TOPIC 1

INTRODUCTION AND CLINICAL APPLICATIONS

1.1 Definition, Nature and Scope of applied Psychology

Definition: 'Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior; it includes the application of
this science to human problems'. (Morgon, King, Weisz and Schopler,1986).
Nature: People have varying opinions about the psychology. Whether the psychology is the
science of mind or soul? Does psychology help in clinical field or in an industrial field. In fact
psychology is contributing more than these questions. To understand the nature and scope of
psychology, it is necessary to see the theoretical and applied aspects of psychology.
Theoretical Psychology: To study the behavior in response to events and situation is the main
subject matter of psychology. Behavior word is used in a broader sense here. It includes
interactions at conscious level, bodily changes and the effect of mental, physical, social and cultural
factors on human behavior. Naturally, psychology needs to take a help of sciences like biology and
sociology. The fields helpful to understand the human behavior are given as follows.

Biology helps in understanding the structural and functional aspects of human being where as
anthropology helps in understanding human evolution and the study of various cultures. Sociology
helps in understanding economic, religious and political effects on human behavior.
Applied Psychology: Main purpose of applied psychology is to solve the day-to-day problems
using basic theories of human behavior. This kind of practices helps in promoting human life
fruitful, happy and rich. Psychologists are not satisfied only with studying behavior and
establishing relevant principles; they are also interested in the application of these principles.
‗Psychology as an applied profession exists by means or various specialties where each specialty
builds a body of knowledge and develops a set of skills and techniques, both of which are used to
solve practical human problems‘.
Scope of Applied Psychology: Applied psychology gives applications of its subject matter in
following fields.
Major Fields Subfields Emerging Fields

1) Clinical 1) Women Psychology 1) Psychology of Architecture

Psychology
2) Family Psychology 2) Psychology of Aesthetics
2) Industrial and
Organizational 3) Sports Psychology 3) Psychology of
Psychology Pharmaceuticals
4) Military Psychology
3) Educational 5) Space Psychology 4) Forensic Psychology
Psychology and
Vocational 7) Health Psychology
Psychology

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 8) Social Psychology

9) Psychology of Social Movement

10) Psychology of Superstitions

Eradication

11) Psychology of Terrorism

12) Law and Psychology

13) Crime Psychology

A) Major Fields:
1)Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology is one of the major and oldest fields in psychology.
Clinical psychology gives its applications through its various sub branches, i.e. (i) Abnormal
psychology, (ii) Psycho-diagnosis, (iii) Psychotherapies and (iv) Rehabilitation and Counselling
psychology. The subject matter of Abnormal psychology is to understand the different kinds of
abnormalities, its statistics across the countries and publish it into manual form. DSM (Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders) is the best example of this kind of manual. Abnormal
psychology also deals with the symptomatology of different kinds of illnesses. Psychodiagnostics,
a subfield look into developing different diagnosis techniques of illnesses. Observation, Interview,
Psychological testing, Projective tests and Biomedical measures are different diagnostic tools,
which are used since its inception. But the psychoanalysts (experts in psycho-diagnosis) make
different kinds of updation and standardization into these diagnostic tools. Psychotherapy has a
basis of different perspectives in psychology. Psychotherapists develop different kinds of
therapeutic techniques, depending upon nature and cause of illness on the basis of therapeutic
methods proposed by these perspectives.Rehabilitation services are provided to the people those
are cured and going back to the society. Rendering support from the family members, occupational
colleagues and society to the patient, is the main purpose of rehabilitation psychologist.
Counselling psychologist deals with giving mental support to the patient.
2)Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Industrial and Organizational psychology has its
existence since 19 century, when the supervisors and engineers of that era started estimating
productivity from behavioural point of view. The initial contribution of these experts was ‗time and
motion study‘ ‗tools designing‘ etc. Today this field giving its contribution from four different
subfields i.e. (i) Engineering psychology (ii) Personnel (iii) Organizational psychology and (iv)
Consumer psychology. Engineering psychology is the field that studies the relationship between
man-machine and its environment. Time and motion studies and tools designing is the interest area
of engineering psychology. In this field, experts try to understand the human natural tendencies and
develop the machinery accordingly, because human being may tired but machine do not get tired.
Also, machine can be designed and manufactured according to the demands. Personnelpsychology
deals with the analysis of available work, understanding the job requirements, giving an
advertisement, exercising selection process and placement. Moreover, personnel psychology deals
with the designing of new positions depends upon the available work. Personnel psychology also
deals with certain job related decisions such as promotion, demotion, downsizing, increments
etc.Organizational psychology understands the individual differences among the recruited
employees. Also this field offers different kinds of employees training programmes, and measure
its effectiveness. Consumer psychology has to play dual role. At one end, consumer psychologists
visit different market places, understand consumer demands and convey it to the company.
However, at the other end, consumer psychologists make proper advertisement to convey the
information of various goods to the consumer. Consumer psychologists are suppose to create a
consumer movement by which ill, odd practices will be controlled.
3)Educational Psychology and Vocational Psychology: The Education psychology accomplishes
three important functions (i) Personality Development (ii) Develop Adjustment and (iii)

