0 Engineering Physics

y = Ji (vt - x) +fz (vt + x) (3,6)

itrary functions remains unchanged as

The wave shape corresponding to each of the two arb tne
ive progresses along the medium.

,-3,: TRANSVERSE WAVES ON A STRING

) %

cord having very large leng. th in co ~p .a

n ideal string is perfectly elastic, uniform and flexible . . 1 k d . d. tion nson
perpendi uJ
> its diameter. When a string stretche
d between two points 1s p uc e 1n a irec
:11is i_s due to the fact that tension ; ;
i !ts
length, transverse vibrations are set u~ _in the string.
to 1ne~tia the st~1ng overshoots and goes to
tnng tends to bring it back to its mean pos~t10n. but due
set up 1n the stnng.
he other extreme. In this way, transverse vibrat10ns are
now derive the wav e equatio n for the transve rse vibrations of a string fixed betwee
We sha ll
rigid sup ports and stretched und er a tens ion T along X-axis. In displaced position, conside:
wo
the coordinates x and x + dx as shown ,
ln infinitesimal string element AB of length dx between m
Fig. 3.2.

A
I
I
I
I
I
T

A
I
I String
I

y I
I
I
I

T t I
I
I
I

i- ~~~-d~.~~~-j~'- - - - - - - l__ _ x
ot,~~~~~:~~~~-;-~~
f1G. 3.2 Vibr atio n in a stretched strin
g
-
, • 11
 .
Waves in One D1'me ns1o 111
n

, 11 ,1111 vertical force f\ in the upward dire ct'ion is. giv. en by

·1he ,-c.~u •

. 0 .
F~ =T sin 02 -T sin 01 === T[ sm 2 -s m 0 )
1
(3.7)

hence e1 and e2 are also. small.

the placement AB is small and
Sin ce
Ifence,

sin9, ~t an e, ~( ~: 1
sin0 2 ::::::: tan0 2 :::: :::: (::)
x+dx
and

:. F1 = r[(:: J -(ay) ] x+dx dy x

(3.8)

pand (dy /d x\ +c1x as,

Using Taylor's series, we can ex
) + f' (x) L\x +f" (x) (Lix )/2!
2 + ... )
+ Llx) is given by j(x + L\x) =j(x
(Taylor's series expansion of f (x

ay ) - dy) + (d
-( y)dx +(ddxy)7dx)2 + ....
2 3

(dx 2 3
dx 2!
ax
x+dx x

Neglecting high power, we have

2
(3.9)
ay J =(ay J +(a )dx ~
(dx dx
x+d x dX X

(dy x +dx from eq. (3.9)

in eq. (3.8), we get
Substituting th e va lue of /d x)

(3.10)
 112 Engineering Physics

Let m be the mass per unit length of the wire. Then the mass of the element AB w·
force in the upward direction will be ill be mdx. The

FY= mass x acceleration = (mdx) (d 1 y ; r>t ) )

0.11)
2
where CiJ2y!dt ) is the acceleration on AB.

Comparing eqs. (3.11) and (3.12), we get

a). J (J~ Jdx

( dt ( dx = r -{
111
dx

(3.12)

The differe ntial equati on of a wave motion is given by

a2y = v2( a2y J (3.13)

dt 2 dx 2

From eqs. (3.12) and (3.13), we get v2= Tim

v=frn (3. 14)

This gives the velocity of transve rse wave along the string.

A.4 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF WAVES AT A

'.....--j__!B~O~U~N~D~A~R!_Y_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _~. ~
 _
iYy_
dt2
_y 2l~)
:-.
uX
2

?) and (3.13 ) , w
e get v2 ==. TI m
From eqs. (3. I -

(3.14)

This gives the velocity of transverse wave along the string.

REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF WAVES AT A

BOUNDARY
Consider the case of two strings 1 and 2 joined at a point to form a composite string as shown in
Fig. 3.3. The two strings are stretched with the same tension T and have linear densities µ1, and µ2
respectively. The characteristic impedances of strings are Z 1 = µ 1v 1 and · Z '2 = µ 2 v 2 respectively.
When a wave travelling in a string 1 meets the boundary (x=O) of string 2, it is partly reflected
and partly transmitted at the boundary as shown in the Fig. 3.3. The reflected wave travels in string 1
while the transmitted wave travels in string 2. Our aim is to consider that how waves will respond to
an abrupt change of impedance at the boundary.
 II , 1 I 1, / // ' j , '// u,
(

Incident wave A

Reflected wave
...
1)1- ',I

' ~ro / lf~t...r,

1

! /41/ ";.

