECTION BASED ON HEAT AND OIL RESISTANCE
ASTM Service Temperature

Temp. Ref. Material Upper Lower Oil
level Code Class °C °F °C °F Resistance
<150°F NR Natural rubber 65 149 –50 –58 Bad
200°F CR Neoprene 100 212 –45 –49 Poor

to AE/AU Polyurethane 105 221 –30 –22 Poor
250°F NBR Nitrile rubber 120 248 –30 –22 Good
ECO/CO Hydrin 135 275 –40 –40 Good

250°F PVDF Coflon back-up 140 284 –60 –76 Very good
to HNBR Therban 150 302 –25 –13 Fair
300°F EPDM Nordel 150 302 –50 –58 Bad
SI Silicone 175 347 –55 –67 Bad

300°F FSI Fluorosilicone 190 374 –40 –40 Good
to FKM Viton 200 392 –20 –4 Very good
400°F ETFE Tefzel back-up 200 392 –190 –310 Very good
400°F FCM Aflas 230 446 –40 –40 Good

to PEEK Victrex back-up 250 482 Very good
500°F FFKM Kalrez 260 500 0 32 Very good
>500°F PTFE Teflon back-up 290 554 –190 –310 Very good
Table 7a.4
• Packing elements require:

– Resistance to swelling is not most important. Indeed a
small degree of swelling may be beneficial.
Any equipment which experiences temperature fluctuations

of greater than 100 to 150°F should utilize elastomers with
good compression set resistance over the range of
temperature. Aflas, Kalrez and Viton GF are particularly
prone to failures under these situations.
Environmental resistance and physical properties for

common seals materials in typical completion service duties
are shown in Table 7a.5. The data should be used only as a
Page 38
BP Exploration
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES FOR COMMON DOWNHOLE SEALS
MATERIALS (ELASTOMERS AND PLASTICS) IN COMPLETION EQUIPMENT SERVICE
Material CR AE/AU NBR ECO PVDF HNBR EPDM FKM ETFE FCM PEEK FFKM PTFE
Neoprene Urethane Nitrile Hydrin Coflon Therban Nordel Viton Tefzel Aflas Victrex Kalrez Teflon
Rubber
Upper Service Temp °C 100 105 120 135 140 150 150 200 200 230 250 260 290
Lower Service Temp °C 45 –30 –30 –40 –60 –25 –50 –20 –190 –40 0 –190
x
4
3
2
1
Rating
OIL Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 2 2 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1

Aromatic Hydrocarbons 3 3 2 1 1 3 4 1 1 2 1 1 1
No data available
Bad
Poor
Fair
Good
Crude Oil (< 120°C) 2 2 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 1

Crude Oil (> 120°C) 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 2 1 2 1 1 1
SOUR CRUDE OIL 3 3 2 3 1 2 4 2 1 2 1 2 1
SOUR NATURAL GAS 3 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 1
Performance depends on desired life and level of chemical
No tolerance to chemical DO NOT USE
Performance depends on desired life and level of chemical
Satisfactory performance in relatively high level of chemical

Significance
KEY TO PERFORMANCE RATINGS
WATER 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
STEAM 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
INHIBITORS Amines 3 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 1 1
COMPLETION FLUIDS CaCl/CaBr 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Table 7a.5
COMPLETION FLUIDS ZnBr 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Page 39
COMPLETION FLUIDS K2CO3 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

BRINE seawater 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CONTROL FLUIDS Mineral Oils 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1
CONTROL FLUIDS Glycol based 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ALCOHOLS Methanol 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1
ACIDS HCl Acid (dil) 3 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ACIDS HCl Acid (conc) 4 4 4 3 2 4 3 1 1 1 2 1 1
ACIDS HF Acid (<65% cold) 1 x 3 x 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1
ACIDS Acetic (hot) 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 4 1 3 2 1 1
SURFACTANTS 2 4 1 x 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CHLORINATED SOLVENTS 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 1 1 3 1 1 1
Selection of Tubulars – Chapter 7

METHANE 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1
SECTION 7a – MATERIALS
CARBON DIOXIDE 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
HYDROGEN SULPHIDE 2 4 4 4 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Tear Resistance Good V. Good Good Good Good Good Poor Good Good Fair V. Good Fair Good
Abrasion Resistance V. Good V. Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Good Fair V. Good Fair Good
Compression Set Resistance Good Good V. Good Fair N/A Good Fair Fair N/A Fair N/A Poor N/A
Resilience High High Medium Medium N/A Medium Medium Low N/A Low N/A Low N/A
Gas Impermeability Fair Good Fair V. Good Good Good Good V. Good Good Good Good V. Good Good
general guide to the performance of a class of material.

Variation in performance exists across the grades within
a␣ class.
Material selection is made by assessing the effects of

individual environments and rejecting unsuitable material
classes where there is a definite need for resistance. The
selected materials should have optimum performance across
all media.
Up till now, it is only the ‘class’ of seal material which has

been selected. The ‘grade’ within the class will be determined
by the physical properties required to yield a good sealing
performance under the level of pressure in the service
environment. Table 7a.6 gives a guide to the level of
properties required for various sealing pressure ranges. The
actual material ‘grade’ will be determined in conjunction with
the equipment supplier or on recommendation from the
elastomers section at Sunbury.
GUIDE TO PROPERTY LEVELS REQUIRED IN

ELASTOMER GRADES
FOR VARIOUS SEALING PRESSURE RANGES
Pressure Range 0 to 300 psi 300 to 3000 psi >3000 psi
Hardness (Shore A) 60 – 70A 70 – 85A >85A

Modulus Low Medium High
Tensile strength Low – Med Med – High High
Elongation High Medium Low
Compression set Medium Low Low
Tear strength Low – Med Medium Low – Med
Abrasion resistance Low – Med Medium High
Impact resistance High High Med – Low
Hysteresis heat-up Low – Med Medium Med – High
Extrusion resistance Low Medium High
Blister resistance Low Medium High
Table 7a.6
Page 40
PRACTICAL
GUIDELINES
• The effect of a chemical reaction doubles for every 10°C
temperature rise. The lifetime roughly doubles for every
10°C drop.
• Make sure that the upper temperature is within the

capability of the seal material.
• The seal material must be compatible with the fluid

environments.
• Do not use Zinc Bromide (ZnBr) brine with Nitriles.
• Be careful with Vitons if amine inhibitors are present.

It␣ may be better to use Aflas.
• Methanol can affect Vitons. Use Aflas or Nitrile if possible.
• Do not use EPDM where hydrocarbons are present.
• For really aggressive, hot and sour conditions, the best

choice is the expensive Kalrez (to 260°C) or Chemraz
(20%␣ cheaper and better properties over –20° to 230°C).
• Pressure level dictates the mechanical properties required.
• Critical pressure for blistering is pb = 5E/6
where E = Youngs Modulus (at service temperature).
• Critical pressure for rupture is pr = 4(Lb × Sb)/3
where: Lb = extension ratio at break (length of

stretched material per unit initial
length)
Sb = stress at break (at service temperature)
• Consider use of T-seals with back-up rings if pressure

exceeds 1500 psi, or pressure exceeds the modulus of
the␣ material.
• Consider whether there is likely to be gas dissolved into

the seal which may be subjected to rapid decompression.
There are special grades with improved decompression
resistance available.
Page 41
• Seal stacks form good solutions to wide ranging service.

They allow use of varying hardness or differing materials
in the stack, and the outer rings may be sacrificial for the
sake of the main inner seal.
• Elastomers with higher chemical and temperature

resistance, eg Aflas and Kalrez, achieve this resistance
often at the expense of elasticity. This compromises their
ability to seal with temperature fluctuations.
FURTHER
HELP␣ AND
INFORMATION
Elastomers Database/Expert System
A database has been constructed by Project 946 at Sunbury
for elastomer materials performance properties in a wide
range of environmental duties, including sweet and sour
liquid and gaseous media. An expert system is currently
under development to provide an intelligent user friendly
interface with the database to allow materials selection.
Presently, the elastomers section at RCS use the system as a

tool to respond to technical service enquiries. As the system
develops it may be released for use by the field groups.
Sunbury Branch Reports:

A Guide to Selection of Elastomers:
An introductory guide to elastomers and their fluid sealing
properties for use in downhole environments, Report no
136 187 (January 1988).
Page 42
REFERENCES
7a.1 NACE Standard MR-01-75-1988: Standard Material

Requirements for Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant
Materials for Oilfield Equipment, National Assoiation
of Corrosion Engineers, Houston
7a.2 Tuttle, R N and Kane, R D: H2S Corrosion in Oil and

Gas Production – A Compilation of Classic Papers,
National Association of Corrosion Engineers
7a.3 De Ward, C and Milliams, D: ‘Prediction of Carbonic

Acid Corrosion in Natural Gas Pipelines’, First
International Conference on the Internal and External
Protection of Pipes, University of Durham, 1975
7a.4 Thomas, S, de Ward, C and Smith, L M: ‘Controlling

Factors in the Rate of CO2 Corrosion’, UK Corrosion,
1987
7a.5 API Recommended Practice RP 14E: Recommended

Practice for Design and Installation of Offshore
Production Piping Systems, 4th Edition (April 1984)
Page 43
BP Exploration Selection of Completion Equipment – Chapter 8
BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION 1
SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVES 2

INTRODUCTION 2
DEFINITIONS 2
CLOSURE MECHANISMS 3
REGULATIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS 8
TYPES OF SCSSV 10
SCSSV DESIGN AND MAXIMUM SETTING DEPTH 15
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 16
FLOW CONTROL EQUIPMENT 22

LANDING NIPPLES 22
WIRELINE LOCKS 25
PACKERS 28
PACKER COMPONENTS 28
SEAL ASSEMBLIES 32
POLISHED BORE RECEPTACLE 32
TUBING SEAL RECEPTACLES OR OVERSHOT ASSEMBLIES 32
COMMUNICATION DEVICES 34
Selection of Completion Equipment – Chapter 8 BP Exploration
TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION 37
COMPANY SURVEY 38
SCSSVs 39
PACKERS 41
SEAL ASSEMBLIES 44
SLIDING SLEEVES 45
SIDE POCKET MANDRELS 45
EQUIPMENT EVALUATION 46
FLOW CONTROL EQUIPMENT EVALUATION FORM 47
WORKED EXAMPLE
BACKGROUND 53
TUBING RETRIEVABLE SCSSV 55

EVALUATION OF BAKER’S PROPOSAL 55
EVALUATION OF OTIS’ PROPOSAL 57
EVALUATION OF CAMCO’S PROPOSAL 57
RECOMMENDATION 58
PERMANENT PACKER 61
EVALUATION 61
RECOMMENDATION 62

EVALUATION FORM 64
BAKER SUR-SET LOCK SYSTEM EVALUATION 65
OTIS X(XN) LOCK EVALUATION 65
CAMCO HPC LOCK SYSTEM EVALUATION 66
RECOMMENDATION 66
DISCUSSION 67
INTRODUCTION 69
OVERALL 69
SCSSVs 69
PACKERS 70
SEAL ASSEMBLIES 71
COMMUNICATION DEVICES 71
REFERENCES 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY 73
INTRODUCTION
The overall aim for this chapter is to provide information to

enable completion equipment to be selected on an objective
basis. It is not the intention to provide rigid rules for
equipment selection. The final selection of equipment can
only be based on particular well conditions and local
knowledge. A feature of a particular piece of equipment may
be a necessity in some wells and a handicap in other
applications. The performance of vendors can also vary
geographically, and what is regarded as a poor company in
one location may provide the best service in another.
However, by using the pooled experience presented in the
manual, adopting the system proposed for evaluating
equipment and using your knowledge of the wells, the best
equipment should be selected.
This section of the manual introduces the various types of

equipment and discusses the function, operation and
regulations associated with the equipment. In the
Techniques␣ section the results of a company-wide survey are
presented together with a method for objectively comparing
different manufacturers’ equipment. A key part of selecting
completion equipment is selecting the appropriate metallurgy
and types of elastomer. Guidance on this topic is given in
Section 7a – Materials.
Page 1
INTRODUCTION
Selecting completion equipment can be complex, especially

with the almost endless list of alternative equipment and
features. Examining each individual piece of equipment and
its associated features is not the most efficient way of
beginning a selection exercise. The best approach is to first
examine the well conditions and the desired operational
capabilities, and then determine which particular equipment
meets the well conditions and best fulfils the operational
requirements.
Having determined the desired operational capabilities and

considered the impact of well conditions, the completion
engineer can start to consider the features of individual
pieces of equipment. In evaluating equipment, each desired
capability needs to be weighted because trade-offs are
inevitably required. To assist in this process, a system for
evaluating the relative merits of completion equipment is
presented in this section. The evaluations based on this
system and presented in this section should only be regarded
as examples. This is because the relative weightings given to
certain features will change depending on application and
location.
An important factor in reviewing equipment is past experience

and reliability. In order to expand the available experience
database, a questionnaire was sent to all BP operating areas.
The results of the survey are presented in this section. Other
(*Reference 8.1)
useful sources of information include the SINTEF* work on
the reliability of surface controlled subsurface safety valves
(SCSSVs) and other operators working with similar conditions
and equipment.
The engineer with knowledge of both the well conditions and

local environment is the best qualified to select completion
equipment. The function of this section is to allow him/her to
access wider experience and utilize an objective approach to
equipment selection.
Page 37
COMPANY SURVEY
A questionnaire was sent to all BP operating districts, and

replies were received from the following:
• Forties, Buchan, Southern North Sea, Ula, Q8 (Holland),

XWH Offshore.
In addition, the results of the above survey were discussed

with the XEU Northern North Sea Group.
The questionnaire covered all the main types of completion

equipment and requested the following information:
• Well conditions (temperatures, pressures, corrosive

elements, etc).
• Type of equipment and vendor.
• Total numbers of equipment.
• Longest duration in well.
• Overall impression of service.
• Original reason for selection.
• Would the same equipment be used again?
Due to the limited space available in the manual and the lack
of response from certain districts, the full survey is not
presented. However, it is hoped to complete the exercise in
the future and present the results in a stand-alone
document.
Although the response was not complete, there were

sufficient replies to detect common trends, and the findings
from the survey have been summarized under the various
types of equipment.
Page 38
SCSSVs
Wireline
Retrievable
Both ball and flapper type valves are used in the operating
districts, although new fields are almost exclusively of the
flapper type. The findings from the survey seem to support
(*Reference 8.1) SINTEF’s* findings that flapper valves have a better overall
reliability.
Otis DR 4 1/2in Ball Valve

Six were installed in the West Sole field. Three failures were
experienced over a period of three years.
Otis QO 7in Flapper Valve

37 are currently in operation on the Forties field, and this
particular valve has a good track record in the Forties
environment. The only real criticism has been the relatively
poor and expensive redress service.
Otis QO 1.71in Flapper Valve

These valves have been used to protect the annulus used for
gas lift on the nine Buchan subsea wells. Five failures have
been experienced over a period of five years. Problems
included locking mechanism failures. Although this problem
has been resolved, the operating group would not recommend
this valve for this application. Again comments were made
regarding poor Otis service in the North Sea.
Baker XVE 4 1/2in Flapper Valve

19 are installed in the West Sole field and have been in
the␣ ground for two years. During this time, the operating
experience has been ‘excellent’. The valves use a
through-flapper equalisation device and replaced earlier
non-equalizing valves.
Baker 7in VE Flapper

Five have been installed in the Cleeton field since start-up, a
period of 13 months. Experience over this short period has
been very good.
Page 39
Camco WRDP
These have been used on a number of fields with mixed
experience. One main problem has been lack of spring and
opening force, although this has been rectified on some
valves.
Camco B612 and B6212

35 valves are currently used in the Forties field. The B612
has experienced some minor problems, but overall the
impression of service has been good. B6212 has overcome the
failings in the B612 in that it has a greater spring force.
Tubing
Retrievable
Comments were received on three main types of valve. The
Camco TRDP-1A, the Otis Series 10 TRSV (flapper) and the
Baker FVL and FVLE. The experience with all three valves
has been favourable.
Camco TRDP-1A
Over 30 have been installed over a period of five years
offshore in the Gulf of Mexico. The only problem has been
one valve which has suffered a slight hydraulic leak. Seven
TRDP-1A-SSA have been installed in Buchan subsea wells
for␣ five years. No valves have had to be locked out, and
experience operating the valve has been good.
Otis Series 10
47 valves of this type have been installed in five different
locations over a five year period. There have been no failures
of this valve to date, and experience has been good all round.
Baker FVL and FVLE

18 FVLEs (ie through-flapper self-equalizing) have recently
been installed in Ravenspurn South. Although there is no
real experience yet from this field, the valve performed well in
tests against the Camco TRDP-LE and Otis Series 10 (see the
Worked Example in this chapter). Seven FVLEs have been
installed on the Forties field, with four years being the longest
duration in the ground. During this time there have been
no␣ failures.
Page 40
PACKERS
A large number of different packers have been run world-wide
reflecting the wide range of applications. The experience with
all the packers has generally been satisfactory. Baker have
supplied the greatest number of packers, maintaining their
good reputation with packers. The more commonly used
packers are discussed below.
Baker SAB and SABL

This is a hydraulically set permanent packer. The ‘L’ model is
a large bore version of the standard SAB. 55 have been run in
five different locations with good results. There has been one
pre-set experienced on the Buchan field.
Baker FHL
This is a single string hydraulically set retrievable packer.
41␣ have been run on the Forties field with satisfactory
results. There have been occasional difficulties when
retrieving the packer. A more recent problem has come to
light when using Aflas seals on the setting piston. At
workshop temperatures, these seals allow the pressure test
water to pass into the chamber behind. This trapped water
can then prevent the packer fully setting. All these problems
can be rectified and should not detract from the successful
history of the packer.
Brown Oil Tool Twin Seal (now Baker)

This is a dual bore hydraulically set retrievable packer. Seven
have been successfully installed and retrieved with ESP
completions on the Forties Echo platform. The only real
criticism is the expensive redress costs. This packer has
recently been substantially modified to enable it to seal when
set shallow, ca 2000 ft, in the Forties gas lift completions.
Otis RDH
Used in the same application on Forties Echo as the Twin
Seal. Experience with this packer has been satisfactory. It
is␣ more difficult to retrieve than the Twin Seal, but it has the
advantage of substantially cheaper redress costs. The use of
hydraulic hold down buttons in this packer results in more
potential leak paths than the Twin Seal.
Page 41
Baker D
This is Baker’s most widely used permanent packer. It can be
set either mechanically or on electric line. There are currently
31 of these packers in four locations, and the combined
experience is good. The D packer cannot, however, carry
a␣ tailpipe.
Baker F-1
This is a large bore version of the D packer. 16 have been
installed in Mississippi Canyon 20 with no apparent
problems.
Baker SC-1
The Baker SC-1 is a retrievable gravel pack packer. It is set
either by means of electric line or mechanically. 66 have been
installed in five locations. Good reliability, design, service and
cost have been highlighted by the operating districts.
Otis VSP
This is a relatively new design for a permanent gravel pack
packer and replaces the HGP and SP. It utilizes bi-directional
slips, making the packer relatively short and competitively
priced. 18 have been successfully installed in Ewing Bank.
Camco HSP-1
Ten of these hydraulically set permanent packers have been
installed in the Ula field. The main reason for selection was to
keep the whole completion with one manufacturer. Although
the experience on Ula has been relatively good, the packer
does have some disadvantages when compared with the
Baker SAB and Otis HB packers. The Camco HSP-1 is felt to
be more susceptible to premature setting. The dual piston
operation could result in the element setting prior to the slips
engaging, and the packer is more difficult to mill.
FLOW CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
A varied selection of locks and landing nipples are used
throughout BP’s operations, each with their relative merits
and failings. New independent companies like Petroline
Aberdeen (see flow control evaluation) are taking some of the
best features of the established equipment and designing
alternatives which merit further consideration. Experience
with the established equipment is discussed below.
Page 42
Camco DB
This simple no-go system is used extensively in BP’s
operations and has had a high degree of success. The ability
to shear the running tool from the lock at any stage, allows
the recovery of the toolstring and prevents potential fishing
jobs. It is only available for tubing sizes down to 4in.
Baker Sur-Set
This equipment is relatively new and was designed to provide
a high pressure no-go system. Instead of taking the pressure
force on the no-go shoulder, the locking mechanism lifts the
lock off the no-go, allowing the force to be transmitted
through the locking keys. This design has a number of
advantages. However, a significant number of teething
problems were experienced by a number of companies
including BP, when the system was first introduced. Recent
trials by BP have indicated that the latest designs have
overcome many of the problems. However, Baker’s slow
reaction to the problems has tarnished their reputation.
Otis R, X, RN, RNT, XN

The R and X systems are selective systems. The N
designation in the other systems indicates a no-go capability.
Although no-go nipples are available with the ‘N’ series, it is
not usually possible to have a complete string of consecutive
size no-go nipples in the same size of string. Experience with
these systems has been varied. Most problems have been
caused by pre-setting and not being able to shear off the
running tool. The problems appear to become worse with
increasing depth and deviation. The X and XN systems have
enjoyed wide acceptance in sizes of 3.813in and below. This
simple and relatively inexpensive system is currently used in
eight fields with good experience.
Camco D, DS
These are top no-go nipples that accept C, CS and HPC locks.
This nipple system is designed for the smaller completion
sizes up to 3 1/2in. Experience with the system has been
mixed, with most of the problems arising from the fairly
complicated lock mechanism. This can lead to some running
problems and a high degree of redress after each run.
Page 43
SEAL
ASSEMBLIES
Brown Oil Tools and Baker have supplied the majority of seal
assemblies, and the overall experience has been good. The
main problem in seal assemblies is the correct selection of
elastomers. Most PBR problems have been experienced in
water injection completions.
Brown Oil Tool PBR

Used in the Forties field for 13 years with great success.
39␣ are currently in the ground.
Baker ELTSR
Mixed experience with this equipment, although the Buchan
field have had nine in the ground for up to ten years with no
problems.
Baker Anchor Seal KC-22

Used throughout BP’s Southern North Sea gas fields. The
West Sole field has 19 installed with the longest duration in
the ground being 17 years. Experience has shown that the
anchor seal remains easy to retrieve even after a considerable
period in the ground.
Baker Model ‘E’ Tubing Seal Nipple

Used as lower seal assembly in multiple packer installations.
20 have been installed in East Breaks (Snapper) for
2 1/2 years with no significant problems.
Baker G-22 Locator Seal

26 used in East Breaks with good experience.
Camco OP Type 25 ft Expansion Joint

Ten have been installed in the Ula field for three years with
acceptable experience, although some seal problems have
been experienced in water injection wells.
Otis MSN
Twenty have recently been installed in Ewing Bank (Gulf of
Mexico) with no significant problems.
Page 44
SLIDING
SLEEVES
The choice of sliding sleeve is usually dictated by the rest of
the flow control equipment. All sliding sleeves have some
problems in failing to open after a long period of production.
Otis XA
Have been used in the Southern North Sea for over 17 years
with eleven currently installed. The poor experience with
this␣ equipment has resulted in removing sliding sleeves from
new completions.
Baker L and LA
46 installed in the Forties field. Only a 50% success rate
when attempting to open the sleeve after a long period of
production.
Camco DB-1
Eleven used on Forties, nine on Buchan and five on Ula. The
Camco sleeve is as good as any but suffers from the opening
problem common to all sleeves.
SIDE POCKET
MANDRELS
Camco are noted for their gas lift expertise and equipment.
Camco KEGH-SP-LT
Ten installed on Ula. Some teething problems were
experienced with the kickover tools, although these have now
been rectified.
Camco MMG
43 used for gas lift in Buchan for over ten years with
no␣ problems.
Schlumberger Johnston Macco SPM-1A and FMHO-1.0

Over 250 SPMs have been installed in a number of fields in
BP’s operations in the Gulf of Mexico. Experience has been
acceptable, although two dummy mandrels have failed due to
incorrect elastomers.
Page 45
EQUIPMENT EVALUATION
When evaluating equipment, it is often difficult to decide the

relative merits of different designs and features. To do this
objectively, it is important to list the requirements for the
equipment based on the well conditions and application. The
relative importance of these requirements will change from
field to field, and hence no universal criteria can be applied to
completion equipment. However, by adopting a system
similar to the one outlined in this section, the equipment best
suited to the particular application can be selected.
The first step in the process is to list the requirements that

the equipment must satisfy. If the equipment does not meet
any of these mandatory requirements, it is not considered
any further. The requirements that are desirable are then
listed. These requirements or ‘wants’ are scored out of ten,
based on how important they are to the application. Each
piece of equipment is analysed to determine how well it
satisfies the desirable requirements. Its ability to do this is
then rated from one to ten. By multiplying these two
numbers together, a weighted score reflecting both the
importance of the requirement and how well the equipment
meets this, is obtained. The sum of these scores then
indicates how well the equipment is suited to the application.
The experience summarized in this section can be used to

assist in evaluating how well the equipment meets certain
requirements.
Detailed below is an evaluation of flow control equipment for

a Northern North Sea application. Listed under each flow
control system is the infomation used to determine the score.
A similar approach can be adopted for other equipment
types. The equipment selection process for a new completion
design is shown in the Worked Example section.
Page 46
FLOW CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
EVALUATION
FORM
Mandatory Requirements
1 No-go system
2 Positive setting indication
3 Positive lock-out
Desirable Requirements Weighting
1 Field proven 10
2 Reliable 10
3 Flexible size range 5
4 Anti-galling 8
5 Simple design 8
6 Standard pressure test rating 6
7 Easy to install 8
8 Easy to retrieve 8
9 Shear pin stays in place 4
10 Does not set in tubing 5
11 Sand/solids service 9
12 Technical back-up 6
13 Spares back-up 8
Page 47
Camco – DB
No-go system – No-go takes load of plug

Positive setting indication – Garter spring tell-tale
Positive lock-out – Mechanically closed (lock down, forces keys out)
Weighted
Desirable Requirements Score Score
1 15 years plus, same design – user friendly 9.5 95
2 Beatrice – Clyde – Thistle good results 9.5 95
3 Minimum standard range of tools 8 40
4 Problems not fully resolved 6 48
5 Simple design, few parts 8 64
6 Large range depends on no-go 4.8 29
7 Simple procedure 8 64
8 PRS has long extension 8 64
9 Not retained/can be tested 4.5 18
10 Customer needs to specify 7 35
11 Plenty of room for sand to pass away 9 81
12 Average manuals – below average technical
input for improvements 7 42
13 Belfast supplied, often long lead times
(8 to 16 weeks) 5 40
Total Weighted Score 715
Page 48
Baker – Sur-Set
No-go system – No-go for locating only (40 to 60 thou)

Positive setting indication – ‘C’ Ring on running tool
Positive lock-out – Close lock and move keys on running tool
Weighted
1 5 years development – early problems solved 4 40

2 Previous problems resolved 4 40
3 Minimum number of running/pulling tools 8 40
4 QPQ treatment partially successful 4 32
5 Average number of parts for operations 7.5 60
6 10 000 psi above/below 9.5 57
7 Setting procedure/operation simple 7 56
8 GS and probe or prong (simple) 8.7 70
9 All pins grub screwed 8 32
10 Designed into range 9.5 48
11 QPQ and slick packings minimum interface 7 63
12 Design changes not always passed to
all customers 4 24
13 Aberdeen manufactured, low lead times
(4 to 8 weeks) 7.6 61
Page 49
Petroline –
Uniset
No-go system – No-go for locating only (40 to 60 thou)

Positive setting indication – Inner mandrel moves up/tell tale pin
Positive lock-out – Spring pushes inner mandrel up. Running tool
assisted closure
Weighted
1 Thistle field use + 1 year 5 50

2 Thistle short term reliable so far 6 60
3 7in and 3in developed so far 6 30
4 QPQ treatment – client specify 8 64
5 Average number of parts 9 72
7 Tool functions complicated 8.8 70
8 GS + probe, simple but spring needs to move 7 56
9 Could be lost easily 7 28
10 Designed into most of range (specify) 6 30
11 Spring could sand up 4.9 44
12 Present good drawings and proved
flexible to change 9.3 56
13 Aberdeen manufactured low lead times
(2 to 6 weeks) 8 64
Page 50
Ava
No-go system – No-go for locating only (20 thou)

Positive setting indication – Bore sensing – mechanical logic
Positive lock-out – Fishing neck supports keys.
Tool pulled back locks out keys
Weighted
1 6 years mainly Total ELF fields 2.6 26

2 Good in clean wells and nipples 3.5 35
3 Adjustment for each size 7.6 38
4 Satisfactory 5.9 47
5 Complex design many parts 1.6 13
7 Complex procedure for tool 5 40
8 GS + probe (simple) 7 56
9 No shear pins 9 36
10 Bore sensing only in nipple 6.8 34
11 Lots of small places. Bore sensing easily fouled 2.8 25
12 Below average technical manuals.
Design change USA approval 5.6 34
13 Some parts only available USA (8 to 12 weeks) 5 40
Page 51
Otis
No-go system – No-go takes load of plug

Positive setting indication – Pull and bind on running tool
Positive lock-out – Serrations – key movement –
pins on running tool
Weighted
1 30+ years ‘X’ type continuous development 7 70

2 ‘X’ type proved unreliable in North Sea 6 60
3 Minimum range for each size tool 6.5 33
4 Design of threads eliminates 6.3 50
5 Complex tools – improvement made 5.2 42
6 Large range depends on No-go (complex) 5.7 34
7 Setting procedures complex 6.2 50
8 GS + GR procedure more complex 5.3 42
9 Could be lost in some cases 6.5 26
10 Requires flow coupling for size of keys 6.2 31
11 Serrations can sand up 4.8 43
12 Constant change/improvements but all USA design 6.3 38
13 Most parts Montrose manufactured (4 to 8 weeks) 7.6 61
Page 52
BACKGROUND
This example follows on from the Ravernspurn South (RS)

example in Chapter 5 – Architecture of Completions. In
Chapter 5 the appropriate architecture for the completion was
established. In this section the rationale behind selecting the
different types of equipment is presented. Figure 8.21 shows
the completion design developed for RS in Chapter 5. The
completion includes:
• A tubing retrievable surface controlled subsurface safety

valve (TRSCSSV).
• A hydraulically set permanent packer.
• Landing nipples and associated flow control equipment.
• Flow couplings.
The TRSCSSV also needs to be self-equalizing as the RS

platforms are unmanned, and hence back-pressuring wells to
equalize pressure above a SCSSV is difficult.
Three vendors were asked to propose equipment for the

RS␣ completions. Below is the review of their proposals.
Page 53
TUBING HANGER
TUBING
RETRIEVABLE
SAFETY VALVE
(SCSSV)
FLOW COUPLING
SEATING NIPPLE 'A'
FLOW COUPLING
SEATING NIPPLE 'B'
ANCHOR TUBING SEAL NIPPLE
SAB-3 HYDRO-SET RETAINER PRODUCTION PACKER
MILLOUT EXTENSION
CROSSOVER SUB
FLOW COUPLING
SEATING NIPPLE 'C'

SPACER TUBE
FLOW COUPLING
SEATING NIPPLE 'D'
PERFORATED SPACER TUBE
SEATING NIPPLE 'E'
WIRELINE ENTRY GUIDE
PERFORATIONS
Figure 8.21 – Ravenspurn South Completion Architecture
Page 54
TUBING RETRIEVABLE SCSSV
In view of the relatively onerous conditions in Ravenspurn

South wells during fracture proppant clean-up, a series of
in-house tests was performed on the valves proposed by the
vendors for RS. The tests consisted of installing the valve in
the surface equipment on appraisal well tests and subjecting
the valve to proppant back flow. The results of these tests
were as follows:
• Baker FVLE – Passed

• Camco TRDP-5-LE – Failed
• Otis Series 10 – Passed
Details of valves proposed by each vendor are given in

Tables␣ 8.1 to 8.3.
EVALUATION
OF␣ BAKER’S
PROPOSAL
In addition to the above FVLE, Baker also proposed the
following options:
• Option I FVHD(E)M: Maximum setting depth 4000 ft,

no␣ elastomeric seals.
• Option II FVHD(E)M (modified): Maximum setting

depth␣ 4000 ft, with a single elastomeric dynamic seal.
• Option III FVHD(E)M: Maximum setting depth 2900 ft,

no␣ elastomeric seal.
• Option IV FVHD(E)M (modified): Maximum setting

depth␣ 2900 ft, with a single elastomeric
dynamic seal.
• Option V FVLE: Maximum setting depth 1000 ft. This

is␣ Baker’s standard valve with elastomeric
dynamic and static seals.
The FVHD(E)M is a tubing retrievable, through-flapper self-

equalizing valve. In its most expensive form, the valve has no
elastomeric seals. As detailed in the above summary, the
Page 55
differences in the four versions of the valve offered are the

maximum setting depth and the degree to which elastomers
are utilized.
Option V, the FVLE, is now regarded as Baker’s standard

tubing retrievable valve. The valve relies on elastomeric seals
for both static and dynamic sealing.
All the Baker valves offered met with the requirements of

SPPE-1 and API 14A Class II sandy service. Option V, the
FVLE, had been successfully tested by BP in a post fracture
clean-up. BP had had some experience with the FVLE in
both Forties and West Sole, and the valve had performed well
to date (one FVLE had operated in Forties for four years
without any problems).
The FVHD(E)M was a relatively new design of valve, and BP

had no direct operating experience. The main differences
between this valve and the FVLE are:
• The FVHD(E)M uses a single piston to operate the valve

as␣ opposed to the FVLE’s concentric piston.
• The FVHD(E)M relies less on elastomers to provide

the␣ sealing.
Baker’s recommendation was the Option I, FVHD(E)M, which,

as one would expect, was the most expensive option.
Although the flapper sealing and equalizing features are the
same as for the FVLE previously recommended by Baker and
tested by BP, the valve is significantly different. Baker’s
argument was that the valve’s design is inherently more
reliable and should therefore better satisfy the RS
requirement to maximize completion life and minimize
workovers. However, with little operating experience to date,
it was obviously difficult to verify this claim. In addition,
being non-elastomeric, the valve is less prone to the problems
of explosive decompression.
Explosive decompression has not, however, been a problem

with the FVLE operated in a similar environment in the West
Sole field. Indeed, one of Baker’s claims for the FVLE is that
the design of the FVLE has virtually eliminated the problem
of explosive decompression.
Page 56
EVALUATION OF
OTIS’ PROPOSAL
Otis proposed their Series 10 tubing retrievable through the
flapper self-equalizing type safety valve with two options.
• Option I Maximum setting depth of 3000 ft with a

control line pressure of 7250 psi.
• Option II Maximum setting depth of 4000 ft with a

control line pressure of 8000 psi.
Option II did not meet the equipment technical specification

with regard to the maximum control line pressure of
7250␣ psi. BP’s previous experience of this valve was limited
to one valve on test in Forties. This valve had performed
satisfactorily to␣ date.
Although this valve would be manufactured in accordance

with SPPE-1, it was not at the time certified to API 14A Class
II sandy service. The valve was scheduled for testing for
Class II certification in January 1988. However, we had
some reasons to doubt whether it would achieve this
certification. Without this certification, the successful
in-house testing of the valve was not sufficient technical
justification for its selection.
EVALUATION
OF␣ CAMCO’s
PROPOSAL
Camco proposed the TRSP-4-LE-DS which is a tubing
retrievable single piston self-equalizing flapper type safety
valve. The valve has a maximum setting depth of 4000 ft.
We had no previous experience of this valve, and it was
understood that the valve design was a result of doubts over
the ability of the TRDP-5-LE to compete in terms of cost with
other tubing retrievable self-equalizing valves. The valve is
similar in concept to the TRDP-5-LE and can be regarded as
a cheaper version of this valve. The TRDP-5-LE was the valve
originally proposed by Camco for possible application in the
Ravenspurn South field. This valve was tested during the
post-fracture clean-up on West Sole Well 29 and failed in a
number of different operating modes. Although Camco stated
that the TRSP-4-LE-DS valve was certified to API 14A Class II
service in their bid, subsequent queries revealed that this
was not in fact the case.
Page 57
In summary, we had tested a more expensive version of the

valve proposed by Camco, and this valve failed conclusively.
The valve proposed by Camco could only really be regarded
as a prototype and was yet to be fully tested.
RECOMMENDATION
Both the Camco TRSP-4-LE-DS and the Otis Series 10 valves
did not fully meet the technical specifications and could not
therefore be regarded as technically acceptable. All the
valves proposed by Baker fully met the technical
specifications. Having made the decision not to pursue the
option of setting the valve at ca 4000 ft, all of the proposed
Baker options were suitable. The Baker FVHD(E)M was a
relatively new and sophisticated valve with no previous
performance history. Although the valve was claimed to be
more reliable, there was at the time little evidence to support
this. As we had successfully tested the FVLE and had
had␣ good previous experience with the valve in Forties and
West Sole, we recommended this valve as the preferred
option.
Page 58
BP Exploration
BAKER TUBING RETRIEVABLE DOWNHOLE SAFETY VALVES
Self-equalizing
Wireline Insert
Type Available
Pressure (psi)
+ WHCIP (psi)
Specification
Valve & Lock
Temperature
Philosophy
Permanent
Range (°F)
Min ID (in)
Concentric
Maximum
Maximum
Operating
Operating
Minimum
Depth (ft)
Single or
Pressure
Lock-out
Material
Working
Flapper
Service
Setting
SCSSV
Piston
Sandy
Seal
3 1/2in ANSI Yes
FVHD(E)M Single Yes Yes 10 000 3450 2.81 410 SPPE-1 Yes SA-2 Lock 20 – 300 4000 API Non-elastomeric
Option I Mod Type VHDE Class II seals
valve
Single Viton
3 1/2in Yes Dynamic T-Seal
FVHD(E)M ANSI
Single Yes Yes 10 000 3450 2.81 410 SPPE-1 Yes SA-2 Lock 20 – 300 4000 API
(Modified) Class II 25% glass-filled
Table 8.1
Mod Type VHDE

Page 59
Option II valve teflon
Selection of Completion Equipment – Chapter 8

3 1/2in ANSI Yes
FVHD(E)M Single Yes Yes 10 000 3450 2.81 410 SPPE-1 Yes SA-2 Lock 20 – 300 2900 API Non-elastomeric
Option III Mod Type VHDE Class II seals
DHSV
3 1/2in Single Viton

ANSI Yes Dynamic Seal
FVHD(E)M Single Yes Yes 10 000 3450 2.81 SPPE-1 Yes SA-2 Lock 20 – 300 2900 API
410
(Modified) Type VHDE Class II Otherwise
Option IV Mod
DHSV non-elastomeric
WORKED EXAMPLE
Yes Single Viton
3 1/2in ANSI
FVLE Concentric Yes Yes 6000 1500 2.81 410 SPPE-1 Yes SA-2 Lock 20 – 300 1000 API
Option V Mod Type VHDE Class II Otherwise
DHSV non-elastomeric
Page 60
Table 8.3 Table 8.2
TRFV
SCSSV
TRSP-
SCSSV
3 1/2in
3 1/2in
3 1/2in
Option I
4-LE-DS
Option II
Series 10
(Modified)
Single or Single or
Concentric Concentric
Single
Piston Piston
FVHD(E)M Concentric
Concentric
Self-equalizing Self-equalizing
Yes
Yes
Yes
Flapper Flapper
Yes
Yes
Yes
Maximum Maximum
Working Working
5000
5000
10 000
Pressure (psi) Pressure (psi)
Minimum Minimum
Not
Operating Operating
Pressure Pressure
8000
7250
provided
+ WHCIP (psi) + WHCIP (psi)
Min ID (in) Min ID (in)

2.813
2.813
2.813
420M 13%Cr 13% chrome material to meet
or better Material impact test requirements Material
Specification Specification
SPPE-1
SPPE-1
SPPE-1 Permanent Permanent

