General Chemistry 2

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General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12

STEM Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 4 – Week 5A: Entropy & Free Energy
First Edition, 2021
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Development Team of Learner’s Activity Sheets
Writer Myra Joy B. Montero
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WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS
General Chemistry 2 Quarter 4 Week 5A
ENTROPY & FREE ENERGY
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies
❖ Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy. STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-140

❖ Explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance.
STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-142
❖ Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction. STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-143
Time allotment: 2 hours
Learning Objectives: The learners will be able to:

1. predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy;
2. describe the degree of disorder of a system;
3. calculate the standard entropy change of a reaction;
4. identify the spontaneity of a process based on entropy;
5. solve problems involving the standard Gibbs free energy; and
6. write a reflective essay about the application of entropy to real-life situation.
Key Concepts
SPONTANEOUS PROCESS
• A reaction that does occur under the given set of conditions is called a spontaneous
reaction. If a reaction does not occur under specified conditions, it is said to be
nonspontaneous. We observe spontaneous physical and chemical processes every day,
including many of the following examples:
❖ A waterfall runs downhill, but never up, spontaneously.
❖ A lump of sugar spontaneously dissolves in a cup of coffee, but dissolved sugar
does not spontaneously reappear in its original form.
❖ Water freezes spontaneously below 0°C, and ice melts spontaneously above 0°C
(at 1 atm).
❖ Heat flows from a hotter object to a colder one, but the reverse never happens
spontaneously.
❖ A piece of sodium metal reacts violently with water to form sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas. However, hydrogen gas does not react with sodium hydroxide to
form water and sodium.
❖ Iron exposed to water and oxygen forms rust, but rust does not spontaneously
change back to iron.
• These examples show that processes that occur spontaneously in one direction cannot,
under the same conditions, also take place spontaneously in the opposite direction.
Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

School/Station: Lianga National Comprehensive High School
Division: Surigao del Sur Division
email address: myrajoy.montero@deped.gov.ph
2
Figure1. (a) A spontaneous process. After the valve is opened, the molecules distribute evenly
between the two bulbs. (b) A nonspontaneous process. After the valve is opened, the molecules
preferentially gather in one bulb.
(source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, page 803)
ENTROPY
• Entropy (S) is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. It is described as

a measure of how spread out or dispersed the energy of a system is among the different
possible ways that system can contain energy. The greater the dispersal, the greater is
the entropy. Most processes are accompanied by a change in entropy.
• The entropy change of a system, ∆𝑺system, can be quantified using two approaches. The
first approach is defined by Ludwig Boltzmann. In 1868 Boltzmann showed that the
entropy of a system is related to the natural log of the number of microstates (W):
S = klnW [eqn.1]
where k = Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
W = number of microstates
• Like enthalpy, entropy is a state function. Consider a certain process in a system. The
entropy change for the process, ∆S, is:
∆S = Sf - Si [eqn. 2]
where Si and Sf are the entropies of the system in the initial and final states,
respectively.
• From the Equation above we can write
∆S = klnWf – klnWi [eqn. 3]
𝑊𝑓
= kln
𝑊𝑖
where Wi and Wf are the corresponding numbers of microstates in the initial and
final state. Thus, if Wf < Wi, ∆S < 0 and the entropy of the system increases.
• Equation 3 shows the direct relationship between entropy, a macroscopic property of
matter, and the arrangement of atoms or molecules, a microscopic state (or microstate)
of matter: entropy increases with the number of microstates of the system.
• For simplicity, the quantitative concept of the number of microstates can be defined
qualitatively as the ‘disorder’ and ‘the dispersal of matter and energy’. A more ‘disorderly’
distribution of energy and matter corresponds to a greater number of microstates
associated with the same total. With this simplified definition, the entropies of the
phases of a given substance follow the same order with its degree of disorder as shown
in Figure 2 below.
Figure 2. The relationship between the entropies of the phases and the degree of disorder.