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Competence building. For the purpose of accomplishing given three functions educational
psychology focuses on understanding individual differences, syllabus designing, developing
effective teaching methodologies, understanding effective evaluation techniques etc. However,
vocational psychology deals with the understanding the concept of vocational choice and vocational
development. After completion of basic educational qualification, student needs to choose an
appropriate professional course for better future. Vocational psychologist gives guidance
accordingly.
B) Subfields:
1) Women Psychology: The main objective of the women psychology is to study the psycho-
physiological characteristics of women‘s life and give an equal opportunity to them in the society.
Nature has given important responsibility to women, i.e. giving birth to the child. Women possess
different physiological characteristics in accordance with this responsibility. Women possess
different psychological characteristics, fear of success, fear of failure, learned helplessness,
bisexuality, empty nest concept etc. Moreover, culture also influences on the women. The field,
women psychology deals with understanding these characteristics, relate the causes behind these
characteristics and insist different solutions by which women could gain equal status in the society.
2) Family Psychology: In the form of blood relation, adoption two or more people come together
and share a common shelter, in this two or more opposite gender people develops sexual relations
by the social approval and take a responsibility of their parents called family. Family is a small and
concrete kind of group observed everywhere. In other words, universality is observed in family as a
system. Family performs different kind functions i.e. primary and secondary. In primary functions,
biological needs, child rearing, socialization and informal functions are carried by the family
whereas in secondary functions, family take care of formal education, social development etc.
While discharging primary and secondary functions sometime families face certain risks i.e. severe
illness, death and divorce. The role of family psychology is to understand the different
characteristics and functions of family and help family as a system to discharge their functions
effectively and to minimize the effects of risks.
3) Sports Psychology: Sports psychology deals with the study of behaviour in sports performance
and its interactions with the other. Sports activity is the important element of our life. Sports
activities improve the physical, psychological health and social wellbeing. It develops the healthy
interactions in the society and across the society. Hence for the promotion of sports, health
psychologists contribute into following areas : (i) From the behavioural perspective, every sports
activity involves sportsman, competitor, coach and audience. The interaction between these
elements effects on sports performance. (ii) The sports activities are categorized into two categories
indoor Vs outdoor and individual Vs group performance. (iii) Personality characteristic of
sportsperson determines sports performance in each one of these categories. (iv) design of the
sports apparatus and (v) physique and sports preference is the most scientific issue. Sports
psychologist focuses on behavioural aspects of these areas.
4) Military Psychology: Alfred Binet, is supposed to be a first contributor, who has given
contribution of psychology to the military field. Psychology can contribute to the military field in
many ways, by giving its principles of psychology, scientific methodologies, assessment techniques
and by the way of counselling. Majority of the organizations asks for the employee, who meet with
the minimum qualifications and they do offer trainer after selection and the placement. Military
organization cannot take such risk. In military, candidate must meet with personality
characteristics, integrity and the discipline along with the minimum qualification, Experts in the
military field measures these characteristics using appropriate psychological tests and techniques.
Adjustment in military life, motivation, morale, war strategy, counselling after the war, these are
the area of concern in military field. In ergonomics, weapon engineers take the input from
psychologists about human behaviour and design the tools accordingly.
5) Space Psychology: The environment in the space is significantly different than the environment
on earth. The environment in space effects on human being in various ways. Space travellers
suppose to adjust since the accomplishment of the biological needs, safety and many others. The
space traveller is supposed to be equipped with all evens and odds. Moreover, in these adversities
sports traveller is suppose to focus on the give task. It is expected that the space psychologists
should understand the dimensions of adjustment in space, stress and anxieties while working in the