/
1. - ()

fiG, 3.3 A composite string

<.:r.:-.~ : . '..;~ :x:~.1:..t:: :i•-,,?:a:.'::-rr,'::-·r :-ar OJ;

direction M ,
Consider a wave is travelling in the +X
represented by,

e,
where Ai is the amplitude of the incident wav
Iv
The propagation vector, k, = 2n I A, = 2Trv 1
d at t11~ btnrnc-!.J.-.-
This wave is reflected as well as transm itte
cxprc':-:-ed -~:--
The reflected and transmitted wave can be

,.. (
1
3.16 )
.I', (.\·,r) = ·I :--ill llt)[

C \ \ (3,~ 7/
'I '1 ( .\ .r ) ::- ·II :-ittlll\:

/4 . ~ IT A. ·~: \ '
~ \ .

t1tc,I .ll\tf'l,n,.lr.,
Hea r A, and A are th e refl ected and l r,rn ~m
I
114 E11gi11eeri11g Physks

:;ollowing are the boundary conditions:

. ay(x, t)
i) y (x,t) is continuous across the boundary x = 0, · at is also continuous

md (ii) The transverse component of tension (restoring force) is continuous i.e.,

-T
ay(x,
ax
t)] is continuous at x = 0
[

At boundary, the displacements of incident wave, reflected wave and transmitted wave are A. sin OJI
c\ sin OJt and Arsin wt respectively. ' '

Applying boundary condition (i), we get

A sin cot + A r sin cot = At sin cot

I

or 4 +A,.= /4 (3.18)

From eqs. (3.15), (3.16) and (3.17) we have,

av., ,. (x ' t) = -A k I cos (cot+ k I x)

ax r

dy,(x, t) = -A k cos (wt- k2 x)

ax , 2

At boundary (x = 0), the above expressions are

ay;(x, t)] = -A; kl cos wt

[ dx x=O
 .
Waves in O ne D m ,ens;011
115
~--

[~c>x
] -- -A, k• .t a:()
co s (J )t

ay, (x, t)]

[~ x=o === -A , k2cos (J)f

th e se c o n d b o u n d a ry co d .Ih. o n , we get
Applying n

TA k
T Ai kl cos (J)f -
,. i cos rot === T A t k2 cos (J)t

Here

k T_2nvT _ z
i vI -2rcvµ 1v ' ==2nv I

and
k 2 T == 2 n u z2

(3.19)
⇒ z1(A ;- A,.)
==Z,- Ar

get,
o m eq. (3 .18) in eq. (3.19) we
, fr
st
Sub itutin g th e v a lu e o f A
,. )
z (A; -
1
A,.) = Z2 (A; + A

Z 1 - Z- (3.2(
A,. - -
2
⇒ - =
A; z1 +z2

nt a n d is repre sented b y r 12•

A,. p li tu d e coefficie
A is known as reflection am th is value in eq. (3.19), we get
I
A ;. Substituting
, o m e q . (3 .1 8 ), A,. = A, -
Further fr
 116 Engineering Physics
- - - - -- - --- - - - - ------ -- --- --- - - -- - -

_1_= 2Z1
Ai (Z1 + Z2 ) (3.21)

A1
A is known as transmission amplitude coefficient and is represented by t •
I
12

Here we observe the following points:

'i) When the string is rigidly fixed .at x = 0, the string will be infinitely massive and Z = 00 •
2
A
From eq. (3.21 ), A' = 0 i.e. At= 0. This shows that the incident wave is completely reflected
, I

with reversed amplitude. Reversal of amplitude means a phase change of n on reflection.

i) If 2 2 > 2 1, then from eq. (3.20), A, is negative i.e. a phase change of non reflection.
A. I

ii) If 2 2 < 2 1, then from eq. (3.20), A, is positive. Thus the reflected wave does not undergo any
phase change. Ai

~·
S~- ~l~M~P~ED~A~N~C~E~M~A~T~C~H~IN~G~- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
.
tpedance matching represents a very important practical problem 1n fi of energy. Long
the trans e~ e frorn
.t~nrP r:::ihlP, r'.:lrruin n Dne>rrr,r 1 · · t to avoid wastag
T'Y'1' t' +-
 l.t L]. / L.,l , U JC. ll .U Ul Jl c:y_. ~ J . .L..V / , J.J .u,._t, ___ .
4
, i

(iii) If z < z,, then from eq. (3 _20 ), A,. is positive. Th us the reflected wave does not undergo atl) f
2
phase change. ~