Yes
Yes
Yes
Lock-out Lock-out
Yes
Yes
Yes
Wireline Insert Wireline Insert

Type
valve
valve
DHSV
Valve & Lock Valve & Lock

‘X’ Lock
‘X’ Lock
‘C’ Lock
WRDP-1
Type FXE
Type FXE
Type Available Type Available
Operating Operating
Temperature Temperature
OTIS TUBING RETRIEVABLE DOWNHOLE SAFETY VALVES
Range (°F) Range (°F)

40 – 300
40 – 300
40 – 300
CAMCO TUBING RETRIEVABLE DOWNHOLE SAFETY VALVE
Maximum Maximum
Setting Setting
4000
3000
4000
Depth (ft) Depth (ft)
Not certified for Sandy The valves quoted are not currently Sandy
Class II sandy Service certified for Class II sandy service Service
service
seals
seals
seals
Seal Seal
Philosophy Philosophy
‘Chemraz’
‘Chemraz’
Elastomer
Elastomer
Elastomeric

PERMANENT PACKER
EVALUATION
The following packers were proposed by the three companies:
• Baker – SAB-3
• Otis – HB
• Camco – HSP-1
Details of these packers are summarized in Table 8.4.
The Baker and Otis packers quoted are similar in design,

while the Camco packer has a slightly different design. The
SAB-3 and HB packers have one moving piston. The setting
pressure forces this piston up, and this motion shears a
number of shear screws consecutively. This then forces the
lower slips, packing elements and upper slips to set against
the casing. Both packers are hydraulically set by plugging off
the tubing below the packer and then pressurizing the tubing
to the setting pressure.
The anchor seal in the SAB-3 is a Viton/Ryton Chevron seal

assembly. In the HB packer a Teflon/Ryton Chevron seal
assembly is used. Both are regarded as technically
acceptable.
The Camco HSP-1 is a permanent packer which is

hydraulically set by differential tubing to annulus pressure.
The HSP-1 has two moving pistons, one at each end of the
packer. Application of a differential pressure across the twin
pistons forces one piston to set the element while the second
piston sets the lower slips. Each piston operates
independently, and this is not seen to be an advantage.
The anchor seal quoted by Camco incorporates Nitrile. This

type of seal is considered unsuitable for the application,
despite assurances from Camco that it had been used
elsewhere in similar conditions without any problems.
One important point that should be considered is that of

drillability. The Baker SAB-3 packer is the only one that will
be easy to drill/mill. This is due to its small slim liner size.
Camco’s HSP-1 packer is taller and has two packing
elements. The elements are immediately below the upper
slips, while the lower slips are separated from the elements
Page 61
by a fair distance. The fact that the two slips are set
independently, means that the whole packer may need to be
drilled/milled. The Otis HB packer is the tallest of the three
packers. It incorporates three packing elements and two
large slips. However, the design of this packer is the same as
that of Baker. Only the top slips may need to be milled, and
the whole packer can then either be pushed to bottom or
retrieved by the milling tool.
RECOMMENDATION
Both the Otis and Baker packer packages were fully field
proven and technically acceptable.
Baker’s SAB-3 packer was recommended on the basis of:
• Otis’ current poor performance in the North Sea.
• Our extensive field experience of the SAB type packer in

Magnus, Buchan and West Sole.
• Good technical support from Baker.
The Camco HSP-1 packer was not recommended for the

following reasons:
• Susceptible to premature setting.
• The dual piston operation could result in the element

setting prior to the slips.
• The seal materials are not regarded as suitable for this

particular application.
• The packer is more difficult to mill than the Otis and

Baker packers.
Page 62
PACKER DETAILS
SPECIFICATION BAKER OTIS CAMCO

ITEM
SAB-3 Otis HB Camco

Hydroset Retainer (c/w Millout Ext) HSP-1
Hydro set Yes (3000 psi) Yes 3400 psi Yes (3500 psi)
3800
Shear release` No No No
Mechanical lock Yes Yes Yes
Tubing movement
calculations Yes Yes Yes
Drawing package Yes Yes Yes
OD 5.468in 5.88in 5.875in
ID 3.250in 2.97in 2.867in
Length 57.312in 156.36in 68.000in
Differential pressure
rating 9500 psi 8850 psi Not known
Millout ext min ID 3.958in 3.88in 2.992in
Millout ext material ANSI 410 S/S Mod 13% Cr Primarily 13% Cr 420 Cr or Bette
Packer material ANSI 410 Mod 13% Cr 13% Cr 420M (13% Cr)
Max tension (lbs) – – Not known
Max compression (lbs) – – Not known
BP experience Magnus/Buchan/West Sole None None Ula has

similar style
Stinger (anchor seal)

ID (KC-22) 2.992in 2.97in 2.867in
Stinger seal type Viton/Ryton, Chevron Ryton/Teflon Nitrile, moulded
Redress kit (anchor) Yes (seals) only Yes (seals) only Yes
Table 8.4
Page 63
FLOW CONTROL EQUIPMENT
EVALUATION
FORM
The selection criteria for Ravenspurn South flow control equipment were set out
in the evaluation form shown below.
1 No-go system
2 Positive indication of setting
3 Positive lock-out
Desirable Requirements Weighting
1 Field proven 10
2 Reliable 10
3 Simple design 8
4 Easy to install 8
5 Easy to retrieve 8
6 Shear pin stays in place 4
7 Does not set in tubing 5
8 Technical back-up 6
9 Spares back-up 8
Page 64
BAKER
SUR-SET
LOCK SYSTEM
EVALUATION
No-go system – No-go for locating only

Positive indication of setting – ‘C’ ring on running tool
Positive lock-out – Yes
Desirable Requirements
Weighted
Comments Score Score
1 Many teething problems 3 30

2 Other operators have experienced problems 3 30
3 Average numbers of parts for operations 7 56
4 Setting procedure/operation simple 7 56
5 GS + probe or prong (simple) 7 56
6 All pins grub screwed 8 32
7 Designed not to set in tubing 9 45
8 Poor support with this product line
Design changes not passed to all customers 4 24
9 Satisfactory 6 48
OTIS X (XN)
LOCK
EVALUATION
No-go system – Cannot supply full set of no-go in required

tubing size
Positive indication of setting – Pull and bind on running tool
Positive lock-out – Yes, serrated lock mandrel
As the Otis system did not fully meet one of the mandatory requirements, it was
not considered further for this application.
Page 65
CAMCO HPC
LOCK SYSTEM
EVALUATION
No-go system – Yes, full no-go system

Positive indication of setting – Yes, D-HP-T running tool indicates lock-out
Positive lock-out – Ratchet assembly holds mandrel
Desirable Requirements
Weighted
Comments Score Score
1 Extensive industry experience 9 90

2 Good overall experience 8 80
3 Slightly more complicated than DB system 6 48
6 Not a real problem 6 24
7 OK 7 35
8 Good 8 48
9 Satisfactory 6 48
RECOMMENDATION
Although all the systems could be regarded as technically
acceptable and are used throughout the North Sea, the use of
either the Otis or Baker systems could not be recommended
for this particular application. Otis have a poor recent record
in supplying equipment, and the particular system proposed
did not fully meet the specifications. The Baker system had
had a chequered history, and although some operators are
prepared to persevere with the ‘teething problems’, there was
less risk of potential problems with the established Camco
system.
It was therefore recommended that Camco were awarded the

contract for flow control equipment.
Page 66
DISCUSSION
The evaluation presented in this worked example is only

strictly appropriate to the Ravenspurn South field, as other
fields will have their own factors determining selection
criteria. The evaluation was based on the knowledge and
experience available in 1987. As experience with equipment
grows, some␣ of the above evaluations will obviously change.
Page 67
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents pooled experience on completion
equipment, but final selection can only be undertaken with
information on particular well conditions and the benefit of
local knowledge. However, a number of general principles
apply to both the overall completion equipment selection
process and selection of specific items:
OVERALL
• List selection criteria applicable to each item of equipment
to ensure that vendors provide adequate information for
objective review.
• Particular well conditions may require a feature of a

particular item of equipment.
• Talk to local operators to form a view on vendors’ local

reputation and technical support.
SCSSVs
• Flapper type valves are generally preferable to ball type.
• API Recommended Practice 14B should be used for

design, installation and operation of valves.
• New valves should be purchased to the ANSI/ASME

SPPE-1 Specification or API Specification Q1.
• A test frequency of three months is generally ideal for

valves, although extension to six months can be
acceptable.
• Strict adherence to manufacturers’ operating instructions

will prevent many valve failures.
• Self-equalization should be specified where pressure

equalization above the valve is difficult to achieve
(eg␣ satellite wells, gas wells).
• Dual control line balanced valves are not recommended as

they can fail open.
• Rod piston valves are more suitable for deep installation

and can avoid the use of elastomeric seals.
Page 69
• Concentric piston valves are less prone to sticking when

scale, solids or asphaltenes are present.
• Inconel 825 or Monel are specified as standard for

control␣ lines.
• Purpose-designed clamps should be used for control line

protection.
• Encapsulated control lines should be considered where a

high risk of damage exists (eg subsea completions).
FLOW CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
• Selective nipples are not recommended, particularly in
larger tubing sizes.
• Camco DB no-go system has been used successfully in a

number of BP operations (it is only available for the larger
tubing sizes).
• Otis X and XN systems have been used successfully in

smaller tubing sizes.
• Baker Sur-Set high-pressure no-go system suffered

extensive teething problems, with poor technical support
from Baker, although these problems now appear to have
been resolved.
PACKERS
• Obtain the mechanical loads the packer needs to
withstand throughout the completion life, including any
future stimulation operations, from the tubing stress
analysis.
• Ensure that seal element elastomers are compatible with

downhole chemical and temperature environments.
• Avoid mechanically set packers in deviated wells.
• Baker SAB-3 packer has been used extensively with good

results by BP.
Page 70
SEAL
ASSEMBLIES
• Correct selection of seal arrangements and elastomers is
essential to maintaining seal integrity, particularly where
a PBR has to accommodate large tubing movements.
• Efforts should be made to design water injection wells

without moving seals due to the difficulty with
maintaining seal integrity.
• Extra long tubing seal receptacles (ELTSR) generally

result in smaller IDs than PBRs.
COMMUNICATION
DEVICES
• Sliding sleeves are not recommended for applications
where they will remain unused for long periods.
Page 71
REFERENCES
8.1 SINTEF (The Foundation for Scientific and Industrial
Research at the Norwegian Institute of Technology,
Trondheim): ‘Reliability of Surface Controlled
Subsurface Safety Valves, Phase III – Main Report’,
27th October 1989.
8.2 API Specification 14A (6th ed): ‘Subsurface Safety

Valves Equipment’.
8.3 API Recommended Practice RP14B (2nd ed) 1981:

‘Design, Installation and Operation of Subsurface
Safety Valve Systems’.
8.4 ANSI/ASME SPPE-1-1985: ‘Quality Assurance and

Certfication of Safety and Pollution Prevention
Equipment Used in Offshore Oil and Gas Operations’.
8.5 API Specification Q1 (2nd ed) 1988: ‘Quality

Programs’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker Technical Manual
Camco Product Technical Brochure
Otis Basic Design and Maintenance Instructions
Page 73
SUBSURFACE SAFETY VALVES
INTRODUCTION
Subsurface safety valves (SSVs) are installed below the
wellhead to prevent uncontrolled flow in an emergency
situation. In the worst case, when the wellhead has suffered
severe damage, the SSV may be the only means of preventing
a blow-out. The correct design, application, installation and
operation of this equipment is fundamental to the safety of
the well. SSVs should be considered for all wells capable of
natural flow. In many locations government regulations
require the use of SSVs. In areas like offshore USA and
Norway, government regulations dictate design, QA/QC,
operation and testing of valves. BP has no world-wide
specifications for SSVs. However, the guidelines contained in
this section, together with local operating company
requirements and appropriate governmental regulations,
should be applied to each specific application.
DEFINITIONS
SSVs can either be surface controlled or subsurface
controlled. Subsurface controlled valves are controlled by
well␣ pressure, by the flow itself or as a result of a pressure
differential caused by the flow. This type of valve’s
dependency on well conditions as a means of control, makes
them inherently less reliable than surface controlled valves,
and their application is therefore limited. Surface controlled
subsurface safety valves (SCSSV) are normally closed, and
they are usually held open by an external pressure applied
from surface. Some SCSSVs are controlled by electric,
electromagnetic or acoustic signals. However, by far the most
common form of control is hydraulic pressure applied from
surface via a control line. When the hydraulic pressure is
lost, the valve is closed by means of a spring acting on the
closure mechanism. In order to close the valve, this spring
must overcome the hydrostatic pressure in the control line.
Each SCSSV therefore has a maximum safe setting depth.
This aspect of SCSSV design is covered in more detail later in
this section. Regulations in most offshore locations require
the use of SCSSVs.
Page 2
CLOSURE
MECHANISMS
SCSSVs have four main closure mechanisms:
• Flapper.
• Ball.
• Poppet.
• Annular systems.
Flapper and ball closure mechanisms are the more

commonly␣ used. Poppet mechanisms are sometimes used in
equalization devices (see below) and annular systems. As
the␣ name suggests, annular systems are used to isolate the
annulus, eg in concentric gas lift systems or subsea wells.
Figure 8.1 shows a typical flapper type closure mechanism.

This type of mechanism is now strongly preferred to the ball
mechanism as a result of:
(*Reference 8.1) • Greater reliability ( refer to SINTEF* report).

• Simpler design.
• It is less prone to seal damage.
• In the event of a failure, the valve can be pumped through
at sufficiently high rates to kill the well.
To open the valve, pressure is applied via the control line,

compresses the closing spring and moves the flowtube down
onto the flapper. As the flowtube continues to move down,
the flapper rotates about its hinge into the flapper housing.
When control line pressure is removed, the spring forces the
flowtube up, allowing the spring on the flapper to bring the
flapper into the closed position. In the closed position the
flapper is held closed by the differential pressure across the
valve.
The ball valve shown in Figure 8.2 is operated in a similar

manner, except in this case the hydraulic pressure acts on
a␣ piston which rotates the ball by means of a mechanical
linkage.
The poppet mechanism, shown in a Camco TRDP-LE in

Figure 8.3, simply relies on a conical shaped poppet sealing
against a metal seat. In this case it is used as an
equalization␣ device in Camco’s first self-equalizing tubing
retrievable valve.
Figure 8.4 shows the Baker NAV annular safety system.
Page 3
DETAIL OF DYNAMIC SEAL ASSEMBLY

A - T-SEAL
PISTON B - WIDE BACK-UP RING
(SEE DETAIL)
PISTON COUPLING
FLOW TUBE
POWER SPRING
FLAPPER SEAT
RESILIENT SEAL
FLAPPER PIN
TORSION SPRING
FLAPPER HOUSING
FLAPPER HINGE SUPPORT
PIN THREAD DOWN

(COURTESY OF BAKER OIL TOOLS)
Figure 8.1 – Flapper Closure Mechanism
Page 4
CLOSED OPEN
POWER SPRING
FLOW TUBE
BALL SEAT
CONTROL ARM
BALL
(COURTESY OF OTIS)
Figure 8.2 – Ball Closure Mechanism
Page 5
DISK SPRINGS
PISTON
HYDRAULIC FLUID
DYNAMIC 'T'-SEAL
WIPER SEAL
RELIEF VALVE
FLOW OUTLET
RESILIENT SEAL
POPPET BODY
FLOW
Figure 8.3 – Poppet in TRDP-LE
Page 6
HYDRAULIC CONTROL LINE
HYDRAULIC CONTROL FLUID
EXIT PORT TO ANNULUS
DYNAMIC SEAL
PISTON (SHOWN CLOSING OFF EXIT PORT)
DYNAMIC SEAL
ANNULUS FLUID FLOW PATH
POWER SPRING
Figure 8.4 – Annular Safety System
Page 7
REGULATIONS
AND
SPECIFICATIONS
(*Reference 8.2) API Specification 14A* and API Recommended Practice
(*Reference 8.3) RP14␣ B* are the baseline standards for subsurface safety
(*Reference 8.4) valves. In addition, ANSI/ASME SPPE-1* (ANSI – American
National Standards Institute, ASME – American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, SPPE – Safety and Pollution
Prevention Equipment) establishes the requirements for
quality assurance programmes and accreditation of
manufacturers and refurbishers of offshore safety and
pollution prevention equipment, eg SCSSVs. Valves for use in
offshore locations in the USA and Norway must be purchased
and maintained to this standard. A general guideline in other
areas of BP XEU is that new valves should be purchased with
the SPPE-1. However, due to the current lack of accredited
refurbishers, the valves are not maintained to this standard.
This situation is changing, and maintaining valves to SPPE-1
may be adopted in the future. At the time of writing, a
number of manufacturers were moving towards applying
(*Reference 8.5) API␣ Specification␣ Q1* as a universal standard. If this
standard is accepted by the USA regulatory authorities, it can
be regarded as superseding SPPE-1, and valves should then
be purchased to this standard.
Purchasing valves to SPPE-1 is a convenient means of

ensuring that the valve is not only fit for purpose, but also
has a high level of QA/QC. A valve ordered to SPPE-1 will
have the following specification:
• All critical components are traceable from mill pour to

finished product.
• All suppliers of materials for critical components or

manufacturers of critical components have been
evaluated.
• A product manufactured, inspected and functionally

tested in accordance with all ANSI/ASME SPPE-1 and
API␣ 14A requirements. This includes independent testing
of a prototype valve.
• The product is stamped with the OCS symbol (indicating

that the valve has satisfied all the above requirements and
is certified for use in the Outer Continental Shelf
(OCS␣ USA)).
Page 8
A valve ordered to API 14A will have the following

specification:
• All critical components are traceable to mill heat reports.
• Design qualified through function test.
• A product manufactured, inspected and functionally

tested to API 14A.
API 14A has three standard classifications of service:
• Class 1 – Standard Service

Suitable for service in oil and gas wells where it is not
exposed to sand production or stress corrosion cracking.
• Class 2 – Sandy Service

In addition to Class 1, the valve is also suitable for use in
oil or gas wells where solids, eg sand, could be expected to
cause valve malfunction or failure.
• Class 3 – Stress Corrosion Cracking Service

In addition to Classes 1 and 2, the valve is suitable for
use in oil or gas wells where corrosive agents could cause
stress corrosion cracking. Within Class 3 there are two
subdivisions, 3S for sulphide stress cracking and 3C for
chloride stress cracking.
API RP 14B, the recommended practice for design,

installation and operation of SSV systems, is used as a
guideline throughout BP’s operations. In addition, the type of
testing, test frequency and acceptance criteria are established
by local field management and depend on local regulations,
well conditions, type of valve and previous failure frequency.
Testing frequency is a trade-off between ensuring that the
valve is operational and inducing failures in valves as a result
of too frequent testing. In most situations a test frequency of
three months is ideal, and this is often extended to six
months. However, extending the time between tests beyond
six months is not normally recommended. API RP 14B lays
down the criteria for acceptable leakage rates, and these are
adopted throughout BP where no additional local regulations
exist. In addition, most areas also ensure that there is no
backflow up the control line.
Page 9
Many valve failures occur as a result of poor operating

practices. In particular, opening a valve with excessive
pressure when the valve has not equalized, is a common
failure mechanism. Strict adherence to manufacturers’
operating instructions will assist in prolonging valve life.
TYPES OF SCSSV
In addition to the type of closure mechanism, SCSSVs can be
further subdivided into four main categories:
• Wireline or tubing retrievable.

• Non-equalizing or self-equalizing.
• Concentric or rod piston.
• Single control line or dual balanced lines.
A valve may have any particular combination of these

features, eg tubing retrievable, self-equalizing, concentric
piston with a single control line. The selected configuration
will be governed by well conditions, the completion design
and previous experience. The basis for selecting a wireline
or␣ tubing retrievable valve is discussed in Chapter 5 –
Architecture of Completions. A typical example of each
type␣ of␣ valve is shown in Figures 8.5 and 8.6.
Selecting a self-equalizing valve provides operational

flexibility in that no external source of pressure is required
to␣ pressurize above the valve prior to opening the valve.
However, the self-equalizing feature introduces an additional
potential failure mechanism and must therefore have an
impact on reliability. When to use self-equalization will
depend on the operating environment and whether such a
feature will provide a significant advantage in operating the
field, eg self-equalizing valves are a virtual necessity on
unmanned satellite platforms in the North Sea. The Baker
through-flapper equalization device is shown in Figure 8.7,
while Camco’s relatively new labyrinth equalization system is
shown in Figure 8.8.
The hydraulic power for SCSSVs is delivered by means of a

single concentric piston or one or more rod pistons mounted
radially around the valve. Limits on the available control line
pressure dictate a maximum setting depth for a valve (see
below). If a valve is to be set deeper than about 800 ft,
eg␣ subsea or below permafrost, then the large spring force
and resulting high opening pressure required by a concentric
valve make this valve inappopriate, and a rod piston valve
should be utilized. The newer generation of valves tend to be
Page 10
TUBING
LOCK MANDREL

SEAL ELEMENTS
HYDRAULIC LANDING NIPPLE
TUBING
Figure 8.5 – Wireline Retrievable SCSSV
Page 11
LANDING NIPPLE PROFILE FOR

WIRELINE INSERT VALVE
Figure 8.6 – Tubing Retrievable SCSSV
Page 12
SECTION A - A
FLAPPER
B EQUALIZING
PLUNGER
C
A A
PLUNGER
C SPRING
B
SECTION B - B TOP VIEW BOTTOM VIEW
EQUALIZING
PLUNGER
WELL FLUID PLUNGER

SPRING
THE FLOW TUBE DEPRESSES THE PLUNGER SECTION C - C

TO OPEN AN EQUALIZING PATH PRIOR TO SHOWN IN
THE VALVE OPENING NON-EQUALIZING POSITION
Figure 8.7 – Baker Through-flapper Equalization Device
Page 13
EQUALIZING FULLY OPEN

POSITION POSITION
HYDRAULIC
DISK CONTROL
SPRINGS FLUID
RELIEF
CARBIDE
VALVE
BALL
BYPASS VALVE
(OPEN) BYPASS VALVE
(CLOSED)
EXPANSION
CHAMBER ROD
PISTON
LABYRINTH
SLEEVE
FLOW
TUBE
COMMUNICATION
PORT
Figure 8.8 – Camco Labyrinth Equalization System
Page 14
of the rod piston variety and are particularly appropriate

for␣ hostile environments as the smaller diameter rod piston
allows the use of metal-to-metal sealing throughout the
valve.␣ Rod piston valves do, however, have the disadvantage
of having less opening and closing force and as such are
more prone to sticking when scale, solids or ashphaltenes are
present (see SCSSV design below). In addition to the factors
above, past experience of the valve’s performance in similar
conditions should be used to decide both the type of valve
and the particular model. BP’s experience and the procedure
to use when evaluating valves are presented in the
Techniques section.
To overcome some of the problems of limited setting depth,

a␣ dual control line balanced valve can be proposed. In a
balanced valve, a second control line is run to the valve and
filled with the same fluid as the main control line. The fluid in
the second line balances the hydrostatic pressure on the
piston regardless of setting depth. In theory, this should give
the valve unlimited setting depth. However, the time required
to displace the fluid to surface limits the valve’s response
time and hence setting depth. Although these valves have a
deep setting capability, they are not recommended for a
number of reasons. In particular, they are prone to failing
open. If gas migrates into the balance line and reduces the
hydrostatic pressure, the original hydrostatic pressure in the
control line is no longer balanced and can be sufficient to
open the valve without any applied surface pressure. This will
cause the valve to fail open.
SCSSV DESIGN
AND MAXIMUM
SETTING DEPTH
As mentioned earlier, if a safety valve is to be failsafe, ie fail
in the closed position, the main spring in the valve must be
able to overcome the hydrostatic head of the control line
fluid. Thus, if the external pressure is taken off the control
line, the spring will close the valve. The maximum setting
depth for a safety valve is therefore limited by the available
spring force. This maximum setting depth, or failsafe depth,
is quoted by the manufacturers, and a valve will not reliably
close at any greater depth.
The theoretical failsafe depth can be calculated by dividing

the force of the spring when the valve is closed, by the piston
area and the gradient of the control line fluid:
Page 15
(Equation 8.1) D = F
A G
where: D = failsafe closure depth, ft

F = spring force with valve closed, lb
A = area of piston, in2
G = maximum fluid gradient, psi/ft
The maximum control line fluid gradient is usually that of

the annulus fluid, eg brine or seawater. This theoretical
depth is usually adjusted by a safety factor of 1.2 to 1.5 to
compensate for mechanical or seal friction.
The above equation assumes evacuated tubing. In reality the

wellbore pressure at the valve will act on the piston area and
assist the valve to close. In additon, this pressure must also
be overcome when opening the valve. Hence, the opening
pressures of valves are quoted as X psi plus tubing pressure.
Obviously, the larger the piston area, the greater the
assistance from the wellbore pressure (see Figures 8.9 and
8.10). Although this is not included in the failsafe depth, a
larger piston area will provide a greater safety margin if the
valve is prone to sticking later in the well life. This is one of
the disadvantages of the rod piston type discussed earlier.
HYDRAULIC
SYSTEMS
The hydraulic system for a SCSSV comprises surface control
panel, control line and accessories and control line fluid.
Viscosity, density and cleanliness are important factors in
selecting a control line fluid. The density obviously affects
the␣ hydrostatic head on the valve, and the viscosity has an
impact on the bleed down time. Decreasing viscosity with
temperature is a critical factor in arctic service and North Sea
subsea wells, and special liquids need to be used to take
account of this. Mineral oil, known as HLP 32, is used as the
standard control line fluid on North Sea platforms. On
subsea wells, a 5:1 glycol erifon mixture diluted to a total of
35% glycol is typically used.
Control lines are formed from bar, annealed and cold-drawn

into tubing, with the edges welded together. Failures of
316␣ stainless steel have led to the use of Incoloy 825 or
Monel as the standard control line materials.
Page 16
DYNAMIC SEAL
CONCENTRIC PISTON
HYDRAULIC CONTROL FLUID
PISTON COUPLING
POWER SPRING
FLOW TUBE
FLAPPER
FLAPPER SPRING
Figure 8.9 – Concentric Piston Valve
Page 17
HYDRAULIC
CONTROL LINE
GUIDE ROD
SEE DETAIL
DYNAMIC
SEALS
HYDRAULIC
CONTROL FLUID
FLOW TUBE
ROD
PISTON
POWER SPRING
FLAPPER DETAIL OF ROD PISTON
Figure 8.10 – Rod Piston Valve
Page 18
Maintaining the integrity of the control line is important in

that leaks in the control line usually require a workover to
correct the problem. Providing adequate control line
protection is therefore cost-effective. Mechanical protection
can be achieved by clamping the line to the tubing with
clamps that protect the line and by encapsulating the control
line. Where there is a relatively high risk of damaging the
control line, eg when running subsea completions, use of
both clamps and encapsulated line should be considered.
Clamping the control line to the tubing using thin steel
banding is not recommended in that banding offers very little
protection and can fall off into the annulus, potentially
causing workover problems.
Closely monitoring the control line pressure during opening

and closing operations can give some indications of the
valve’s performance and any potential problems. Figure 8.11
shows a typical response of a non-equalizing valve. Self-
equalizing valves have a different response, the actual
response being dependent on the particular type of valve.
Some valves can be pressured to full opening pressure, and
the valve will open when equalization is complete. Others
need to be held at an intermediate pressure until equalization
is complete, and full opening pressure can be applied.
Figure␣ 8.12 shows the control line response of a Baker FVLE,
a self-equalizing valve which can be initially pressured to the
full opening pressure.
Page 19
5 6
4 7
3 8
CONTROL 2 9
LINE
PRESSURE 1 10
0
TIME
POINT DESCRIPTION
1 Control line pump pressure equals pressure exerted by spring.

Flow tube starts movement.
1-2 Flow tube moves downwards compressing power spring.
2 Flow tube contacts flapper.
2-3 Flow tube moves through flapper.
3 Flow tube has opened flapper, but has not completely removed flapper.
3-4 Flow tube continues movement until it stops in the bottom sub.
4 Flow tube stops movement. Valve is fully open.
4-5 Control line pump dead-heads to preset value.
6 Control line pressure is bled down.
7 Flow tube starts to move upwards.
7-8 Flow tube moves upwards until flapper starts closure.
8-9 Flapper rotates through 90° while flow tube continues to move upwards.
9 Flapper contacts seat.
9-10 Flow tube continues to move upwards to full closed condition.
10 Flow tube stops movement.
Figure 8.11 – SCSSV Non-equalizing Characteristic Curve Opening

and Static Closure
Page 20
5
4 8
10
11
CONTROL 12
LINE
1 13
PRESSURE 6
3
0
TIME
POINT DESCRIPTION
1 Control line pressure equals valve output.

1-2 Flow tube moves downwards compressing power spring.
2 Flow tube contacts equalizing poppet.
2-3 Flow tube moves downwards pushing poppet off seat.
3 Flow tube has compressed poppet completely and has contacted flapper.
Because of differential across flapper, flow tube stops movement.
3-4 Because flow tube cannot open flapper until pressures are equalized,
the control line pressure increases to a preset value.
4-5 Pressure flow below flapper equalizes with pressure above flapper.
5-6 Pressures are now equal. Flow tube opens flapper.
6-7 Flow tube continues downward movement.
7 Flow tube contacts bottom sub. Valve is now open.
7-8 Control line pump increases to preset value.
8-9 Valve maintained open.
9-10 Control line pressure is bled down.
10 Flow tube starts upward movement.
10-11 Flow tube moves upwards until flapper closure starts.
11-12 Flapper rotates through 90° while flow tube continues upward movement.
12 Flapper contacts seat.
12-13 Flow tube contunues to move upwards to fully closed condition.
13 Flow tube stops movement.
Figure 8.12 – SCSSV Equalizing Characteristic Curve Opening and Static Closure
Page 21
FLOW CONTROL EQUIPMENT
The requirement for landing nipples and their location in the

string was discussed in Chapter 5 – Architecture of
Completions. Locking devices are located in the landing
nipples to provide a means of safely installing flow control
and measurement equipment like tubing plugs, chokes,
safety valves and pressure bombs in the completion.
LANDING
NIPPLES
Landing nipples are short tubular sections with an internally
machined profile. This profile usually consists of a landing
and locking profile to locate and hold the wireline lock, and a
polished packing bore or sealing section.
There are two main categories of landing nipples,

non-selective and selective.
Non-selective nipples, or what are commonly called no-go

nipples, rely on the nipple having a smaller ID (no-go) than
the lock. This reduction in ID can either be at the top (top
no-go) or bottom (bottom no-go) of the nipple and is used to
locate the lock. Once the lock is located on the no-go, it is
then in the correct position to allow the locking dogs to be
jarred into the locked position (see Figure 8.13).
Selective nipples utilize a different method of locating the

wireline lock and do not rely on a reduction in ID. There are
two basic methods, one where the nipples have different
selective profiles, or the alternative where the profiles are all
the same and the selectivity is achieved by the running and
setting operation. With different selective profiles in the
nipples, the locking dogs on the lock must match the
appropriate nipple. Each lock can therefore be run through a
series of nipples until it reaches the nipple with the matching
profile. Using the running and setting operation to achieve
selectivity, allows all nipples to be accessed with one lock,
whereas the selective nipples obviously require a different
lock for each nipple (see Figure 8.14).
Selective nipples have the advantage of being able to

maintain the same ID throughout the completion, whereas
each no-go nipple requires a step down in ID. This can be
important in smaller completions.
Page 22
CAMCO 'D' CAMCO 'DB'
NO-GO
SHOULDER
LOCKING
RECESS
LOCKING
RECESS
NO-GO
SHOULDER
SEAL
BORE
SEAL
BORE
Figure 8.13 – No-go Landing Nipple
Page 23
LOCATING/ LOCKING RECESSES
SEAL BORE
OTIS 'X'
SELECTIVE BY RUNNING TOOL
Figure 8.14 – Selective Landing Nipple
Page 24
However, this advantage does have an associated drawback

in that all the selective nipples have the same packing bore.
This means that if a plug is to be located in the bottom
nipple, the packing stacks have to be jarred through all the
packing bores in the upper nipples. This exposes the packing
stacks to a high risk of damage before it reaches the
appropriate nipple, and for this reason selective nipples are
not recommended, particularly in large tubing sizes.
WIRELINE
LOCKS
A basic wireline lock consists of a fishing neck, expander
mandrel, locking dogs or keys, retainer sleeve for the dogs,
springs for the dogs, a packing mandrel and a packing stack.
Figure 8.15 shows the basic components of a Camco DB lock.
Although locks differ in their configuration, the basic
function of the components remains the same.
The fishing neck can either be internal or external and is

used to attach the lock and associated equipment to the
running or pulling tool. The expander mandrel when
collapsed forces the dogs out into the profile in the landing
nipple. Various methods are used to hold the mandrel in this
collapsed position, thus locking the lock in the nipple. The
Camco DB lock uses a collet mechanism, whereas the Baker
Sur-Set uses a ‘C’-ring. The running procedure for the locks
depends on the selective mechanism. No-go locks and locks
using selective profiles are run on wireline, and the spring
loaded keys automatically locate the locks in their respective
nipples. The locking mandrel is then jarred (driven) down,
locking the keys securely in place. Where the lock itself is
selective, the running procedure is as␣ follows.
• Lock and running tool are run through the nipple.
• The assembly is then pulled back through the nipple, this

activates the locking keys.
• The assembly is again lowered into the nipple, and the

keys automatically locate in the nipple profile.
• The lock mandrel is then driven down, locking the keys in

to the profile.
With the lock set, the running tool is recovered by upward

shearing, releasing it from the lock mandrel. This procedure
applies to all types of lock.
Page 25
The procedure for recovering the assembly is common to all

locks and is as follows:
• The pulling tool is run and located in the fishing neck of

the lock.
• Upward jarring is used to pull the lock mandrel up and

allowing the keys to be released.
• The lock can then be recovered from the nipple.
Page 26
RING RETAINER
SHEAR PIN (BRASS)
SHEAR PIN (STEEL)
POSITION INDICATOR HOUSING
SHEAR PIN (BRASS)
GARTER SPRING
LOCKING DOGS
WIPER RING
COLLET
LOCK HOUSING
PACKINGS
O-RING WITH BACK-UP RINGS
Figure 8.15 – Camco DB Lock Mandrel
Page 27
PACKERS
The broad classification of packers and their applications was

introduced in Chapter 5 – Architecture of Completions. This
section describes the components and functions of both a
typical permanent and retrievable packer. Similar packers
are used throughout BP’s operations. When selecting a
particular packer, the following factors should be considered:
• The mechanical loads the packer needs to withstand

throughout the completion life, including any future
stimulation operations which can impose significant loads
on the packer. These loads are obtained from the tubing
stress analysis, see Chapter 6 – Tubing Movement and
Stress Calculations.
• Temperature and pressure variations, as sealing over a

wide range of temperatures can be particularly difficult.
• Temperature limitations on packer elements, particularly

if␣ there is a high differential pressure and a sour
environment.
• The downhole chemical environment, including any

treatments likely to be used. Amine inhibitors are a
particular problem with certain elastomers.
• What workover techniques are to be employed, and their

impact on packer selection.
The majority of BP’s wells are now deviated, which makes the
use of mechanically set packers inappropriate, although
these packers are still used on onshore vertical wells. In
deviated wells, packers are set by means of hydraulic
pressure or explosives. The packer discussed in this section
is hydraulically set.
PACKER
COMPONENTS
There are certain basic components that are common to all
production packers. Figure 8.16 shows a Baker SAB-3
packer, which is a permanent hydraulically set packer
currently used in many BP operations.
Page 28
L.H. SQUARE THREAD
SEAL BORE
MAIN BODY OR MANDREL ASSEMBLY
CONE
METAL BACK-UP RINGS
SEALING ELEMENT
SHEAR PINS
CONE
SLIPS
LOCK RING
SETTING PISTON
SEALS
NEW VAM BOX DOWN
Figure 8.16 – Baker SAB-3 Packer
Page 29
The seal assembly consists of the elastomer packing element

together with, in this case, metal back-up rings. This
provides isolation between the annulus and the underside of
the packer by packing off against the casing wall. One
problem with packing elements is seal extrusion, which is
overcome by the metal back-up rings. An alternative
technique is to use a combination packing element, with a
softer inside element providing the seal, and harder elements
on the outside backing up the soft seal and preventing
extrusion. The differential pressure a packer will hold is
dependent on the stress induced in the element.
This type of packer is set by means of hydraulic pressure in

the tubing. The pressure acts on the piston, forcing the
piston along the lock ring and pushing the bottom slip over
the cone. The cones are basically metal wedges which force
the toothed slips out into the casing wall. In this case, the
slips on either side of the packing element are opposed (hold
in opposite directions) and full circle. As the packer is set,
these circumferential slips split into segments as they grip
the casing wall. Once the bottom slip contacts the casing
wall, the load on the cone builds and the pin locating the
cones shears, allowing the element to compress. As the
element compresses, the pin in the upper cone shears,
forcing the upper slip out into the casing.
Movement of the packing element while under differential

pressure, will usually result in a packer failure. To avoid this,
the lock ring, or ratchet, both locks the stress in the element
and prevents the slips from disengaging.
At the top of the packer is a square thread together with a

seal bore. In most applications, this packer is run with an
anchor (fixed) seal which locates in the packer as shown in
Figure 8.17. Although the packer is permanent, the tubing
can be removed by picking up approximately 2000 lbs and
rotating 15 times to the right. In the unlikely event that the
packer needs to be removed, this can only be done by milling.
Page 30
ANCHOR LATCH
TUBING SEAL
MAIN PACKER BODY
Figure 8.17 – Packer and Anchor Seal
Page 31
SEAL ASSEMBLIES
POLISHED BORE
RECEPTACLE
The polished bore receptacle (PBR) (see Figure 8.18) was

introduced in Chapter␣ 5 as an alternative means of
completing the casing tubing interface. The polished bore of
the PBR accepts a seal assembly mandrel located on the
tubing, thus providing the seal between the tubing and the
annulus. The PBR is often run as an integral part of the liner
hanger in liner completions. The completion string, complete
with seal assembly, is then either latched into the PBR or
stabbed in and allowed to float with tubing movement. To
facilitate through-tubing workovers, the PBR should be a
larger diameter than the liner. With the annulus only isolated
from above the liner, the entire length of the liner is exposed
to the well fluids and must therefore be resistant to any
corrosive elements present.
Some PBRs have to accommodate large tubing movements,

and the correct selection of seal arrangements and
elastomers is critical to maintaining integrity. Leaks in PBR
assemblies in water injection wells have led to moves to
design water injection completions without moving seals (see
the Worked Example section in Chapter 6).
TUBING SEAL
RECEPTACLES
OR OVERSHOT
ASSEMBLIES
These seal assemblies perform the same function as a PBR
and are essentially an inverted PBR with the seals located in
the overshot and sealing on a polished tube. Because of the
problems in sealing on the outside of a curved polished
surface, especially with long seal movement, ie extra long
tubing seal receptacles (ELTSR), this type of assembly is more
difficult to manufacture than a PBR. ELTSRs have tended to
be run in conjunction with permanent packers and therefore
do not usually have as large an ID as the PBR.
Page 32
5-1/2" OD
17lb/ft
VAM ATAC BOX
SHEAR
RING
DEBRIS
BARRIER
UNIT
V-RYTE
DEBRIS SEAL
BARRIER UNITS
UNIT
DEBRIS
BARRIER
UNIT
PBR
SEAL MANDREL
DEBRIS
BARRIER
UNIT
5-1/2" OD
17lb/ft
VAM ATAC PIN
Figure 8.18 – Polished Bore Receptacle (PBR) and Seal Mandrel
Page 33
COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Sliding sleeves (see Figure 8.19) can be located in the tubing

string to provide a means of annulus communication. The
sliding sleeve is essentially full-opening with an inner sleeve
that can be opened or closed by means of a wireline shifting
tool. The main applications for a sliding sleeve include
providing circulation to the annulus pre/post workover,
multizone completions (see Chapter 5) and annulus
communication for power fluid, eg jet pump installation.
Sliding sleeves have a poor reputation for reliability in some
areas, particularly where the sleeve remains unused for long
periods, and for this reason sliding sleeves are not generally
recommended. With no sliding sleeve in the completion, a
tubing punch is used to achieve communication prior to
a␣ workover.
The side pocket mandrel (SPM), originally designed for gas

lift, can also be used as an alternative circulating device
(see␣ Figure 8.20). The SPM uses valves that can be set or
retrieved on wireline, using a kickover tool which positions
the device in the side pocket. When no communication is
required, a dummy valve is located in the SPM. Working
valves are usually activated by annular pressure and are
used for gas lift, circulation and chemical injection. SPMs
have both merits and drawbacks as a communication device.
Unlike the sliding sleeve, the flow control device can be
removed without pulling the tubing. The mandrel also allows
unrestricted flow through a full bore. However, the SPM has a
large OD and requires a relatively large casing. Another
disadvantage of the SPM is that debris can accumulate in the
side pocket, making setting and retrieving the valve difficult.
Page 34
4 1/2" OD 12.6 lb/ft