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space, anxiety out of no man zone and adjustment with the odds and train them how to adjust with
all these odds.
7) Health Psychology: Lifestyle effects on level of human stress. More the irregular life style more
the stress and this stress effects negatively on mental and physical health. Relationship between
stress and health is the interest area of health psychologists. It is expected that health psychologists
should give its contribution at three level; first, avail the quality health facilities to the mentally and
physically sick; second, counsel to the people who living imbalance life style and eradicate their
health problems; and three, orient the society for the promotion and maintenance of psychophysical
health. Promote use of yoga and meditation in the society.
8) Social Psychology: Social psychology is the science of human behaviour, it deals with how the
real and imaginary presence of others effects on human behaviour. Human behaviour is assumed at
three level i.e. individual, interpersonal and group level. Social studies self concept, social
cognition, communication, attitude, stereotypes, prejudice, interpersonal relation, social influence,
aggression, group, leadership etc. The findings of studies conducted in social psychology are useful
in solving different human behavioural related problems.
9) Psychology of Social Movement: As Aristotle stated, society is a combination of families. This
society has some characteristics. Social ideals, principles, values and rituals etc shows differentness
of the society. These characteristics are not static, these characteristics keeps on changing in
negative or positive direction. Some changes are natural whereas some changes are artificial.
Changes takes place naturally whereas sometimes by the active efforts of members of the society.
The process of change by the active intervention is called social movement. Social movement has
its negative or positive effects. The branch of psychology that deals with the study of these changes
and makes an appropriate intervention in minimizing negative effects of changes is called
psychology of social movement.
10) Psychology of Superstitions Eradication: Superstition is the belief in supernatural causality
(that one event causes another without any natural process linking the two events) such as
astrology, religion, omens, witchcraft and prophecies, that contradict natural science. The word
superstition is sometimes used to refer to religious practice other than the one prevailing in a given
society although the prevailing religion may contain just as many superstitious beliefs. It is also
commonly applied to beliefs and practices surrounding luck, prophecy and spiritual beings,
particularly the belief that future events can be foretold by scientific (apparently) unrelated prior
events.
The psychology of superstitions eradication deals with the psychology behind this kind of
behaviour and use make some therapeutic and preventive measures to eradicate the superstitious
practices.
11) Psychology of Terrorism: It‘s a mistake to simply label terrorists as ‗evil‘ or psychologically
deranged- in fact, psychologists who have studies terrorist groups have found that terrorists tend to
be stable individuals, not paranoid or delusional. What seems to make terrorists essentially different
from other is their ability to ‗switch off‘ their sense of empathy in service to their beliefs and goals.
Despite what some hardline New-Darwinists may believe, empathy and compassion seem to be
natural for human beings. Its natural for us to feel for the sufferings of others, and to respond with a
desire to alleviate their suffering. If you lack the ability to empathise, then it‘s very likely that you
could be diagnosed as a psychopath.
To become a terrorist means disengaging this natural empathy, so that a peson can treat certain
other human beings- the members of the groups he feels he is fighting against- as objects, and kill
them without remorse. It means seeing members of those groups as fundamentally ‗other‘ and
refusing to connect with them. It is only a complete lack of empathy which makes it possible for
one human being to behead another.
It is very significant most terrorists are young men, usually adolescents. Adolescence can be a
psychologically difficult period, during which a person becomes aware of themselves as a separate
individual, with a sense of vulnerability and fragility. As a result, there is a strong need for identity
and belonging. This is why adolescents often join gangs, and become followers of fashion or of pop
groups. Belonging t a group helps to alleviate their sense of separateness and strengthens their
identity.