3.S IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Impedance matching represents a very important practical problem in the transfer of energy. Long
distance cables carrying energy must be accurately matched at all joints to avoid wastage from
energy reflection. The power transfer from any generator is a maximum when the load matches the
generator impedance. A loudspeaker is matched to the impedance of the power output of an ampli-
fier by choosing the correct turns ratio on the coupling transformer. The insertion of a coupling
element between two mismatched impedances, is of fundamental importance with applications in
many branches of engineering physics and optics. We shall illustrate it using waves on a string, but
the results will be valid for all wave systems.
When a smooth joint exists between two strings of different impedances, energy will be reflected
at the boundary. We are now going to see that the insertion of a particular length of another string
~etween these two mismatched strings will allow us to elim inate energy reflection and match the
rmpedances.
In Fig. 3.4, we require to match the impedances z == µ v and z = µ v by the smooth
. t· f · f I I l 3 3 3
1nser 10n o a stnng o length l and impedance z == µ v O • • t fi d t.he values of
zand z 2 2 2 • ur aim 1s o n
2
 '
'
; X =0 X =1;
/

-
Yi = A1 ei(w t - k,x) -Y; = A2 e'(Clll - k 2x)

y -
=8 0 i(u>l
+ k 1 x) y --
= 8 2 e(c,1t + k 2x)
- Yi = A3 e '(UJt - kJX)

1 r
r

of a stri ng of
Z of two stri ngs are ma tch ed by the ins erti on of a len gth /
frG. 3.4 The imp eda nce s Z 1 and 3 wav es are sho wn for the bou nda ries
x = O and x = I
inc ide nt and refl ect ed
imp eda nce Z • The 2

nsm itte d dis pla cem ent s at the jun cti ons x = 0 and x = I are shown in
rhis incide nt, ref lec ted and tra
ma ke the ratio,
~ig. 3.4. In the der iva tio n, we hav e to

Tra nsm itte d En erg y Z:i A} = l

Inc ide nt En erg y Z,A i:
2

of aco ust ic im ped anc e (Z) and am pli tud e (A) is equ al to ZA )
,ince, the ene rgy in ter ms

e eas y de riv ati on , we tak e the equ ati ons of waves in exp one nti al
In this section, in ord er to hav
rm as,
1

.dent wave on med.mm 2 as, A1 e l (( '.IJ

- k, , J

I
• nc1
1
as, B, e
• Reflec ted wave fro m me dju m 2
(W1 -d ' 1

j. 3 A . e" WI ~ \ )

• I nc1"<l ent wa ve on mc c 1um as,

 118 Engineering Physics

. B i(rot+k,x)
• Reflected wave from me d mm 3 as, 2 e -
. A i(rot-k1 (x-l))
• Transmitted wave into me dmm 3 as, 3 e ·

The boundary conditions are that y and T ( dy I dx) are continuous across the junctions _
X-0 and
x=l.
Between Z I and Z2 the continuity of y gives

(3.22)

Similarly the continuity of T ( dy Idx) at x=O gives

T(-iklAl +ikl Bl) =T(-ik2Ai +ik2B)

2

Dividing the above equation by ro and remembering that T ( kl w) = T Iv= µv = Z, we have

(3.33)

Similarly at x=l, the continuity of y gives

(3.24)

and the continuity of T ( dy I dx) gives

Z 2 (A2 e -ikif - B2e ik2t) -- z3 A3 (3.25)

From the four boundary equations (3.22), (3.23), (3.24) and (3.25) we require the ratio A/A1·
We use equations (3.22) and (3.23) to eliminate B and to obtain A in terms of A 2and B2. We th en
nd
A
use equations (3.24) and (3.25) to obtain both 2 and B2 in terdis of A 3. Equations (3.22) a
(3 .23) give

(3.26)
 ~------------ ------------ ---~Wi~a:
ves~in~O ~n:e~D~1·~ :·~ ~11~
rnens1on 9
\

Z1
where, 'i2 ::: Zz
. ( 24) and (3.25) give
Equations 3.
I~

A2 _ r23 + 1 ik,/
- • A3 e -
2r23 (3.27)

and

22
where, r23 = z
3

Equations (3.26) and (3.27) give

where,

Hence,

transmitted energy== Z3A~ =_!__A{ 4rl3

⇒ .met'dentenergy Z1A1 'i.3 A1
 /

, ' pl,p k-'

____ _ ____..
J . 1,,•,•rtllS
Flll:;
__.,._
120
>

-
. k 1 == I we have,
. I == O and sin : f
/4; CllSA ;
If we dwo1,t' 1 :::: 4 '