NEW VAM BOX
UPPER SUB
LOCKING GROOVE
"F" PROFILE
SEALING BORE
O-RING
HOUSING
VITON SEALS
CLOSING SLEEVE
VITON SEALS
LATCH
O-RING
SEALING BORE
LOWER SUB
4 1/2" OD 12.6 lb/ft

NEW VAM PIN
Figure 8.19 – Sliding Sleeve
Page 35
KICKOVER GUIDE
LATCH
SEAL BORE
COMMUNICATION PORTS
SEAL BORE
Figure 8.20 – Camco MMG Side Pocket Mandrel
Page 36
BP Exploration Procurement of Equipment – Chapter 9
BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION 1
TECHNIQUES
FINALIZING THE COMPLETION DESIGN 15

ESTABLISHING LEAD TIMES 16
PRE-QUALIFICATION OF VENDORS 16
PREPARING TENDER DOCUMENTS 17
BID EVALUATION 18
PLACING THE ORDER 19
WORKED EXAMPLE
INTRODUCTION 21
SCOPE OF SUPPLY 21
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS 26
SUMMARY 41
CONTACTS 43
REFERENCES 43
BIBLIOGRAPHY 43
INTRODUCTION
Procurement, although often regarded as a rather mundane
task, can have a significant impact on the success of a well.
The timely delivery of completion equipment and tubulars
with the appropriate QA/QC can reduce lost rig time and
avoid costly problems during the subsequent production
phase. Although the detailed procurement process can vary
with location, the overall strategy may be applied universally.
The main stages in the procurement process are outlined in
the Techniques section.
BP worldwide buys significant quantities of equipment and

the experience gained in procuring this equipment should be
utilized when purchasing new equipment. In particular, the
level of QA has in the past often varied from project to
project. Until recently every manufacturer was requested to
submit a quality plan with each bid to supply equipment.
This plan was then reviewed and modified depending on the
different QA personnel involved. However, it has now been
recognized that in the vast majority of cases individual
engineers are looking for similar equipment built to the same
standards. By employing standard quality plans lead times
can be decreased, BP’s QA/QC effort is reduced and the
overall cost of equipment will come down. Steps have been
taken in this direction in Aberdeen Operations, where
standard quality plans have either been agreed or are in the
process of being agreed with all the major suppliers of
completion equipment. These standards cover all equipment
and special materials. All the main companies can produce
new equipment to these standard plans or very similar plans
in any location worldwide. In line with the BP’s drive for
fitness for purpose, these plans provide a useful standard
which can be applied to ensure an adequate level of QA for
any project. A review of quality plans should not therefore be
required for each new project.
Examples of Baker Oil Tools’ standard quality plans for both

piece parts and assemblies, and Camco’s quality plan for
downhole safety valves are shown over page for information.
Page 1
BP Exploration
CAMCO QUALITY PLAN NO: QP/B002/GEN/03
CUSTOMER: BP PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT LTD EQUIPMENT: DOWNHOLE SAFETY VALVES PAGE 1 OF 3

ACCEPTANCE VERIFYING
STEP ACTIVITY PROC REF ACTION/COMMENTS CAMCO QC BUYER QC
CRITERIA DOCUMENTATION
01 Verify that current Master List E
procedures technically MCL/BGEN
equate to those accepted
by BP.
02 Receiving inspection of BQA-16 Applicable Inspection Log Ensure compliance D

raw material. CAMCO CMS Material Cert with CAMCO V
Spec Purchase Order B
Camco Quality Plan
03 Receiving inspection of BQA-16 Purchase Inspection Log Ensure compliance D

purchased parts. Order Material Certs with CAMCO V
Page 9
Drawing Purchase Order B

E
04 Machine component Drawing Drawing Computer File

parts complete.
05 Inspect and gauge BQA-20 Drawing Routing Dimensional and D
Procurement of Equipment – Chapter 9

threads visual inspection. V
06 Anti-galling treatment CSP-73 Vallourec Routing Copper coat box threads.

on Vam threads. CSP-28 Procedure Glass bead blast
Vallourec RTLI-78 pin threads
Procedure RTLI-78
07 Assemble complete Drawing Drawing Routing V
BACKGROUND
Assembly Record
PLEASE NOTE: This Quality Plan represents our standard procedures plus any Customer requirements known at the time of preparation. CAMCO reserves
the right to charge for additional tests or other requirements added to the Quality Plan by the Customer after this time which involve extra
costs to CAMCO.
BACKGROUND

ACCEPTANCE VERIFYING
STEP ACTIVITY PROC REF ACTION/COMMENTS CAMCO QC BUYER QC
CRITERIA DOCUMENTATION
08 Hydrostatic test. QA-22 Drawing Test Report Based on API 14A T H
minimum requirements V
09 Hard stamp and fit thread Drawing Drawing Routing Stamp part number,
protectors. description, serial
number, thread type
and test pressure
Camco Quality Plan (Cont)
10 Visual inspection BQA-18 Drawing Routing Final visual check in V

test area
11 Crate for shipment. BMT-7 BMT-7 Despatch Note V

Page 10
12 Prepare Customer’s Quality Plan Purchase Third Party E E

Documentation Package. Order Inspector’s
Release Note.
CAMCO Cert of
Conformity.
13 Despatch to Customer. Purchase Order Purchase Despatch Note

Order

BP Exploration
costs to CAMCO.
BP Exploration
LEGEND
B : Hardness Inspection.
D : Dimensional Inspection.
E : Examine Documents for Compliance to Specification.
H : Hold Point for Customer’s Inspector. (Operations will be held until Customer’s Inspector is present.)
M : Monitor by Customer’s Inspector. (Customer’s Inspector will randomly check operation.)
T : Hydro/Functional Test.
Camco Quality Plan (Cont)
V : Visual Inspection.
W : Witness by Customer’s Inspector. (Customer will be given 5 days notice of operation, but operation will proceed.)
S : Customer’s Inspector will Sample Inspect at this Hold Point. (Sample size determined by Customer.)
S : Customer’s Inspector will Sample Inspect at this Witness Point. (Sample size determined by Customer.)
Page 11
CUSTOMER DOCUMENTATION REQUIREMENTS

To be filled in by mutual agreement between CAMCO and the Customer prior to the final quotation, as the Documentation Package contents can affect price.
Third Party Inspector’s Release Note.

CAMCO Certificate of Conformity.
(2 COPIES OF DOCUMENTATION PACKAGE REQUIRED WITH GOODS.)

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
If requested by the Customer this section can be used to record details of the materials to be used, and any relevant heat-treatment, if the Quality Plan is
specific to a CAMCO part number.
PART No : N/A HARDNESS : N/A

DESCRIPTION : Safety Valves CAMCO WELDING PROCEDURE : N/A
CAMCO MATERIAL SPEC No : See Master List MLC/BGEN
BACKGROUND
CAMCO HEAT-TREAT SPEC No : N/A
costs to CAMCO.
Procurement of Equipment – Chapter 9 BP Exploration
A logical extension of establishing standard quality plans has

been the development of master agreements between the
major equipment suppliers and Aberdeen Operations. Each
agreement covers equipment lists together with standard
prices, stocking levels, information on equipment call-up and
standard quality plans. Prior to entering into these master
agreements each prospective supplier is thoroughly assessed.
Suppliers are also reviewed at regular intervals to ensure that
they are maintaining their quality plans.
Although completion equipment for new development

projects␣ is usually procured by competitive tender, rather
than through master agreements, the standard specifications
and QA plans embodied in these agreements should be
applied where appropriate. In some cases where only
relatively small quantities of equipment are required,
procuring the equipment under the terms of a master
agreement can also be cost-effective.
In summary, the master agreements have established a

benchmark for specifications, quality and price and should
always be referred to when procuring equipment, particularly
in the North Sea. A similar approach may also have benefits
in other locations.
One example where specifications have varied throughout

the␣ company is that for 13% chrome steels. Although
detailed␣ specifications exist for 13% chrome tubulars in
BP␣ Engineering Standard 145, they are not appropriate in
their entirety to completion equipment. The master
agreements have overcome some of the problems with
regard␣ to 13% chrome specifications by requesting
completion vendors to submit their specifications for
approval. However, it is important to recognize that there
may be certain exceptions particularly in the presence of
small quantities of H2S.
When procuring similar materials from other vendors, the

widely accepted specification shown in Table 9.1 can be used
as a guideline.
The procurement approach outlined in this section is based

on experience with major projects in areas with a developed
service infrastructure. However, it is recognized that the
guidelines presented are ‘ideal’ and may not be appropriate in
all geographical locations. The impact of any departure from
this approach should still always be assessed irrespective
of␣ location.
Page 12
ACCEPTED HEAT TREATMENT AND MECHANICAL

REQUIREMENTS FOR 13% CHROME EQUIPMENT
1. Reference should be made to API 5CT and BP 145 Part 1,

Revision 1, with additional requirements as follows.
2. Material strength must be no greater than L80 grade without

referral to a BP metallurgist.
3. Chemical specification must comply with API 5CT Section 3,

Table 3.1.
4. When hot forging a reduction ratio of not less than 4 to 1 shall

be␣ used.
5. Heat treatment: After austenitizing, the material shall be

quenched and double tempered. The second temperature shall
be less than the first, but no less than 650°C.
Heat treatment in the range 350 to 650°C shall be avoided.

Cooling through this range shall be as rapid as possible.
6. Toughness: Three full size (10mm x 10mm) Charpy V-notch

impact tests shall be performed on each heat at -10°C (+14°F).
Average impact energy shall be greater than 20 joules, with no
single value less than 15 joules.
7. Hardness: Material hardness shall not exceed 22 Rockwell-C.
8. Ultrasonic and magnetic particle or dye penetrant inspection is

required to ensure all welded equipment is free of defects. The
technique and acceptance criteria should be submitted to BP for
approval prior to manufacture.
Table 9.1
Page 13
OVERALL PROCUREMENT PROCESS
• Final design complete and completion philosophy established.
• Establish lead times for equipment delivery.
• Develop procurement programme.
• Pre-qualify new vendors or manufacturing plants.
• Prepare tender documents including technical specifications

and bid packages.
• Technical and commercial evaluation of bids.
• Awarding the order and pre-production meeting.
• Preparing purchase orders.
Table 9.2
FINALIZING
THE
COMPLETION
DESIGN
For a major field development, it is important to involve all

the potential vendors during the design stage. The guiding
principle should be that the technical specifications do not
contain any surprises for the supplier. Involving the vendors
at an early stage ensures a maximum choice of acceptable
equipment in the time frame required. This is particularly
important as the industry has to face more technical
challenges – eg horizontal wells, hostile environments etc.
This involvement can also provide the direction and impetus
for the completion companies to develop the equipment to
meet future needs. Early liaison with companies regarding
the Miller field and its requirement for 7in tubing retrievable
safety valves to fit inside 10 3/4in casing led to some
companies developing products to meet this requirement.
Page 15
Often a company’s reaction to this early liaison can be

indicative of their likely performance in supplying equipment,
in that companies that fail to come up with proposals during
this stage are unlikely to have fully designed, tried and tested
equipment by the time it comes to evaluate bids. (Designing
equipment while preparing the bid is not unknown !!) In
addition the performance and detailed design of equipment
can have a significant effect on the completion architecture
and it is important to evaluate all the possibilities during the
design stage rather than attempting to redesign a completion
during the procurement phase.
ESTABLISHING
LEAD TIMES
The lead time for the manufacture and delivery of equipment
is dependent on the equipment type and perhaps more
importantly on metallurgy. The overall time is also influenced
by a number of factors including location and manufacturer’s
workload. Inevitably, the bid evaluation and purchasing
stages take longer than programmed and contingency should
always be built into any programme to account for this.
PRE-
QUALIFICATION
OF VENDORS
As mentioned earlier, many of the completion vendors and
their respective plants have already been pre-qualified.
During the detailed design phase, a view of the relative

strengths and weaknesses of the various companies and
their␣ equipment will emerge. This, linked with their recent
performance in a particular location, can be used to decide
which companies are selected to bid for the various packages
of equipment. It is important to recognise that if a company is
placed on a bid list, then according to BP policy the company
can be regarded as technically competent of supplying the
equipment. If there are reservations about a company, it may
be extremely difficult to convince management or a project
bid committee not to award the order to that company if
their␣ bid is substantially lower than the rest. Therefore, if
there are any concerns about a particular company, these
should be highlighted to management at the start of the
tendering process.
Page 16
PREPARING
TENDER
DOCUMENTS
In preparing the tender documents for procuring equipment
for a major project, the advantages of splitting the bid into
different packages of equipment should be evaluated. This
allows the engineer to pick and choose from the overall bids
the best suppliers for particular types of equipment. However,
the number of options in a bid package should be limited to
avoid both a multiplicity of equipment and hence tools and
spares in any one field and also a complicated bid evaluation.
For example one particular company may have the most
appropriate packer at a competitive price but the safety valve
offered may not be technically acceptable. If the tender
documents did not include the option to separate the orders,
then either non-preferred equipment would have to be run or
the vendors would have to be invited to bid again on a
different basis.
In addition to splitting packages into different types of

equipment, a stage delivery or ordering of equipment may
have merits in developments with large numbers of wells,
although advantages to BP’s cash flow may be outweighed
by␣ any discounts offered for large orders.
Careful and precise preparation of the technical

specifications can avoid significant problems in the bid
evaluation. It should always be remembered that once the
tender documents are issued, any clarification or changes
to␣ the specifications are awkward, in that they have to be
agreed with all the bidders in order to maintain the integrity
of the tender system. The technical specifications must
provide sufficient information to allow the vendors to supply
the appropriate equipment with the correct specification. A
number of equipment failures can be traced to incorrect or
inadequate information supplied by the operator, although
not as many as the completion companies would like you
to␣ believe!
In addition to providing sufficient information, the

specifications must also be tight enough to ensure that all
the vendors bid on the same basis. A common problem can
be the different interpretations of the degree of corrosion
potential and hence appropriate metallurgy. This can
obviously have a significant effect on the cost of equipment
and thus make the commercial evaluation of the bid futile in
Page 17
that you are not ‘comparing apples with apples’. This problem
can be avoided by either referencing the acceptable materials
in the master agreements or by stating a acceptable
minimum metallurgy.
A too rigid specification can also lead to difficulties in that

a␣ company may have a perfectly acceptable material which
does not exactly meet the specification as written. Unless a
waiver is provided to all suppliers, this company would
have␣ to source alternative materials with obvious cost
implications.
To summarize, technical specifications must provide

sufficient information and ensure that all vendors bid on
the␣ same basis, while at the same time allowing sufficient
flexibility to allow the completion companies to provide the
most cost-effective equipment that meets the requirements.
A␣ pro forma for technical specifications is presented in the
Worked Example section. This can be used as a basis for
preparing field specific technical specifications.
BID
EVALUATION
A strong involvement from the completion engineer is

required throughout the whole procurement process. The
bid␣ evaluation process is usually split into the commercial
evaluation and the technical evaluation. Although the
procurement department will review the commercial terms
it␣ is imperative that the completion engineer is allowed to
exercise the overall judgement on the costs of the various
alternatives. Only the completion engineer and his supervisor
are able to decide whether a particular piece of equipment is
worth a certain cost premium. During the commercial
evaluation, it should always be remembered that the
incremental cost associated with different types of equipment
is negligible if it results in better reliability, reduced well
maintenance and workovers and greater uptime.
The technical evaluation should be performed in accordance

with the techniques outlined in Chapter 8 – Selection of
Completion Equipment. As discussed in Chapter 8, the
best␣ way to evaluate equipment is to first examine the well
conditions, and the desired operational capabilities, and then
determine which equipment meets the well conditions and
best fulfils the operational requirements. A major factor in
reviewing equipment is past experience and reliability.
Page 18
Chapter 8 presents the results of a BP-wide survey on

completion equipment and can be used as a reference.
In␣ addition the SINTEF work on the reliability of surface
controlled subsurface safety valves provides useful
information on the reliability of valves throughout the
(*Reference 9.1) North␣ Sea*.
PLACING
THE ORDER
Once the evaluation is complete and the order awarded it is

important to hold a pre-production meeting. At this meeting,
any discrepancies between the technical specifications and
the proposed equipment must be resolved, together with
delivery and payment schedules. If a combination of different
manufacturers are being used – eg one manufacturer’s
wireline safety valve being run on another’s lock, care should
be taken to ensure that there is the appropriate level of
co-operation between the two manufacturers.
In order to ensure that all the equipment is compatible and

dimensionally correct, the final order should normally be
prepared by the completions engineer or well service
supervisor. Although this can be a relatively tedious task,
experience has shown that all the previous preparations can
be wasted if the order is prepared by purchasing personnel
without a significant input from technical staff.
Page 19
INTRODUCTION
This worked example, based on the Miller field development
in␣ the North Sea, is intended to provide a standard format,
which can then be used as a basis for future technical
specifications for completion equipment. A tender document
sent to the approved bidders would normally consist of the
following:
• Scope of supply.
• Technical specification.
• Commercial requirements.
• Reference to standard quality plans.
• General specification, including delivery programme,

manuals, equipment marking and packaging etc.
SCOPE OF
SUPPLY
The scope of supply should cover the following: equipment

required, bid packages, delivery schedule and any future
ordering options. Figures 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 show the three
types of completions to be run in the Miller field. The
equipment requirements should be laid out in a table similar
to Table 9.3 and should include all required redress kits and
spares and wireline tools that are specific to the particular
completion equipment eg safety valve running tool etc.
The bid packages should be structured to provide a level of

flexibility in being able to place orders for different types of
equipment with different suppliers. In some cases where
the␣ equipment is relatively standard and the amount of
equipment is small, ordering all the equipment from one
supplier and hence having a single bid package may have
merits. However, in situations like Miller with onerous
downhole conditions, relatively exotic metallurgy, new types
of equipment and three different types of completion, the
ability to select different equipment types from different
manufacturers is a necessity. Indeed, some manufacturers
may not be able to supply acceptable equipment for all
the␣ applications.
Page 21
SCOPE OF SUPPLY
This indent authorises the issue of purchase enquiries for the following equipment as described in the detailed
Technical Specification.
REQUIREMENTS
ITEM DESCRIPTION 5 1/2in 7in 7in
TOTAL
PRODUCTION PRODUCTION INJECTION
1 Tubing Retrievable 12 11 10 33
Downhole Safety Valve
2 Communication Nipple 12 11 10 33
3 Lock Open Tool 1 1 0 2
4 Communication Tool 1 1 0 2
5 Wireline Retrievable DHSV 2 2 0 4
6 Safety Valve Lock Mandrel 2 2 0 4
7 Safety Valve Running Tool 1 1 0 2
8 Safety Valve Pulling Tool 1 1 0 2
9 Redress Kit 1 1 0 2
10 Production Packer 12 11 10 33
11 Anchor Seal 12 11 10 33
12 Dynamic Seal Assembly 12 11 10 33
13 Retrieving Tool for Outer Mandrel 1 1 0 2
14 Deep Landing Nipple 12 11 10 33
15 Plug for Deep Landing Nipple 3 3 0 6
16 Lock Mandrel 3 3 0 6
17 Intermediate Landing Nipple 12 11 10 33
18 Plug for Intermediate Nipple 3 3 0 6
19 Lock Mandrel 3 3 0 6
20 Static Seal Assembly 12 11 10 33
21 Flow Couplings 48 44 40 132
Table 9.3
Page 25
Although the equipment is split into packages one option

should always be to purchase all the equipment from a
single␣ supplier. Prior to subdividing bids into packages, the
prospective vendors should be consulted to ascertain what
level of ordering will achieve economies of scale and hence
discounts. It is not normally appropriate to subdivide an
order to such an extent that a cost penalty is incurred. A
further reason for splitting packages, especially with large
orders, is where there are concerns over a single company
being able to handle the whole order and still meet the
delivery requirements.
With a large project where drilling takes place over a number

of years, it is important to establish a delivery schedule.
Again economies of scale should be taken into account when
putting together a schedule. It may also be appropriate to
consider asking for quotes for future options to cover
contingency wells. This avoids some of the cost penalties
associated with single sourcing equipment at later stage,
once the main order has been awarded.
TECHNICAL
SPECIFICATIONS
Any technical specifications should include the following:
• Introduction.
• General requirements.
• Detailed specification for each component of equipment.
• QA requirements.
• Acceptance testing.
• Standards, specifications and codes of practice.
• Detailed chemical breakdown of produced crude/gas.
• Detailed chemical breakdown of formation water.
• Detailed chemical breakdown of any injected fluids and

associated additives
• Details of any proposed or potential additives to the

production stream.
Page 26
• Details of completion fluid.
• Operating data for tubing movement calculations.
Introduction
The introduction should contain sufficient background
information to put the detailed technical specification in
context. It should provide details of the overall project timing,
including the proposed drilling programme, the number,
type␣ and size of wells. Details would include number of
production, artificial lift and injection wells, whether
wells␣ were subsea, tie-back or platform wells etc and the
maximum deviation and length of the wells. Schematics of
all␣ the different types of wells should be presented.
Any special requirements associated with the field should

also be highlighted in the introduction, eg future through-
tubing stimulation requirements. In the case of Miller the
particularly corrosive nature of the reservoir fluid was
brought out as a particular concern.
General
Requirements
• Full details of design, manufacture, material requirements
and field experience for all the equipment proposed should
be provided by the supplier.
• All completion equipment is normally supplied with box up

and pin down connections. The thread type should be
compatible with the tubulars and sufficient material must
be provided to allow two full thread recuts.
• For all equipment using elastomeric seals, details of all

elastomers together with their grade and manufacturer
shall be made available to BP. (Reference should made
(*Reference 9.2) to␣ the elastomer guide* or D Potts at RCS Sunbury to
confirm suitability.)
• The supplier shall submit details of the intended

manufacturing site, future workload and an indication of
the country of origin as a percentage of the total order.
• Detailed sectional arrangement drawings shall be

submitted. Drawings should show all constructional,
operating and mechanical features together with principal
Page 27
dimensions, including IDs, ODs, lengths and minimum

body thickness.
• Drawings should also indicate handling points and areas

of thin section, which must not be subjected to torque
or␣ bending.
• In addition to design details, the drawings should identify

each part by the manufacturer’s part number together
with the specific material.
Any specific material requirements should be detailed in this

section. The Miller specifications were as follows:
• Any component materials permanently installed in the

production wells shall be suitable for service in a CO2 and
H2S environment see detailed chemical breakdown of the
produced crude.
• All permanently installed equipment in the production

wells should have a minimum corrosion resistance
equivalent to that of the tubulars eg 25% duplex
stainless␣ steel.
• Equipment for the water injection wells must be suitable

for deoxygenated seawater, as specified in the chemical
breakdown of injection water.
• Material specifications for all wireline equipment with the

exception of the insert SCSSV and associated equipment
should be supplied by the manufacturer.
• All equipment specifications shall include a full list

of␣ components, giving details of individual material
specifications, including strength and toughness
requirements.
• Where detailed material specifications are proprietary, the

nearest equivalent National Standards and grades should
be quoted.
• Full material traceability and certification is required on

all equipment.
• Any BP specific requirements particular to the type of

materials under consideration should also be included
eg␣ 13% chrome steel specs (see Table 9.1).
Page 28
Detailed
Technical
Specifications
A technical specification is prepared for each completion type.
The completion components and associated equipment are
listed with the appropriate specifications detailed under
each␣ component. Figures 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3 show the three
completion designs to be employed in Miller.
The type of information required in the specification for each

completion component is described below with examples
taken from the Miller specification.
SCSSV
• Size and type of valve eg 7in nominal surface controlled
tubing retrievable.
• Type of closure mechanism eg self-equalizing flapper.
• Strength requirements. The minimum is set for these

by␣ the tubing strength eg tensile strength, burst and
collapse rating must be compatible with 7in 29 lb/ft of
80␣ ksi yield at 250°F.
• Valve must be failsafe close under all operating conditions.
• Required failsafe setting depth and control line conditions

eg 1800 ft with a 0.57 psi/ft completion fluid in the
control line.
• Maximum working pressure of the valve.
• Maximum control line pressure.
• Operating temperature range taking into account any

potential stimulation operations.
• Required dimension eg valve must fit inside 10 3/4in

51␣ lb/ft casing with special drift of 9.730in. Internal
diameter should be as large as possible.
• Requirements for permanently or temporarily locking open

the valve.
• Control line size and material eg 1/4in Inconel.
Page 29
• Control line fluid eg Erifon HW40 (Marston Bentley).
• API and SPPE-1 requirements eg the valve should comply

with the current requirements of API 14A and 14B and
ANSI/ASME SPPE-1. In addition the valve should be rated
for Class 2 sandy service Class 3S service as per API 14A
Section 1.2. (Refer to Chapter 8, page 8.)
• Details of performance testing in accordance with API␣ 14A

will be provided by the supplier.
Facility for Locating a Wireline Insert Valve

• Type of device eg a communication nipple to accommodate
a wireline retrievable insert SCSSV which enables control
line fluid to be transferred from the tubing retrievable
SCSSV to the wireline valve.
• Nipple size eg nominal 7in.
• The nipple shall utilize the same control line as the tubing
retrievable valve.
• The device must be able to effectively isolate the tubing

retrievable valve once communication is established to the
wireline valve.
• Control line and fluid are as per the above SCSSV.
Lock Open Tool for the Tubing Retrievable SCSSV

• Function eg wireline tool to permanently lock open the
tubing retrievable SCSSV.
Communication Tool
• Function eg wireline tool which transfers control line
communication from the tubing retrievable SCSSV to the
nipple for the wireline insert valve.
Wireline Retrievable Insert SCSSV

• Size and type eg wireline retrievable SCSSV to locate
inside the nominal 7in tubing retrievable SCSSV.
• Type of closure mechanism eg self-equalizing flapper.
Page 30
• Strength requirements. The minimum is set for these

by␣ the tubing strength eg tensile strength, burst and
collapse rating must be compatible with 7in 29 lb/ft of
80␣ ksi yield at 250°F.
• Valve must be failsafe close under all operating conditions.
• Required failsafe setting depth and control line conditions

eg 1800 ft with a 0.57 psi/ft completion fluid␣ in the
control␣ line.
• Maximum working pressure of the valve.
• Maximum control line pressure.
• Operating temperature range taking into account any

potential production operations performed through
the␣ valve.
• Control line fluid eg Erifon HW40 (Marston Bentley).
• Valve must be compatible with the communication nipple.
• The internal diameter should be as large as possible.
• API and SPPE-1 requirements eg the valve should comply

with the current requirements of API 14A and 14B and
ANSI/ASME SPPE-1. In addition the valve should be rated
for Class 2 sandy service Class 3S service as per API 14A
Section 1.2. (Refer to Chapter 8, page 8.)
• Details of performance testing in accordance with API␣ 14A

will be provided by the supplier.
Insert SCSSV Lock Mandrel

• The lock mandrel should for the insert valve should locate
in the communication nipple.
Insert SCSSV Running Tool
Insert SCSSV Pulling Tool
Page 31
Wireline Retrievable Insert SCSSV Redress Kit

• Running spares for field redressing of the insert SCSSV.
Production Packer
• Type eg tubing run hydraulically set permanent packer
with millout extension.
• Casing size eg packer to be run inside 9 5/8in

40␣ lb/ft␣ L80.
• Packer should have a large bore to maximize flow area.
• Packer setting mechanism eg packer to be hydraulically

set by pressuring up above a standing valve located in the
tailpipe below the packer.
• Based on the operating conditions detailed in the tubing

movement data, full tubing movement calculations
including the total forces on the packer and anchor seal
should be submitted by the suppliers.
• Pressure rating eg the packer should be rated to 5000␣ psi

from either direction. In considering the rating it is
important to take account of any changes in operation of
the well eg stimulation, gas injection etc.
• Workover requirements eg the ability to stack packers and

seal off in the packer below.
• Any additional requirements specific to the completion

type should also be included eg Figure 9.1 shows that the
tubing below the packer will be bottomed out in the liner
PBR. Hence any packer should be capable of fully setting
without any downward movement. All suppliers must
demonstrate to BP’s satisfaction that their packer will
successfully set under such conditions.
Anchor Seal
• Function eg anchor seal assembly to latch into the top of
the production packer and to seal in the upper seal bore.
• Tension, compression, pressure ratings and ratings

under␣ combined loading should be provided by the
manufacturer.
Page 32
• Workover requirements eg assembly must be capable

of␣ being unlatched from the packer to allow the tubing
above the packer to be recovered and subsequently rerun
and latched into the packer.
Dynamic Seal Assembly

• Function eg the dynamic seal assembly is attached to
the␣ anchor seal assembly and should be of sufficient
length to accommodate the total expected upward tubing
movement. (See requirement for tubing movement
calculations.)
• Running position eg the seal assembly will be run in

hole␣ pinned in the closed position. Shear release to be
150,000 lb maximum.
• Workover requirements eg the inner mandrel should be

capable of being retrieved with the completion and the
outer mandrel should be recoverable once the string
is␣ removed.
• Seal arrangements eg the seal stacks should be attached

to the outer mandrel.
Retrieving Tool for Outer Mandrel

• Function eg tool to remove the outer mandrel of the
dynamic seal assembly.
• Material specification to be supplied by the manufacturer.
Landing Nipple A
• Description eg 7in nominal landing nipple with
no-go␣ profile.
Wireline Plug for Nipple A

• Pressure rating eg 5000 psi above and below.
Lock Mandrel
• Description eg lock mandrel and appropriate adaptors for
the above plug.
Landing Nipple B
• Description eg 7in nominal landing nipple with
no-go␣ profile.
Page 33
Wireline Plug For Nipple B

• Pressure rating eg 5000 psi above and below.
Lock Mandrel
• Description eg lock mandrel and appropriate adaptors for
the above plug.
Static Seal Assembly

• Function and dimensions eg the static seal assembly must
locate in the liner top PBR with the following dimensions:
7.375 ID with a 15 ft seal bore, only the bottom 6 ft of
which is corrosion resistant alloy.
Flow Couplings
• Function eg flow couplings with heavy wall are required
downstream of Nipples A and B and both upstream and
downstream of the SCSSV.
A similar specification to the above is also prepared for the

completions in Figures 9.1 and 9.2.
Quality
Assurance
• All equipment will be manufactured under an authorized

quality assurance programme, previously agreed by a
BP␣ Exploration Operating Company.
Page 34
Standards,
Specifications
and Codes
of Practice
The supplier shall indicate all the relevant standards,
specifications and codes of practice applied in the design,
manufacture, testing, inspection and documentation of the
equipment. These shall include, where applicable:
• API 5CT Specification for Casing Tubing

(2nd␣ Edition, November 1989)
(formerly␣ Specs␣ 5A & 5 AG)
• BP Std 145 Casing, Tubing and Drillpipe

(Parts␣ 1␣ and␣ 2) July 1987
• BS 1133 Standard for Temporary Protection

of␣ Metal Surfaces Against Corrosion
(Section␣ 6)
• BS 4232 Surface Finish of Blast Cleaned Steel

for␣ Painting
• BS 5750 Quality Systems: Part 1 – Specification for

Design, Manufacture and Installation
• API 14A Specifications for Subsurface Safety Valve

Equipment (7th Edition, January␣ 1988)
• API 14B Specifications for Design, Installation and

Operation of Subsurface Safety Valve
Systems (2nd Edition, November 1981)
• NACE
MR-01-75-88 Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant
Metallic Materials for Oilfield
Equipment,␣ 1988
Page 35
Chemical
Breakdowns
CHEMICAL BREAKDOWN OF MILLER CRUDE
Component Wt Fraction
CO2 0.0980
N2 0.0037
C1 0.0973
C2 0.0353
C3 0.0444
IC4 0.0080
NC4 0.0248
IC5 0.0114
NC5 0.0151
C5+ 0.0620
Basis: Sunbury Technical Reports (Ref PEB/93/86

and 50490)
Note: H2S up to 750 ppm mol fraction in the

gas␣ phase.
Any potential change in well conditions must
also be highlighted.
Table 9.4
Page 36
TYPICAL ANALYSES OF MILLER FORMATION WATER
Concentration
for Design Purposes
CATIONS (mg/1)
Sodium 27 730
Potassium 1420
Calcium 630
Magnesium 105
Barium 825
Strontium 75
Total Iron 15
ANIONS (mg/1)
Chloride 45 060
Sulphate 5
Bicarbonate 1920
Carbonate –
Hydroxide –
TDS (mg/1) 77 730
ph: 7.5
Specific gravity
(60/60°F): 1.052
Resistivity
(ohm-m at 60°F): 0.120
Table 9.5
Page 37
NORTH SEA WATER ANALYSIS

(Injection Water)
Concentration
ION (mg/1)
Sodium 10 890
Potassium 490
Magnesium 1368
Calcium 428
Strontium 8
Barium 0
Chloride 19 700
Sulphate 2960
Bicarbonate 124
Note: When the deoxygenation plant is

unavailable, oxygen scavenger, in the
form␣ of␣ ammonium bisulphite or sodium
bisuphite, may be added.
Table 9.6
Page 38
Tubing
Movement Data
INPUT DATA FOR TUBING MOVEMENT CALCULATIONS
See Figure 9.1 for schematic of the 7in completion
7in PRODUCTION COMPLETION
1.1 Tubing length (ft tvd) 12 900

(Surface to packer)
1.2 Tubing size (inches) 7
1.3 Tubing nominal weight (lb/ft) 29
1.4 Tubing yield stress (psi) 80 000
1.5 Tubing metallurgy 25% Cr/35% Ni Austenitic Alloy or
25% Cr Duplex Stainless Steel
1.6 Casing size
a) Surface – 2000ft 10 3/4in, 51 lb/ft
b) 2000 ft – Packer 9 5/8in, 40 to 47 lb/ft
1.7 Maximum rate of build-up (deg/100 ft) 2.5
1.8 Step-out at packer depth (ft) 8026
1.9 Kick-off depth (ft) 1640
INITIAL CONDITIONS
1.10 Initial weight of fluid in tubing (psi/ft) 0.48 to 0.57

(Completion fluid)
1.11 Initial surface temperature (°F) 45
1.12 Initial bottom hole temperature (°F) 245
(Packer depth)
1.13 Initial tubing pressure at surface (psi) 0
1.14 Initial annulus pressure at surface (psi) 0
OPERATING CONDITIONS
a) Production
1.15 Wellhead flowing temperature (°F) 200
1.16 Bottom hole flowing temperature (°F) 250
1.17 Wellhead flowing pressure (psig) 800
1.18 Tubing pressure gradient (psi/ft) 0.362
1.19 Annulus pressure at surface (psig) 0
1.20 Annulus pressure gradient (psi/ft) 0.48 to 0.57
Table 9.7
Page 39
INPUT DATA FOR TUBING MOVEMENT CALCULATIONS
OPERATING CONDITIONS (Cont)
b) Tubing Pressure Test

1.21 Position of plug (ft tvd) 12 720
1.22 Wellhead temperature (°F) 45
1.23 Bottom hole temperature (°F) 245
1.24 Tubing pressure at surface (psig) 5000
1.25 Tubing pressure gradient above plug (psi/ft) 0.48 to 0.57
1.28 Tubing pressure below plug (psig) 6100 to 7300
1.29 Tubing pressure gradient below plug (psi/ft) 0.48 to 0.57
c) Annulus Pressure Test

1.33 Tubing pressure gradient (psi/ft) 0.48 to 0.57
d) Injection
1.39 Tubing pressure gradient (psi/ft) 0.45
Similar data should be provided for all other completion types
Table 9.6 (Cont)
Page 40
SUMMARY
• The procurement process is a key component in the
successful completion of wells. Time spent by technical
staff overseeing the procurement process can reduce the
potential for costly problems.
• The temptation to ‘reinvent the wheel’ when preparing

technical specifications should be avoided. Previous
experience and existing specifications should be utilized
when appropriate.
• Quality plans have been agreed with most of the major

manufacturers and further review or additional QA
requirements are not usually necessary.
• XEU master agreements have established a benchmark

for␣ specifications, quality and price in the North Sea and
should be referred to when procuring equipment.
• Although the full procurement process as presented here

is not appropriate to all locations, components of the
overall strategy may be applied universally.
• Always ensure that there is sufficient detail in the

technical specifications to allow the vendor to propose
the␣ appropriate equipment. Use the format shown in the
worked example to ensure that all areas are covered.
• The chemical composition of the produced fluid, formation

water, injected water and additives, completion fluid and
any other potential additives should always be included in
the technical specifications.
• Any potential change in completion duty and well

conditions should be highlighted in the specifications.
Page 41
Completion Design Manual CONTACTS, REFERENCES ETC
CONTACTS
XEU Master Agreements – Steve Regulski Rubislaw␣ X3746.
REFERENCES
9.1 SINTEF (The Foundation for Scientific and Industrial
Research at the Norwegian Institute of Technology,
Trondheim): Reliability of Surface Controlled
Subsurface Safety Valves, Phase III – Main Report,
27th October 1989.
9.2 Elastomer Guide.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
List of XEU Master Agreements appropriate to
completion␣ equipment.
Page 43
BP Exploration Running the Completion – Chapter 10
BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION 1
TECHNIQUES
PREPARATION AND STORAGE OF TUBULARS 3