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12) Law and Psychology: Law psychology involves empirical, psychological research of the law,
legal institutions, and people who come into contact with the law. Legal psychologists typically
take basic social and cognitive principles and apply them to issues in the legal system such as
eyewitness memory, jury decision making, investigations, and interviewing. The term ‗legal
psychology‘ has only recent come into usage, primarily as a way to differentiate the experimental
focus on legal psychology from the clinically-oriented forensic psychology.
Together, legal psychology and forensic psychology from the field more generally recognized as
‗psychology and law‘. Following earlier efforts by psychologists to address legal issues,
psychology and law became a field of study in the 1960s as part of an effort to enhance justice,
though that originating concern has lessened over time. The multidisciplinary American
Psychological Association‘s Division 41, the American Psychology-Law Society, is active with the
goal of promoting the contributions of psychology to the understanding of law and legal systems
through research, as well as providing education to psychologists in legal issues and providing
education to legal personnel on psychological issues. Further, its mandate is to inform the
psychological and legal communities and the public at large of current research, educational and
service in the area of psychology and law. There are similar societies in Britain and Europe.
13) Crime Psychology: The crime psychology is the study of wills, thoughts, intentions and
reactions of criminal and all that partakes in the criminal behaviour. It is related to the field of
criminal anthropology. The study goes deeply into what makes someone commit a crime, but also
the reactions after the crime, on the run or in court. Criminal psychologists are often called up as
witnesses in court cases to help the jury understand the mind of the criminals.
C)Emerging Fields:
1) Psychology of Architecture: The emergence of psychology of architecture has following
reasons: (i)era the availability of the land is not increasing in the rate of population growth. (ii) The
requirements and affordability of the people is increased. (iii) Everyone wants their personal space.
(iv) Due increased stressors in life, unknowingly people started believing on vastushastra. (v)
Public space and private space and their requirements differ. To answer to these questions, the
psychology of architecture has emerged. In this field experts believe that people live into two area:
personal and public. In personal area there requirements are different whereas in public area there
requirements are different. Also the behaviour style differs in personal and public space.
Architecture psychologists study this phenomenon and develop the housing plan accordingly.
2) Psychology of Aesthetics: In his revised theory, Abraham Maslow, has mentioned about the
need of aesthetics. After fulfilling the need of cognition, individual goes to the higher need i.e. the
need of aesthetics. The aestheticsness come out of the intellectual understanding. Aesthetic-ness
arrange the things in an organized manner. Aesthetics-ness serves as a stress, pains reliever.
3) Psychology of Pharmaceuticals: The nature and causes of illness are changing day by day.
Before the industrialization, urbanization and competitiveness in society, physiological illnesses
were due to the air, water and through contacts. The stress as a cause was very less. Now a day,
majority of the illnesses are outcome of the stress. The irregular life style, unhygienic food and full
of stress are the causes of different illnesses. Hence, the field of pharmacy need to rethink on the
treatment mechanism. Pharamacologists are giving adequate attention on the psychological factors
of illness. The psychologists are understanding the chain/linkage between stress and anxiety and its
relation with the health.
4) Forensic Psychology: The nature of crime and criminal activities is changing. Traditionally,
criminal, dacoit activities was the supposed to be done by specific group. Now the criminals do not
have any specific face. The domestic violence is also increasing. In result, traditional investigation
procedures are out of use. The field, forensic psychology has emerged out of necessity, necessity of
developing different kinds of investigation tools, techniques and procedures.
1.2 Nature of clinical psychology-
Classification of mental disorders: Emile Kraeplin did much of the work which served as a
precursor to the first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)(1882). He organized
information on psychological disorders in a way which reflected the social atmosphere of the time.
The main categories of psychological disturbance in Kraeplin‘s Compendium of Psychiatry were
manic-depressive insanity and dementia praecox: currently known as bipolar disorder and
schizophrenia (Malik & Beutler, 2002).