• 1

this is, when

tl t if the impedance of the coupling med ium is the ·harmonic mean of the two
c
, 18 . d'
We see there1ore hed and the thickness of the coup 1mg me mm 1s
' s to be matc
. · ' dance '
unpe
A2 2n
- where A2 = -
4 k2

zero reflection.
all the energy at frequency w will be transmitted with
es which eliminates reflections as light passes
The thickness of the dielectric coating of optical lens
The 'bloomed' appearance arises because exact
from air into glass is one quarter of a wavelength.
n lines are matched to loads by inserting quar-
matching occurs at only one frequency. Transmissio
impedance.
ter wavelength stubs of lines with the appropriate

/ UENCIES
8.6 STANDING WAVES AND THEIR EIGEN FREQ
g in opposite directions in a straight line with equal
When two similar and equal wave trains travellin .
rise to a new type of wave called a stationary wave
velocities superimpose over each other, they give
occurs no flow of energy along the wave. 1here
These waves are called stationary because, there
are permanently at rest. These points are calle~ as
are certain points, half a wavelength apart, which
re the displacement is maximum. The standUJg
nodes. Between the nodes there are antinodes whe
e differs from the prog ressive or tra~ellin g wav e in the respect that in the former, the amplitude
wav ed
for differen~ particle s but· ':'aries with the loca tion x of the particle .
is not th~ sam e st
lace me? t equ ation of a wav e trav elling in the positive X-direction along a retch
:he_ disp
strmg m exponential form is given be,

f h
where A is the amplitude and w is the angula r frequency o t e wave.
 en~si~on~~l2~I
- - - - -~W.~a:ves~in~O:ne~D~i:m~
----
- ------
--- - - - - - - - --

o f vi b ra ti o n o f stretched st . c 1am p ed at both th e ends

M o d es r1ng
3·6·1 . h . . .
m os t general simpl e armonic solution of th e wave equation m case of a
all co ns id er th e
. we .
sh
f Iengt h l. h av.mg mass pe r un it I h nsion T.
J-{ere nn strin
"[o g o n by en gt m an d st retched by a Te
th e wave is gi ve
;~ general solution of

-k r) + A2 si n (r ot +
kx )+ B1 co s (o ot -k:x.) + B2 co s( oo t+ kx ) (3.29)
._ 4 sin (r ot
_1 -- 1

ar e ar bi tr ar y co ns
ta nt s
where A, ' A2. B, and B2
ll .
o ends we h ave th e c10 owmg bo un da ry conditions:
or te d at th e tw
As the string is rigidly su pp ,
et (3.30)
y=O at x=O at all-tim

et (3.31)
y=O at x= l at all-tim

9), we get
nd iti on (3.30) in Eq. (3 .2
Applying bo un da ry co
t
t +B, cos mt +B2 cos m
0 = A, sin W t + A2 sin w
, +B J cos mt
0 =(A,+ A2 ) sin wt +(B
mt i:- O
as sin mt i:- 0 and cos '
and (B + B ) =0
⇒ (A, + A2 ) = 0 1 2

and B1 = - B2
Thus we have A1 = -A2

Now eq. (3.28) becomes

) ] + B [ cos (wt - kx
) - cos (mt + la )]
- sin (w t + kx
y = A1 [ sin (wt - kx)
1

n kx } - { si n wt cos la + cos wt sin kx }]

- cos w t si
= A1 [{ sin wt cos kx }]
t sin kx } + { cos wt cos la - sin wt sin kx
+ B1[ { cos wt cos kx + sin w

= - 2A1 cos wt sin kx

+ 2B1 sin wt sin kx
(3.32)
( - 2A cos w t+ 2B1 sin wt) sin kx
⇒ y= 1

the first bound-

one depe nd in g on t and second on x. Thus
1he solution now consists of two terms, es to a stationary wave.
sitely travelling wav
e oppo
ary condition reduces th -:f. 0
2). A s cos w t i:- 0 and sin w t
eq. (3.3
ry condition (3.31) to
Now we apply the bounda
 122 Engin eering Physics
--
Hence,
sin kl= 0

which gives the general solution for angle kl to be

kl= nrr where n = 1,2,3 .....
n as eigenvalues.
As I is constant, k is limited to discrete set of values know

nn whe ren= l , 2, 3......

k ,,=
I

to 11.= 00 • For A= 00 , there is no wave)

(Here we have not taken n=O because this corresponds

or frequency (v J = n(;) where n= 1,2,3 ........ . (3.34

used for integer)