COMPLETION MODULE MAKE-UP 4
RIG SITE PREPARATION OF TUBULARS 12
RUNNING THE COMPLETION 14
WORKED EXAMPLE
INTRODUCTION 21
RUNNING THE COMPLETION 22
XMAS TREE INSTALLATION 31
SUMMARY 33
CONTACTS 35
REFERENCES 35
BIBLIOGRAPHY 35
INTRODUCTION
Experience has shown that by employing the correct

preparation, handling and running procedures, the overall rig
time can be reduced and potential problems which may only
manifest themselves in the production phase can be avoided.
This is the final stage in the completion process and adopting
a cavalier attitude to running the completion can sometimes
negate all the previous good work. For example time spent
evaluating formation damage mechanisms and preparing
clean completion fluids can be wasted by failing to clean a
production or stimulation string.
With the increasing use of exotic alloys in ever more hostile

locations, completion running techniques take on an even
greater importance. The appropriate degree of care is
dependent on the type of materials and location. The
logistical problems associated with locations like the North
Sea dictate that all the tubulars and completion equipment
delivered to the rig are rigorously tested and inspected
onshore. In the North Sea, all completion equipment is made
up into modules or sub-components and is fully tested
onshore prior to dispatch to the rig. This practice in itself has
eliminated a number of problems offshore and hence saved
rig time. With the different shape and ODs associated with
completion components, making up completion equipment on
the rig floor is often awkward and difficult. As a result of this,
components can often be damaged during make-up. By
making up the components into modules, incorporating
handling pup joints on a torque-turn bench onshore and
shipping the modules in purpose-built baskets, any potential
for damage is minimized. The onshore testing of modules
also␣ ensures that the equipment is fit for purpose prior to
dispatch. Tests include a full visual inspection, dimensional
checks including drift, functional checks and pressure
testing. Procedures for making up and testing modules are
discussed in the Techniques section.
Similarly the correct storage, preparation and handling of

tubulars can have a significant effect on the successful
running of the completion. The use of chrome and high
nickel-chrome steels with their high costs and increased
susceptibility to damage makes the adherence to the
appropriate procedures essential. Damage or corrosion of the
Page 1
Running the Completion – Chapter 10 BP Exploration
threads is a common problem which can often be avoided by

exercising a degree of care. The cost of recutting a single
4␣ 1/2in VAM connection is almost $300, excluding the
significant costs associated with transporting the tubulars,
hence time spent looking after tubular threads can prove to
be cost-effective.
Simple precautions like ensuring the threads are thoroughly

clean, dry, coated with light oil or storage compound and are
protected with clean thread protectors, can eliminate many of
the problems. Metallic grit blasting of the inside pipe reduces
problems associated with rust and scale accumulating in the
pipe. Debris in the tubulars can lead to problems with
completion equipment and provide a potential source of
formation damage. Cleanliness of tubulars is particularly
critical for stimulation and gravel packing operations. The
cleaning of the external surface to avoid contamination of
completion fluid is also recommended for applications where
solids could potentially result in formation damage.
Procedures for storing, handling and running of tubulars are
discussed further in the Techniques section.
In addition to physically running the completion into the hole

there are a number of other operations ie pressure testing,
setting packers and isolating the well etc which need to be
carefully planned. Typical procedures for these operations are
described in the Worked Example section.
General guidelines for spacing out the completion and packer

setting are also discussed in the Techniques section.
Page 2
PREPARATION AND STORAGE OF TUBULARS
Guidelines for the storage and preparation of tubulars are

(*Reference 10.1) presented in Engineering Code of Practice CP 46* and the
(*Reference 10.2) BP␣ Exploration Drilling Manual*. The key areas to be aware
of are as follows:
• New tubing should arrive coated inside with corrosion

protection, the threads coated with storage compound
eg␣ Rust Veto, and fitted with closed end protectors.
Chrome tubulars may also be transported in a frame
to␣ avoid damage.
• Tubulars should be stored according to API Standard

(*Reference 10.3) RP␣ 5C1*.
• Chemicals which could potentially damage steel should

be␣ stored away from the tubing.
• Selected joints in a batch of tubing should be checked

four␣ times a year to monitor for corrosion.
• All tubulars used for development completions should be

internally cleaned by means of metallic grit. Care should
be taken to protect the threads during grit blasting
operations. Chrome tubulars should only be cleaned with
stainless steel shot or Garnet. Obviously internally coated
tubulars should not be grit blasted.
• If the pipe has been cleaned and is to be stored for any

period it is important to protect the internal and external
surfaces from further corrosion. Recommendations on
the␣ appropriate coatings and corrosion inhibitors can
be␣ obtained from BP tubular specialists (see Contacts
section).
Page 3
COMPLETION MODULE MAKE-UP
In areas with specific logistical problems like the North Sea,

completion sub-assemblies are made up into modules
and␣ tested onshore prior to being shipped offshore. This
operation is normally performed by the completion vendor
or␣ an independent workshop and supervised by a BP
representative, although with improved procedures and QA,
the degree of BP supervision will eventually be reduced.
The following guidelines should be referred to when making

up and testing the completion modules:
• Verify that all components are marked with a BP and/or

a␣ service company identification code.
• Visually inspect all items to ensure that they are in

good␣ condition.
• Remove thread protectors and thoroughly clean

all␣ threads.
• Inspect the threads and sealing faces for corrosion

or␣ damage.
• Thoroughly dry the threads.
• Replace the thread protectors prior to transferring the

equipment to another area for further inspection. It is
recommended that the thread protectors are always
replaced prior to moving any item.
• Figure 10.1 shows a typical completion module make-up

and test sheet.
• The typical inspection routine called for in the sheet

includes the following:
– Dimensionally check all items recording lengths,

internal diameters and external diameters on the
completion module sheet.
– Where appropriate a tubing pup joint should be made

up to both the top and bottom of each sub-assembly.
Page 4
– Apply API modified pipe dope, with a friction factor of␣ 1,

to box ends of each component.
– Initiate make-up using strap tongs for the first

few␣ threads.
– Install sub-assemblies in the torquing unit. The unit

should have a torque-turn graphical output.
– Ensure that the modules are correctly aligned.
– Apply torque as per the manufacturer’s

recommendation. The following general guidelines
for␣ premium connections can be used as a reference.
The shoulder torque should be between 5 and 50% of
the optimum make-up torque. Any shoulder torque
value that is greater than the manufacturer’s
recommended maximum shoulder torque should be
approved by BP’s representative. A general guideline
for␣ the maximum shoulder torque is 60% of the
optimum make-up torque.
– The graph of each joint should be available for

inspection by BP. If the make-up graph is
unacceptable, the connection should be broken
out␣ and␣ the threads inspected, see below.
– Make-up speed should be between a minimum of

3␣ rpm␣ and a maximum of 10 rpm.
– Record each joint number and the corresponding

applied torque on the completion module sheet.
– Any connections made up hand tight should be clearly

identified in paint pen as being hand tight␣ only.
– Drift each sub-assembly.
– All modules should be function checked as␣ appropriate.
Page 5
Figure 10.2 illustrates each phase of the connection make-up

procedure on a torque-turn plot for a premium connection.
The two critical areas to be aware of are the transition from
seal interference to shoulder torque and the final assembly
torque. Typical schematics of torque-turn outputs are shown
in Figures 10.3 to 10.6. A number of actual torque-turn
outputs from a completion installation are also shown in
Figure s10.7 to 10.9. Figure 10.3 shows an ideal torque-turn
plot with the distinctive shoulder torque commencing at
20%␣ of the optimum torque and well within the maximum
number of turns. The total applied torque also lies between
the optimum and maximum limits. Figure 10.4 illustrates
another acceptable make-up, only this time a larger
proportion of the torque is absorbed in overcoming seal
and␣ thread interference rather than energising the metal to
metal seal. Figure 10.5 shows an unacceptable torque-turn
plot. In this case over 50% of the torque has been absorbed
before shouldering out leaving insufficient torque to provide
acceptable energisation of the seals. Although this is not
acceptable for this particular connection, some
manufacturers are now allowing higher values for the
maximum shoulder torque. If this is found to be a recurring
problem the specific manufacturer should be consulted.
Figure 10.6 illustrates a further failure mechanism indicated

by the torque-turn plot. Here although the shoulder torque
and total torque are within the acceptable limits, the seal has
plastically yielded under the make-up and the connection is
not therefore acceptable. Additional failure mechanisms are
presented in the tubular running section. An operations
bulletin discussing the make up of Vam connections in
greater detail has been issued by Drilling Technology
Department, BP Dyce.
Each module should then be pressure tested as follows:
• Remove thread protectors and install API recommended

test subs.
• Test the module to the pressure specified in the

completion programme.
• Water, dosed with corrosion inhibitor should be used as

the test fluid.
• All pressure tests should be chart recorded. A separate

chart should be used for each test.
Page 7
• Where tests are applied against plugs installed in nipples,

the plug should be tested from both above and below.
When pressure testing against plugs, always ensure that
test subs are installed on both ends of the sub-assembly.
• After removing the test subs, inspect the threads prior to

replacing the thread protectors.
• On completion of testing, equipment should be drained of

test fluid. Polished bores and exposed threads should have
an approved rust protector applied.
• All pressure test charts, torque-turn graphs and the

completion module check sheets should be clearly
identified and signed off by both the BP Representative
and a Representative of the contractor.
Load the sub-assemblies into a completion basket in

preparation for shipping offshore. The following
transportation guidelines have proven to be beneficial:
• Protect all elastomers, including packer elements, with

sections of wood secured in place by denso tape.
• Protect packer slips with denso tape.
• Protect tubing hanger sealing surfaces with denso tape.
• Ensure the modules are securely supported in the basket

to avoid movement during transportation.
In North Sea locations, two complete sets of modules should

be made up, tested and shipped for every completion.
Page 8
TORQUE
PIN
PIN
STABBING PIN PIN PIN PIN BOX

BOX
OVERTURNS
(PLASTIC
BOX BOX BOX BOX
DEFORMATION OF
THE SHOULDERS)
TURNS
NO INTERFERENCE THREAD INTERFERENCE SEAL OVERTURNS

INTERFERENCE
ROTATION
ON SHOULDER
Figure 10.2 – Premium Connection Make-up
Page 9
MAXIMUM
TURNS
MAXIMUM TORQUE 110%
OPTIMUM TORQUE 100%
TORQUE
MAXIMUM SHOULDER
TORQUE 50%
MINIMUM SHOULDER
TORQUE 5%
TURNS
PERCENTAGES OF OPTIMUM TORQUE
Figure 10.3 – Ideal Torque-turn Plot
MAXIMUM
TURNS
MAXIMUM TORQUE 110%
OPTIMUM TORQUE 100%
TORQUE
MAXIMUM SHOULDER
TORQUE 50%
MINIMUM SHOULDER
TORQUE 5%
TURNS
Figure 10.4 – Acceptable Torque-turn Plot
Page 10
MAXIMUM
TURNS
MAXIMUM TORQUE 110%
OPTIMUM TORQUE 100%
TORQUE
MAXIMUM SHOULDER
TORQUE 50%
MINIMUM SHOULDER
TORQUE 5%
TURNS
Figure 10.5 – High Shoulder Torque
MAXIMUM
TURNS
MAXIMUM TORQUE 110%
OPTIMUM TORQUE 100%
TORQUE
MAXIMUM SHOULDER TORQUE 50%
MINIMUM SHOULDER
TORQUE 5%
TURNS
Figure 10.6 – Torque-turn Plot showing Connection Yielding
Page 11
RIG SITE PREPARATION OF TUBULARS
• Tubing must have thread protectors installed and these

should only be removed when absolutely necessary.
• Chrome tubulars should be handled with certified nylon or

non-metallic lifting slings. Never use hooks on pipe ends
with tubulars that are 5 1/2in or smaller. Liftable closed
end protectors are acceptable on 7in tubulars.
• Avoid any rough handling which may damage the tubing.

Do not allow the tubing to be dropped when unloading or
moving. Similarly, always roll pipe in a controlled manner.
Care should be taken with chrome or␣ nickel-chrome alloys
to avoid contact with plain carbon steel.
• When transporting exotic alloy tubulars consideration

should be given to utilizing some form of racking system.
• The quantities of tubulars should be verified against the

manifest as the bundles are offloaded.
• Lay out the tubulars on the pipe deck. If chrome or nickel-

chrome tubulars are being used it may be appropriate to
line the pipe deck with wood.
• The tubing should be stacked, box end to the V-door

in␣ well supported layers using wooden supports to
prevent␣ bending.
• Lay out each row leaving sufficient space at the ends to

permit thorough cleaning and inspection of the threads.
• The following cleaning, inspection and tallying should be

performed as each layer is stacked:
– Remove protectors. Clean and dry protectors

before␣ refitting.
– Clean threads with a rotary cleaner (if available)

and␣ solvent. Any storage compound should be
thoroughly removed.
Page 12
– If pressurized air is available this should be used to dry

the threads.
– Inspect the threads and sealing surfaces for damage.
– Rejected joints should be tagged.
– Number each joint by painting the appropriate number

in the middle of the joint.
– Measure the length of each joint using the specific joint

measuring tape and record the length and
joint␣ number.
– Drift each joint.
– Refit clean thread protectors.
Page 13
RUNNING THE COMPLETION
More detailed information on running the completion is

presented in the BP Drilling Manual.
• A Tubing Inspector or the Completions Supervisor must be

present on the rig floor at all times during the running of
the completion.
• The use of gas leak detection equipment should be

considered for critical gas well applications and hostile
environment wells.
• Production tubing should be made up using an integral

hydraulic back-up tong with torque-turn control system
and graphical output.
• The tubing make-up unit and control system must be

fully␣ calibrated.
• The slip and power tong dies should be checked for rough
spots that could mark the tubing; this is especially
important with chrome tubulars.
• Confirm that the elevators and slips are in good␣ condition.
• A stabbing guide should always be used.
• Prior to running, remove the thread protectors and inspect

the threads and sealing surfaces.
• The box end should be inspected with the tubing sitting on

the V-door.
• API modified dope with a friction factor of 1 should be

applied to the threaded and sealing surfaces of the box
end of all premium connections. A new batch of dope
should be used at the start of each job. The dope must
be␣ protected from any contamination. In cold or arctic
conditions the dope should be heated and agitated. The
use of a dope applicator is recommended.
• Retrieve the wearbushing prior to running the

completion␣ string.
Page 14
• A member of the contract tubing running crew should

always perform the stabbing and work in conjunction with
the tong operator.
• The Driller must ensure that the tubing is lowered in a

controlled fashion.
• The tongs should be set to increase to a maximum of

15␣ rpm (10 rpm for 13% chrome) up to the dump torque.
The reference torque is usually 10% of the recommended
optimum torque and the dump torque is␣ set to
approximately 100 ft/lb less than this figure.
• The speed should be set to 3 rpm until full make-up

is␣ obtained.
• The tongs should be set to maintain the optimum torque

for a period of 3 seconds.
The resulting torque-turn output should be inspected to

ensure the following:
• There is no dip in torque immediately prior to the

connection shouldering.
• The initial maximum torque has not been exceeded.
• The final applied torque lies between the recommended

maximum and minimum values.
Figures 10.7 to 10.9 show typical torque-turn plots.

Figure␣ 10.7 illustrates a successful make-up. Points to note
are the distinctive start of the shoulder at 0.366 turns and
1548 ft/lb, well within the acceptance criteria for maximum
turns and shoulder torque. The applied torque at 7381 ft/lb
is close to the target torque and hence is within the
maximum and minimum values.
Page 15
Figure 10.8 shows an unacceptable make-up. In this case

the␣ maximum shoulder torque has been reached without
the␣ joint shouldering out; this joint would have to be backed
out and inspected. Figure␣ 10.9 shows another rejected
make-up; in this case the␣ final applied torque failed to reach
the minimum.
• If the torque-turn plot fails to meet the above

requirements, the joint should be broken out in a
controlled manner ie transfer load cell to break-out
position.
• The joint should never be partially broken out and

remade. Always fully back out the joint and clean, dry and
inspect the threads. The joint will then either be rejected
or the joint remade.
TORQUE-TURN GRAPH
0 1.8
TORQUE (FT.–LBS. X 1000)
9.0 Maximum Final

8640
8.0 Torque
7200 Minimum Final
7.0 Torque
6.0 Maximum Shoulder
5600 Torque
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
SHOULDER
700 Reference
Torque
TURNS 0 1
TIME OF MAKE UP 17:13:39 DATE OF MAKE UP 20 Aug 1990

MAXIMUM TORQUE 7381 FT-LBS. MAXIMUM TURNS .444 TURNS
SHOULDER TORQUE 1548 FT-LBS. SHOULDER TURNS .366 TURNS
DELTA TORQUE 5833 FT-LBS. DELTA TURNS .078 TURNS
BATCH --> 1 LOT --> 1 MAKE UP NUMBER --> A-1
HOLD TQE @ 0.5 SEC Intervals:

7286 7341 7254 7310 7294 7278
Figure 10.7 – Acceptable Torque-turn Plot
Page 16
TORQUE-TURN GRAPH
0 1.8
9.0 Maximum Final

8640
8.0 Torque
7.0 7200 Minimum Final
Torque
5600 Torque
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0 700
TURNS 0 1

BATCH --> 1 LOT --> 1 MAKE UP NUMBER --> R-2
BACKED OUT TO INSPECT.

NO SHOULDER
Figure 10.8 – Rejected Torque-turn Plot (No Shoulder)
• Break-out tong speed should not exceed 10 rpm.
• Calculate the number of joints required to locate each

completion module at the proposed setting depth. A
detailed running list should be compiled by the
Completions Engineer or Drilling Engineer from the tubing
tally and completion module check sheets. The list should
be distributed to the following personnel prior to running
the completion:
– Driller
– Tubing Inspector
– Drilling deck crew
– Tubing make-up crew
Page 17
0
TORQUE-TURN GRAPH 1.8
9.0 Maximum Applied

8640 Torque
8.0
7.0 7200 Minimum Applied
Torque
5600
5.0 Torque
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0 700
TURNS 0 1

BATCH --> 1 LOT --> 1 MAKE UP NUMBER --> R-1
Figure 10.9 – Rejected Torque-turn Plot (Low Applied Torque)
• The tubing should be routed to the drill floor as per the

running list. The tubing order should also be verified on
the drill floor prior to making the connection.
• Run the completion to the SCSSV.
• If a tubing retrievable valve is being installed, the control

line pressure should be maintained on the valve while
running in the hole.
• Run the completion to measured depth.
• If accurate depth control is required eg when using tubing

conveyed perforating (TCP), a Casing Collar Locator (CCL)/
Gamma Ray (GR) correlating log should be run.
Page 18
The CCL/GR log can then be used to correlate against open

hole logs and a radioactive marker sub. The GR indicates the
sub by a sharp peak relative to the formation. The cased hole
GR log can be relatively weak and a low logging speed may be
necessary to obtain a good correlation with the open hole log.
The appropriate degree of slack-off for the completion will

have been calculated during the tubing stress analysis. When
running permanent packers with anchor type latches, it is
important to provide sufficient slack-off to allow the
completion to lifted out of the hanger and rotated without
pulling excessive tension at the anchor during subsequent
workovers. In some instances, especially with chrome
tubulars, it may be more appropriate to cut the pipe and
recover the anchor with a drillstring. This avoids damaging
the connections through excessive torque.
Slacking off weight in water injection completions can also be

used as a means of eliminating the moving seals. Moving
seals in water injection wells have traditionally provided
sealing problems.
Estimating the amount of weight slacked off at the surface

that is transmitted to the bottom of the string has its
difficulties. A simple technique is presented on page 68 of
Chapter 6 and can be used to assist in this estimate, however
the calculated figures should not be regarded as␣ absolute.
With the tubing string landed, the tubing and annulus

should be pressure tested.
Prior to nippling down the BOPs the well must obviously be

isolated. Most locations now require two tested mechanical
barriers. These are provided by means of a tubing hanger
plug and a plug set in the SCSSV nipple. To avoid potential
wireline problems, plugs are not usually set in the tailpipe.
Once the completion has been landed and the Xmas tree
installed, a wellhead and Xmas tree certification sheet similar
to that shown in Figure 10.10 should be completed prior to
handing the well over.
Page 19
INTRODUCTION
This worked example is taken from a workover in BP’s

North␣ Sea operations. This relatively complicated procedure
was selected as it addresses many aspects of running a
completion. The appropriate components of this method can
therefore be utilized in less complicated procedures. The
objectives of the workover were to remove the existing Electric
Submersible Pump (ESP), run a TDT survey, isolate lower
zones and recomplete upper zones and finally install a new
ESP. In this section the steps involved with installing the
ESP␣ completion are discussed together with the rationale
behind the procedures. The key to success in running ESP
completions is to exercise a great deal of care in protecting
the cable and associated connections.
Page 21
RUNNING THE COMPLETION
The completion to be run is shown in Figure 10.11. All

completion components will have been made up into modules
and tested as per the Techniques section. Prior to running
the␣ completion, clean filtered kill weight brine has been
circulated and a 9 5/8in junk basket and gauge ring has
been run to the top of the liner. All tubular connections are
made up in accordance with the guidelines presented in the
Techniques section.
• Remove wearbushing. If the ram configuration has

been␣ changed the BOPs should be retested to
BP␣ specification.
• With all the additional cables and ancillary equipment

associated with ESP completions, care should be taken to
locate the running and spooling devices well clear of the
block and elevators.
• Orientate the motor prior to lifting to the rig floor.
• Ensure that slips compatible with the ESP equipment to

be run are used.
• Run the motor through the rotary table and suspend the
motor on the special pedestal. Align the pothead on the
unit with the power cable reel.
• Remove vent plug and fill the motor with oil taking care
to␣ displace allthe air. Avoid exposing the oil to the
atmosphere to prevent any absorbtion of moisture. Refer
to the manufacturer’s service manual for further details.
• Attach first length of 2 7/8in bypass tubing to motor.
• Pick up and run 2 7/8in logging bypass tubing and clamp

on to the motor body with special clamps as required. Pick
up seal section and suspend over motor.
• Remove shipping cap from motor and check seals.
• Check that the motor and seal shafts rotate freely and
ensure that the coupling fits.
Page 22
MD TVD DESCRIPTION ID OD
ASSEMBLY (FT BRT) (INS) (INS)
ITEM MATERIAL THREADS
4.5" MCEVOY SLA-3 HANGER
58 58 CW/ ELECTRICAL PENETRATOR VAM 3.958 10.9
104 4.5" TUBING 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862
1045 4.5" TUBING 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862
1053 4.5" PUP JOINT 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862
1060 4.5" BAKER FLOW COUPLING VAM 3.958 5.563
4.5" CAMCO 3.183/3.750 BA

1063 1056 SCSSSV NIPPLE VAM 3.750 5.598
1071 4.5" BAKER FLOW COUPLING VAM 3.958 5.583
4.5" TUBING 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862
4.5" CAMCO MMG SPM C/W S15R

7713 5920 (SHEAR RATING 2000 PSI) VAM 3.890 7.031
7812 4.5" TUBING 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862
4.5" CAMCO 3.687 DB-ID SSD
7825 6009 CLOSED (DOWN TO OPEN) VAM 3.687 5.500
4.5" BROWN PACKER C/W BIW
7843 6023 PENETRATOR AND FLOPETROL VAM 4.000 8.430
DPIT GAUGE NO. 87089
4.5" TUBING 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862
7944 6103 4.5" CAMCO 3.5 DB NIPPLE VAM 3.500 5.563
4.5" CAMCO AUT-1
7957 ADJUSTABLE UNION VAM 4000 5.563
7996 4.5" TUBING 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862
4.5" PUP JOINT 12.6 LB/FT L80 VAM 3.958 4.862

BAKER CROSSOVER 4.5" X 5.5" VAM 3.950 6.050
8006 BOLT ON DISCHARGE HEAD VAM 4.892 6.050
CENTRILIFT 675 SERIES PUMP
8031 6171 51 STAGE HC 9000 6.750
8045 CENTRILIFT SEAL SECTION 675 SERIES (HST) 6.750

CENTRILIFT 562 SERIES
420 HP ( 2 X 210 ) 5.620
8091 BOTTOM MOTOR
8488 6526 TOP OF 7.0" LINER
8827 6789 BRIDGE PLUG 01/01/87
8840 6799 TOP OF CEMENT
Figure 10.11 – New ESP Completion
Page 23
• Connect the seal section to the motor taking care not to

damage the O-rings. Remove top fill plug from motor and
top up motor and seal section with oil. Ensure that no air
bubbles are present at the top of the seal section.
• Pick up the motor and seal section from the work pedestal
and remove lifting clamp from motor. Lower the␣ section
and rest the seal lifting clamp on the work␣ pedestal.
• Pick up the pump section with 2 7/8in VAM to 4 1/2in

VAM crossover/lifting sub and suspend above the seal.
Check that the shaft rotates freely.
• Lower the pump and mate with the seal section. Install
and secure cap screws.
• Lift up section off pedestal, remove lifting clamp from the

seal assembly and expose the pothead connection.
• Remove the pothead cap and perform electrical tests on

the motor.
• The phase sequence of cable cores must be established

and confirmed when making connections at the surface.
• Remove motor lead extension cable protector cap. Install

new gaskets and O-ring on to the cable pothead. Plug
pothead into motor and make up capscrew. (Prior to
installation, pothead connector should be pressure tested
using the pothead tester.)
• Pick up the 2 7/8in logging bypass tubing and run

alongside the seal and pump assemblies, using special
bolt-on clamps.
• Pick up and run the wireline adaptor assembly. Once the

adaptor assembly is made up orientate the assembly in
line with 2 7/8in tubing using the alignment swivel nut.
Make up the tailpipe to the wireline adaptor.
• Check all completion module dimensions from the module

make-up sheet, see Figure 10.1.
Page 24
• Pick up and run sufficient 4 1/2in 12.6 lb/ft VAM tubing

joints/pups to approximately space out the cable to the
packer with the inclusion of the adjustable union
sub-assembly.
• The tubing should be made up in accordance with the

procedures detailed in the Techniques section. The
appropriate torque figures for 4 1/2in 12.6 lb/ft VAM
are␣ given in Table 10.1.
• Ensure that a tubing joint is installed between the

adjustable union module and the packer module.
Note: A dog collar will be used to handle all pups and

tubing below packer and all pups above packer.
• Pick up and run the adjustable union completion module.
• In order to provide adequate protection for all the cables,

special 4 1/2in all metal clamps/protectors are installed
across each coupling and at mid joint.
• Where the cable has been spliced protectors should be

installed immediately above and below the splice.
TORQUE FIGURES FOR 4 1/2in NEW VAM 12.6 lb/ft 80 ksi
Minimum Applied Optimum Applied Maximum Applied

Torque Torque Torque
4300 4770 5240
Table 10.1
• Where there is insufficient space for standard cable

clamps ‘bandit’ type clamps may need to be used.
However, the number of ‘bandit’ clamps used should be
minimized. (Bandits which break off cause havoc during
production logging and can necessitate junk basket runs
during workover.) The model and quantity of all bandits/
protectors installed should be marked on the running list
and included in the schematic status diagram for future
workover information.
Page 25
• Pick up and install the packer module. (Test segments will

have been installed in town.)
• Measure up the fixed length motor lead or the whole

packer penetrator. Pull back and adjust the adjustable
union as required, to take up any cable slack. Lock the
adjustable union.
The BIW connectors should only be made up hand tight.

On no account should a wrench be used.
• Perform electrical checks.
• Run pup joints to provide a minimum of 16 ft between the

packer and SSD. This will assist in locating the SSD in
any future wireline operations.
• Locate both cable guide wheels in a convenient position

above the rig floor.
• Connect the motor lead extension and main cable to the

packer and perform electrical checks.
• Make up the SSD module.
• Install test segments in the packer and test to

3500␣ psi/10␣ mins against 3.5 in standing valve.
Remove␣ test segments.
• Pull standing valve.
• Splice the 5/16in monocondutor to the pressure gauge

and install the gauge above the packer together with the
appropriate clamps
Only gauge clamps can be installed on the two tubing pups

above packer and the cable is clamped by means of bandit
clamping. Cable clamps are not used as these may foul with
the casing wall due to the tubing immediately above the
packer being offset.
When running permanent downhole gauges there is always a

question over whether to abandon a gauge if the signal fails
while running in the hole. This of course depends on the
importance of the measurement and the relative cost of rig
time. For ESP completions in the North Sea a rule of thumb
Page 26
is that if 50 joints of tubing have been run above the packer,

the completion should then be pulled back, the fault traced
and rectified if possible. If the gauge fails after 50 joints have
been run, it may be appropriate to continue running the
completion.
• Run a stand of 4 1/2in tubing.
• Pick up and run the side pocket mandrel with shear␣ valve.
• Continue to run the 4 1/2in tubing, installing two cable

protectors per joint.
• Check and log the power cable resistance and gauge signal
every hour noting the appropriate joint number.
• Run sufficient 4 1/2in tubing to position SCSSV assembly

at 1000 ft MD BRT ±50 ft.
• Pick up and run the SCSSV module complete with

previously installed pack-off and attach 1/4in stainless
steel control line to the safety valve nipple. Pressurize
1/4in control line to 5000 psi and continue to hold
5000␣ psi on line whilst running the remaining
4␣ 1/2in␣ tubing.
• Pick up and run the tubing hanger module. Ensure

correct␣ orientation of hanger with respect to the desired
penetrator position. The guide slot in the tubing hanger
mates with the tubing adaptor spool guide pin. The hanger
must be positioned such that on installation the tubing
adaptor spool is correctly orientated. The tubing hanger
adaptor spool is located below the Xmas tree and provides
an exit point for the cable. Also the penetrator should be
positioned to allow a convenient hook-up of the power
cable to surface facilities.
• Ensure tubing adaptor spool is compatible with the

tubing␣ hanger.
• Ensure that packer setting depth is not across a

casing␣ collar.
• Perform resistance checks on the power cable. Check

gauge signal.
Page 27
• Hang off assembly on slips.
• Remove hanger protector. Install landing joint into hanger.

Make up to 75% of normal make-up torque.
• Landing string connections should be coated to prevent

back-off.
• Install the jumper lead into the bottom of the hanger.

Measure power cable to bottom of jumper lead and cut to
length. Remove jumper lead and splice to main cable.
Connect to penetrator and perform resistance checks.
• Test gauge signal. Splice monoconductor to 3 mm feed

through cable and swagelock.
• Lower hanger to rotary table.
• Install pigtail penetrator into hanger complete with

75␣ ft␣ extension cable. Pressure test penetrator T-seals.
Inject with plastic packing.
• Connect jumper lead to packer penetrator.
• Perform electrical checks on power cable. Check

gauge␣ signal.
• Wrap control line around tubing to provide excess line

in␣ the event of the control line being damaged during the
landing of the Xmas tree. However, it should be noted that
this practice can induce stress cracking of the control line
particularly with small diameter tubing and where tight
wraps have been made.
• Insert control line through the penetrator in the hanger,

leaving control line protruding above the seal assembly.
Make up swagelocks on seal assembly.
• Attach 75 ft of control line to top of hanger and test to

5000 psi.
• Drain the BOPs to prevent the tubing hanger seals being

damaged by fluid flow during the landing operation.
• Run in slowly with the hanger and tag the wellhead taking
note of the string weights both up and down. Mark
position of rotary table on landing string.
Page 28
• Pull back to provide the appropriate degree of slack-off

(approximately 2 ft for a 10 000 ft well).
• Rig up pump in communication sub and wireline

lubricator/BOP on to the landing string. Pressure test
3500 psi/10 mins.
• RIH with wireline and pull safety valve pack-off.
• RIH and set 3.687in FB-2 standing valve in 3.687in␣ nipple

located above the packer. Stay on wire.␣ Pressure test
tubing to 3500 psi/10 mins. Pull 3.687in␣ FB-2 standing
valve. RIH and set 3.5in FB-2 in 3.5in nipple located below
packer leaving standing valve in the nipple. Stay on wire.
Pressure up tubing to 500␣ psi, observe. Shear off FB-2
POOH and rig down␣ wireline.
• Pressure tubing to 3500 psi to set packer.
• Bleed pressure off tubing, pick up the string off the

slips␣ and ensure packer is set. Land the hanger into
the␣ tubing spool. Note the weight set down on the
packer␣ hanger.
• Fasten the tie down bolts on the tubing spool securely.
• To ensure that the packer has set and is sealing, pressure

test annulus to 500 psi. This pressure should not be
exceeded in order to avoid shearing the valve in the SPM.
Closely monitor the resistance of power cable during
pressure test.
• To provide well isolation prior to removing the drilling

BOP, a plug is set in the SCSSV nipple and the tubing
hanger profile.
– Rig up slickline and run in hole with the 3.813in␣ plug.

Flush control line. Set plug in SCSSV␣ nipple. Pressure
test control line to 5000 psi. Pressure test above plug
to␣ 500 psi.
– Rig down slickline.
– Back off landing string.
Page 29
– A Cameron 2-way check valve is run on 2 3/8in tubing

and installed in the tubing hanger. The 2-way check
valve is not run through the landing joints, as well
control may be compromised by two strings being
across the BOPs.
– Rerun landing string and test 2-way check valve

through the tubing, to retest the check valve before
installing the Xmas tree.
– Back off landing joint.
Page 30
XMAS TREE INSTALLATION
• Remove riser and drilling BOP stack. Check the resistance

on both the power cable and the Flopetrol␣ cable.
• During rig down of the BOP, the power cable and control
line should be pulled from beneath the BOP to facilitate
their removal. The same procedure should be adopted
during removal of the riser. Cut the power and control
lines as appropriate for make-up to the junction box. The
power cable conductors should be clearly marked by the
ESP Engineer to ensure that they are correctly installed in
the junction box.
• Pick up the adaptor spool, pull the penetrator pigtail

and␣ I␣ wire cable through the port at the base, install the
adaptor into the tubing spool. Pressure test hanger cavity
psi and hanger neck seals. Drain void after pressure test.
• Pressure test the control line and bleed off.
• Install the Xmas tree, pressure test flange and tree␣ voids.
• Connect the hydraulic lines from the wellhead control

panel to the Xmas tree and function test.
• Pressure test the body of the Xmas tree. The pressure

chart associated with this test is usually required for
certification purposes.
• Complete the wellhead certification sheet (see Techniques

section).
• Pull 2-way check valve, using spaghetti tubing with an

appropriate pulling tool from rig floor.
• In order to run wireline from the drill floor to recover both

the plug and standing valve, and install a wireline safety
valve, a riser section is rigged up on the Xmas␣ tree.
• Rig up the wireline lubricator on the riser and run in␣ hole.
• Equalize the pressure across the plug.
Page 31
• Rerun slickline to recover the plug from the safety

valve␣ nipple.
• Retrieve the standing valve from the tailpipe.
• Run and set the wireline safety valve. The control line
should be continuously flushed while running in. Measure
control line returns at tubing head spool needle valve.
If␣ there is any wellhead pressure the valve should be
closure tested.
• Pressure test the control line. Bleed off pressure and

monitor for any returns.
• During the above operations the SCSSV is connected to

the local wellhead control panel.
• Rig down the wireline equipment and hand over well to

Production Department for surface hook-up.
Page 32
SUMMARY
• Care taken in preparing and running the completion pays
dividends in terms of savings in rig time, and, reducing the
potential for future problems.
• Extra vigilance is required for chrome and nickel/chrome

alloys, tubulars and components.
• Adopting formal procedures for the make-up and testing of

completion equipment before shipping to the rig site can
have significant benefits.
• If tubing is to be stored for any duration, the pipe body

should be coated with corrosion protection and storage
compound applied to the thread and seal areas.
• Reference should be made to CP46 and the BP␣ Exploration

(*References 10.1 and 10.2) Drilling Manual* for detailed guidelines␣ on handling and
running tubulars.
• All premium connections must be made up in accordance

with the manufacturer’s recommendations using API
modified dope with a friction factor of 1. As a general
guideline the shoulder torque should be between 5 and
50% of the optimum make up torque.
• All threads must be cleaned and dried prior to make-up.
• A Tubing Inspector or Completions Supervisor should be

present on the rig floor at all times during the running of
the completion.
• Production tubing should be made up using an integral

back-up tong with torque-turn control system and
graphical output.
• The appropriate stabbing guide should always be used.
Page 33
CONTACTS
Tubing Specialist Stan Jones, TCSU Houston
Connection Specialist Joe Duxbury,

Drilling Technology Aberdeen
REFERENCES
10.1 BP Engineering Code of Practice CP46 – Guide for the

Specification of Casing and Tubing (April 1988).
10.2 BP Exploration Drilling Manual.
10.3 API Specification 5CT: Specification for Casing and

Tubing 1st Edition (1988).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Valourec’s Tubular Running Handbook.
Drilling Operations Bulletin No 41, Vam, Technical␣ Bulletin.
Page 35
Completion Design Manual SECTION 10a – COMPLETION FLUIDS
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES 3

DENSITY 3
FLUID LOSS 4
FORMATION DAMAGE 6
CORROSION 10
VISCOSITY 10
SELECTION OF FLUIDS 11
BOTTOM HOLE TEMPERATURES 11
CEMENTING 11
GRAVEL PACKING 12
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING 13
ALTERNATIVES TO CLEAR BRINES 14
ADDITIVES 15
FIELD PREPARATION AND HANDLING 17

BRINE FORMULATIONS 17
FILTRATION 20
DISPLACEMENT 25
DISPLACING MUD WITH BRINE 27
REFERENCES 29
INTRODUCTION
The topic of completion fluids is still subject to a degree of

controversy. The question of ‘how clean is clean enough’ has
been debated ever since the concept of formation damage was
discovered. The cost of obtaining clean fluids can be high,
with a switch from clean brine to a mud system taking from
3␣ to 6 days. Often this process occurs when the AFE has
been exceeded and completing with the well in the shortest
possible time is becoming a priority. Whether a fluid is
acceptable will vary with the formation and the operation
being performed. If extremely clean fluid (see below) is not
used in gravel packing operations then severe productivity
impairment can be guaranteed. In the North Sea, the
majority of completions are not gravel packed and the
tolerable level of solids in the completion fluid is subject to
much discussion. This section does not attempt to resolve
the␣ debate, but aims to provide the engineer with an
understanding of the various factors involved.
In discussing near wellbore performance and its optimization

earlier in the manual, the importance of preventing formation
damage was highlighted. Chapter 3 of the Near Wellbore
(*Reference 10a.1) Performance Manual* also describes in detail the different
types of formation damage and the ways of avoiding
formation damage problems. Formation damage that occurs
during completion and workover operations is particularly
critical in that it usually cannot be overcome by perforating
past the damage and can be difficult to treat once caused.
The selection and correct preparation and handling of
completion fluid is therefore often crucial to getting the
best␣ from the well. Indeed, as outlined above, in certain
applications like gravel packing the completion fluid is
fundamental to the well’s success. The aims of this section
are to provide sufficient background information and
practical guidelines to the engineer in the field to assist
him/her to avoid potential formation damage resulting from
an inappropriate completion fluid. The section will discuss
the function of completion fluid, the different types and
additives, how to select the appropriate fluid and the correct
preparation and handling procedures.
Page 1
SECTION 10a – COMPLETION FLUIDS Completion Design Manual
An increasing awareness of the potential for formation

damage during completion operations has led to the
widespread use of brine completion fluids. In the past,
wells␣ were completed in drilling mud and dirty brine both of
which␣ can result in significant formation damage and limit
production. It is wrong to assume that solids in drilling mud
are non-damaging or can be removed by flowing the well.
However, if the correct fluids and procedures are utilized
during the completion of the well, then damage occurring as
a result of drilling can be overcome. The solids in drilling
mud can also have a detrimental effect on the function of
completion equipment like packers and SCSSVs. The section
will concentrate on the use of completion brines, although
other fluids are also discussed where appropriate.
The major types of formation damage resulting from fluids

placed in the well include:
• Particle plugging due to invasion of solids in drilling muds,

completion brines or workover fluids.
• Plugging due to swelling or dispersion of formation clays.
• Plugging due to fluid reactions causing the precipitation of

insoluble salts.
• Reductions in relative permeability due to changes in the

wettability of the reservoir rock.
• Reductions in relative permeability due to changing

saturations.
• Alteration of near wellbore viscosities.
Chapter 3 in the Near Wellbore Performance Manual

describes the above mechanisms and provides suggestions
as␣ to how to avoid damage problems.
Page 2
FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES
The properties required from a completion fluid will vary

with␣ the formation, the reservoir fluid and type of operation.
Factors which are critical during a completion operation may
not always be as important in a drilling operation as the
filtercake may prevent significant loss of the fluid to the
formation. Similarly, a fluid may cause severe damage in one
particular type of formation and be totally benign in another.
The main requirements are that the fluid should control the
formation pressure, be non-damaging and be non-corrosive
when used as a packer fluid. In certain operations like
gravel␣ packing the fluid must also have the ability to
transport solids.
DENSITY
Density is one of the most critical properties of a completion

fluid, as the fluid column in the wellbore is often the primary
means of well control. The density of the fluid has to be
controlled to provide sufficient hydrostatic head to control
the␣ formation pressure. A simple calculation of hydrostatic
pressure is given in Equation 10a.1. The average fluid density
to control a well can be calculated from Equation 10a.2.
(Equation 10a.1) Pressure (psi) = Density (lb/gal) x 0.052 (gal/ft in2) x

vertical depth (ft)
BHP + Overbalance (psi)