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The United States Census Bureau also made an early effort to recognize and make some distinction
by offering the option to choose ―idiocy‖, ―insanity‖, or neither(1840s).
These efforts at classification make sense; at this time in the history of psychology, the main focus
was on patients who were experiencing psychosis (Grinker, 2010). This is because much of the
research in order to make these guides was conducted in mental hospitals, where the most severe
cases would be found.
It should come as no surprise that the creation of the first DSM arose from a need to have a system
of diagnosis and treatment for those with obvious, significant psychological impairment. This need
arose from the notable increase in patients suffering from mental illness as a result of fighting in
WWII (World War II). As more and more soldiers came back, the need for such a standardized
diagnostic tool became vital.
DSM-5: DSM-5(2013): The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM), the DSM-V, was approved by the Board of Trustees of the American Psychiatric
Association (APA) on December 01, 2012. Published on May 18, 2013, the DSM-5 contains
extensively revised diagnoses and, in some cases, broadens diagnostic definitions while narrowing
definitions in other cases. The DSM is the first major edition of the manual in twenty years and the
roman numerals numbering system has been discontinued to allow for greater clarity in regard to
revision numbers. A significant change in the fifth edition is the proposed deletion of the subtypes
of schizophrenia. During the revision process, the APA website periodically listed several sections
of the DSM-5 for review and discussion.
ICD-10: ‗International Classification of Disorders‘ is the manual proposed by World Health
Organization. The main objective of this manual is to organize different kinds of illnesses in a
systematic manner. So the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of different illness could be done
systematically and its universal uniformity will be maintained. Today, we are using 10th version of
the manual is in use.
Therapies:
CBT (Cognitive Behavior Therapy): Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is a relatively short
term, focused approach to the treatment of many types of emotional, behavioural and psychiatric
problems. The application of CBT varies according to the problem being addressed, but is
essentially a collaborative and individualised program that helps individuals to identify unhelpful
thoughts and behaviours and learn or relearn healthier skills and habits. CBT has been practised
widely for more than 30 years. It has been researched extensively, and has demonstrated
effectiveness with a variety of emotional, psychological and psychiatric difficulties. It is also
continually evolving, and third wave CBT therapies such as Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy
(MBCT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT),
Schema Therapy and others are increasingly being used for a variety of emotional, behavioural and
psychiatric problems.
The benefits of CBT: (i) CBT has been extensively investigated in rigorous clinical trials and has
empirical support (ii) CBT is structured, goal oriented, and focuses on immediate difficulties as
well as long term strategies and requires active involvement by the client. (iii) CBT is flexible,
individualized, and can be adapted to a wide range of individuals and a variety of settings.
Clint centered therapy: Client-centered therapy differs from other forms of therapy because
client-centered therapy does not focus on therapeutic techniques. What's most important in client-
centered therapy is the quality of the relationship between the therapist and the client. Client-
centered therapy was not intended for a specific age group or subpopulation but has been used to
treat a broad range of people. It has been applied for use with people suffering from depression,
anxiety, alcohol disorders, cognitive dysfunction, schizophrenia, and personality disorders.
When people enter client-centered therapy, they are in a state of incongruence, meaning there is a
difference between how they see themselves and reality. Having an accurate self-concept (the
thoughts, feelings, and beliefs people have about themselves) is key to client-centered therapy. For
example, a person may consider himself helpful to others but often put his own needs before the
needs of others. It is the hope of client-centered therapists to help clients reach a state of
congruence (a match between self-concept and reality; for people to see themselves as they
actually are). For example, if a person considers herself a good chef, she would not doubt herself
when it comes to cooking meals. In client-centered therapy, the therapist does not attempt to change