(Here v is used for frequency instead of n because n is
Eigen frequencies or proper frequencies
It is dear from Eq. (3.34) that the string can have a set of
sponding to nth harmonic frequency. Toe
only. This equation represents the mode of vibration corre
different modes of vibration are shown in Fig. 3.5.
by
The Fundamental frequency corresponding to n=l, is given

(3.35)

The nth harmonic mode of frequency is given by

 GENERAL WAVE EQUATION AND ITS SOLUTION
. the equation of the wave, we take a line in the mediu m as X-axis d
In order to denve
h . al condition (displacement, velocit. y, pressu re etc. ) of its
. . an con8. 1
successive element Ide
~y pt dysalicong this line For example consider a string stretch ed in the X-direction ls norrn~r
s1tua e · . . a ong w~
a transverse wave is travelling. The ~hape of the wave (puls~) at t =_o is shown in Fig. J.I(a) en
ulse is described by y = f(x) when time t = 0. Let the pulse is travelling to the right with · ~e
P
v unchanged (wi~ho~t any de1ormac · ) Aft · h a veloqhi
tion . 1
er a time t, t e pu se reaches a distance vt alon ,,
X-axis as shown m Fig. 3.l(b). gilie

y y
ut
A
- - - - - -- - - - - - - - --- - _,..I

:A

t=O
t=t

0 0 0
(a) (b)
FiG. 3. 1 Transverse wave travelling along an axis (say X-axis). (a) Pulse at t = o (b) Pulse at
t= t

The waveform now can be represe nted as,

y =f(x- vt)

where the variable y depend s on x and t and hence can be written as y (x, t).

The above idea may be derived by Galilean transfo rmation . Let the pulse at time t is describe
d by
Y = f(x'). Using Galilean transfo rmation , x' = (x - vt). ·
Hence at time t, y =f(x - vt). If the pulse is travelling along the negative X-direction i.e., to
the left
with a velocity v, then y = f(x + vt) which is obtaine d by replacing v by (-v). Hence

Y (x, t) = f(x - vt) wave travelling in positive X-axi~

Y (x, t) = f(~ + vt) wave traversing in negative X-axis
. . h X axis can be represented by
Thus, t h e wave trave11mg with a constan t speed v along t e -
 W1Ne.~/11 ()!If /Jimen siun 109

Y -./lx I vi)
(3 1)
ti Oil (3.1) is arriv ed at by consicieri ng 111econdili f ·
£qua d · ·Ofl ' ) · o-r~l# /11 q!j1tf Wh . .
, rally, it can be expresse as Y. If we consi der it tern -
po
Y == j(vt t x )
(3.2)
o•flerentiating equation (3.2) partially with 1.espec f. lo x l wi, t/ 1 Wt p.,et
1

dy
~
ax
= -l: ·l'( 111 -I X)
(3.3)

a2y
dx 2 = -:J:f"(v t =l=x )
and

where f' and f" repre sent same func tion of ( vt ± x).

Similarly, diffe renti ating eq. (3.2) parti ally with respect to t WJCe, we 0"ct
t ·

dy I
at= vf (vt ±x) (3.4)

a2
a/= V
2
f"(vt ' ±x)

where f' and f" are the same e~rli er func tions .
(3.4). we get
Substituting the valu e off" (vt ± x) from eq. (3.3) in eq.

(3.5)

This is called the diffe renti al form of the wave cqu11lio11

.

t'l'fV t\.mction of eithe r (vt + x) or

General solution of wave equation. We know th at any arbit
tt -~) will be a solu tion of the wave equa tion. Hence the mo~t gt' 1\f't ,,1 solut
ornbination of them , i.e.,
ion would be a linear
 Y = Ji (vt - x) +h (vt + x) (3.6)

wav e sha pe corr esp ond ing to each of the two arbitrary functions remains unchanged th
- The as e
l 4 a:ve pro gres ses alon g the med
ium .

3~~, TRANSVERSE WAVES ON A STRING

flexible cord having very large length in comparison
An idea l stri ng is perf ectl y elastic, unif orm and
its diam eter . Wh en a stri ng stre tche d betw een two points is plucked in a direction perpendicular
to the
in the string. This is due to the fact that tension in
to its leng th, tran sve rse vibr atio ns are set up
n but due to inertia the string overshoots and goes to
stri ng tend s to brin g it bac k to its mea n pos itio
ations are set up in the string.
the oth er extr eme . In this way, transverse vibr
transverse vibrations of a string fixed between
We sha ll now deri ve the wave equ atio n for the
ion T along X-axis. In displaced position, consider
two rigi d sup por ts and stre tche d und er a tens
an infi nite sim al stri ng elem ent AB of leng th
dx between the coordinates x and x + dx as shown in

1.2.