(Equation 10a.2) Average Fluid Density =
0.052 x depth (ft)
It is important to note that this is the average density and

brine density is a function of both temperature and pressure.
As the temperature of the brine increases the volume
increases and hence the density falls. Conversely a decrease
in temperature will cause an increase in density. The effect of
pressure is the exact opposite and tends to compensate for
the temperature effect to some extent, although in most
downhole applications the temperature effect is larger than
that of pressure.
Page 3
Ignoring the effects of temperature and pressure and simply

using the average density calculated from Equation 10a.2 will
result in less hydrostatic pressure than predicted. A simple
and more accurate technique is to compensate the average
density using the mid-depth temperature. In addition, fluid
specialists in BP and service companies can utilise computer
programs to provide a more accurate analysis of this effect.
The mid-depth temperature technique is based on the

following assumptions:
• Mid-depth geothermal temperature is a suitable average

well temperature.
• The effect of temperature on density dominates at typical

well depths.
The temperature compensated density is then determined

as␣ follows:
• Determine the mid-depth geothermal temperature.
• Determine the required average fluid density from

formation pore pressure and the required overbalance
using Equation 10a.2.
• Select a fluid type.
• The fluid should therefore have the average density at the

mid-depth temperature.
• Using charts of density versus temperature for individual

brines, the required surface density can be determined
that corresponds to the average density at the mid-depth
temperature.
FLUID LOSS
Two types of fluid loss can occur with completion fluids,

these are seepage and lost circulation. Seepage loss is the
slow steady flow of fluid to the formation, whereas lost
circulation involves the wholesale loss of fluids. However both
types of fluid loss need to be controlled.
Page 4
Seepage can range from near zero to as much as several

barrels a day. Fluid loss needs to be controlled for the
following reasons:
• Well control can be compromised.
• Excessive loss of brine can be expensive.
• Although the fluid is selected to be non-damaging, it is

always better to avoid uncontrolled fluid ingress into the
reservoir if possible.
Fluid losses are typically controlled by the use of a pill added

to the completion fluid which will have increased viscosity or
fluid loss additives ie properly sized acid soluble particles.
Hydroxyehtyl cellulose (HEC) is a high molecular weight,
water soluble polymer, commonly used to provide a viscous
pill. The application of HEC is discussed in more detail in the
section on fluid types and additives. It is important to note
that the loss of viscous fluid to the formation can result in
formation damage, especially if the viscosity of the invading
fluid is stable. Fortunately the viscosity of HEC is not that
stable above 200 to 250°F. At lower temperatures a breaker
can be used.
When high fluid losses occur, bridging solids may be used

together with viscosifiers in the pill. Three types of bridging
solids are commonly used, calcium carbonate, sodium
chloride and organic resins or wax. By adding particles of
the␣ proper shape, size, concentration and particle size
distribution, it should be possible to form a filtercake on the
formation face without invading the pore space. A filtercake
should form quickly so that the movement of fluids and
polymer into the pore space is minimized. An important
consideration in the use of bridging materials is how well the
perforations and formation will clean up after the completion
operation. Obviously when the fluid loss additives form a
filtercake the permeability at the perforations is reduced to
near zero. Hence if these solids are not fully removed, then
the well’s production will be seriously compromised.
The␣ methods of removal for the three different types of
materials are:
CaCo3
Spontaneous clean-up when the formation is followed by acid
wash with 15% hydrochloric acid.
Page 5
NaCl
Removal during flow from the formation, dissolution by
formation water or by washover with unsaturated brine.
However, it is important to note that recent work has shown
that acid washing with HCl may also be required.
Resin
Blown out of perforations under flow, dissolution by
formation hydrocarbons, or by washover with an organic
solvent. It should be noted that resins are only soluble in
similar solvents.
The clean-up of these bridging agents should not be taken for

granted. The main problem is usually that the removal from
the formation or perforations is not uniform in that all the
dissolving fluid or produced fluid only flows to/from the
perforations that are initially opened. Once this occurs the
use of diverting agents or selective stimulation may be the
only remedy.
In the North Sea, marble is being used increasingly in

preference to calcium carbonate. Another material gaining
acceptance is ground modified cellulose, with the trade
names of Liquid Casing and O M Seal.
Before selecting a lost circulation material (LCM), the

proposed formulation should always be tested across a core
whenever possible.
FORMATION
DAMAGE
The other main requirement of the completion fluid is

that␣ it␣ should be non-damaging. If a formation has good
permeability, then not only is it likely to be productive, it
will␣ also freely take fluids from the wellbore. In cases like
this␣ the selection of the correct completion fluids and
additives is particularly important. If the formation has very
poor permeability, then it is unlikely to be produced without
hydraulically fracturing the formation and the selection of
drilling fluid is not as critical. However, the selection of the
frac and completion fluid is just as important as in the case
of the more permeable zone.
Page 6
To avoid damaging the formation the fluid must satisfy the

following requirements:
• Be sufficiently solids-free to avoid bridging in the pore

throats of the formation.
• Have sufficient salinity to avoid clay swelling or␣ dispersion.
• The fluid should not induce high viscosities in the near

wellbore which cannot subsequently be broken or
cleaned␣ up.
• Be compatible with the formation fluid in terms of both

avoiding emulsions and the precipitation of solids.
• The fluid should not significantly alter the saturation

of␣ the indigenous fluid, thus preventing changes in relative
permeability
The significance of the invasion of the near wellbore by

particulate solids is not generally appreciated within the
(*Reference 10a.2) industry*. Damage from solid particles is a function of pore
throat size distribution, particle size distribution and the
concentration of particles in the fluid. General rules of thumb
regarding particle invasion damage were presented in the
Near Wellbore Performance Manual and these included:
• Particles with diameters less than 1/10 of the average

mean pore throat diameter will generally pass through the
near wellbore area and cause little damage.
• At moderate concentrations, particles greater than 1/3 the

average mean pore throat diameter will tend to plate out
on the formation face, a fact utilized in the use of␣ LCMs.
• Particles between the above sizes will invade the pores and
form bridges, thus causing damage which can be difficult
to␣ remove.
• If a filtercake or LCM pill is being relied upon to prevent

solids invasion, care should be taken to ensure that they
are properly designed.
Page 7
Any completion fluid should not therefore contain:
• Any particles larger than 1/3 mean pore throat diameter.

This obviously does not apply to soluble LCM␣ materials.
• More than 200 ppm total suspended solids, of which 90%

should be less than 1/10 mean pore throat diameter.
The clarity of the fluid is commonly used to determine

the␣ solids content with the clarity being expressed in
Nephelometer Turbidity Units (NTU). However, it is important
to recognise that NTU does not always correspond to ppm
solids content as is shown by Figure 10a.1.
50
40
NTU
30
PPM/NTU
20
10 PPM
0
19:59 20:31 20:59 21:25 22:29 23:07 00:09 00:49 01:51 02:43
TIME (HH:MM)
Figure 10a.1 – Comparison of ppm and NTU Values in Brine Returns (21.12.89)
The practical means of achieving these guidelines is

discussed in the section on preparation and handling
of␣ fluids.
Water sensitive clays such as montmorillonite and mixed

layers clays can expand when exposed to fresh or low salinity
water (Na < 10 000 mg/l, K < 1000 mg/l). When this swelling
occurs the clay lattice will occupy more space in the pore
throat or may become fragile and prone to migration and
subsequent plugging of the pore throats. Once this type of
Page 8
damage occurs it is irreversible. However, if the invading

fluid␣ has the correct ionic composition (see Chapter 3 of the
Near␣ Wellbore Performance Manual) the clays will remain
flocculated and the likelihood of migration will be greatly
reduced. Table 3.1 of the Near Wellbore Performance Manual
provides guidelines on␣ acceptable brine compositions for the
various clay types. 3%␣ KCl is commonly accepted as
providing adequate salinity to prevent clay swelling.
Many sandstone formations in their natural states are water

wet, that is, the surface of the sand grains is coated with a
layer of water and the hydrocarbon phase resides in the pore
space in equilibrium with the water coated grains. As fluids
move the oil phase will tend to slip along the water boundary
leaving the water attached to the sand surface. However, if
fluids containing oil wetting surfactants (corrosion inhibitors,
emulsion inhibitors mutual solvents etc) or surface tension
reducers invade the formation, the water wet nature of the
rock can be changed. When this occurs the relative
permeability to oil will decrease and the connate brine phase
will become mobile releasing the fines previously held in
association with the water layer and sand grains. These fines
can then migrate and bridge at the pore throats.
Invert oil muds also contain strong oil wetting surfactants

and can impair the permeability when lost to the formation.
However, damage from oil based muds has not been widely
observed. Where formations are prone to wettability changes,
water wetting surfactants should be used whenever possible.
When designing large scale squeezes to the formation,
Sunbury and TCSU should be consulted for advice in
preventing some of the potential problems outlined here.
Lowering the saturation of a fluid decreases its relative

permeability and the loss of large volumes of water to an oil
zone or liquids to a gas zone can significantly reduce the
relative permeability. Using completion brine does not in
itself avoid these problems as simply the loss of fluid can
result in a water block. High pore pressure reservoirs will
tend to clean up and overcome this effect. However, depleted
reservoirs may not have sufficient drive to push the invading
aqueous fluid out of the pore space. The answer in this case
is to prevent the brine from seeping into the reservoir.
Unfortunately this is not always straightforward as the
method selected to prevent fluid loss has to be less damaging
than the loss of fluid itself. Methods for reducing seepage
were discussed above.
Page 9
The invading fluid can cause an increase in viscosity around

the wellbore. Again in high permeability reservoirs this will
probably clean up, however this can result in permanent
damage in low permeability, low pressure reservoirs.
Polymers deliberately used to increase viscosity in gravel
pack and fracture fluids will increase the viscosity in the
near␣ wellbore, if lost to the formation. When planning these
operations is important to confirm that a viscosity breaker
will work and the residual viscosity is low enough to allow
the␣ well to clean up.
The composition of formation brine can vary significantly

and␣ if the completion brine contains incompatible ions, the
mixing of the two fluids can result in the precipitation of
insoluble salts. The degree of damage resulting from this is
dependent on the nature and size of the precipitated particles
and the type of formation.
These problems can obviously be avoided by selecting a

compatible fluid, although fluid selection is often a
compromise in that not using a fluid with divalent cations
may prevent a scaling problem, but this could lead to
possible clay swelling problems with certain formations.
Emulsions can be created during the acidization of waxy or

asphaltic crudes with a poorly designed fluid. A significant
loss of mud or mud filtrate can also in certain circumstances
result in emulsions. The compatibility of acid with crude oil
should be checked using API RP 42 guidelines.
CORROSION
Brines are solutions of electrolytes in water and, as such,
provide one of the main components of a corrosion cell.
However, corrosion in the annulus with brines as packer
fluids is not usually a significant problem, in that any initial
corrosion decreases rapidly with the consumption of oxygen.
The addition of corrosion inhibitors in packer fluids is not
usually required especially as their effectiveness in a static
annulus environment is questionable.
VISCOSITY
In a completion operation involving the transportation of
solids or washing operations the completion fluid must have
the ability to convey the solids to the surface. As mentioned
earlier, it is the fluid’s viscosity that provides the carrying
capacity.
Page 10
SELECTION OF FLUIDS
In addition to the main properties outlined in the previous

section, different fluids and additives are employed in
different applications. This section discusses some of the
different applications and their effect on fluid selection.
BOTTOM HOLE
TEMPERATURES
Fluids must have thermal stability in order to operate
successfully downhole. Brines function well in high
temperature environments with respect to solution stability,
however many of the additives used with brine do have
thermal limits in the 200 to 300°F range.
CEMENTING
Brine will generally affect cement in two ways; KCl and NaCl
brines may cause a delay in thickening time and a loss of
strength, and CaCl2 and CaBr2 can accelerate the setting time
when mixed in small quantities with the cement. To avoid
these problems cement is pumped with a spacer (see␣ the
section on displacement in field preparation and handling).
The spacer for pumping cement would consist of fresh water,
polymers and barite.
The success of squeeze cementing is dependent on open

perforations. Low pressure squeeze cementing requires the
spotting of a low fluid loss cement across the perforations.
The cement slurry fills the perforations and because of the
differential pressure into the formation begins to dehydrate.
The loss of water continues until the perforation tunnel is
filled with dehydrated cement. If the perforations to be
squeezed are full of mud solids, the cement slurry may
not␣ dehydrate and the job will fail. Dirty wellbores and
perforations will therefore significantly compromise the
success of a squeeze cementing job. Squeezing through mud
or other solids-laden fluids will typically yield poor results.
The use of a solids-free brine will keep the perforations open
and increase the likelihood of a successful job.
Page 11
GRAVEL
PACKING
As highlighted earlier, completion fluids are critical to the
success of gravel packing operations. In a gravel pack
operation the fluid has to perform a number of functions;
transport and place the gravel, squeeze away to compact the
gravel, prevent formation damage, control well pressure, limit
fluid loss, reverse excess gravel out of the hole and flow back
to surface with the produced fluid.
The gravel pack sand is sized such that it holds back the
formation sand and the slotted liner or wire screen is sized
to␣ contain the gravel pack sand. The median gravel size
should be approximately 5 to 6 times the median size of the
formation sand in order to prevent movement or entry of
sand into the pack. (See Chapter 6 of the Near Wellbore
Performance Manual.) Solids in the gravel pack fluid have
the␣ potential to bridge in the gravel pack and cause a severe
reduction in permeability. Relatively small particles can
bridge in gravel packs, with 40 mesh sand the ‘spaces’
between the gravel are approximately 65 microns. Assuming
that the gravel is perfectly spherical and particles 1/3 the
size of the opening can bridge, then particles of around
15␣ microns can plug the pack. In reality, with a high
concentration of particles and the fact the sand is not
perfectly spherical, the minimum size for bridging is probably
even less. Any brine will have numerous particles in this
range unless it is properly filtered, hence fluid cleanliness
is␣ critical to preventing damage in the pack.
Gravel packs can either be cased or open hole. In cased hole

gravel packs the perforations may be back surged or washed
to remove damage around the perforations. During this
process fluid may be lost to the formation and any solids in
the fluid will not only damage the formation but this damage
may be compounded with damage to the pack. In open hole
packs, the producing interval is commonly underreamed to
remove the damaged zone; again the cleanliness of the fluid
used in the underreaming operation is critical.
Clear brines are therefore the preferred completion fluid for

gravel pack operations. To provide the required sand carrying
capacity, viscosifiers like HEC are added. Fluid viscosities are
usually designed to be around 50 cp. Viscosity breakers are
Page 12
added to ensure that the viscosity reduces to near that of

water in a matter of hours after the completion operation.
This allows the fluid to clean up rapidly at low shear rates.
During operations like perforation washing and

underreaming, fluid loss additives may be required. Both
solids and polymers can be employed to control fluid loss. As
with all fluid loss additives, the main concern is the ability to
remove them after completing the operation. In particular
acid soluble carbonates can be difficult to remove because
of␣ the problem of contacting the particles with acid during
gravel placement
HYDRAULIC
FRACTURING
A major concern with hydraulically fractured formations
is␣ not damage to the formation itself but conductivity
impairment of the fracture. The fractures are usually
propped␣ open with sand in the 20/40 mesh range and are
therefore prone to plugging by solids in the 10 to 40 micron
range. There is therefore a high probability of plugging the
propped fracture if the sand is transported in a dirty fluid
or␣ down a dirty wellbore.
A frac fluid should have the following attributes:
• Good clean-up characteristics.
• High viscosity, to create width and suspend the␣ proppant.
• Good leak-off control.
• Low frictional pressure losses to facilitate high

pump␣ rates.
• High hydrostatic gradient to minimize surface

treating␣ pressures.
Commonly used frac fluids include water based gels, oil

based gels, oil/gel emulsions, nitrogen and CO2 foams, and
lease crude. BP has a strong preference for the use of water
based crosslinked gels and have used these fluids with good
experience in both the North Sea and Alaska.
Page 13
The main constituents of the water based fluids are:
• Filtered, fresh or seawater.
• Gelling agent, normally hydroxy-propyl guar (HPG). This

is␣ a processed form of naturally occurring guar gum. It is
typically added at 40 lbs/gal to give a fluid viscosity of
about 37 cp at a shear rate of 511 1/s.
• Crosslinking agent, usually a borate, titanate or zirconate.

This converts the gel into an extremely thick, structured,
highly non-Newtonian fluid.
• A breaker to break the crosslinked gel back to a

thin␣ liquid. The breaker has to be effective to ensure good
fracture conductivity. An oxidizing breaker, usually
sodium or ammonium persulphate, is used or alternatively
at low temperatures an enzyme breaker can be employed.
• Buffers for PH control.
• Defoamers.
• Biocide, to prevent bacterial attack on the guar gum.
• Surfactant to aid clean-up.
ALTERNATIVES
TO CLEAR
BRINES
The effect of solids contamination during perforating or

gravel␣ packing operations is so detrimental that the use of
any fluids that contain solids is ill advised. There are however
alternatives to brines for workover operations. Indeed in well
killing operations the presence of solids can provide benefits
in reducing massive fluid loss. Alternative fluids include
water base fluids, water based muds, oil base or invert
emulsion muds, hydrocarbons and foams.
Seawater is often used offshore for obvious reasons. The

water should always be filtered and if used as a packer fluid
should have added biocide. Depending on the salinity of the
seawater, KCl or NaCl may need to be added to avoid clay
dispersion problems.
Page 14
Water based muds are not recommended for the majority of

applications. Although they have advantages in terms of
economics and availability over heavy weight brines, their
high potential for causing formation damage precludes their
widespread use. They do however have applications as kill
fluid, in abandoning wells and in milling operations.
Oil based and invert emulsion muds can be formulated with

densities in the range 7.2 to 22 ppg and are particularly
useful where high densities are required at high pressures.
Although considered to be less damaging than water based
muds, they usually contain emulsifiers which can oil wet
the␣ formation. These muds have limited application as a
completion fluid other than as a working fluid in sensitive
formations at high temperatures and pressures.
Hydrocarbons, crude oil or diesel are occasionally used to

advantage as working fluids in low pressure horizons where
brines would result in high fluid loss. Their main limitation is
their low density and care has to be taken to avoid
combustion.
Foams are a mixture of gas dispersed in water or brine with

a␣ small amount of surfactant. Their main application is in
shallow, low pressure reservoirs where they are used for
washing out sand, gravel packing and drilling operations
ADDITIVES
Biocides can be added at the mixing plant to inhibit bacterial
activity. However, if the brine is sufficiently saline, bacterial
activity is unlikely.
Defoaming agents like long chain alcohols, ketones and

organic phosphates, are used to break down foam in surface
pits. They can also be used as anti-foam additives when
adding corrosion inhibitor or other surface acting treatments
which can cause excessive foaming.
Clay inhibitors may be required in low density brines. Typical

clay treatments used in brine are polyfunctional organic
nitrogen derivatives which can be added directly to the brine
at surface.
As discussed earlier, polymers like HEC are added to increase

the brine’s viscosity. When adding HEC care should be taken
to get the polymer completely dispersed before it begins to
Page 15
hydrate or yield. One method of avoiding this is to

predisperse the polymer in an inert non-aqueous solution
before adding it to the brine. This minimizes the risk of
‘fisheyes’ forming (small chunks of non-dispersed hydrated
polymer). The HEC should be sheared and filtered before
being pumped downhole. HEC yields very slowly in some
brines and incompletely in others, especially in brines
containing ZnBr2. Care should be taken in these situations
not to pump unhydrated polymer downhole as the polymer
will collect and form into a rubber-like mass.
In some cases polymers may be added to brines to act as

flocculants or agglomerating agents to aid in solids removal.
These chemicals should be added very sparingly and with
good agitation. Overdosing can result in formation damage.
All additives should be used advisedly and sparingly.
Page 16
FIELD PREPARATION AND HANDLING
BRINE
FORMULATIONS
Completion brines are solutions of various types of salts

dissolved in water. The salt serves as the weighting material
in the fluid as barite does in drilling mud. However, unlike
barite which is suspended in the mud the salt is dissolved.
Calculation of mud density is therefore straightforward as
the␣ density of the barite is constant when suspended in the
mud. The salts in the completion fluids do not retain their
crystalline density as they dissolve and become part of the
water phase; this makes the calculation of density more
difficult. Empirical data is used to relate composition to
density when formulating brines.
The density of most brines is limited by salt solubility and the

crystallization temperature is used to define the point where
solids begin to come out of solution. These solids may be salt
crystals or water crystals (ice). Figure 10a.2 shows a typical
crystallization temperature curve for a brine. The left hand
side of the curve shows the freezing point of the brine, which
as one would expect decreases with increasing CaCl2 content.
The right hand side of the curve shows the phase boundary
below which the solubility of the salt is exceeded and salt
crystals form. This behaviour is common to all single salt
brines. Virtually all brines above 11 lb/gal used in the field
have a solution/salt phase boundary and not a solution/ice
boundary. Low density brines like sodium chloride NaCl and
potassium chloride KCl have a predominantly solution/ice
phase behaviour. The True Crystallization Temperature (TCT)
of a brine is used to define the temperature at which crystals
will form. When specifying the crystallization temperature of
a brine, the TCT should be close to the minimum expected
average ambient temperature to avoid the following problems:
• Lowering the density of the solution as crystals form at the

surface could lead to pressure control problems.
• If the salt starts to crystallize, it can quickly plug valves

and lines resulting in costly delays.
Page 17
80
60 SOLUTION
40
TEMPERATURE, °F
20
0
CaCl26H2O
AND SOLUTION
-20
ICE AND SOLUTION
-40
-60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
CALCIUM CHLORIDE, wt%
Figure 10a.2 – Crystallization Temperature of Aqueous CaCl2
With multisalt brines, the least soluble component will

crystallize at the TCT.
Typical brines together with their associated density ranges

are shown in Figure 10a.3.
Potassium chloride KCl is a simple single salt brine with a

maximum density of 9.7. This density is based on 100%
pure␣ KCl and obviously the density will change if the salt is
slightly impure. It is important to note that at a density of
9.7␣ lb/gal the crystallization temperature is 60°F and hence
for North Sea applications the maximum practical density
is␣ 9.5 lb/gal.
Page 18
21
20
19
18
17
DENSITY, lb/gal @ 70°F
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
8
KCl NaCl CaCl2 NaCl/ CaCl2 / CaCl2 / CaBr2 /
NaBr CaBr2 CaBr2 / ZnBr2
ZnBr2
BRINE COMPOSITION
Figure 10a.3 – Brine Composition vs Density
Sodium chloride NaCl as a single salt has a maximum

density of 10 lb/gal with a crystallization temperature of
20°F␣ corresponding to a 26% NaCl in water solution.
Calcium chloride CaCl2 is a one salt brine with a practical

limit on density of approximately 11.8 lb/gal with a
crystallization temperature of 55°F. Again, the practical
limit␣ in the North Sea is 11.3 lb/gal with a crystallization
temperature of 6°F. The CaCl2 salt used to make up CaCl2
brine is typically 94 to 97% CaCl2 with trace impurities of
KCl, NaCl and other salts.
Page 19
CaCl2 is one of the primary components of completion

brines.␣ It is supplied as a sacked salt or as an approximate
11.3␣ lb/gal brine. Brines which require a lesser density are
prepared by mixing 11.3 lb/gal CaCl2 with fresh water.
Equation 10a.3 is used to determine the number of barrels
of␣ brine and water to be mixed to provide a reduced density.
Volume V1 (bbl) of brine density D1 with X, % salt

composition to make up 1000 bbls of brine density d2
with␣ x␣ 2% composition:
(Equation 10a.3)
1000 x d2 x X2
V1 = Volume of water = 1000 – V1 bbls
d1 x X
Higher densities are achieved by employing denser and more

expensive brines. To reduce these costs blends are often
utilized as shown in Figure 10a.3.
Brines are usually mixed to the engineer’s specifications at a

service company’s blending plant. Transport from the plant
to␣ the field should be in clean, dry, lined tanks. Segregated
tankage and pumps should be provided at the wellsite for
brine make-up and alterations. Covered tanks are
recommended when using expensive high density brines to
prevent rain diluting the brine and absorbtion of moisture
from the atmosphere.
Brine is often selected as the completion fluid of choice

because of its solid free nature. In order not to negate
this␣ virtue, the brine should be filtered before being
pumped␣ downhole
FILTRATION
There are four main categories of filters utilized to filter
brine:␣ cartridge filters, bag filters, multimedia filters and
diatomaceous earth filters. Cartridge filters are perforated
metal or plastic tubes with internal layers of permeable
material. These materials may be made from polyester fibre,
cotton, paper. Large particles are blocked by the outer
surface of the cartridge, with the smaller particles being
trapped within the inner layers. Cartridges are enclosed in
a␣ pressure vessel or pod. Figure 10a.4 shows a typical skid
mounted arrangement of a pair of pods.
Page 20
Figure 10a.4 – Cartridge Pressure Vessels Manifolded and Skid Mounted
Page 21
As the cartridges become clogged the differential pressure

across the pod increases. Once this rises to a predetermined
level, usually 30 to 40 psi, flow is switched to the other pod.
The blocked pod then is taken out of service and the
cartridges replaced.
Cartridge filters are rated as absolute or nominal. As the

name implies, absolute filters obtain a sharp cut of at the
rated size, however, they are limited in flowrate and dirt
capacity and will tend to plug prematurely with high solids
content. A nominally rated cartridge may allow particles
larger than its rated size through. Cartridge filters are
available in 1, 2, 5, 10 and 25 micron.
Bag filters or sock filters are fabric bags with a controlled

mesh size mounted in a filter housing. Bag filters are
available in the full range down to 2 microns.
Multimedia filters utilize layers of different granular materials

like sand, gravel and garnet etc. The filters operate on a
similar principle to gravel packing with the finer material
bridging on the granular layers. As the filtered material
builds up and the differential pressure increases, the system
can be backwashed. Multimedia filters provide higher
flowrates and are therefore used in high volume operations
like injection water treatment.
Diatomaceous earth (DE) is used in a number of filters as

a␣ filtering aid. The most common is the filter press. DE is
the␣ fossil-like remains of diatoms (microscopic water plants).
Packed diatoms are highly permeable, virtually insoluble
and␣ are frequently utilized as filter media. The filter press
(Figure 10a.5) consists of a series of recessed face plates
which are pressed together with a hydraulic ram. A filter
cloth is usually fitted over each plate as a receptor for the
filter aid like DE. Once the plate is closed, the plates are
coated with DE. Filter presses can provide very clean fluid,
removing 90% of particles above 2 microns, however, care
must be taken to prevent any DE going downhole as this
can␣ be particularly damaging. To prevent this, absolute
cartridge filters are placed downstream of the press filter
to␣ act as guard filters. The use of filter presses in tandem
with cartridge press (see Figure 10a.6) is now the preferred
method. The press filter handles high flowrates, large
solids␣ content and the cartridge filters act as guard or
polishing filters.
Page 22
FILTER RECESSED FILTER

CLOTHS PLATE
FILTRATE
OUTLET
FIXED OR FOLLOWER
FEED HEAD HEAD
FLUID
INLET
FILTERCAKE
PLATE DRAIN PORTS
FILTRATE
OUTLET
Figure 10a.5 – DE Filter Press Flowpath Diagram
Page 23
COMPLETION FLUID
ADMIX
FILTER SCREENS
TANK
DE FILTER PRESS
WASTE DE
TANK
CONTAINERIZED DE FILTER PRESS
DIMENSIONS: 20" x 8" x 8"
GROSS WEIGHT: 10 000 kg
INLET OUTLET
OPEN
2 MICRON CLOSED
FILTERS
TWO POD
FILTER UNIT
FLOWMETER
CHEMICAL
SUPPLY PUMP HEADS
CHEMICAL INJECTION
PUMPS
(IF REQUIRED)
CLEAN FILTERED
WATER TO 1 MICRON
Figure 10a.6 – Typical Filtering Layout
Page 24
Due to concerns over potential health problems the

diatomaceous earth is being replaced by Perlite.
High density brines have some value at the end of a workover

and it is often economic to recover the fluid. Many service
companies will buy back the fluid, subject to a reconditioning
programme.
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is simply the removal of a fluid from the
wellbore by replacing the volume with another fluid. Fluids
are changed out to obtain the appropriate downhole
condition for the various operations eg replacing drilling
mud␣ with brine prior to completing the well. Designing a
displacement programme can be relatively complex and is
dependent on a number of factors including:
• Fluid in the well.
• Fluid to be placed in the well.
• Deviation.
• Reverse/normal circulation.
• Required specification of the fluid left in the hole.
The following section is intended as a guide and fluid

specialists should be consulted when designing a
displacement programme.
The overall objective in displacing a fluid is to maximize the

removal of the first fluid and minimize contamination of the
second. The key to a good displacement operation is an
understanding of the two fluids and their interactions. Fluids
may be incompatible when commingled, causing increases in
viscosity and subsequent pumping problems or resulting in
the precipitation of solids. Spacers, small volumes of specially
formulated fluids, are generally used to avoid potential
compatibility problems. Even when compatibility is not a
particular problem spacers are still commonly used to
provide a cleaner displacement. Various types of spacers
are␣ employed for specific purposes. They include:
• Water based weighted.
• Oil based weighted.
Page 25
• High viscosity, no solids.
• Detergent.
• Scouring.
The water based weighted spacer is primarily used as a

displacement spacer for water and inverted oil emulsions.
The based fluid is usually fresh water, with the density of
the␣ spacer usually the same as the fluid preceding it ie the
mud. The density is increased by the addition of weighting
materials like calcium carbonate or barite. Polymers are used
to provide a buffer between the water based mud and the
brine. HEC and XC polymers are commonly used to increase
the viscosity, provide the carrying capacity and keep the
spacer intact.
Oil based spacers are not generally recommended. However,

a gelled oil base mud spacer is sometimes used to displace
invert emulsion oil.
High viscosity, solids-free spacers are usually used when

displacing mud from the hole with solids-free brine. This
spacer does not need the same density as either of the fluids.
In most case sodium chloride or calcium chloride brine are
used together with HEC to provide the increased viscosity.
A surfactant spacer is often used in mud displacement to

help disperse or flocculate solids and clean the pipe and is
utilized in conjunction with other spacers. The spacer usually
consists of a lightweight brine with a high concentration of
surfactant.
A scouring spacer generally precedes a viscous solids free

spacer with fine frac sand or silica flour providing the
abrasive component.
Prior to commencing the displacement, ensure that:
• Surface equipment is clean and ready to handle both the

displacement and displaced fluids.
• The fluid in the well is freeflowing.
• The tubing and casing are free of debris and obstructions.
Page 26
Prior to displacing a mud, the viscosity should be reduced

to␣ a workable minimum and a bit and scrapper run should
be made.
The following factors will affect the success of a displacement

operation: pump rate, direction of flow, differential pressure
due to hydrostatic imbalance, friction and the end point of
the displacement.
Pump rates are usually low during displacements with

1␣ to␣ 2␣ barrels per minute being typical for displacing mud
with brine. The rate is often dictated by the frictional
pressure drop.
The conventional direction for flow is down the tubing and

up␣ the annulus with reverse circulation being the opposite.
A␣ general rule is to reverse circulate when the fluid being
displaced is heavier than the displacing fluid or vice versa.
However, this is only a general guideline and specific well
conditions and pressure limitations may dictate alternative
procedures.
In most displacements, the fluids being pumped will have

different densities. This can result in a differential pressure
across the tubing which can lead to tubing collapse or
burst.␣ This problem is usually overcome by using the
pump␣ pressure to correct for the difference in hydrostatic
head. A further problem can occur when reverse circulating
in that the upper section of casing must be capable of
withstanding the relatively high pump pressure to
overcome␣ the hydrostatic differential.
The magnitude of the frictional pressure drop is dependent

on viscosity, velocity and downhole geometry and obviously
has an impact on pump pressures. A procedure for frictional
pressure drop calculations is presented in API Bulletin
13D ‘The rheology of oil well drilling fluids’.
DISPLACING
MUD WITH
BRINE
When displacing mud with brine the two fluids must be
separated due to their incompatibility. A recommended
spacer design consists of three spacers. The primary spacer
has the same density as the mud and is made up of fresh
water polymers and barite. (This is used for both oil and
Page 27
water based muds.) The second spacer is a scouring or

washing spacer which helps to clean the casing and consists
of a low salinity brine and surfactant. When displacing oil
muds a suitable solvent is also pumped as spacer. The third
spacer is simply a viscous sweep which helps to carry solids
ahead of the brine.
Traditionally, mud has been displaced by seawater in

offshore locations. Seawater displacement is acceptable
providing the seawater is treated like a brine and spaced
from␣ the mud to avoid flocculation.
When displacing drilling mud with brine, the brine should be

filtered following complete displacement.
Page 28
REFERENCES
10a.1 BP Near Wellbore Performance Manual.
10a.2 BP Sunbury Report ‘Formation Damage: Current

Awareness Within the Industry’ by D C Buller.
Page 29
BP Exploration Well Servicing and Workover Philosophies – Chapter 11
BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION 1
POTENTIAL WELL PROBLEMS 3

LOW RESERVOIR PRESSURE 3
POOR PERMEABILITY 3
WELLBORE RESTRICTIONS 3
CONTROL OF WATER PRODUCTION 4
CONTROL OF GAS PRODUCTION 6
MECHANICAL FAILURES 6
PRIMARY CEMENT FAILURES 6
WELL SERVICING AND WORKOVER TECHNIQUES 7

WIRELINE OPERATIONS 7
COILED TUBING 9
HYDRAULIC WORKOVER UNIT 11
REMEDIAL CEMENTING 13
RIG WORKOVERS 14
CONCENTRIC WORKOVERS 15
TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION 17
WIRELINE 18
EQUIPMENT 18
OPERATING GUIDELINES 26
Well Servicing and Workover Philosophies – Chapter 11 BP Exploration
TECHNIQUES (Cont)
ELECTRIC LINE 32
MEASURING DEVICES 32
COILED TUBING 51
EQUIPMENT 51
STANDARD COILED TUBING APPLICATIONS 54
HYDRAULIC SNUBBING UNIT 62

EQUIPMENT 62
THE SNUBBING PROCESS 71
SELECTING A SURFACE WELL INTERVENTION

TECHNIQUE 72
SUBSEA WELL SERVICING 74
WORKED EXAMPLE
BACKGROUND 79
COILED TUBING CEMENT SQUEEZE ON FES 15 81

BACKGROUND 81
WELL CONDITIONS 81
BRIEF WELL HISTORY 86
EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL 87
PROGRAMME 88
ALTERNATIVE SQUEEZE TECHNIQUES 95
SUMMARY 97
CONTACTS 99
REFERENCES 99
BIBLIOGRAPHY 100
INTRODUCTION
During the conceptual design stage, a design life for the

completion will have been established. It is important to
identify any potential reasons for workovers and the
applicable techniques at this stage, as these will have a
direct␣ impact on both the life and the architecture of the
completion. When reviewing the impact of well problems and
workover techniques on the initial completion design, it is
important to recognize the risk associated with that problem
and the potential consequences. It is unlikely that a major
change in completion philosophy is warranted if the risk of a
particular problem occurring is very low, unless of course the
consequences associated with the risk are particularly
serious. Optimizing the completion design around potential
well problems and workover techniques is, like many other
issues, a question of balancing risk against likely
consequence.
An example of this is in the design of horizontal completions.