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the client's thinking in any way. The therapist merely facilitates self-actualization by providing a
comfortable environment for clients to freely engage in focused, in-depth self-exploration.
In client-centered therapy, the therapist's attitude is more important than the therapist's skills.
According to client-centered therapy, there are three therapist attitudes that determine the level of
success of therapy: (1) genuineness, (2) unconditional positive regard, and (3) empathy.
REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy): Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy's (REBT)
central premise is that events alone do not cause a person to feel depressed, enraged, or highly
anxious. Rather, it is one‘s beliefs about the events which contributes to unhealthy feelings and self
defeating behaviors.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy teaches the client to identify, evaluate, dispute, and act against
his or her irrational self- defeating beliefs, thus helping the client to not only feel better but to get
better.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy is an active-directive, solution-oriented therapy which focuses
on resolving emotional, cognitive and behavioral problems in clients. Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy is one of the first forms of Cognitive Behavior Therapy and was first expounded by Ellis
in 1953. Fundamental to Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy) is the concept that emotional
suffering results primarily, though not completely, from our evaluations of a negative event, not
solely by the events themselves. In other words, human beings on the basis of their belief system
actively, though not always consciously, disturb themselves, and even disturb themselves about
their disturbances.
The Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy framework assumes that humans have both rational and
irrational tendencies. Irrational thought/images prevent goal attainment, lead to inner conflict, lead
to more conflict with others and poor mental health. Rational thought/images lead to goal
attainment and more inner harmony. In other words rational beliefs reduce conflicts with others and
improved health.
REBT claims that irrational and self-defeating thinking, emoting and behaving are correlated with
emotional difficulties such as self-blame, jealousy, guilt, Low Frustration Tolerance, depression,
and anxiety. This is a view shared with some other well-known therapies, such as Re-evaluation
Counseling and Person-centred counselling - as these both arose in the mid-50s, Ellis is thought to
have had an influence on them. REBT is an educational and active-directive process in which the
therapist teaches the client how to identify irrational and self-defeating tendencies which in nature
are unrealistic, illogical and absolutist, and then to forcefully and emotionally dispute them, and
replace them with more rational and self-helping ones. By using different methods and activities,
the client, together with help from the therapist and in homework exercises, can gain a more
rational, logical and constructive rational way of thinking, emoting and behaving.
One of main objectives in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy is to show the client that whenever
unpleasant activating events occur in people's lives, they have a choice of making themselves feel
healthily and self-helpingly sorry, disappointed, frustrated, and annoyed, or making themselves feel
unhealthily and self-defeatingly horrified, terrified, panicked, depressed, self-hating, and self-
pitying.
1.3 Positive Psychology – nature and scope
Positive psychology concentrates on positive experiences at three time points: (1) the past, centering on
wellbeing, contentment and satisfaction; (2) the present, which focuses on concepts such as happiness
and flow experiences; (3) the future, with concepts including optimism and hope. Not only does positive
psychology distinguish between wellbeing across time points but it also separates the subject area into
three nodes:
■the subjective node, which encompasses things like positive experiences and states across past, present
and future (for example, happiness, optimism, wellbeing);
■the individual node, which focuses on characteristics of the ‗good person‘ (for example, talent, wisdom,
love, courage, creativity); and
■the group node, which studies positive institutions, citizenship and communities (for example, altruism,
tolerance, work ethic) (Positive Psychology Center, 1998).
Contrary to criticism, positive psychology is not a selfish psychology. At its best, positive psychology
has been able to give the scientific community, society and individuals a new perspective on existing

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ideas as well as providing empirical evidence to support the phenomenon of human flourishing. Above
all, though, positive
psychology has challenged and rebalanced the deficit approach to living while connecting its findings
to many different disciplines. Throughout this textbook you will see how inducing positive emotions,
committing acts of kindness and enhancing social connections enable individual and societal flourishing,
demonstrating the usefulness of the discipline for individual, group and community wellbeing.