A horizontal completion selected to maximize initial
productivity may in certain circumstances reduce the risk of
the influx of unwanted fluids. Increasing the stand-off from
say the water zone may reduce this risk even further.
However, a consequence of increasing the stand-off may also
be lower production, especially important if the heavier
hydrocarbons play a major part in the economics. Reducing
the stand-off obviously increases the risk of water influx,
which can prove both difficult and expensive to isolate in a
horizontal completion. By utilizing a multidiscipline team to
assess the various risks and associated consequences, the
optimum completion option can be established.
The selected workover and well servicing philosophy will also

have an impact on the field development plans particularly in
difficult environments and offshore. In marginal and often
well intensive fields, the frequency and type of workover
technique can have a significant influence on the field’s
viability.
The likely well servicing and workover techniques should be

identified at an early stage in the overall project design and
their impact on the well area design fully evaluated. This is
particularly important in offshore locations where space and
allowable weight are at a premium.
Page 1
By considering the following, the well bay, BOP area and

derrick can be designed and located to provide safe and
efficient well servicing operations:
• The type of jobs to be performed.
• The equipment required.
• The location and configuration of the derrick or

workover␣ rig.
• The maximum length of lubricator associated with

any␣ operation.
• The impact of simultaneous drilling, production and

workover operations.
For the purposes of this manual, a workover is defined as

any␣ work performed after the initial completion that alters the
well performance or mechanical structure. The term full
workover is often used to describe a workover operation that
necessitates the removal of the completion string. Other well
servicing techniques required to routinely maintain the well
are also described. The main aims of this chapter are to:
• Highlight the potential well problems and reasons for well

servicing and workovers.
• Discuss the various techniques available, their application

and limitations.
• Illustrate how the selected workover strategy impacts the

completion design.
Workover operations are performed for a number of reasons

and not always as a result of problems occurring in␣ the well.
In some instances a number of workovers may be
programmed into a well’s life, although a cost/benefit analysis
should be performed to justify this, especially in remote
locations where the workover costs are high. An example of a
pre-planned workover would include wells where there is
economic benefit in completing the well with a␣ larger tubing
size to gain the benefit of increased early production.
Although a smaller tubing size would extend the completion
life, possibly eliminating the need for a workover, the
restriction in early production could make this less attractive.
The change of well␣ duty from a producer to an injector as the
field depletes is another common pre-planned workover.
Page 2
POTENTIAL WELL PROBLEMS
The conditions leading to common well problems and the

applicable workover techniques are discussed in the
following␣ sections.
LOW RESERVOIR
PRESSURE
Getting the best from a field as it depletes and the reservoir

pressure falls is where the Production Engineer can often
make a significant contribution to the field’s profitability.
The␣ reduction in reservoir pressure and hence flowrates is
particularly acute in dissolved gas drive reservoirs. In gas cap
and water drive reservoirs, pressure maintenance techniques
can often offset the reduction in pressure due to depletion.
The only workover technique that can mitigate the effects of
falling reservoir pressure is to recomplete the well with either
smaller tubing or some form of artificial lift.
POOR
PERMEABILITY
Fields with low reservoir permeability suffer a rapid decline

once the fluids near the wellbore are produced. Matrix
acidizing is only effective in this situation if formation damage
is also present. The most effective method of improving
productivity in these types of reservoir is to utilize a large
hydraulic fracture treatment. The selection of appropriate
stimulation techniques is presented in Chapter 5 of the Near
(*Reference 11.1) Wellbore Performance Manual*.
WELLBORE
RESTRICTIONS
Restrictions in the wellbore itself can obviously reduce the

productivity of the well. Typical causes of restrictions include
scale, sand, paraffin and asphalt etc. Many of these problems
may not be apparent during early field life but can become a
significant problem as the field matures. If the deposition of
debris is not treated the subsequent restriction can be
enough to kill the well. A number of techniques, both
mechanical and chemical, exist to remove the restriction.
However, these workover techniques are remedial techniques
and consideration should always be given to the prevention of
the problem.
Page 3
The deposition of inorganic scales is the most common

and␣ unfortunately also the most costly of all depositional
problems. In some cases the cost of long term prevention can
be prohibitive, with even an aggressive workover programme
for scale removal being the economically more attractive
option. This is often the case with injected seawater which
may be incompatible with the formation water, where the
costs of continually treating the seawater can be very high.
However, there have been examples where early seawater
breakthrough and a high scaling tendency has forced
operators to look at continuous treatment of injected
seawater.
The prediction, prevention and treatment of the various types

of deposition that can occur in producing wells is discussed
in more detail in Section 5a – Downhole Production
Chemistry.
CONTROL OF
WATER
PRODUCTION
Excessive water production can lead to a number of

production problems including loss of production and
eventual well death, expensive treatment and disposal costs,
corrosion and scaling. Recovery from water drive reservoirs,
however, requires a large influx of water and considerable
quantities of this water may have to be produced to achieve
the best economic return from the field. The control of
excessive water production is also addressed in Chapter 7
of␣ the Near Wellbore Performance Manual. A significant
increase in water production is usually a result of one of
the␣ following:
• A rise in water/oil contact as a result of reservoir

depletion. This is a normal occurrence in water drive
reservoirs as the aquifer moves into the oil zone. If
excessive water production is found to be a problem in this
situation, then this can usually be controlled by squeeze
cementing or plugging back.
• A poor primary cement job which leaves channels between

the casing and formation, allowing water to flow behind
the casing into the producing perforations. This problem is
again remedied by squeeze cementing.
Page 4
• Water coning or fingering. Here water is drawn up

from␣ the aquifer either across bedding planes leading to
coning or along the bedding planes leading to fingering
(see Figure␣ 11.1 ). Once established these cones and fingers
can become stable as the increased water saturation
reduces the relative permeability to oil. Eliminating these
cones and fingers usually requires reducing the offtake
from the wells or recompleting the well in another zone.
• Water migrating along a high permeability streak.
• Fracturing a well into the aquifer.
OIL ZONE
AQUIFER
WATER/OIL
CONTACT
WATER CONING
OIL ZONE
WATER FINGER
WATER/OIL
CONTACT
WATER FINGERING
Figure 11.1 – Schematic of Water Coning and Fingering
Page 5
CONTROL OF GAS
PRODUCTION
Excessive gas production from a well can result from solution
gas in the oil evolving as the pressure declines, or as a result
of gas encroachment from the gas cap. With pressure decline
in saturated oil reservoirs, the gas evolved across the
reservoir may migrate to the gas cap. However, the gas
evolved near the wellbore as the oil is produced causes an
increase in gas saturation and allows the gas to be produced
with the oil. Continued production results in a decrease in
relative permeability of the rock to oil and the gas becomes
the more mobile fluid. High gas/oil ratios (GORs) in this case
are a function of the reservoir drive mechanism and cannot
usually be remedied by a workover.
An increase in GOR can also occur from a lowering of the

gas␣ cap into the producing zone and through channels in
the␣ cement or casing leaks. This increase in GOR can be
temporarily remedied by squeeze cementing and lowering the
perforated interval. There has been extensive experience in
Prudhoe Bay in utilizing coiled tubing to overcome these
problems and this is discussed in more detail in the
(*References 11.2 and 11.3) Techniques section*.
MECHANICAL
FAILURES
Mechanical failures of tubing, casing and downhole
equipment often require a workover to rectify the problem.
Typical problems would include casing leaks, either as a
result of corrosion or collapse, tubing failures, packer
failures␣ and downhole safety valve failures. Many of these
failures result in a unacceptable level of annulus/tubing
communication which require a full workover to rectify the
problem. When embarking on a workover of this type it is
important to review the current well status and evaluate
whether additional remedial work would be cost-effective
and␣ beneficial.
PRIMARY CEMENT
FAILURES
A poor primary cement job which leaves channels behind
the␣ casing can lead to the influx of unwanted fluids and in
certain instances casing collapse. The repair of cementing
failures can be achieved using a number of different
techniques, some of which are discussed in this chapter. A
more detailed presentation of cementing is also provided in
(*Reference 11.4) the XEU Platform Drilling Manual*.
Page 6
WELL SERVICING AND WORKOVER TECHNIQUES
The most commonly utilized workover techniques include:
• Wireline operations; slickline, braided line and

electric␣ line.
• Coiled tubing operations.
• Hydraulic workover operations.
• Remedial cementing.
• Concentric workover operations.
• Full rig workovers.
WIRELINE
OPERATIONS
Wireline is the commonest form of well intervention as a
result of its relatively low cost and ability to be run through
a␣ lubricator on the Xmas tree with the well under pressure.
Three types of wireline are utilized, namely:
• Slickline. This is a solid single strand of wire, the

commonest size being 0.108in
• Braided line. This wireline consists of stranded wire

resulting in a higher load capacity than slickline.
Commonly used sizes are 3/16 and 5/16in
• Electric line. This consists of stranded wire and a

conductor capable of transmitting an electrical signal
to␣ the surface.
Slickline operations are limited to the running, pulling and

jarring of equipment. Slickline has the advantage of being
able to be run relatively quickly through the completion with
the well under pressure. Unlike other workover techniques it
cannot be used to convey or circulate fluids or impart any
rotational force. A further disadvantage is the limited tensile
load capacity of the line. Table 11.1 illustrates the
specifications for the more commonly used sizes.
Page 7
SLICKLINE SPECIFICATIONS
Nominal
Diameter 0.082 0.092 0.105 0.108
in
Tolerance
on Diameter ±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.001
in
Breaking 1240 1540 2000

Strength to to to 2050
lb 1500 1875 2400
NOTE: Maximum recommended safe pull is 75% of the

breaking strength.
Table 11.1
The main functions of slickline are as follows:
• Installation and retrieval of flow control equipment.
• Running of pressure, temperature and flow

monitoring␣ devices.
• Cleaning the tubing.
• Bailing fill.
• Swabbing the well.
• Fishing equipment.
Wireline units are installed on various means of transport

including trailers, trucks, boats and barges. Units used on
offshore platforms are typically skid mounted. The wireline is
spooled on to a reel that is usually hydraulically driven. The
source of hydraulic power can be either an electric or diesel
driven unit. Electric units are generally preferred, particularly
where the unit is sited in close proximity to the lubricator.
Care should be taken when utilizing a diesel unit particularly
in offshore locations. The unit should meet all the current
Page 8
company requirements in terms of reducing potential ignition

sources and should be located as far from the lubricator as
feasible. A minimum distance of 3 m is a useful␣ guideline.
Braided line is commonly used in fishing operations

where␣ slickline has insufficient strength to impart the
required loads.
Electric line is used in any application where an electrical

signal needs to be transmitted up or down the well. The
principal applications are to activate equipment like packers,
perforating, and in data acquisition like production logging.
COILED TUBING
Coiled tubing units (CTU) have traditionally been used
for␣ well clean-out, well kick-off and spotting of acid. CTU
applications are limited by the tensile capacity of the tubing,
the lifting capacity of the rig and the inability to rotate the
tubing. Although not as mobile and easy to rig up as a
wireline unit, CTU’s ability to convey fluids and the
significant cost advantages over conventional workover
rigs␣ has led to the use of coiled tubing as the preferred
technique for a number of well maintenance problems.
The␣ advent of highly deviated and horizontal wells, has
also␣ resulted in coiled tubing being used for applications
like␣ shifting sliding sleeves, which cannot be performed by
wireline at high angles. Coiled tubing is now being utilized
for␣ scale millouts using downhole motors and remedial
cementing.
CTUs are now capable of working to 15 000 to 17 000 ft

depending on the operation and the overall pressure drops.
Table 11.2 provides a guideline to the working depth
associated with the various sizes of coiled tubing. The
current␣ wellhead pressure limitation on coiled tubing is
5000␣ psi, although a number of companies are now trying
to␣ develop injector heads capable of operating at higher
wellhead pressures.
Pressure drops in coiled tubing are significant as the fluid

has to pass through the complete length of tubing on the reel
irrespective of depth. As a result of this, circulation rates are
limited to a few barrels a minute.
Page 9
PRESSURE DROPS IN COILED TUBING
PRESSURE LESS (psi per 100 ft)
FLUID 0.1 bpm 1.0 bpm 2.0 bpm 3.0 bpm
Tube Size: 1 1/4in x 0.067in Wall
10 ppg Brine 5.6 412 1583 3413

15% Hel 4.9 353 1353 2911
Diesel 5.6 338 1257 2719
Fresh Water 4.5 329 1263 2843
10 ppg Brine 6.7 495 1900 4096

15% Hel 5.8 423 1624 3494
Diesel 6.5 406 1508 3263
Fresh Water 5.4 396 1517 3412
Brine 7.3 533 2047 4414

15% Hel 6.3 457 1750 3766
Diesel 7.0 438 1626 3517
Fresh Water 5.9 426 1634 3678
10 ppg Brine 2.6 178 681 1465

15% Hel 2.2 158 581 1247
Diesel 2.6 157 564 1220
Fresh Water 2.0 141 567 1220
10 ppg Brine 2.9 198 758 1632

15% Hel 2.4 176 647 1389
Diesel 2.9 175 628 1359
Fresh Water 2.3 158 604 1360
Table 11.2
Page 10
HYDRAULIC
WORKOVER
UNIT
A hydraulic workover or snubbing operates on the principle
that pipe can be inserted or withdrawn from a well under
pressure. The process utilizes jointed tubing or drill pipe with
a hydraulic snubbing unit to run the tubing string without
killing the well, and allows small diameter tubing to be run
through the completion. A schematic of a typical hydraulic
workover unit is shown in Figure 11.2. The unit has to
perform three basic functions:
• Feed the pipe into and out of the well in a controlled

manner against wellhead pressure.
• Provide a seal which maintains integrity while at the

same␣ time allowing the pipe to be inserted or removed
from the well.
• Provide a means of plugging the inside of the pipe.
Hydraulic workover units (HWOU) have several advantages

over conventional workover rigs and greater capability than
coiled tubing:
• The workover operation can be performed under pressure

and in certain cases with the well still flowing. This
eliminates the risk of formation damage in sensitive
formations resulting from killing the well prior to a
conventional workover.
• Mobilisation and demobilisation are shorter reducing the

overall time a well is off production.
• The hydraulic workover unit is flexible, with a lifting

capacity up to 340 000 lbs, allowing it to handle relatively
large tools. The ability to rotate the pipe enables light
drilling and milling work to be performed.
The ability of the HWOU to work under pressure has meant

that until recently the primary use for HWOU was for
emergency and non-routine well interventions. This use has
to some extent tarnished the reputation of HWOU, in that
most of the experience has been gained under difficult or
emergency situations. Indeed, in many cases HWOU was the
Page 11
HYDRAULIC
TORQUE LOCK
CONTROL PANEL
COUNTERBALANCE WINCH
WORK PLATFORM
TRAVELLING SLIPS OF HYDRAULIC BYPASS

HYDRAULIC JACK
POWER ROTATING HEAD
TWO OR FOUR
HYDRAULIC OPERATING
COUNTERBALANCE VALVES JACK CYLINDERS
WELDED PLUMBING
STATIONARY SLIPS
TELESCOPING MAST
WINDOW FOR
STRIPPER BOWL OR
ANNULAR BOP
HANGER FLANGE
BOP STACK
(VARIOUS DESIGNS AVAILABLE)
Figure 11.2 – Schematic of Typical Hydraulic Workover Unit
Page 12
only appropriate technique to control the well. However,

for␣ some of the reasons outlined above, the HWOU is
now␣ becoming the preferred well servicing technique
for␣ certain situations.
Current applications include:
• Fishing or milling in casing.
• Cleaning out cemented solids in the tubing, liner

or␣ casing.
• Drilling out bridge plugs.
• Washing out frac materials.
• Pressure control/well killing.
• Circulating out heavy fluids.
• Acidizing and washing.
• Running macaroni tubing to pump nitrogen in wells where

depth and pressure preclude the use of coiled tubing.
• Running completions under pressure.
• Sand consolidation.
• Squeeze cementing or plugging back.
A comparison of coiled tubing, HWOU and a compact module

workover rig is presented in the Techniques section.
REMEDIAL
CEMENTING
Remedial cementing uses various techniques to place small

volumes in specific targets. The type of operations fall into
two categories:
• Cement squeezes, where cement is squeezed under

pressure to seal perforations or defects in the primary
cement sheath.
• Cement plugs, which are set to isolate part or all of

the␣ wellbore.
Page 13
Remedial cementing is usually performed during the

production phase to control the fluids entering the
wellbore,␣ or to restore pressure integrity. Common
applications include:
• Recompletion or perforation squeeze.
• Repairing of channels.
• Repair of casing leaks.
• Supplementing top of cement.
• Plug and abandonment.
Cementing and remedial cementing using a workover rig

are␣ discussed in Reference 11.4. Squeeze cementing using
coiled tubing now has increasing application and the various
procedures are discussed in the worked example section of
this chapter. Other useful references include:
(*Reference 11.5) • Smith D K ‘Cementing’ SPE Monograph Series 1976*.
• Rike J L and Rike E ‘Squeeze cementing: state of the art’

SPE Paper 9755 presented at the SPE 56th Annual
(*Reference 11.6) Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio 1981*.
RIG WORKOVERS
Detailed rig workover procedures are beyond the scope of

this␣ manual and the workover manuals for individual fields
should be consulted as appropriate. Conventional rig
workovers are usually employed to perform the following:
• Retrieving and running completion strings.
• Repairing or modifying the permanent downhole

equipment eg running scab liners etc.
• Changing the completion interval.
Page 14
CONCENTRIC
WORKOVERS
Concentric workovers involve the use of a smaller diameter

workstring which is run inside the permanent completion.
Concentric workover methods include coiled tubing, HWOUs
and small workover rigs. Coiled tubing and HWOUs have the
advantage of being able to be run in the well without killing
the well. A comparison of the relative merits of coiled tubing,
HWOU and a compact workover rig, is presented in the
Techniques section.
Page 15
INTRODUCTION
This section concentrates on slickline, electric line, coiled

tubing and hydraulic workover operations. Conventional rig
workover operations are covered in the various BP workover
and drilling manuals, although a comparison of the various
techniques in both a platform and subsea environment
is␣ presented.
Page 17
WIRELINE
EQUIPMENT
The minimum surface equipment required to perform wireline

operations is as follows:
• Wireline winch unit.
• Measuring device.
• Weight indicator.
• Hay pulley and wireline clamp.
• Stuffing box.
• Lubricator.
• Blowout preventer (BOP).
• Wireline.
Figure 11.3 illustrates a typical wireline rig-up.
The most common wireline winch unit is skid mounted and

has a double drum, one with 20 000 ft of 0.108in wire and
the second with 15 000 ft of 7/32in wire. The measuring
device, as the name implies, provides the operator with the
location of his tool relative to some datum, usually the swab
valve. The operator uses this device to locate the toolstring,
monitor the speed, and to avoid running the toolstring into
the stuffing box when pulling out of the hole. The weight
indicator displays the total load or line tension and is critical
to jarring operations to avoid breaking the wire. The device
will also indicate restrictions in the tubing, changes in fluid
density and losses or increases in weight when setting or
retrieving downhole equipment. The hay pulley guides the
wire down from the lubricator and out parallel to the floor to
the winch drum. The hay pulley is attached to the Xmas tree
via the load cell for the weight indicator.
The wireline clamp is used to secure the wire when required

eg when removing the lubricator. The stuffing box provides
the pressure seal on the wire and consists of a packing gland
that can be adjusted by means of an external nut. In the
Page 18
event that the wire breaks and is forced out of the packing,
there is a an internal BOP plunger that is designed to seal
off␣ the stuffing box. Slickline stuffing boxes of this type are
available in working pressure ratings up to 15 000 psi.
To␣ provide a seal on braided cable or electric line, a grease
injection head is required. This utilizes grease injected under
pressure, to both provide a seal and lubricate the wire. The
lubricator provides a means of loading and removing tools
from the well. The lubricator is usually made up of 8 ft
sections connected by quick unions. Quick unions allow the
lubricator to be connected/disconnected without the use of
any tools. The lubricator should always be of sufficient length
to accommodate the longest toolstring that may be retrieved
from the hole. A minimum of 3 ft should also be provided as
a safety margin.
SHEAVE
STUFFING
BOX
LUBRICATOR
NEEDLE VALVE WIRELINE BOP
HAY
PULLEY
SKID DECK
REMOTE LOAD CELL WINCH UNIT

WELL
CONTROL
PANEL
XMAS TREE
Figure 11.3 – Typical Slickline Rig-up
Page 19
The BOP or wireline valve provides a means of well control in

emergency situations. BOPs can either be single or double.
The BOP can isolate pressure with or without wire in the
well. The BOP rams have resilient seals which can close and
seal around a wire, without damaging or cutting the wire.
Dual BOPs are normally employed for braided line or fishing
operations.
In this section, it is not possible to detail the myriad of

different wireline tools, their function, operation and running
procedures. However, some of the major types of tools are
presented and discussed. More information is available from
the various vendors and in the individual field group well
(*Reference 11.7) servicing procedures*.
A typical toolstring used in almost all operations is illustrated

in Figure 11.4. This consists of a rope socket, stem or sinker
bars, mechanical jar and running/pulling tool. Where the
toolstring is to be used to retrieve a flow control device a
hydraulic jar is also included in the toolstring (gas wells
excepted).
Hydraulic jars are designed for upward jarring only and are
run in conjunction with a mechanical jar. Hydraulic jars
provide a heavier jar action and are useful in deviated wells,
shifting sliding sleeves, fishing operations and any operations
which require increased jarring action. Hydraulic jars are
not␣ recommended in gas wells. Figure 11.5 illustrates the
principle of the hydraulic jar. As the string is put under
tension of more than 1200 lb the piston in the oil filled
chamber will slowly begin to move, the speed being restricted
by the clearance between the piston and the cylinder. When
the piston moves into the larger diameter the oil no longer
provides a restriction and the piston quickly accelerates,
providing the jarring action. At the bottom of the jar a
floating␣ piston maintains a constant volume in the chamber.
The hydraulic jar should always be positioned above the
mechanical jar in all toolstrings. Otherwise, in the event of
the hydraulic jar failing due to gas ingress it will act as a
shock absorber to the jarring action of the mechanical jar.
A gauge cutter or tubing gauge, Figure 11.6, is usually run

before most wireline operations and performs the following
functions; ensure that there are no obstructions in the
tubing, locate reductions in tubing ID eg landing nipples
and␣ remove paraffin or other relatively soft deposits from
the␣ tubing wall.
Page 20
ROPE SOCKET
STEM
MECHANICAL JAR
Figure 11.4 – Typical Toolstring
Page 21
TOP SUB
PISTON
SEALS
CYLINDER
PISTON
ROD
CHECK
VALVE
BALANCE
PISTON
A B C D
LINE TENSION WHEN FLUID UPWARD RESETTING – STEM
BEGINNING TO BYPASS AREA IMPACT WEIGHT CAUSES OIL
OPEN JARS INCREASES PISTON TO PASS CHECK VALVE
AGAINST MOVES UPWARD TO RETURN TO
OIL RESISTANCE RAPIDLY UPPER CYLINDER
DETAIL
Figure 11.5 – Hydraulic Jars – Operating Principles
Page 22
An impression block, Figure 11.6, is essentially a lead filled

cylinder that is utilized during fishing operations. The block
is run into the hole and is dropped (only once) on to the fish
to determine the shape, size and position of the fish. The
resulting impression in the block can then be used to assist
in the selection of the fishing tool. In order to get a good
impression the block should not be run with a knuckle joint.
A blind box is a simple cylinder with a flat hardened surface

and is used with heavy jarring to impart heavy downward
blows eg to cut wire on top of a rope socket
A tubing end locator operates exactly as the name suggests

and is used to provide an accurate reference point at the
bottom of the tailpipe. The device utilizes a spring loaded
finger which, as the locator passes out of the tailpipe, is
forced out against a shear pin. As the wireline is retrieved,
the finger prevents the tool from entering the tubing thus
providing the measurement. To retrieve the tool the pin can
be sheared with upward tension.
A sand bailer, illustrated in Figure 11.7, is used to draw a

sample of sand or debris from the well. A useful application
of the bailer is to remove debris which can fall on the fishing
neck and impede the removal of the tool. The bailer consists
of a cylinder with a shear disc at the bottom. The cylinder is
sealed off from well pressure with O-rings, and is lowered into
the well at atmospheric pressure. When the obstruction is
reached, the shear disc is broken by downward jarring,
allowing full well pressure to enter the cylinder with a sudden
surge. The sand or debris is then sucked into the bailer and
is prevented from flowing out by means of a check valve.
There are a number of pulling and releasing tools used to

locate and retrieve equipment from the completion. Detailed
descriptions of the various tools are presented in the
individual field group well servicing procedures or in Vendors’
manuals. In this section the operating principles common to
all the tools will be discussed. All standard running and
pulling tools have some means of being able to release from
the latched device if the device should become stuck. The
release of the pulling/running tool is usually achieved by
jarring and shearing a metal pin which holds the device to
the tool. Although this shearing can be achieved by both
upward and downward jarring, a shear-up type tool is
preferred wherever possible for pulling operations.
Page 23
GAUGE CUTTER TUBING END LOCATOR
BODY
CAP SCREEN
LEAD
BLIND BOX IMPRESSION BLOCK
Figure 11.6 – Wireline Tools
Page 24
TOP SUB
ALLEN SCREW
MANUAL PRESSURE RELIEF
BALL
CAP
AUTOMATIC SAFETY RELEASE
SAFETY PLUG
CYLINDER
SHEAR DISC
ROLL PIN
O-RING
BALL CHECK VAKVE
LOWER HOUSING
PLUNGER
SKIRT (SIZE VARIABLE TO SUIT TUBING)
BYPASS OPENING
Figure 11.7 – Hydrostatic Bailer
Page 25
The type of downhole device to be retrieved determines

the␣ type of pulling tool required. An external pulling tool,
Figure 11.8, is designed to engage an external fishing neck
and shear release by upward jarring. The pulling tool
consists of␣ a␣ core, shear pin, and a cylinder containing
dogs.␣ A sub attaches this core to the wireline toolstring.
By␣ changing the core, the pulling tool can be converted to
latch on to the appropriate device. To retrieve a device with
an internal fishing neck, an internal pulling tool similar
to␣ that shown in Figure 11.8 is utilized. This type of tool
releases by downward jarring. When retrieving a blanking
plug, it is important to ensure that the pressure is equalized
across the plug to avoid the plug being blown up the hole.
Many plugs have equalizing devices which automatically
equalize the pressure, before the plug body can be released.
A description of landing nipples and associated wireline

locks␣ is presented in Chapter 8 – Selection of Completion
Equipment.
OPERATING
GUIDELINES
Often, what are regarded as routine wireline operations can

result in expensive and time consuming fishing operations. It
is important to recognize that in terms of wireline operations
all wells are unique and details of a well’s history should be
reviewed and confirmed as correct before embarking on a job.
Many fishing operations could be avoided by a combination of
knowing exactly the current status of the well and meticulous
preparation of equipment. It should always be remembered
that the time saved cutting corners during the preparation is
insignificant compared to the time lost in a subsequent
fishing job.
The following guidelines should be applied when running

wireline:
• Confirm that all equipment is functioning correctly and

has the appropriate certification. Pay particular attention
to the weight and depth indicators.
• Never free-fall wireline, always have the power pack

operating.
Page 26
SUB
SET SCREW
CYLINDER SPRING
SLEEVE
SHEAR PIN CAP
SHEAR PIN
CYLINDER
EXTERNAL PULLING TOOL
DOG SPRING
WASHER
DOGS
CORE
REACH
FISH NECK
SOCKET HEAD SET SCREW
CORE
TOP SUB
SHEAR PIN
CYLINDER
INTERNAL PULLING TOOL SPRING
SPRING RETAINER
SPRING
DOG RETAINER
DOG
REACH
Figure 11.8 – External and Internal Pulling Tools
Page 27
• Ensure that there is sufficient wireline on the drum for

any potential operation. Always maintain a record of the
wire on the drum, taking note of any wire that is cut off.
• Pulls should be limited to the following maximum figures

and these should only be used with the permission of the
job supervisor:
– 1200 lbs for 0.108in

– 2750 lbs for 3/16in cable
• Tools should be pulled into the lubricator at the slowest

possible speed with the slack wire being taken up by the
helper to absorb the impact.
• Only the Xmas tree swab valve should be used for cutting
the wire.
• During the rigging up/down of the lubricator, the reel

brake should be applied and the hydraulic bypass should
be fully open. A wireline clamp should also be used
whenever possible.
• During the running and pulling of wireline, the speed

is␣ governed by the type of operation and the type and
architecture of the well. In all cases when passing through
the Xmas tree, SCSSV or any downhole accessories, speed
should be kept to a maximum of 20 ft/min.
• Care should be exercised when pulling plugs or SCSSVs,

to ensure that the pressure is fully equalized. This is not
normally a problem with the two-trip prong type plug, in
that the time required to make the second trip usually
ensures equalization. However, with one-trip plugs, at
least half an hour should be allowed between latching
and␣ pulling to ensure equalization. This is commonly
accomplished by utilizing a glycol mixture in the
lubricator.
• Provisions to prevent hydrate formation should always be

made in wet gas wells. This is commonly accomplished by
utilizing a glycol mixture in the lubricator.
Page 28
• Deviated wells provide their own set of wireline problems,

in particular the ability to impart a jarring action is
compromised. The well diaries should be consulted
to␣ determine the appropriate toolstring for the well.
Hydraulic or spring jars should be included in the
string␣ together with roller stem and accelerators where
appropriate. Large tool strings in small diameter tubing
can further reduce the jarring action due to lack of
fluid␣ bypass.
Although good operating practices can avoid a number

of␣ fishing jobs, inevitably there will be occasions when
unforeseen circumstances result in a fishing operation.
Planning is often the key to a successful fishing operation
and when putting together a plan, it is important to consider
the following:
• Avoid pressure to rush into the job, as this can quickly

make a bad situation much worse.
• Evaluate all the possible alternative actions and select

the␣ one which on balance provides the safest and most
reliable solution.
• Prepare a contingency plan to be adopted should the

initial action fail.
The following guidelines should be considered when

performing wireline fishing operations:
• Prior to the fishing operation a new configuration of

surface equipment is required to cope with the planned
operations.
• The BOP arrangement should be sufficient to cover all

eventualities eg if fishing 0.108in line with 3/16in cable,
two sets of BOPs are obviously required.
• The lubricator should be of sufficient length to

accommodate the fishing string, and fish above the tree,
and BOPS if required.
• Complicated fishing operations where well control could be

compromised require well kill facilities to be rigged up.
Page 29
• Before commencing operations, liaise with the platform or

rig management to ensure that the fishing operations do
not conflict with current regulations or any other
simultaneous hazardous operations.
As mentioned earlier, when using braided cable a grease

injector head is required for pressure integrity. The grease
injector head contains wellhead pressure by forcing high
pressure grease, ie greater than wellhead pressure, into a
close tolerance flow tube. This grease then fills the void
spaces in the stranded wire thus preventing the escape of
well fluids. Figure 11.9 illustrates one type of grease injection
head. When using braided cable, there are a number of
additional guidelines to be followed:
• Check the rope socket to ensure that the cable will not be
cut or pulled out.
• Downward jarring with braided cable is far less effective

than with 0.108in wire. Jar up to release tools should be
used if at all possible.
• An accelerator should always be incorporated in the

toolstring.
• A safety check union should be installed below the

grease␣ head.
• Care should be taken to avoid damaging the cable

especially during rig-up, as damaged cable can snag in
the␣ flow tubes.
More detailed procedures are presented in local well

servicing␣ manuals.
Page 30
PISTON
STOP
O-RING
HYDRAULIC
FLUID INLET
PISTON
HYDRAULIC
GREASE PACKING NUT
INLET ASSEMBLY
UPPER BRASS
BODY
BUSHING
SPRING LINE
GUIDE RUBBER
BODY
WELL
PRESSURE
INLET LOWER BRASS
DRAIN BUSHING
HOSE
SPRING O-RINGS
FLOW FLOW TUBE

O-RING HOSE SLEEVE
FLOW TUBE
ADJ
SCREW
VALVE
ADJ
SCREW
STOP
NOZZLE
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
REGULATOR VALVE
GREASE
RETURN
GREASE
TUBE
CHECK
VALVE
GREASE SUPPLY
INLET
PRESSURE BOTTOM
TUBE SUB
DIFFERENTIAL
REGULATOR RETAINER
VALVE NUT
Figure 11.9 – Bowen Unitized Grease Injection Control Head
Page 31
ELECTRIC LINE
The primary use of electric line in production wells is for

cased hole formation evaluation and production logging.
However, it is also routinely used for perforating, setting
bridge plugs and packers etc. Production logging is the
term␣ used for any survey which is run to evaluate the nature
and behaviour of fluids in the well during production or
injection. The applications of production logging include:
• Well test evaluation.
• Determining reservoir characteristics.
• Evaluating completion efficiency.
• Identifying unwanted fluid flow eg thief zones.
• Reviewing stimulation treatments, before and after.
There are several other surveys commonly carried out

on␣ electric line which are not generally considered to be
production logging. These include casing corrosion and
integrity logs as well as cement bond logs. These are
generally␣ run before the tubing is run in new wells, or
after␣ the completion has been removed in older wells
being␣ worked over.
A major application of production logging is as a diagnostic

tool in the detection and elimination of unwanted fluids. The
logs are used to detect and record the flow of fluids in the
following areas: up the tubing, in annular channels or spaces
behind the casing or the movement of fluid contacts in the
reservoir itself. In common with the discussion of other
techniques in this section, the intention is not to provide
detailed running and interpretation procedures, but to
describe the overall process and limitations of the techniques.
MEASURING
DEVICES
There are various measuring devices that are utilized in

production logging. These include temperature, pressure,
flowmeters, electrical, nuclear, magnetic, sonic and
mechanical. In order to provide meaningful data these
Page 32
devices must be run in complementary suites. One log alone

can rarely provide the full answer to any particular problem.
In addition it is often the subtle features of a particular log
that provide the key to the problem. The basic sensors have
changed little over the years, although improvements in data
acquisition (eg simultaneous logging of all sensors in a
toolstring), measuring accuracy (eg quartz pressure gauges),
and wellsite processing (eg producing merged on depth
passes of each sensor), have enhanced the usefulness
of␣ production logging. The nature of the measurements
themselves limits the degree of interpretation in multiphase
(water, oil and gas) environments, but intelligent guesses can
often be made as to the exact processes occurring.
Inevitably there is a high degree of normalization of the

response from the various measuring devices in order to
compensate for various anomalies in response and
measurement. A typical example of this would be the
sinusoidal nature of a flowmeter curve as it is run up and
down a well. This is generally caused by the toolstring
‘yo-yoing’. With correct manipulation of the data (often on a
PC at the wellsite), this can be removed and the underlying
profile seen. A number of bodies are now investigating the
possibilities of using the raw data, particularly in multiphase
flow interpretation.
Detailed below is a description of the various measuring

devices and their application:
Collar Logs
An important aspect of all electric line operations is depth
control. The original open hole logging of a well will have
included a gamma ray (GR) log and it is this log to which
all␣ other measurements are normally referenced. Before
perforating a new well a GR/casing collar locator (CCL) log
will have been run; this combines a collar locator with a GR
to␣ enable the depths of the casing collars to be accurately
determined with respect to the original GR log. Perforating
guns are generally run with only a CCL, as the power
requirement of a GR can be sufficient to detonate the guns.
Once the collar depths are known from the GR/CCL log
these␣ can then serve as a depth reference for all subsequent
operations. Almost all cased hole logs will have a collar
locator included in the tool string. A CCL consists of a coil
of␣ wire placed between two cylindrical magnets of opposite
polarity. As the locator is pulled past a collar the magnetic
Page 33
field is distorted by the coil which is recorded at surface as a

blip on the log. It is important to realize that any distortion of
the magnetic field downhole will be indicated as a collar on
the log. Hardware such as scratchers, stop collars etc can
appear to be collars. With practice however, and the choice
of␣ a suitable scale, these can be differentiated from the actual
casing collars.
Temperature
Logs
For most production logging applications it is the departure
from the geothermal temperature gradient that provides
an␣ indication of possible well problems. Temperature logs
are␣ used qualitatively rather than quantitatively in that
absolute analysis of the data is difficult because of the large
number of unknowns eg the thermal properties of the fluids,
downhole hardware and the formation. However, even
used␣ qualitatively the logs can provide useful information,
which␣ can be used to confirm or contradict the results
from␣ other sensors leading to identification of anomalies
associated with flow behind casing etc.
Temperature logs are often used in conjunction with fluid

injection to determine points of flow entry and potential
flowpaths. This technique utilizes the fact that the injected
fluid (generally water) is colder than the surrounding rock
and the temperature anomaly can be seen when flow is
occurring behind the casing. Normally a series of passes is
made in succession to monitor the rate at which the well
returns to a geothermal gradient. Obviously those regions
which have taken the most cold fluid take the longest to
return to their original temperature.
Pressure
Measurement
Logs
Traditionally, bottom hole pressure surveys have been carried
out using Amerada gauges run on slickline. These still have
widespread application but suffer from the major drawback
that they are not surface readout. During well tests it is
extremely useful to be able to monitor the downhole pressure
to assess stability etc and for this reason pressure sensors
are often included in production logging toolstrings. A
temperature probe is always run with a pressure gauge if
the␣ gauge does not already contain its own temperature
Page 34
sensor. There are essentially two types of pressure gauge

in␣ common use: strain gauges (eg GRC gauges) and quartz
gauges (eg HP gauges). Strain gauges are quicker to respond
to changes in temperature and are more robust than quartz
gauges, but are not as accurate as the quartz gauges which
provide measurements within fractions of psia. The major
drawback of the quartz gauges is their thermal mass, making
them unsuitable for moving passes in production logging
where there is temperature variation. Often the change in
temperature causes a greater effect on the gauge than the
pressure variation, leading to some very odd results. To
prevent this, newer types of ‘fast response’ gauge are
becoming available, but often the simplest solution is
to␣ run␣ a strain gauge in tandem with the quartz gauge.
Flowmeter Logs
Spinner flowmeters all incorporate some form of shaft
mounted impeller that is rotated by the flow of fluid. The
rotation of the shaft is measured either by photoelectric or
electromagnetic means. The spinner speed is then converted
to fluid velocity after having performed calibration passes in
a␣ region with no flow in the same size diameter pipe. This is
generally done by logging at least three speeds up and down
and producing a calibration chart which takes into account
threshold velocities etc.
There are three common types of flowmeter tool:
• ‘Spinner’ or continuous flowmeter tools. This is simply an

impeller mounted on the end of the tool protected by a
cage assembly. Common sizes of cage are 1 11/16in and
2␣ 1/8in although larger sizes eg 3 1/2in are available.
The␣ impellers are generally metal turbine blades or plastic
helixes, the most important concern being low mass to
prevent their momentum masking subtle flow patterns.
This type of spinner is commonly run in tubing or where
the flowrate is high and the fluids relatively homogeneous.
It is important that the spinner is well centralized if it is
run in casing, to avoid an unrepresentative survey.
• ‘Full bore spinners’ or ‘folding flowmeters’ are similar tools

except that the impeller assembly and cage can fold up
to␣ enable passage through tubing, opening out to fill the
internal diameter of the casing. This larger cross-sectional
area tends to correct for fluid velocity profiles and
multiphase flow effects.
Page 35
• ‘Basket flowmeters’ and ‘diverter’ tools. These are

flowmeters which channel the flow into a smaller
metering␣ section enabling smaller flowrates to be
measured accurately in large size casings. As all the
flow␣ is funnelled through the measuring port all the
fluids␣ are measured, not just those occupying one
particular part of the casing. Basket flowmeters use
a␣ metal petal basket which opens up when downhole
on␣ command from the surface. It can be opened and
closed many times to take stationary readings at various
points which can then be converted to a flow profile. The
Schlumberger inflatable diverter tool uses a fabric diverter
with an inflatable ring. The ring is inflated by fluid carried
within the tool and this effects a seal on the casing.
The␣ upper limit for this type of tool is approximately
3000␣ barrels per day.
An important point to realize is that the spinner flowrate

tools must be positioned at the bottom of a toolstring to allow
the flow to impinge directly on their blades. The basket or
diverter tools can be positioned anywhere in the toolstring.
The interpretation of spinner surveys is generally aided by

computer analysis, nowadays performed in the field. These
analyses make use of multiple passes to produce a flow
profile which together with a hold-up device can show how
much of which fluid is entering or leaving each zone. The
detailed discussion of these techniques is outside the scope
of this document but there is a ready supply of literature
(*References 11.8 and 11.9) explaining the concepts*.
Hold-up Devices
These tools identify the phase composition of the fluid, ie
water, oil or gas. There are essentially three types of tool:
Radioactive Fluid Density Tool

This uses a low strength (100 millicurie) radioactive source
to␣ measure the density of the fluid in a sampling channel
between the columnated beam from the source and a
detector. The denser the fluid the fewer the counts received
at␣ the detector and vice versa. The tool is normally calibrated
at the surface in fluids of known density and enables an
immediate readout of the density downhole. The response
curve of the fluid density tool is assumed to be linear, the
density value being directly proportional to the hold-up. The
major disadvantage of this tool is the statistical nature of its
readings due to the radioactive source.
Page 36
Fluid Capacitance Tool

This relies on the difference in dielectric constant between
water and oil and to a lesser extent between oil and gas. The
tool has a centre electrode assembly which acts as one plate
of a capacitor, the tool housing acting as the other plate.
Wellbore fluids are again funnelled through a channel leading
to a direct readout of frequency (in hertz) which is related to
the fluid make-up. The lower frequency indicates water,
with␣ the higher frequency indicating oil or gas. Again a
calibration is generally performed at surface, using water
for␣ one endpoint and either air or oil for the other. The fluid
capacitance tool has a non-linear response which varies
with␣ temperature, salinity of fluids, casing size and between
individual tools. It is virtually impossible to generate a
response curve for a fluid capacitance tool on a particular
log␣ due to the␣ individual nature of all the conditions and the
difficulty of␣ simulating the conditions. It is this fact that has
led to the␣ uncertainty of quantitative analysis with this tool.
Nevertheless a generalized response curve has been used
with some success. The frequency change as a function of
percentage of water is large until approximately 40% water
cut, then the frequency change reduces until the 100% water
point is reached. This makes the fluid capacitance tool most
useful for identifying water entry in small water cut wells.
Gradiomanometer or Pressure Differential Tools

These measure the fluid density from the difference in
pressure between two sensors or ports. They require
correction for deviation, kinetic effects and friction, but
have␣ the advantage of not using a radioactive source.
Noise Logs
Noise logging devices use a hydrophone to record the sound
generated by the turbulence associated with moving fluids.
Noise logs utilize the characteristic frequencies produced by
different types of fluid flow to identify the types of fluid and
the nature of the leak or channel from which the noise is
generated. The noises can be characterized and categorized
into different groups by examining the frequency spectrum of
the total signal. Information from the spectrum can be useful
in determining channels behind the casing, tubing or casing
leaks and producing perforations. Single phase fluids or a
mixture of liquids flowing through a restriction produce a
characteristic high frequency, whereas gas flowing through
a␣ liquid produces a lower frequency sound.
Page 37
Nuclear Logs
There are many different types of nuclear logs. They are best
divided into groups depending on the type of radioactive
source they use, or radiation they are measuring.
Gamma Ray (GR) Log

This measures the natural radioactivity of the formation and
is primarily used for correlation as described in the section
on collar locators. Many production toolstrings now include
a␣ GR tool as they make correlation much easier than relying
on collar logs alone. If a well has become scaled up with
radioactive scale then the GR log is extremely useful in
determining where and how much scale has been deposited.
In older wells there may have been so much scale deposited
that the scale is more radioactive than the formation behind,
in this case a spectral GR tool should be run which can
differentiate between the various nucleates involved. An
alternative is to run one of the high energy pulsed neutron
tools which can produce a correlation curve similar to a GR
but is unaffected by radioactive scale, see below.
Chemical Neutron Tools

These contain a chemical neutron source which emits
neutrons at an average energy of 4.5 MeV. The neutrons
are␣ moderated by hydrogen nuclei in the formation and the
difference in hydrogen concentration in the pore spaces
provides an indication of the porosity. The neutron porosity is
lower for gas sands than oil or water sands and this leads to
the widest application of conventional neutron tools, the
monitoring of gas/liquid contacts. Trade names of tools
include Schlumberger’s CNL and Atlas Wireline’s CB logs;
these are both ‘compensated’ measurements using two
detectors to improve the depth of investigation.
Pulsed Neutron Tools

These can be subdivided into two further groups:
• Spectral pulsed neutron tools eg Atlas Wireline’s Carbon

Oxygen Tool (MSI C/O) and Schlumberger’s General
Gamma Ray Spectrometer (GST). These utilize high energy
pulsed neutron generators but analyse the energies of the
resulting gamma rays emitted from the formation. This
enables individual elements to be identified, such as
carbon, oxygen, silicon and calcium leading to an
indication of hydrocarbon content irrespective of water
Page 38
salinity, as well as the lithology. The major drawback of

these tools is the slow logging speeds required, typically
2␣ 1/2 ft per minute.
• Ordinary pulsed neutron tools eg Atlas Wireline’s PDK 100

tool and Schlumberger’s Thermal Decay Time (TDT). These
tools again utilize a high energy pulsed neutron generator,
but this time only measure the rate at which the thermal
neutrons decay. This leads to a measurement called
‘sigma’ or the thermal neutron capture cross-section. This
is a measure of how ‘neutron hungry’ the formation is and
is mainly influenced by the amount of chlorine present.
Most chlorine is going to be in the formation water and it
is this that enables the tool to differentiate between water
and oil. This means that the water must be at least
partially saline (a condition not required for the spectral
pulsed neutron tools).
Modern Pulsed Neutron Tools

These provide a whole host of other curves and features
which measure such things as borehole contents, water
saturations behind the casing, water flow indication behind
casing or tubing etc. Often time-lapse methods are used to
monitor movement of reservoir fluids. The time between each
survey can vary from hours to years, with monitoring projects
often performed every year to check on water flood progress.
The non-spectral tools are generally small in diameter
(typically 1 11/16in) enabling them to be run through
drillpipe or very small tubing restrictions if required.
They␣ are␣ sometimes used instead of open hole logs if
no␣ logs␣ were obtained due to poor hole conditions.
Radioactive Tracer Logs

These are used for the determination of flow and the
detection of channels. Small amounts of radioactive tracer of
short half life (typically Iodine 131) are delivered to a target
interval or flow location and then monitored to see the
subsequent location or movement of the tracer. Channels
behind casing are located by spotting the tracer at the
perforations using a tracer injector tool and monitoring
the␣ movement of the tracer with a GR tool.
Page 39
Cement
Evaluation Logs
These generally use sound to measure the amount and

degree of cement bonded to the casing and formation. They
rely on the principle that unbonded ‘free’ pipe will ring like
a␣ bell when excited by a sound source and that bonded
pipe␣ will not. There are also refinements made possible by
measuring the extent to which formation arrivals can be
seen␣ as well as quantitative measurements of the degree of
bonding. The original tool, called a cement bond log (CBL)
tool, measured the amplitude of the first arrival in the 20 kHz
compressional wave at a receiver 3 ft away from the
transmitter as well as recording the full waveform at a
receiver 5 ft away from the transmitter. (A typical CBL
toolstring is shown in Figure 11.10.) The amplitude
measurement enables a quantitative measurement of the
degree of bonding, once the tool has been calibrated in an
area of ‘free pipe’ relying on the experimentally determined
fact that the degree of signal attenuation is directly
proportional to the amount of cement sheath built up on the
pipe. The waveform measured at the 5 ft receiver is used to
display the variable density log (VDL); the longer spacing is
used to provide greater separation between casing and
formation signal arrivals. This VDL is invaluable in
identifying pipe, formation and fluid signals enabling each to
be individually recognized. It also enables microannuli, fast
formations, partial bonding and many other conditions to be
recognized.
One drawback of the CBL is that it cannot differentiate

between a good bond on only part of the pipe and a poor
bond on all of the pipe, both conditions leading to an average
reading on the amplitude curve. In an attempt to solve this
problem the logging industry has evolved new tools such as
Schlumberger’s CET (Cement Evaluation Tool) and Atlas
Wireline’s SBT (Segmented Bond Tool). These examine
notonly the longitudinal cement quality, but also the
circumferential effectiveness of the cement sheath radially
around the entire periphery of the casing. This allows the
well␣ operator to examine where channels or voids occur in
the cement, and decide if they represent a problem for
production or injection operations. The tools accomplish
the␣ radial measurement by multiple arrays of transmitters
and receivers.
Page 40
TOOLSTRING
MAXIMUM OD 4.25"
4-ARM CCL
(OD 4.25")
GAMMA RAY
(OD 3.62")
CENTRALIZER
(OD 3.38")
TOTAL LENGTH – 41' 7"
CEMENT BOND LOG

(OD 3.38")
CENTRALIZER
(OD 3.38")
Figure 11.10 – Typical CBL Toolstring
Page 41
A further application is determining the top of cement. CBL

tools will certainly find the top of cement, but sometimes
all␣ that is required is a rough indication of where the cement
top is located rather than any quantitative measurement.
One common method of finding cement tops is to run a
temperature tool which utilizes the effect that cement
generates heat whilst it is setting. An obvious increase in
temperature is therefore seen on the log when the cement
top␣ is passed. Alternatively, small amounts of tracer can be
added to the cement and the progress of the tagged cement
monitored with a GR tool.
Calliper Logs
These are an important part of cased hole logging, providing

information on the condition of downhole tubulars, nipples,
etc. There are tools available which can be combined with a
standard production toolstring, these are commonly 2-axis
callipers (often termed X-Y callipers), but two tools can
be␣ combined producing four axes of measurement each
45␣ degrees apart (W-X-Y-Z callipers). The most important
factor concerning any calliper is that adequate centralization
must be provided, especially in deviated wells. There is a
trade-off to be made between making the calliper arms
strong␣ enough to support the weight of the toolstring
and␣ their being too strong to pass through the downhole
restrictions. This is normally solved by adding separate
centralizers above and below the calliper tool. If insufficient
centralization is provided, the effect is easily seen by one set
of arms reading consistently too small; the readings may
change from one set of arms to another as the tool rotates.
A␣ useful log may still be able to be recorded in this case by
intelligent normalization of the readings. These production
callipers generally produce two or four separate calliper
readings, but there are other types of callipers (normally run
alone) which provide much more detailed information. The
‘multi-fingered calliper’ tool has somewhere between 48 and
60 individual arms. These tools are generally used for casing
or tubing inspection and are available for sizes from a few
inches to 13 3/8in casing. The tool can provide surface
readouts for each finger but often in order to simplify the
output only the three maximum and three minimum,
representing the spread of diameters in each of the
120␣ degree segments of the tubular, are displayed.
Page 42
Casing
Corrosion and
Integrity Logs
These are used during workovers to determine the quality of

the casing and to determine if it will be necessary to replace
the old pipe. There are generally two types, one utilizing
an␣ alternating magnetic field such as Atlas’ Magnelog or
Schlumberger’s Electromagnetic Thickness Log (ETT);
and␣ the other using a steady magnetic field such as
Atlas’␣ Vertilog or Schlumberger’s Pipe Analysis Log (PAL).
The AC tool measures phase shift between low frequency

transmitter and receiver coils and measures the thickness
of␣ metal in between. There must be significant metal loss for
the tool to be reliable. The tool can however detect metal loss
from both inside and outside the casing. It is particularly
suitable for detecting large holes in casing, even in outer
casing strings, as well as drill pipe wear, parted casing etc.
The DC tool derives its signal from disturbances in a stable

magnetic field surrounding the casing wall. It is particularly
good at measuring small pits in the casing as these produce
flux leakage. This tool can provide information on both the
depth and frequency of the pits.
The best results are obtained from these tools when new
runs␣ are compared to base logs. However, as base logs are
not usually run, the degree of corrosion can be estimated
from a single log using charts.
Flow Profiles
Across
Producing
Intervals
The most common use of production logs is to establish

the␣ flow profile across several sets of perforations in a well.
Generally a simultaneous production combination tool is
used for this, and a logging interval chosen such that it
includes all the perforations together with an unperforated
interval (to enable calibration readings to be taken). (A typical
production logging toolstring is shown in Figure 11.11.) It is
important that the hold-up depth is known to avoid running
the spinner into the bottom of the hole. The hold-up depths
of producing wells can vary widely due to sand production
Page 43
CABLE HEAD
PCM COLLAR LOCATOR CENTROLLER
GAMMA RAY FLUID DENSITY
FLUID CAPACITANCE
CENTROLLER
CENTROLLER
HP GAUGE CARRIER
X-Y CALIPER
TEMPERATURE
GRC GAUGE CARRIER

CENTROLLER
CENTROLLER
SPINNER
Figure 11.11 – Typical Production Logging Toolstring
Page 44
etc␣ and may vary slightly with flowrate. If the flowmeter tool
is inadvertently run into the debris at the bottom of the well
it can generally be cleaned up by running the spinner up and
down the well at higher than normal speeds to clean the
debris out.
Once a series of passes has been recorded across the interval

a pattern will be observed. It is from this that the flow profile
is derived. Caution has to be observed with curves which
cross the zero line or are recorded close to the threshold of
the flowmeter. Normally a series of curves is merged together
after smoothing to produce an average flow profile. For a
producing well the best readings are generally obtained with
passes logged whilst going down (down passes), as then the
toolstring velocity is opposite to the fluid velocity leading to
higher revolutions per second (rps) values of the spinner
flowmeter.
To determine the contribution of a particular set of

perforations the rps value above and below the interval
should be calculated and the difference subtracted from
the␣ total rps value. This will give the percentage flow from
that particular region.
Injection Wells
With injection wells upward logging is generally used, as
this␣ again provides the highest rps values. Problems may be
encountered with high flowrate injection wells in small casing
as the flowrate may exceed the flowmeter specification. The
tension on the wireline may also be a limiting factor. If this is
likely to be a problem, the injection rate should be cut back.
Through Tubing
Bridge Plugs
As the name suggests, bridge plugs are run through tubing

and other downhole restrictions and then expand to seal in
the casing. They are primarily used to shut lower watered
out␣ zones. There are two main types available.
• Bridge plugs, eg Teledyne Merla plugs, which are set

with␣ an explosive setting tool similar to a standard
Baker␣ setting tool. These have a diameter before setting
of␣ approximately 3 to 4in and expand up to 4 or 5in and
are␣ similar to standard wireline bridge plugs.
Page 45
• Through tubing bridge plugs, eg HPI plugs or

Schlumberger’s MPBT. These are essentially umbrella
type␣ devices, which act as receptacles for cement plugs
dumped on top by subsequent wireline dump bailer runs.
This type of plug can expand to much larger casing sizes
eg 13␣ 3/8in or 9 5/8in from a typical 2in setting tool size.
The major drawback of this type of plug is their inability to
withstand crossflow before the cement plug is established;
a typical limit is a differential pressure of 500 psi. This
limits their use as considerable crossflow is often present
in watered out zones.
Bridge Plugs
and Production
Packers
These are standard wireline plugs and packers run with

a␣ standard wireline explosive setting tool. The plugs are
commonly used to plug and abandon wells after drilling,
or␣ to␣ seal off casing strings. Wireline set packers can be
run␣ with tailpipes, although the length of pipe is limited
by␣ the strength of the wire.
There are more exotic pieces of hardware that can be run

with wireline setting tools, eg casing patches, but these are
not in common use.
Gas Lift Surveys
Troubleshooting of gas lift wells can be performed using

a␣ flowing temperature and pressure survey. Stationary
readings are taken from above and below each gas lift
mandrel and this enables a graph to be plotted of pressure
against depth for various well conditions. Analysis of this
graph can show the status of individual gas lift valves.
Page 46
SELECTION OF PRODUCTION LOGGING METHODS
WELL SITUATION APPLICABLE TECHNIQUES
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Cement Evaluation
Top of Cement Temperature Log Gamma Ray

(detection of radioisotope)
Cement Bond Log
Channels behind Noise Log

Temperature Log
Casing Cement Bond Log
Flow Distribution Inside Casing
Production Flow Spinner Profile Temperature Log

Profile Noise Temperature Log Radiotracer
Flowmeter
Injection Flow Profile Spinner Flowmeter Temperature Log

Radiotracer
Flowmeter
Type of Fluid Fluid Density Survey Noise Log

Capacitance or Temperature Log
Resistivity Log
Formation Damage Bottom Hole Spinner Survey

Problems Pressure Survey Temperature Log
Gas Lift Problems Pressure Profile Survey Temperature Log

Noise Log
Bubble Point Depth Pressure-Temperature

Survey
Table 11.3
Page 47
SELECTION OF PRODUCTION LOGGING METHODS
WELL SITUATION APPLICABLE TECHNIQUES
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Production from Unperforated Zones
Source of Flow Noise Temperature Log Radiotracer Log
Entry into Casing Noise Temperature Log Spinner Survey

Capacitance or
Resistivity Log
Fluid Density Survey
Evaluation of Stimulation Treatments
Identifying Spinner Survey Noise Log

Stimulated Zones Temperature Log
Channels after Temperature Log Radiotracer Log

Stimulation
Hydraulic Fracture Temperature Log

Height Radiotracer Log
Tubular or Equipment Evaluation
Locating leaks Temperature Log Radiotracer Log

Noise Lot
Assessing Corrosion Electromagnetic Radiotracer Log

Inspection
Mechanical Calliper
Casing Recovery Free Point Indicator Cement Bond Log
Reservoir Monitoring
Gas/Liquid Contact Neutron Log Pulsed Neutron Log

Carbon-Oxygen Log
Chlorine Log
Table 11.3 (Cont)
Page 48
DRESSER ATLAS AND SCHLUMBERGER NOMENCLATURE
ATLAS SCHLUMBERGER
NOMENCLATURE NOMENCLATURE DESCRIPTION
Spectralog (SL) Natural Gamma Ray Special Gamma Ray

Carbon/Oxygen Log (C/O) Spectrometer (NGS)
MSI Carbon/Oxygen (MSI C/O) General Gamma Ray
Spectrometer (GST)
Differential Temperature Log High Resolution Temperature Log

High Resolution Thermometer (HRT)
Temperature Log
Cased Hole Logging – Formation Evaluation Logs
Acoustic Cement Bond Log (CBL) Cement Bond Log (CBL) Cased Hole Logging
Variable Density Log (VDL) Variable Density Log Special Purpose
(VDL) Logs and
Associated Services
Magnelog (MGL) Electromagnetic Thickness Casing Corrosion

Vertilog (VRT) Log (ETT) Evaluation
Borehole Televiewer (BHTV) Pipe Analysis Log (PAL)
Casing Potential Profile (CPP) Acoustic Scanner (AST)
Multi-fingered Calliper (MFC)
Spectralog (SL) Natural Gamma Ray Special Gamma

Carbon Oxygen Log (C/O) Spectrometer (NGS) Ray Logs
MSI Carbon Oxygen (MSI C/O) Inelastic Captive Gamma
Ray Spectrometer (GST)
Production PCM Simultaneous Production Cased Hole Logging

Logging Production Logs
Basket Flowmeter (BF) Fullbore Flowmeter (FBF)
Continuous Spinner Flowmeter Continuous Flowmeter (CFM)
Turbine Flowmeter Vortex Flowmeter (VFM)
Basket Flowmeter (BF) Petal Packer Flowmeter (PPF)
Fluid Density Log (FD) Gradiomanometer (GM)
Fluid Density Log (FD) Nuclear Fluid Densimeter
(NFD)
Surface Recorded Pressure Log HP Pressure Log (HPP)
Surface Recorded Pressure Log Manometer (MT)
Differential Temperature Log High Resolution
High Resolution Thermometer (HRT)
Temperature Log
Geothermal Temperature Log High Temperature
Thermometer (HTT)
Table 11.4
Page 49
DRESSER ATLAS AND SCHLUMBERGER NOMENCLATURE
ATLAS SCHLUMBERGER
NOMENCLATURE NOMENCLATURE DESCRIPTION
Water Hold-up Indicator Log Water Hold-up Meter (WHM)

(WHI)
Through Tubing Calliper Log Through Tubing Calliper (TTC)
Through Tubing Borehole Fluid Sampler (PFS)
Fluid Sampler
Tracer/Flolog Dual Radioactive Tracer
Survey (DRT)
Sonan Log Audio Log (AUD)
Jumbo Jet II Ultra Jet Perforating

Jumbo Jet Hyper Jet (shaped charges)
Big Hole Ultra Pack
Golden Jet
Silver Jet
Formation Tester (FT) Formation Interval Tester Special Purpose

Perforating-Formation-Collar (FIT)
(PFC ) Perforating Depth Control
Photon Log (PL) (PDC)
Gravel Pack (GPL)
Gamma Ray Log (GR) Gamma Ray Log (GR) Gamma Ray Log
(natural gamma)
Neutron Log (NL) Neutron Log (n-y) (NL) Neutron Logs

Compensated Neutron Log Compensated Neutron Log
(CN Log) (n-t) (CNL)
Dual Detector Neutron Lifetime Thermal Decay Time Log Pulsed Neutron Log
Log (DNLL) (TDT-K)
Dual Detector Neutron Lifetime Thermal Decay Time Log
Log-B (DNLL-B) (TDT-M)
PDK 100 Neutron Lifetime

Log (PDK)
Table 11.4 (Cont)
Page 50
COILED TUBING
EQUIPMENT
Figure 11.12 shows the equipment that makes up a coiled

tubing unit (CTU). Coiled tubing is run and pulled from the
well by means of the injector head. The endless chains and
friction blocks are driven by a hydraulic motor, Figure 11.13.
Unlike wireline, coiled tubing has initially to be fed or injected
into a pressured well. The injector head also works in reverse
and actively feeds the string out of the well when recovering
the tubing. The coiled tubing reel itself purely acts as a
spooling device taking up the slack or paying out the tubing
as required. The inner end of the tubing is connected to a
rotary swivel to facilitate the pumping of fluids.
The running speed of the coiled tubing is dependent on the

application but is typically between 40 to 100 ft per minute.
Coiled tubing provides a cost-effective well servicing tool.
GOOSENECK
INJECTOR
HEAD
STUFFING
BOX
BOPs
LUBRICATOR
CONTROL COILED POWER

SKID TUBING REEL SKID
SHEAR/SEAL BOP
(OPTIONAL)
(COURTESY OF NOWSCO WELL SERVICE)
WELLHEAD
Figure 11.12 – Coiled Tubing Rig-up Schematic
Page 51
INJECTOR
HEAD
FRICTION
DRIVE CHAINS
GOOSENECK/
TUBING GUIDE
ASSEMBLY
HYDRAULIC
MOTORS
TENSIONER
INSIDE/OUTSIDE
DRIVE BLOCKS
Figure 11.13 – Injector Head
Page 52
Unfortunately, in the past, operating coiled tubing beyond

its␣ limits has led to failures and long and expensive fishing
operations. However, the inherent advantages over snubbing
units in terms of flexibility and speed have resulted in a
number of developments to extend its operating envelope.
The main current limitation is a maximum working pressure
of 5000 psi, although very few jobs have been performed at
this pressure. If planning to perform high pressure on a
routine basis, the coiled tubing companies should be
contacted.
Coiled tubing units are now available in ODs from 3/4in to

1␣ 3/4in although the 3/4in and 1in are seldom used in
today’s operations. The coiled tubing string is usually
supplied in 3000 to 3600 ft sections. If handled correctly
throughout its life, a string should be good for a cumulative
run depth of over 400 000 ft. Although run feet is still the
current standard, the industry is moving towards specifying a
reel’s life based on pressure and reciprocation cycles. Dowell
Schlumberger have also developed their Tubing Integrity
Monitor (TIM) as a more sophisticated method of evaluating
tubing life.
However, the following guidelines can still be applied when

evaluating a service company’s unit:
• Always review the tubing reel’s log to confirm its history.
• Any reel with more than 400 000 ft of service should be

rigorously checked before being utilized.
• If the reel has more than 500 000 ft of service it should

not be used.
• Check what lengths have previously been cut from

the␣ reel.
• Weld inspection.
• Check the string for any signs of wear and ovality, as both
will significantly compromise the tubing strength.
Page 53
STANDARD
COILED TUBING
APPLICATIONS
Coiled tubing units are routinely used for the following
operations:
• Nitrogen lifting.
• Sand lifting.
• Cleaning out the wellbore utilizing a downhole motor.
• Circulating fluids.
• Drill stem testing (DST).
• Sand control.
• Corrosion inhibitor placement.
• Spotting acid.
• Spotting cement.
• Coiled tubing conveyed electric line services.
• Inflatable bridge plugs.
• Fishing operations.
Nitrogen Lifting
Pumping nitrogen down coiled tubing to reduce the
hydrostatic head of the well fluids is utilized in a number
of␣ well operations. Lifting unstable wells and circulating
out␣ completion fluids following a workover are common
applications. The use of coiled tubing to bring on the well
in␣ this manner has eliminated the requirement for sliding
sleeves in a number of completions, thus allowing the
engineer to remove a potential leak path from the completion.
The injection rate required to bring on the well is a function
of the pipe size, depth, fluid characteristics and reservoir
performance.
Coiled tubing can also be used to provide the required

underbalance prior to perforating. Here, the coiled tubing is
run in hole while circulating nitrogen to the depth required to
achieve the underbalance until only nitrogen is returned.
Page 54
Sand Lifting
Coiled tubing can be used to clean out sand fill from
sumps␣ that has occurred during production or as a result
of␣ hydraulic fracturing operations. Coiled tubing’s ability to
maintain circulation while running in or pulling out of hole
make it ideally suited for this application. If possible sand
lifting should be performed with the well flowing. This may
alleviate the need for injecting gel, although HEC and XCD
cross linked polymer is usually injected.
Cleaning Out
using a
Downhole Motor
This technique is utilized when the deposits in the well
are␣ compacted or cemented and is particularly useful in the
removal of insoluble scale deposits. A downhole motor is used
to drill out the deposit which is then washed to the surface.
The downhole motor operates on the Moineau principle which
utilizes fluid being forced through a progressive cavity to
supply the rotational power. Figure 11.14 shows the typical
downhole assembly used for this type of operation.
Monitoring the pump pressure is often the key to success of

these operations. As the bit is lowered on to the obstruction a
pressure increase of about 250 psi should be observed, which
will result in a bit speed of the order of 750 rpm. Differential
pressures greater than this would indicate that the bit has
stalled. If the pressure rises above 300 psi the tool should be
picked up until the original differential pressure is achieved
and the bit can than be lowered back on to the blockage. A
sudden pressure drop would usually mean that the tubing
was holed or there has been a seal failure in the motor.
Where access to sumps is limited by the production tubing,

underreamers of the type shown in Figure 11.15 can be
utilized. However, if scaling is envisaged to be a serious
problem, consideration should be given to designing a
completion with full bore access to the sump.
Experience in Prudhoe Bay and the Forties Field has

demonstrated that this technique is a fast, effective and
economical method of removing cemented solids from
a␣ wellbore.
Page 55
COIL TUBING
STABILIZER
DRILL MOTOR
DIAMOND BIT
SCALE/CEMENT
Figure 11.14 – Drilling Scale with Tubing and Mud Motor
Page 56
COIL TUBING
STABILIZER
DRILL MOTOR
UNDERREAMER
UNDERREAMER
PILOT MILL
SCALE/CEMENT
Figure 11.15 – Drilling with Underreamer
Page 57
Circulating
Fluids
Coiled tubing obviously provides a convenient and economic
means of circulating fluids and is used for such varied
purposes as circulating kill fluid, washing drilling mud,
and␣ removing paraffin and salt using hot oil or water.
Drill Stem
Testing
Coiled tubing is often used as a means of artificial lift to
assist wells which will not flow naturally during DSTs. Two
methods are used, downhole jet pumping and nitrogen gas
lift. The jet pumping method utilizes the coiled tubing to
both␣ locate the jet pump module in a landing nipple and
subsequently convey the power fluid. The power fluid is
usually water, although a combination of water and nitrogen
can be used for low GOR crudes. Heavy crude oils may also
benefit from applying heat to the power fluid. The jet
pumping technique is most appropriate for crudes with an
API gravity of 12 or less. Nitrogen gas lifting is more suitable
for the higher API crudes.
Sand Control
Coiled tubing can also be used to run and repair through

tubing sand control systems. However, limitations on pump
pressure and rates limit this application to shallow wells less
than 6000 ft. Both resin coated sand and water activated
plastic can be pumped with coiled tubing.
To place water activated plastic, coiled tubing is run in

the␣ hole to the interval to be treated, and the well fluids are
circulated out to diesel. With the wellbore free of water, the
plastic is pumped through the coiled tubing with the annulus
shut off. After the plastic is squeezed into the formation, the
coiled tubing is shut in for 12 to 24 hours with sufficient
wellhead pressure to prevent backflow of the plastic from
the␣ formation.
When utilizing resin coated sand, the sand is mixed and

pumped through the coiled tubing into the zone of interest.
After the resin coated sand has been squeezed into the
formation, the coiled tubing is picked up approximately
1000␣ ft and the well is shut in for 12 to 24 hours until the
Page 58
resin␣ is cured. Again, sufficient wellhead pressure must be

applied to avoid the backflow of resin coated sand. When
utilizing either of the above two methods, it may be necessary
to drill out the wellbore using a downhole motor following
the␣ treatment.
Through tubing gravel packs can also be run on coiled tubing

and located in a nipple. The gravel pack sand is pumped
through the coiled tubing into the wellbore. The pre-packed
screen is then run on the coiled tubing and locked in place,
the coiled tubing is then recovered by means of a mechanical
disconnect and the well can be brought on stream.
Corrosion
Inhibitor
Placement
Coiled tubing has been used in conjunction with an inhibitor

valve to atomize corrosion inhibitor and coat the tubular on
low rate gas wells with potential carbon dioxide corrosion.
However, in many cases the use of inhibitor to prevent
corrosion has not proven to be cost-effective. A more
detailed␣ discussion of corrosion is presented in Chapter 7.
Stimulation
Coiled tubing is ideally suited for the selective placement
(spotting) of acid and can be used in a number of
applications, including opening perforations and dissolving
acid soluble scale deposits. Using coiled tubing in this
manner avoids having to bullhead the well. Coiled tubing
allows acid to be circulated across the perforations and
take␣ the returns back up the tubing. In this way smaller
amounts of acid can be used at lower pressures and the
contact time with the production tubing is reduced.
Development is currently under way with coiled tubing
straddle packers, which will facilitate the selective
stimulation of perforated zones.
Spotting Cement
Plugging off a lower interval can be achieved relatively

quickly␣ and easily using coiled tubing. With the tubing
located at the bottom of the interval, cement is pumped down
the tubing. When the measured capacity of the coiled tubing
has been pumped, the tubing is pulled up the hole at a rate
corresponding to the pump rate. This allows a cement plug to
be displaced below the bottom of the coiled tubing. When all
Page 59
the required cement has been displaced the coiled tubing

should be sitting above the plug and the tubing should be
over displaced by at least one barrel. More sophisticated
cement squeeze techniques are now being performed with
coiled tubing and these are discussed later in this section.
Detailed procedures are presented in the Worked
Example␣ section.
Coiled Tubing
Conveyed
Electric Line
Services
Coiled tubing provides a convenient means of obtaining the
functionality of electric line in highly deviated and horizontal
wells. The system can be adopted in both cased and open
hole. Coiled tubing has certain advantages over other
systems in that no downhole wet connections are required
and the tools are less prone to damage.
Although this technique is relatively new, the following

applications have been successfully run:
• Pressure and temperature surveys
• Various logs, including; induction, gamma ray, cement

(*Reference 11.10) bond etc*.
Inflatable
Bridge Plugs
Inflatable bridge plugs can be run through on coiled tubing,

set in production liner and subsequently retrieved. The
bridge plugs, manufactured by Lynes and Baker Oil Tools,
consist of an inflatable element that is set by pumping down
the tubing and a hydraulic disconnect which is activated by
dropping a ball down the tubing and pressuring up. The tool
has the advantage of being able to pass through restrictions
in the tubing and set in relatively large diameters. Current
models can pass through restrictions of about 3.6in and set
in 9␣ 5/8in casing. The maximum differential pressure rating
is however limited, being as low as 1000 psi in the larger
casing sizes. The manufacturer’s specification should
always␣ be checked and verified before running the plugs.
Page 60
Fishing
Operations
Coiled tubing fishing techniques are currently being

developed and have proven successful, especially in the
(*Reference 11.11) recovery of fish buried under sand, cement or scale*. Fishing
with coiled tubing allows fill to be cleaned out and␣ the fish
washed over and latched during the same operation.
Application of this technology has potential in remote or
offshore locations where rig availability is a problem or in
cases where the CTU is already available on␣ site.
Page 61
HYDRAULIC SNUBBING UNIT
EQUIPMENT
Hydraulic snubbing units are made up from modular units

which can be easily transported and rigged up. When locating
the unit, care should be taken to ensure that the structure or
wellhead can support the weight of the unit together with any
forces generated during the snubbing operation. A hydraulic
workover unit (HWOU) consists of the following components
(see Figure 11.16):
• The hydraulic jack assembly, guide tube, window,

travelling and stationary slips, rotary table and
power␣ tongs.
• The work basket and control panel.
• Hydraulic power pack and accessories.
• Circulating swivel, kelly hose and pumps.
• BOP stack.
When reviewing HWOU operations it is important to be aware

of the following definitions: snubbing or the ‘pipe light’
condition is where a force has to be applied to the workstring
to prevent it being blown or forced out of the hole; stripping
or the ‘pipe heavy’ condition occurs when the weight of the
workstring exceeds the pressure area force trying to eject the
tubing from the hole.
The pipe handling assembly consists of hydraulic cylinders,

guide tube, window, window guide, travelling and stationary
slips, rotary table and power tongs. The hydraulic jack is one
or more hydraulic cylinders which move the pipe in and out
of the hole. The snubbing and pulling capacity of the jack is
a␣ function of the number and size of the cylinders and the
hydraulic pressure. Many four-cylinder jacks allow two or
four cylinders to be selected at any one time. Using two
cylinders reduces the load capacity but increases the
operating speed. Jack speed can also be increased by means
of a regenerative circuit, although this can only be utilized
when pulling pipe out of the hole. The circuit operates by
Page 62
HYDRAULIC
TORQUE LOCK
CONTROL PANEL
COUNTERBALANCE WINCH
WORK PLATFORM
TRAVELLING SLIPS OF HYDRAULIC BYPASS

HYDRAULIC JACK
POWER ROTATING HEAD
TWO OR FOUR
HYDRAULIC OPERATING
COUNTERBALANCE VALVES JACK CYLINDERS
WELDED PLUMBING
STATIONARY SLIPS
TELESCOPING MAST
WINDOW FOR
STRIPPER BOWL OR
ANNULAR BOP
HANGER FLANGE
BOP STACK
(VARIOUS DESIGNS AVAILABLE)
Figure 11.16 – Schematic of Typical Hydraulic Workover Unit
Page 63
taking hydraulic fluid from the snub side of the piston and
routing it to the lift side. This again reduces the lifting
capacity of the jack and increases the speed.
The hydraulically powered slips are used to grip the

workstring as it is pushed or pulled out of the well. In a
snubbing operation, the travelling slips grasp the pipe and
are driven by the hydraulic cylinders forcing the workstring
into the well. At that point the stationary slips are closed,
holding the pipe in place. The travelling slips are then
released and returned to their original position. The travelling
slips then close once again around the pipe, the stationary
slips are opened and the pipe is forced into the well. Some
units may have two sets of travelling slips, one being used for
snubbing and the other for pulling. This has the advantage of
avoiding having to invert the slips when the balance point is
reached. The disadvantage however, is that the slips can be
difficult to release if they are both set on the pipe at the
same␣ time. Double opposed travelling slips are required
when␣ pulling on stuck pipe with the workstring in the
light␣ condition.
Two sets of stationary slips are usually used, one being in

the␣ heavy position, holding the pipe from moving downwards
and the other in the snub position restraining the pipe from
moving upwards. Two sets of stationary slips in the snub
position are also used with larger diameter pipe or in
higher␣ pressures.
The guide tube is placed in the bore of the jack for operations
where the pipe requires supporting to avoid buckling. The
guide tube is attached below the travelling slips and moves
up and down with the travelling assembly. The guide tube
should be sized to the workstring tool joints.
The window is located at the base of the jack below the

stationary slips. As the name implies, the window allows
access for changing the stripper rubber and for installing
large diameter tools which will not fit through the bore of the
jack. The function of the window guide is to again constrain
the workstring to prevent buckling. The window guide must
be installed and secured at all times.
Some snubbing units may have a rotary table attached to the

travelling assembly. The rotary table is hydraulically driven
and used for milling and fishing operations. Torque is
controlled by means of a hydraulic pressure regulator.
Page 64
Hydraulic power tongs with built-in back-up jaws are rigged

up in the basket to make up the workstring connections.
The work basket located on the top of this acts as the work
platform and contains a number of controls for the snubbing
unit. These include the jack, travelling and stationary slips,
BOPs and counterbalance. The counterbalance is used to
move joints of pipe to and from the basket. A weight indicator
shows the snub or lift load on the jack at any one time.
Typically there are two control panels, one operated by the
jack operator and the other by a helper. The operator controls
the vertical movement of the jack and the operation of the
slips, while the helper looks after the movement of the
counterbalance and controls the two stripper rams,
equalizing loop, vent line and safety rams. The blind and
shear rams are not controlled from the basket.
Hydraulic power is supplied by the power pack, with the

supply split into three systems; the main system or jack
pressure, BOP pressure and counterbalance pressure. The
maximum setting for the main system pressure is dependent
on the workstring, well pressure, and whether the pipe is
being pulled or snubbed. However, the jack pressure must
not exert a force greater than 70% of the calculated buckling
load or 80% of the tensile rating of the workstring. The BOP
operating pressure is supplied to the slips, stripper rams and
safety rams, and is controlled from the basket. The blind and
shear rams require a higher pressure and sometimes utilize
a␣ separate supply. The maximum pressure supplied by the
counterbalance system is dependent on the weight of the
joints being used, and should be set to provide just sufficient
pressure to lift the joints to the basket. The lift is then
controlled by means of a regulator.
A circulating swivel is placed on the top of the tubing to

facilitate the pumping of fluids during drilling or milling
operations.
The snubbing BOP stack contains the well pressure during

the workover operation and can be rigged up on existing
BOPs, Xmas tree, casing, tubing and drill pipe. As indicated
earlier the BOP is controlled from the basket and a remote
station. The configuration of the BOP used is dependent on
the well conditions and operation being undertaken. Typical
configurations are shown in Figures 11.17 and 11.18.
Page 65
STRIPPER BOWL
STRIPPER 1
POSITIVE
CHOKE
EQUALIZING
LOOP
STRIPPER 2
HYDRAULIC
ACTUATOR
OPTIONAL
SAFETY RAM
SAFETY RAM
BOP STACK
OR
XMAS TREE
Figure 11.17 – Possible BOP Stack Configuration for 1500 to 3000 psi
Surface Pressure and Single Pipe Size
Page 66
STRIPPER BOWL
STRIPPER 1
POSITIVE
CHOKE
POSITIVE
CHOKE
EQUALIZING
LOOP
STRIPPER 2
SAFETY RAM
BLIND RAM
OUTLET SPOOL OUTLET SPOOL

WITH DUAL WITH DUAL
HYDRAULIC HYDRAULIC
CHOKE CHOKE
SHEAR RAM
SAFETY RAM
BOP STACK
OR
XMAS TREE
Figure 11.18 – Possible BOP Stack Configuration for 3000 to 10 000 psi
Surface Pressure and Single Pipe Size
Page 67
The main components of the BOP system are as follows:
Stripper Rubber
The stripper rubber is located immediately below the window
and is used for running pipe in and out of the hole without
using the stripper rams. The stripper rubber is a solid
synthetic rubber element that can stretch as couplings etc
pass through, and maintain pressure integrity. This allows
pipe to be stripped through the rubber under pressure. This
approach is considered to be adequate for pressure control
up to 2500 to 3000 psi. The working life of the element
depends on the condition of the tubing being run and
decreases rapidly at pressures above 1500 psi, but is in the
range of 10 000 to 20 000 feet at pressure of 3000 psi or less.
The stripper rubber may therefore require changing out
several times during the course of a job.
Stripper Rams
In addition to the stripper rubber, stripper rams should
always be incorporated in a snubbing BOP. The stripper rams
provide pressure integrity at pressures above 3000 psi and
also facilitate the running of downhole tools.
Equalizing Loop
Between the two stripper rams is an equalizing loop (see

Figure 11.19). This loop runs from below the lower stripper
ram to below the upper ram and is used to equalize the
pressure above the lower ram before opening it. The loop has
two low torque valves on the low side and two on the upper,
with one of each pair being hydraulically actuated. A choke is
also included in the loop to regulate the rate of equalization.
These chokes are changed out to suit the fluid in the well.
Vent Line
The vent line ties in below the upper stripping ram and is run
to safe point away from the snubbing unit. This line is used
to bleed down the pressure between each stripper ram. The
line will contain both a manual and hydraulically actuated
valve and in high pressure applications also a choke. The
vented fluids are usually collected or burnt.
Page 68
UPPER STRIPPER
UPPER STRIPPER CLOSED
OPEN
CLOSED OPEN
V4 V1 V4 V1
TOOL JOINT ABOVE PRESSURE EQUALIZES
LOWER BETWEEN RAMS
LOWER STRIPPER RAM
EQUALIZING STRIPPER – ALTERNATIVE IS TO
LOOP CLOSED PUMP IN HERE TO
LOWER STRIPPER CLOSED EQUALIZE
Lower Stripper Ram is closed and the Workstring is Travelling Slips (not shown) return to top position and
snubbed through the Lower Ram until the Tool Joint is close on pips. Upper Stripper Ram is closed. Equalizing
passed into the chamber between the rams. Valve V4 is opened. Pressure equalizes between the rams.
CLOSED
V4 V1
LOWER STRIPPER
OPEN
STRIP TOOL JOINT

BELOW LOWER STRIPPER
Close Equalizing Valve.