1.4 Health Psychology: This field of psychology deals with the psychological factors of health.
‗Health psychology is the science that deals with the promotion of health, maintenance of health,
prevention of illness, diagnosis, health and eradication of functional defect related to the illness
through education, scientific view and occupational contribution (Mytrezo, 1980)‘. Health
psychology makes a use of psychological knowledge to understand health and illnesses. The
academic and occupational branch of psychology also helps in protection of health, its promotion
and illness eradication. The principles of psychology help in reasoning the health and ill health.
Health psychologists are also expected to analyze the health policies. The research conducted in
health psychology is as follows: (i) behavior related variables and health (ii) cognitive factors and
health (iii) social support (iv) work environment and health (v) population variables.
Moreover, health psychology suggest following remedies (i) change in life style and health (ii)
conformity of health advice (iii) loneliness and health (iv) cosmetic operations (v) helplessness due
to life illness (vi) role of male and (vii) loneliness and health etc.

Community mental health:

Bio-psycho- social model of health: Egan (1976) has given multidisciplinary approach to study
normal and subnormal behavior. Traditional approaches were explained human behavior through
biological, psychological or social approaches independently. Understanding and reasoning human
behavior through any one of the perspectives was not enough, because human behavior is a very
complex phenomenon. Bio-psychological approach got developed knowing these limitations of uni -
disciplinary approach. Especially in clinical field this approach found to be very useful.

1.5 Cognitive Neuro-Science -nature and major applications – PNI, EEG,MRI, CT, PET
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp. EEG
measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within the neurons of the brain. In
clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a
short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the
scalp. In neurology, the main diagnostic application of EEG is in the case of epilepsy, as epileptic
activity can create clear abnormalities on a standard EEG study. A secondary clinical use of EEG is
in the diagnosis of coma, encephalopathies, and brain death. EEG used to be a first-line method for
the diagnosis of tumors, stroke and other focal brain disorders, but this use has decreased with the
advent of anatomical imaging techniques with high (<1 mm) spatial resolution such as MRI and
CT. Despite limited spatial resolution, EEG continues to be a valuable tool for research and
diagnosis, especially when millisecond-range temporal resolution (not possible with CT or MRI) is
required.
Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which involves averaging the
EEG activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus of some sort (visual, somato-sensory, or
auditory). Event-related potentials (ERPs) refer to averaged EEG responses that are time-locked to
more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used in cognitive science, cognitive
psychology, and psycho-physiological research.
CT scanning—sometimes called CAT scanning—is a non-invasive medical test that helps
physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions.
CT scanning combines special x-ray equipment with sophisticated computers to produce multiple
images or pictures of the inside of the body. These cross-sectional images of the area being studied
can then be examined on a computer monitor, printed or transferred to a CD.
CT scans of internal organs, bones, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater clarity and reveal
more details than regular x-ray exams.

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CT scanning provides more detailed information on head injuries, stroke, brain tumors and other
brain diseases than regular radiographs (x-rays).
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), or magnetic
resonance tomography (MRT) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to visualize
detailed internal structures. MRI makes use of the property of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
to image nuclei of atoms inside the body.
An MRI machine uses a powerful magnetic field to align the magnetization of some atoms in the
body, and radio frequency fields to systematically alter the alignment of this magnetization. This
causes the nuclei to produce a rotating magnetic field detectable by the scanner—and this
information is recorded to construct an image of the scanned area of the body. Strong magnetic
field gradients cause nuclei at different locations to rotate at different speeds. 3-D spatial
information can be obtained by providing gradients in each direction.
MRI provides good contrast between the different soft tissues of the body, which makes it
especially useful in imaging the brain, muscles, the heart, and cancers compared with other medical
imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) or X-rays. Unlike CT scans or traditional
X-rays, MRI uses no ionizing radiation.
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces a
three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of
gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide (tracer), which is introduced into
the body on a biologically active molecule. Three-dimensional images of tracer concentration
within the body are then constructed by computer analysis. In modern scanners, three dimensional
imaging is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient during the
same session, in the same machine.
If the biologically active molecule chosen for PET is FDG, an analogue of glucose, the
concentrations of tracer imaged then give tissue metabolic activity, in terms of regional glucose
uptake. Although use of this tracer results in the most common type of PET scan, other tracer
molecules are used in PET to image the tissue concentration of many other types of molecules of
interest.

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