Open Lower Stripper Ram. Travelling Slips are driven down until
Tool Joint is below the Lower Stripper Ram.
OPEN
UPPER STRIPPER
OPEN
CLOSED CLOSED
PRESSURE
BLEEDS TO V4 V1
V4 V1
ZERO
SNUB TOOL JOINT
BELOW UPPER STRIPPER
LOWER STRIPPER
CLOSED LOWER STRIPPER
Close Lower Stripper Ram. Open Lower Stripper Ram. Close Vent Valve V1.
Open V1 and bleed pressure between Move Travelling Slips down, snubbing the Workstring
Stripper Rams to zero. until the joint is below the Lower Stripper.
Close Stationary Slips and the cycle is repeated.
Figure 11.19 – Ram to Ram Stripping
Page 69
Safety Rams
The safety rams are located below the stripper rams and are
used to contain the well pressure in the event of a stripper
ram failure or a change in the stack. The safety rams are pipe
rams and the number used in the stack will depend on the
well conditions and planned operations. At least one set of
safety rams must be controlled from the basket.
Blind Rams
These are the same as blind rams used in a drilling BOP
and␣ are used to shut in the well when there is no pipe in
the␣ stack. On no account should blind rams ever
be closed on the pipe.
Blind/Shear
Rams
Blind/shear rams will cut the pipe and close in the well in a
emergency situation. The ram and blade type must be tested
prior to rig-up, to ensure that they will cut the size and grade
of pipe. The required BOP pressure to shear the pipe must be
determined and should be available at all times.
Outlet Spools
Outlet spools provide access to the wellbore and should

always be located above at least one pipe ram preventer and
have double valve isolation.
Choke and
Kill Lines
The choke and kill lines are attached to an outlet spool or

ram body and as the name suggests are used to pump fluid
into, or take returns from the well. These lines must have a
working pressure equivalent to the BOPs.
Page 70
THE SNUBBING
PROCESS
Figure 11.19 shows the various stages in the snubbing

process. For snubbing into the hole the majority of
stripping␣ is performed on the lower stripper ram. Stripper
rams should never be opened or closed while moving the
pipe. The procedure for passing tool joints is explained in
Figure 11.19.
Pipe sizes from 1in to 7in OD can be handled by hydraulic

equipment with lifts ranging up to 340 000 lb capacity. The
ability to handle large bore tubular means that␣ the retrieval
and running of completion tubular under pressure is
now␣ feasible.
Page 71
SELECTING A
SURFACE WELL INTERVENTION TECHNIQUE
The cost of workovers on marginal or satellite developments,

both with subsea and unmanned platforms, is becoming a
major factor in the economic viability of these types of
developments. The potential for workovers due to mechanical
failures can be reduced by conscientious completion design
and careful selection of completion equipment. However,
for␣ many of the well problems outlined in the Background
section, some form of remedial workover is inevitable. Being
able to perform the workover under pressure obviously has
advantages in terms of both time savings and reduced
potential for formation damage. Many workovers require the
ability to convey fluids downhole and unless a conventional
rig is utilized, the choice is usually between an HWOU and
coiled tubing. The question of which technique is appropriate
is dependent on the type of operation and well conditions.
As␣ mentioned earlier, developments in both techniques are
continually extending their respective operating envelopes. A
study of well intervention using an HWOU for the Marnock
(*Reference 11.12) project* provides a good reference for any study into
appropriate well intervention techniques, particularly for
offshore developments. Many of the guidelines in this report
can be universally applied, although the relative merits of
each technique will change with each application.
In Marnock, the possible intervention techniques were

compact modular workover rig (CMWR), HWOU and a CTU.
Marnock, a gas condensate reservoir, is planned to be
developed with approximately seven high angle or horizontal
wells. The reservoir appears to have a high potential for
formation damage, if the well is killed or loaded with
completion fluids. The wellhead pressure is 8000 psi.
Against␣ this background the various techniques
were␣ evaluated.
The CMWR system is currently capable of performing all

the␣ envisaged well intervention work on Marnock, with the
exception of production logging. Other than not being able to
log, a further major drawback is that the wells would have to
be killed, resulting in both potential formation damage and
cost associated with a relatively expensive workover fluid. The
CMWR has an advantage over both the HWOU and the CTU
in that all the load of the workstring is transferred to the rig
Page 72
structure. With both CTU and HWOU all the loads are
transmitted directly to the Xmas tree. When utilizing either of
these techniques it is important to confirm that the wellhead
is capable of carrying the loads.
The duration of an equivalent CTU job is significantly shorter

than with either of the other two techniques. There is an
obvious saving in tripping time in that time taken to make up
joints is eliminated. This saving can be significant, especially
when the pipe has to be stripped ram to ram. The CTU can
therefore offer operational and economic advantages over
HWOU. However, with current technology, the HWOU can
operate in more severe well conditions.
Although the snubbing unit itself is relatively compact, the

full HWOU, complete with tanks, pumps and filtering
equipment etc, can still take up a large area and this
may have an impact on potential offshore operations.
Application of HWOU in the North Sea has been considered
by a number of service companies who have addressed the
required safety and regulatory issues with the result that
units are now available in this area.
In the case of Marnock the wellhead pressure of 8000 psi

precludes the use of current CTU technology. Although
development work is under way to increase the pressure
capability, the length of the Marnock wells also limits the
capability of CTU to perform a number of the applications.
HWOUs can technically perform all the potential well

interventions on Marnock. However, there is still a question
over the hazardous nature of carrying out routine HWOU
operations at wellhead pressures of 8000 psi. This relatively
high pressure for routine operations has a number of
implications. Although there are acceptable BOP and
snubbing arrangements for this pressure, tripping times will
be long (18 000 ft taking two days). Some of these drawbacks
could be avoided by loading the well with fluid to reduce the
wellhead pressure. This option is obviously dependent on
being able to identify a suitable non-damaging fluid.
Page 73
SUBSEA WELL SERVICING
Well servicing in subsea wells presents a unique and often

expensive set of problems. Two different approaches to these
problems have been adopted. The first, Through The Flowline
(TFL) technique, utilizes specially designed completions that
allow tools to be pumped both to and from the completion
as␣ required. The second uses more standard completion
equipment and accesses the well using some form of vessel.
The traditional approach with the latter technique has

been␣ to utilize a semi-submersible drilling with a workover
BOP and tieback riser. The mobilization, logistics and
demobilization associated with this technique make it time
consuming and expensive. This is especially true if the
maintenance required can be achieved using wireline
techniques.
With the growing development of marginal fields in ever

deeper water, the frequency and cost of servicing subsea
wells is playing an increasingly important part in the
economic viability of fields.
Improvements in both completion equipment reliability

and␣ subsea well intervention techniques are continuing
to␣ improve the economics of subsea developments. A
comprehensive report reviewing the available subsea well
services systems was written by the Production Engineering
(*Reference 11.13) Branch in Aberdeen*. Figure 11.20, taken from this report,
illustrates the various techniques both proven and under
development in 1988.
Although TFL techniques provide relatively inexpensive

access to subsea completions, the increased complexity and
high capital costs have reduced their utilization for subsea
developments. The main drive has therefore been to develop
the ability to service the wells from a vessel and eliminate
some of the drawbacks associated with rig intervention.
The␣ alternatives to the semi-submersible and rigid riser
are␣ shown in Figure 11.21. Of these the subsea wireline
lubricator has been shown to provide a number of benefits
and has been developed as a technique accordingly.
Page 74
BP Exploration
SYSTEM CONCEPTS UNDER CONSIDERATION
Figure 11.20 – Range of Subsea Well Servicing Systems
WIRELINE TFL
RISER NON-RISER
SUBSEA
Page 75
RIGID ATMOSPHERIC
LUBRICATOR
Well Servicing and Workover Philosophies – Chapter 11

JACK-UP SEMI- BP
SUBMERSIBLE DRILL SHIP CAMCO OTIS / 2W SCHLUMBERGER
RIG BUCHAN
RIG
CONCEPT
'PROVEN'
CONCEPT UNDER
DEVELOPMENT
SUBSEA
FLEXIBLE DP MONOHULL
WINCH
FIXED LENGTH LAID ON
TECHNIQUES
FROM DP SEAFLOOR SWIMS STENA FLOPETROL SOMUS UDI
MONOHULL (pumpdown only)
CAMCO HYDRAULIC SUBSEA

RETRIEVABLE STUFFING BOX
QUICK UNION
CRANE LIFT WIRES
LIFTING YOKE
FLUSHING PORTS
5.125" ID SINGLE BLIND

HYDRAULIC BOP
10 ft LONG RISER SECTION
5 1/8" – 10 000 psi

API-6BX FLANGE

(OPTIONAL)
5 1/8" – 10 000 psi

API-6BX FLANGE

WITH 5 1/8" UPPER FLANGE
7 1/16" LOWER FLANGE
UMBILICAL HYDRAULIC TOOL TRAP
5.125" ID SINGLE BLIND

HYDRAULIC BOP
CROSSOVER SPOOL WITH

FLUSHING PORT
5.125" ID HYDRAULIC
WIRELINE CUTTING GATE VALVE
ACCUMULATOR BOTTLES
API GUIDE FRAME WITH

BLANK SPOOL CENTRE
ADAPTER TO CROSSOVER SPOOL

CUSTOMER WELLHEAD
Figure 11.21 – Camco/Stena Subsea Wireline Lubricator Assembly
Page 76
The concept of the subsea wireline lubricator, Figure 11.21,

was first utilized in 1969 by BP, Total and Flopetrol in the
Zakum Field. The increasing use of subsea wells in the
North␣ Sea during the 1980s accelerated the development
of␣ the concept to the stage where there are now four
subsea␣ systems capable of being deployed from a diving
support vessel.
BP in particular played a considerable part in this

development with the work on the Buchan subsea
(*Reference 11.14) lubricator*. The system’s capabilities have now been
extended to allow a range of slickline and electric line
(*References 11.15 and 16) procedures to be performed*. This system also has the
potential for diverless operations. Wireline operations
via␣ a␣ subsea lubricator deployed from a dynamically
positioned monohull can provide a cost saving of
60%␣ over␣ the equivalent operation performed from
a␣ semi-submersible.
Another access system from a diving support vessel which

is␣ currently under development is the use of a flexible riser.
This system appears␣ to have good potential for further
development especially in deep water applications.
However,␣ the concept appears to have developed little
since␣ the mid 1980s.
Page 77
BACKGROUND
In the previous sections the various workover techniques and

their associated applications and limitations were discussed.
A successful workover operation not only depends on
selecting the correct technique and equipment but also
requires efficient planning and implementation. In this
section, a real example is used to demonstrate how a
workover procedure is established and implemented.
Potential alternatives to the current procedure are also
introduced. A cement squeeze using coiled tubing on
the␣ Echo platform in the Forties field has been selected
to␣ demonstrate the process.
A well written and comprehensive programme is essential

for␣ a workover, especially when non-routine operations are
planned. Essential components of the programme are:
• A description of the aims of the workover.
• A clear completion schematic showing the well’s status

both before and after the workover.
• Full details of the well conditions eg bottom hole

temperature, pressure, flowrate etc.
• A brief history of the well including any major well

servicing work and workovers.
• Additional well data that facilitates any on-the-job

calculations, eg casing and tubing capacities, fracture
and␣ fluid gradients etc.
• A list of the required equipment and consumables.
• A list of the required personnel.
• A step-by-step programme, which highlights any possible

problem areas and suggests alternative approaches.
• Any specific safety hazards should be highlighted and

the␣ appropriate procedures appended to the programme
eg␣ handling of radioactive scale.
Page 79
• Contingency plans in case of unexpected events eg lost

circulation etc should also be appended to the programme.
• A list of contacts in case of problems or emergencies.
Good communications between engineering and field

personnel are a prerequisite of efficient workover operations.
The relevance and importance of critical aspects of the
procedures must be appreciated and understood by field
personnel. Experience gained during workovers can provide
an invaluable source of information for planning future
workovers. This information can only be utilized if clear and
detailed records of the operation are logged. Any departures
from the planned programme, the reasons and subsequent
results should also be highlighted. If the workover fails, then
the procedures should be reviewed to determine the possible
cause in order to prevent a repetition of the problem in
similar circumstances.
Before commencing the workover a pre-operation safety

meeting of all the relevant personnel should be convened.
At␣ this meeting the personnel should be made aware of their
duties and responsibilities, and the appropriate procedures to
be followed in the event of an emergency should be detailed.
Page 80
COILED TUBING CEMENT SQUEEZE ON FES 15
BACKGROUND
Forties Echo well FES 15 is a 4 1/2in oil production
completion with an electrical submersible pump (ESP). The
well was shut in following an ESP failure. The aim of the
coiled tubing cement squeeze is to isolate water production.
All the current perforations (2376.2 to 2390.2 mbrt) above an
existing bridge plug at 2933 mbrt are to be squeezed and a
cement plug set above the perforations. A␣ workover rig will
then be used to pull the completion, drill out the cement,
reperforate an interval 2376.2 to 2386.2 mbrt and rerun an
ESP. Utilizing coiled tubing in this manner allows the well to
be squeezed without killing the well. This avoids the problems
associated with performing a squeeze against kill material
and results in better mechanical integrity of the cement
squeeze. Although borax has some problems as a
contaminant (see below) these are ameliorated in this case
because only the cement above the top perforations is being
contaminated.
The drilling mud tanks on the platform will be utilized as

mixing tanks and the mud pumps will be used for pressuring
the annulus. The main stages in the programme are:
• Pull DHSV and standing valve.
• Bullhead well with twice tubing volume of

treated␣ seawater.
• Spot 24 bbls cement across perforations and apply

1000␣ psi squeeze pressure.
• Contaminate cement down to 50 ft above top perforation,

using bentonite/borax mixture.
• Circulate out the contaminated cement.
• Pressure test cement plug.
WELL
CONDITIONS
For current well status, refer to Figures 11.22 and 11.23; for
well status post coiled tubing workover, refer to Figure 11.24.
Page 81
TUBING HANGER
POWER PENETRATOR
BPV RECESS
INSTRUMENT PENETRATOR
CONTROL LINE
WRSSV NIPPLE
SLIDING SLEEVE c/w NIPPLE
POWER CABLE
INSTRUMENT CABLE
NIPPLE
PRESSURE SENTRY PENETRATOR
PACKER
AJUSTABLE UNION
TUBING
CABLE PROTECTOR
NIPPLE
NIPPLE
LOGGING BYPASS
CABLE CLAMP
MOTOR LEAD EXTENSION
BYPASS TUBING
PUMP
SEAL SECTION
POTHEAD
MOTOR
9 5/8" CASING 47 lb/ft N80 BUTT
TOP OF 7" LINER
PERFORATIONS
TIBT
7" LINER 29 lb/ft N80 VAM
Figure 11.22 – Forties Echo Completion FES 15
Page 82
2.312" NIPPLE 2088.6 mbrt

6800 ftbsv
2 3/8" TUBING REDA HN 13 000 ESP

DRIFT 1.901"
BASE OF ESP 2111 mbrt

6874 ftbsv
18.2 bbls
TOP OF 7" LINER 2187 mbrt
7123 ftbsv
23.0 bbls 9 5/8" 47 lb/ft 2347 mbrt
PERFS:
2376.0 – 2390.2 mbrt
2.1 bbls 7743 – 7790 ftbsv
TAG DEPTH
EZSV PLUG 2393 mbrt

7799 ftbsv
2.0 bbls
TBT TOC 2409 mbrt
PLUGGED OFF PERFS

2394.2 – 2410.2 mbrt
13.4 bbls 2414.2 – 2419.2 mbrt
PBTD 2519 mbrt
7" 29 lb/ft 2554 mbrt
TOTAL COMPLETION VOLUME 147 bbls

4 1/2" TUBING VOLUME 103 bbls
MAXIMUM DEVIATION 29° @ 1230 mbrt
DEVIATION AT PERFS 20°
Figure 11.23 – FES 15 Liner Details
Page 83
2.312" NIPPLE 2088.6 mbrt

6800 ftbsv
2 3/8" TUBING REDA HN 13 000 ESP

DRIFT 1.901"
BASE OF ESP 2111 mbrt

6874 ftbsv
TOP OF 7" LINER 2187 mbrt

7123 ftbsv
9 5/8" 47lb/ft 2347 mbrt
TOC 2326.0
CEMENT
MAXIMUM DEVIATION 29° @ 1230 mbrt

DEVIATION AT PERFS 20°
Figure 11.24 – Post Coiled Tubing Squeeze – Status
Page 84
WELL CONDITIONS
Completion date: 15/08/90
Well Deviation: 29 deg maximum (1230 mbrt)

20 deg across perforations
Bridge Plug Depth: 2393.0 mbrt (7799 ft bsv) EZSV
Open Perforations: 2376.2 to 2390.2 (mbrt)
Isolated Perforations: 2394.2 to 2419.2 (mbrt)
Last Tag Fill: 2393 (bridge plug setting 12/8/90)
Current Production: Dead
Reservoir Pressure: 2800 psia at 2219 TVDSS
Xmas Tree Condition: Tested June 1990
Well Integrity: No evidence of communication
Static Bottom Hole Temperature 96°C
Corrosive Elements Evidence of CO2 corrosion, no H2S
Table 11.6
Page 85
BRIEF WELL HISTORY
22/03/87 Perforate well after running 4.5in natural lift completion
20/07/87 TDT/PLT log
29/02/88 TDT/PLT log
09/07/88 Set TBT at 2413 mbrt
19/03/89 Set MPBT plug at 2393 mbrt
06/09/89 ESP Workover No 1
02/11/89 Investigate DHSV – OK
29/11/89 Wireline investigation of tubing integrity – OK
18/12/89 Investigate control line and hanger seals
31/12/90 Replace tubing hanger seals
15/05/90 Investigate DHSV – OK
31/05/90 ESP failed. Suspected broken shaft
08/06/90 Cement bailer dumps. Seven runs – TOC 2384.8 mbrt
17/06/90 Coiled tubing nitrogen lift well. Unsuccessful
12/08/90 Set wireline bridge plug at 22 393 mbrt
17/11/90 ESP failed with broken shaft
Table 11.7
Page 86
EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL
BP Supply
5 sacks soda ash
25 x 25 kg sacks biozan polymer
15 x 25 litre Corexit 4034 scale inhibitor
Handheld gas detectors
Contractor Supply
1.5in CTU, power pack, operator cab, BOP and injector head
1 triplex pump
25 bbl batch mixer
Twin 10 bbl displacement tank
Low pressure filter screen
1.5in roll-on connectors, 2 x 1.6in OD check valves, 1.6in OD
straight bar, 1.6in OD jetting nozzle, 2 x 1.75in OD check valves,
1.75in OD straight bar, 1.75in OD jetting nozzle
Choke manifold with pressure gauges and sample ports
Associated chicksan and hoses
70 bbl tank
Shear seal BOPs (including spare shear rams) with adapter flange for
4.5in tree and top crossover for Echo Riser
2 SPM type relief valves and check valves
Cement lab containing the following:
Sample bottles
Fann viscometer
Hot water bath and thermometer
Pressurised mud balance
Atmospheric consistometer
Fluid loss cell
Graduated cylinders
Cans of paint to flag the coil
Enough cement and additives for 75 bbls of slurry
PACR Flowmeter
8 radios with back-up batteries. All to be BASEEFA certified
5 gals D47 Antifoam
4000 lbs bentonite
5300 lbs borax
Table 11.8
Page 87
EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL
Production Testing Equipment

Surge tank rated to 125 psi
All equipment required at marine base by
Tuesday 15/1/91
Personnel Required for the Cement Squeeze

8 x Dowell (including 2 Cementing Specialists)
2 x Well Service Supervisors
2 x Well Service Engineers (for specialist job)
2 x Expro Wireline Crew
2 x Expro Production Testing Crew
4 x Drillers
Table 11.8 (Cont)
PROGRAMME
Preliminary
• Convene a pre-operation safety meeting of all the

personnel involved.
• Record all annulus pressures. With the ESP failed the well
will not naturally flow due to high water cut.
• Pressure test Xmas tree.
• Transfer control of SSV to remote well servicing panel.

Maintain a control line pressure of 4000 psig on the SSV.
• Rig up slickline equipment and pressure test.
• Run 3.85in gauge cutter to drift tubing and tag SCSSV.

Pull SCSSV.
• Run pack-off sleeve into the SCSSV nipple.
• RIH and pull the standing valve in the logging bypass.
• RIH with a bailer to drift the bypass tubing, tag fill and
obtain a sample. Rig down slickline
Page 88
Rig-up
• Rig up coiled tubing and associated equipment consisting

of 1.5in CTU, 25 bbl batch mixer, triplex pump, floor
choke manifold and tanks. See Figure 11.25.
• Lower shear seal BOPs into the wellbay and make up to

the Xmas tree.
• Function test the shear seal BOP. Pressure test from below
to 1500 psig using the SSV and the BOP rams.
• Pressure test coiled tubing equipment and surface

hardlines to 4000 psi. Blank off the end of the coil for this
pressure test.
• Relief valves to be set as follows:
– PRV on pump 1 (cement pump) – 4500 psi

– PRV on back side – 2000 psi
Relief valves should be calibrated before the operation.
• Perform pump displacement test to verify volume and drift

the reel.
• Fill the 260 bbl active pit with treated seawater. Mix
85␣ bbls of contaminant in the 111 bbl pill pit with
freshwater at 10 lb/bbl bentonite and 20 lb/bbl borax.
Agitate and circulate this mix for several hours.
• Make up coiled tubing BHA for cementing. This will be a

1.5in roll-on connector crossing over to 1.6in OD BHA
consisting of two check valves, straight bar and jetting
nozzle. Calliper the BHA to ensure it will pass through
the␣ 2 3/8in bypass tubing, internal diameter 1.901in.
• Mate BOPs to pump-in-sub crossover and pressure test

blind rams from below to 2500 psi.
• Install injector head and perform pressure tests of stripper

and pipe rams to 2500 psi.
• Verify integrity of check valves and roll-on connector.
Page 89
PRV GAS VENT

WALKWAY 25 bbl V8 PUMP SURGE TANK MAIN GAS VENT
MIXER
LIQUID TO BOP DECK

GAUGE TANK
3000 gal
TANK
FROM RIG S'PIPE
FROM CHOKE MANIFOLD
V-DOOR
CAB AND REEL
IRON POWER PACK
RACK
WALKWAY
IRON RACK PACR

SHACK
SHACK
EDGE OF PIPE DECK
HELIDECK
Figure 11.25 – Layout of Coiled Tubing Equipment
Cement Squeeze
• RIH, pumping treated seawater every 1000 ft to reduce the

differential pressure on the coiled tubing.
• Stop pumping. Tag TD and compare to previous wireline

tags (or electric line tags). Reset odometer, pick up 10 ft
and flag the pipe.
To confirm depth correlation it may be necessary to RIH

pumping seawater and jet fill to tag the EZSV bridge plug
at 2393 mbrt (7799 ft bsv).
Page 90
• POOH to 30 ft above the top perforation (7713 ft bsv) and

flag the pipe.
• Begin bullheading the well using the rig pump, via the
riser inlet on the rig floor, with treated seawater at 5 bpm
and maximum 1200 psi WHIP. Continue bullheading for
400 bbls. Record injection pressure, rate, and volume
pumped about every 5 minutes.
After 400 bbls have been pumped, cut the rate to 2 bpm at
maximum 1200 psi WHIP.
• Once injectivity has been established, mix 25 bbls of

cement according to the recipe shown below. Gradually
build slurry weight to 16 lbs/gal.
• Obtain sample and perform fluid loss, free water and

rheology tests. Check for solids settling. Place a cement
sample and 50/50 cement/contaminant sample in the hot
water bath.
• If the fluid loss is between 20 and 80 ccs at 160°F, then

prepare to pump the cement down the coiled tubing as
follows:
– 5 bbls fresh water

– 24 bbls cement
– 10 bbls fresh water or until squeeze
– 85 bbls contaminant
• After a minimum of 400 bbls of seawater have been

pumped down the back side then begin to pump the 5 bbl
fresh water and cement slurry down the coil at 0.5 to
1.8␣ bpm and maximum 4000 psi CTIP.
• RIH to 10 ft above TD (7789 ft bsv).
• Continue to inject down the back side at 2 bpm until the

cement nears the nozzle.
• When 10 bbls of cement has been pumped down the coil,

cut the back side injection rate to 1 bpm. The cement will
accelerate down the coil under its own weight. Maintain
positive pump pressure on the cement as it does so.
Page 91
• When fresh water is at the nozzle, cut the backside pump

rate to zero. Be prepared to open up the surface choke to
take returns. Gradually reduce the coiled tubing injection
pump rate as the slurry nears the nozzle.
The WHP must be carefully monitored as it is possible for

the well to squeeze rapidly once the cement exits the
nozzle. The backside pumps should be shut down
immediately a rapid rise in WHP occurs.
• Continue to let the cement exit the nozzle while remaining

10 ft above TD.
• When the well does start to squeeze, ie there is an increase

in WHCIP, rapidly pull the coiled tubing 30 ft above the
top perforation (7713 ft bsv) before continuing to build the
squeeze pressure beyond 100 to 200 psi WHCIP.
• With the coiled tubing 30 ft above the top perforation

continue to build the squeeze pressure to 1000 psi
WHCIP.
• When squeeze pressure of 1000 psi is reached, open the

choke and, while maintaining 1000 psi squeeze pressure,
take returns off the coiled tubing by production tubing
annulus to the gauge tanks.
Monitor returns to see if there is one bbl returned for

every␣ bbl pumped.
• If the well does not squeeze after 15 bbls cement has left
the nozzle then perform a hesitation squeeze. Shut down
the pumps for about 5 to 10 minutes and then resume
pumping. Very gradually build up squeeze pressure to a
maximum of 500 psi WHCIP.
If the well does not squeeze, repeat the hesitation

technique again.
• When the fresh water is at the nozzle, cut to minimum

pump rate and POOH until the nozzle is definitely above
the worst case cement top. (The worst case cement top
assumes no cement has gone behind the pipe.) This would
be 7250 ft bsv assuming no dilution by the fresh water
displacement fluid. A suggested start point for the
contaminant pass would therefore be 7150 ft bsv.
Do␣ not␣ pull the nozzle out of the 7in liner.
Page 92
• If the well still has not squeezed and all cement is out of
the coiled tubing, pump a further 10 bbls fresh water
down the coil and then POOH while simultaneously
bullheading down the coiled tubing/production tubing
annulus at 1 to 3 bpm and maximum 800 psi WHCIP.
No contaminant will be pumped if the well does

not␣ squeeze.
• Whilst pumping water/contaminant, adjust the choke to

continue to hold the 1000 psi squeeze pressure for a total
of 40 minutes and then reduce the WHP to 100 psi.
• When contaminant is at the nozzle increase pump rate

to␣ maximum 4000 psi CTIP. RIH pumping contaminant
at␣ 1␣ bbl of contaminant for every bbl of space passed by
the coiled tubing nozzle. For example, in the 7in liner if
the pump rate is 1.7 bpm then the RIH speed should
be␣ 46␣ fpm.
• Continue to RIH pumping contaminant to 50 ft above the

top perforation. Then POOH pumping 1 bpm for every
2␣ bbls of space passed by the nozzle. In the 7in POOH at
50 fpm and 1 bpm and 120 fpm in the 4 1/2in (90 fpm
at␣ 1.7␣ bpm in the 7in).
• Continue to POOH as the coiled tubing is displaced to

seawater. Maintain 100 psi positive pressure as POOH.
Pull the BHA into the riser and close the swab valve.
• Wait on cement for 12 hours downhole time. The wellhead

and annulus pressures may rise during this period due to
thermal effects. This should be monitored and bled off at
regular intervals.
Circulate Out
Contaminated
Cement
• Mix 250 bbls Biozan gel in the active pit at 1 to 1.5␣ lbs/bbl
concentration. Biozan gel is used for its greater stability at
higher phs. Circulate and allow to hydrate. Fill the pill pit
with seawater.
• Ensure that the surface equipment is lined up to take

returns from the pump-in tee on the riser to the
displacement tanks or open ditch. Monitoring for gas
should begin as soon as the system is opened up to the
displacement tanks.
Page 93
• Begin injection of Biozan gel down the coil at 1.0 to

1.7␣ bpm at a maximum pressure of 4000 psi.
• RIH at 60 to 100 fpm in the 4 1/2in tubing. Take care

when running into the bypass tubing. RIH at 30 to 50 fpm
in the 7in liner.
• Slow down when approaching the top of the

uncontaminated cement as there may be an interval of
partially set cement.
• Do not run deeper than the deepest point of contaminant

injection ie 50 ft above top perforations.
• Pull back 20 ft and circulate a further 50 bbls of gel.

Change to seawater and pump 150 bbls to displace the
well to seawater.
• POOH pumping seawater at maximum rate.
• Shut in the return line and pressure up on the cement

plug to 500 psi at surface via the coiled tubing. Record the
pressure test on a chart recorder for 30 minutes.
• Rig down coiled tubing.
• Rig up slickline equipment and pull the pack-off from

the␣ DHSV nipple. Install a pump open plug in the
3.813in␣ DHSV nipple. The plug should be pinned to
shear␣ at 2500␣ psi. Test the plug from above to 1500 psi
recording the test on a chart recorder.
• Rig down slickline.
The cement would then be drilled out and the well

reperforated during the subsequent rig workover to replace
the ESP.
Page 94
ALTERNATIVE
SQUEEZE
TECHNIQUES
The use of borax contaminant allows excess cement to be

cleaned from the wellbore without drilling. In the above
example only the cement above the perforations was
circulated out in this fashion with the remaining cement
plug␣ being drilled out later with a conventional rig. The use
of␣ borax contaminant to remove all the excess cement in the
wellbore does however have a disadvantage in that wells have
to be shut in for a period of two weeks following the squeeze
to allow the effects of the borax to dissipate. This factor
presented a particular problem with coiled tubing squeezes
in␣ Prudhoe Bay, where the shut-in time had a direct impact
on the production. A paper written by C M Mason and
P␣ R␣ Hornbrook describes the new techniques adopted to
(*Reference 11.3) overcome this problem*. The aim of this work was to␣ be able
to remove excess cement without having to contaminate with
borax and thus eliminate the shut-in time. Two methods were
investigated; one utilized a non-invasive cement dilutant
while the second involved the direct reverse out of neat
cement. Both methods were successful in reducing the
overall time to complete a squeeze operation and␣ return a
well to production. The live reverse out technique was the
preferred method in most circumstances in that it was the
simpler technique which provided greater time savings.
The main concern over the elimination of borax was whether

the coiled tubing had sufficient mechanical strength to cope
with the increased loading. The use of borax extended the
thickening time and diluted the slurry. Without borax,
there␣ was a question over whether reversing out a heavy
live␣ cement slurry would collapse or part the tubing.
Improved procedures and better definition of the coiled
tubing limits appear to have addressed these concerns for
the␣ Prudhoe Bay application.
The main components of the live reverse out procedure are:
• Perform a low pressure squeeze and then slowly increase

the pressure to the reverse out pressure. With no
contamination, reverse out pressures are high and
could␣ exceed fracture pressures. However, the filtercake
established with the low pressure squeeze is thought to
prevent fracturing.
Page 95
• Reverse out cement immediately squeeze pressure is

released. Experience in Prudhoe Bay has shown that
coiled tubing can be safely operated with differential
pressures up to 3500 psi. If the cement is too dense to be
circulated out without exceeding this limit a non-borax
polymer contaminant can be used to dilute the cement
and assist in the reverse out. The particular contaminant
used in Prudhoe Bay does not appear to compromise the
development of filtercake strength.
• This technique also allows the mechanical integrity of

the␣ squeeze to be tested by applying an underbalance
15␣ hours after the operation.
Although this technique appears to offer significant

advantages, its potential application has to be carefully
evaluated for each situation. The environment associated
with offshore locations like Forties present additional
constraints on the application of live reverse out techniques.
These include:
• The additional safety considerations associated with

performing an entire squeeze with no check valves in the
coiled tubing.
• Xmas tree, tubing, production casing and flowline

integrity. The pressure rating of the Forties trees at
3000␣ psi would restrict the pressure available to
reverse␣ circulate, necessitating the use of polymers.
• The relatively poor condition of the tubulars and

production casing on many of the Forties wells also
impact␣ of the safety of the operation.
• Many workover operations on Forties require the

subsequent use of a workover rig and hence many of
the␣ advantages of the live reverse out technique are
eliminated, especially in the light of the additional
constraints.
Page 96
SUMMARY
• Identify potential reasons for workovers and applicable
techniques at an early stage in the completion design.
• Design into the completion features which will aid

subsequent workover operations eg avoid the use of too
many landing nipples which can result in a restriction
in␣ tailpipe ID and hence compromise access to the liner.
• Design the well area layout and access to suit the likely
workover and well servicing techniques.
• Wireline operations are limited to wells with deviations

of␣ less than 65°. Any well servicing activities required
in␣ sections of the well with greater deviations than this
require the use of coiled tubing, hydraulic workover unit
or drill pipe conveyed tools.
• Pressure surveys and production logging are an

invaluable␣ aid to optimizing well production. Often there
is␣ a reluctance to perform a well service operation ‘just to
obtain data’ especially when the cost of the operation is
high. This approach often proves to be a false economy,
in␣ that without this data it is difficult to know whether
production is optimized or not.
• When reviewing production logs, it is often a compilation

of all the data together with a recognition of a subtle
feature of one log that provides the key to the analysis.
• Subsea well servicing provides its own unique and often

expensive well servicing challenges. Here, more than
anywhere else, maximizing reliability and minimizing
interventions will pay dividends.
• If a workover is required on a subsea well, consideration

should be given to utilizing a subsea lubricator deployed
from a dynamically positioned vessel as this will provide
significant cost savings over a semi-submersible and rigid
riser operation, providing of course that the planned
operation is within the capabilities of the system.
• Coiled tubing is increasingly being utilized as cost-effective

workover technique and as a result of this its applications
and operating limits are continually being extended.
Page 97
• The operating limits of coiled tubing are very much

dependent on the type of operation performed eg the
maximum length may be governed by the pressure drop
during pumping operations rather than a mechanical
limitation of the tubing.
• Coiled tubing can be run in some cases to 17 000 ft and

there are examples of even deeper operations.
• Coiled tubing is currently limited to wells with a WHP of

less than 5000 psi.
• Recent advances in coiled tubing cement squeeze

techniques have enhanced both the economics and
ultimate success rate of this operation.
• Management should always be kept aware of the fact that

incremental oil resulting from a successful workover on an
existing well is probably the most cost-effective production
available to the company.
• The possible application of any specialist workover

technique has to be judged on a case-by-case basis.
A␣ high␣ pressure hydraulic workover operation may be
perfectly acceptable on an onshore location but could
have␣ a number of safety implications which detract
from␣ its use in an offshore location.
• Whenever approaching the limits of any workover

technique the risk of a potential fishing operation
increases significantly. This does not mean that the
existing limits cannot be extended, but that the risk
and␣ consequences should be fully realized and catered
for␣ accordingly.
• A successful workover operation not only depends on

selecting the correct technique and equipment but also
requires meticulous planning and efficient
implementation.
• Good communication between engineering and field

personnel is a prerequisite to efficient workover
operations.
• Experience gained during workovers provides an

invaluable source of information for planning future
workovers. Clear and detailed records of all well service
and workover operations are fundamental to safe and
efficient operations.
Page 98
CONTACTS
Refer to new XTC skills directory.
REFERENCES
11.1 BP Near Wellbore Performance Manual.
11.2 Cobb, D O, Bragg, J A, Haines, J R and Putnam, J S:

‘Coiled Tubing Non-Rig Workovers at Prudhoe Bay’,
SPE 17592, presented at SPE International meeting
in␣ Tianjim, China, November 1 to 4, 1988.
11.3 Hornbrook, P R and Mason, C M, BP Exploration:

‘Improved Coiled Tubing Squeeze Cementing
Techniques at Prudhoe Bay’, SPE 19543, presented
at␣ the 64th Annual Technical Conference,
San␣ Antonia, October 8 to 11, 1989.
11.4 BP XEU Platform Drilling Manual
11.5 Smith, D K: ‘Cementing’, SPE Monograph Series,

1976.
11.6 Rike, J L, and Rike, E: ‘Squeeze Cementing: State of

the Art’, SPE 9755, presented at the 56th Annual
Technical Conference, San Antonio 1981.
11.7 BP Forties Well and Service Operational Procedures.
11.8 McKinley, R M: ‘Production Logging’, SPE 10035,

1981.
11.9 Schlumberger Cased Hole Log Interpretation

Principles/Applications 1989.
11.10 Howell, E P, Smith, L J and Blount, C G: ‘Coiled

Tubing Logging System’, SPE Formation Evaluation,
March 1988, 37–39.
11.11 Mullin, M A, BP Exploration, and McCarty, S H

and␣ Plante, M E, Baker Service Tools, ‘Fishing with
1.5 and␣ 1.75in Coiled Tubing at Western Prudhoe
Bay, Alaska’, SPE 20679, presented at the 65th
Annual Technical Conference, New Orleans,
September 23 to␣ 26, 1990.
Page 99
CONTACTS, REFERENCES, ETC Completion Design Manual
11.12 BP Report: ‘Marnoch Project – A Study of Well

Intervention Using a Hydraulic Workover Unit’ by
Parker, C O and Walls, S R, October 1990.
11.13 BP Report: ‘Subsea Well Service Systems’ by

Clark,␣ D␣ G and Mallon, L, BP Aberdeen PST 132/88,
DOC ID 132888.
11.14 BP Report: ‘Buchan Subsea Wireline Lubricator, First

Trial from Buchan A’, October 1984.
11.15 Stena Offshore Find Report: ‘BP Magnus Field Well

Service Operations, Satellite Well 09’, Stena Offshore,
September 1987.
11.16 Clarke, D G and Warne, A S: ‘Low Cost Wireline and

Logging Operations on a Satellite Well, using a Subsea
Wireline Lubricator Deployed from a Dynamically
Positioned Monodrill Vessel’, OTC 5726 May␣ 1988.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen, T O and Roberts, A P: Production Operations,
Volumes␣ 1 and 2 , Oil and Gas Consultants International Inc,
Tulsa␣ 1978.
Page 100

BP Exploration Completion Design Manual (Vol 2)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BP Exploration Completion Design Manual (Vol 2)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BP Exploration

Completion Design Manual

Chapter 5 Architecture of Completions

Chapter 6 Tubing Movement and Stress Calculations

Chapter 7 Selection of Tubulars

Chapter 8 Selection of Completion Equipment

Chapter 9 Procurement of Equipment

Chapter 10 Running the Completion

Chapter 11 Well Servicing and Workover Philosophies

TECHNICAL EDITOR AND AUTHOR:

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS AND EDITORS:

APPROVED FOR ISSUE:

Independent Completions Engineering Ltd.

26 May 1998 Page 1

5.2 Completion Design Considerations

5.2.1 Health Safety and Environmental Protection

26 May 1998 Page 2

5.2.2.3 Tension Leg Platform

26 May 1998 Page 3

26 May 1998 Page 4

5.2.3 Reservoir Access

26 May 1998 Page 5

5.2.4 Data Acquisition

5.2.4.1 During the Completion Phase

5.2.4.2 Permanent, Surface read-out gauges

26 May 1998 Page 6

Figure 2 - Gauge Positioning

26 May 1998 Page 7

5.2.4.3 Non Surface Read-out Gauges

26 May 1998 Page 8

5.2.5 Deviation and doglegs

26 May 1998 Page 9

5.2.6 Installation Methods

26 May 1998 Page 10

5.2.7 Production Chemistry

26 May 1998 Page 11

26 May 1998 Page 12

5.2.7.1.1 Scale Prediction

5.2.7.1.2 Scale Prevention

26 May 1998 Page 13

5.2.7.1.3 Scale Removal

26 May 1998 Page 14

5.2.7.1.4 Impact on Completion Design

26 May 1998 Page 15

Figure 3 - Chemical Injection Options

injection through injection through injection via injection through

26 May 1998 Page 16

NORMAL PARAFFIN CARBON NUMBER

26 May 1998 Page 17

Figure 5 - Insoluble Wax vs. Temperature

5.2.7.2.1 Wax Removal and Prevention

26 May 1998 Page 18

5.2.7.2.2 Impact on Completion

26 May 1998 Page 19

5.2.7.3 Asphaltenes And Tar Mats

26 May 1998 Page 20

26 May 1998 Page 21

5.2.7.4.1 Impact on Completion Design

26 May 1998 Page 22

5.2.7.7 Sulphate Reducing Bacteria

26 May 1998 Page 23

5.2.7.8 Completion Fluid Chemistry

26 May 1998 Page 24