3
• This relationship of the entropies of the phases can be used to make a qualitative
prediction about the ∆𝑺 of reactions. The entropy of the system is expected to increase
for:
1. melting (𝑺liquid > 𝑺solid);
2. vaporization (𝑺gas > 𝑺liquid); and
3. dissolving (𝑺solution > 𝑺solute + 𝑺solvent).
• The second approach to quantify the entropy change of the system is the one by Rudolph
Clausius, one of the two persons who extended the work of Carnot.
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = [eqn. 4]
𝑇
The 𝒒rev and T in equation 4 are the heat released or absorbed in a reversible process
and at the Kelvin temperature at which the heat transfer occurred, respectively.
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• In the case of the heat transfer, a reversible process is a process where the direction can
be reversed at any point by an immeasurably small change in temperature. It is important
to note that for other reversible processes, an immeasurably small change can be made
in some other property of the system. Recall that heat is spontaneously transferred only
from higher temperatures to lower temperatures, thus a temperature difference is the
driving force of the heat flow from one object to another.
• Equation 4 encapsulates the definition of the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
entropy increases in any spontaneous process. A spontaneous process is one that
proceeds on its own without any outside assistance. The word “any” means that equation
4 also holds true for an irreversible spontaneous process. Consider below the melting of
1 mole of ice, which is roughly equivalent to the size of an ordinary ice cube, in the palm
of your hand.
Example 1
The melting of an ice cube in your palm is an irreversible process since the
temperature of the system (the ice cube) and the immediate surroundings (your hand) is
different. The melting requires 6.01 × 103 J/mol of heat. Calculate the entropy change of
the system, surroundings and universe.
Using equation 4 and taking T of the system as 0℃ (273 K), we can solve the entropy
change of the system as follows:
Given: T = 0℃
= 0 + 273 = 273 K
𝑞
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ≥ 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
𝑇
(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(6.01 𝑥 103 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
273 𝐾
∆𝑺𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎 𝑱/𝑲
The entropy change of the system is positive as expected since melting is an ‘order
to disorder’ process.
For the entropy change of the surrounding, we use the same equation but this
time we will use the temperature of your hand and the heat it lost. We assume that the
temperature of your hand is the same as the normal body temperature, 37. 0℃ (310 K).
Because the heat lost by your hand is the heat gained by the ice, the heat lost by
your hand is equal in magnitude to the heat gained by the ice but has opposite sign, −6.01
× 103 J/mol. So the entropy change of the surroundings is:
𝑞
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇

4
(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(−6.01 𝑥 103 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =
310 𝐾
∆𝑺𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 = −𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 𝑱/𝑲
The universe is composed of the system and the surroundings. Therefore, the
entropy change of the universe is the sum of the entropy change of the system and the
surroundings.
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 [eqn. 5]
Thus, the entropy change of the universe is
[22.0+(−19.4)]𝐽
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = = 𝟐. 𝟔 𝑱/𝑲
𝐾
If the melting of the ice cube in your hand were a reversible process, that is the
temperature of the surroundings is infinitesimally above 273 K, the entropy change of the
surroundings would equal to -22.0 J/K and ∆𝑺universe would be zero.
• In summary,
Reversible process ∆𝑺universe = ∆𝑺system + ∆𝑺surroundings = 0
Irreversible process ∆𝑺universe = ∆𝑺system + ∆𝑺surroundings > 0
Thus, the second law of thermodynamics can also be stated the entropy of the
universe increases in any spontaneous process.
• For a spontaneous process, the second law says that ∆S univ must be greater than zero,
but it does not place a restriction on either ∆Ssys or ∆Ssurr. Thus, it is possible for either
∆Ssys or ∆Ssurr to be negative, as long as the sum of these two quantities is greater than
zero. For an equilibrium process, ∆Suniv is zero. In this case, ∆Ssys and ∆Ssurr must be equal
in magnitude, but opposite in sign.
• If for some hypothetical process we find that ∆Suniv is negative, this means that the process
is not spontaneous in the direction described. Rather, it is spontaneous in the opposite
direction.
ENTROPY CHANGES IN THE SYSTEM

• By applying Hess’s law, the standard molar entropy, 𝑺°, can be added to obtain the
standard entropy of reaction,
°
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 : ∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛
°
= ∑ 𝑛𝑆° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝑆° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) [eqn. 6]
where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation.

• The standard entropy values of a large number of compounds have been measured in J/
mol∙K. To calculate ∆𝑺𝐫𝐱𝐧 (which is ∆𝑺sys), their thermodynamic values are already given.
Proceed according to example 2.
Example 2
Suppose you are asked to determine the ∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛°
of methanation, reaction of
producing methane from CO2.
CO2 (g) + 4 H2(g) → CH4(g) + 2 H2O(g)
The 𝑺 ° in J/mol∙K of reactants and products are as follows:
Table 1. Supplied thermodynamic data for the standard entropy change of the
following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
Substance CO2(g) CH4 (g) H2(g) H2O(g)
S° (J/mol∙K) 213.6 186.2 130.6 188.7

(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)

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Using equation 6, you get
°
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛𝑆° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝑆° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
°
𝐽
∆𝑆𝑟𝑥𝑛 = [(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 186.2) + ( 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 188.7)]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝐽
− [(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 213.6) + (4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 130.6)]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝑱
∆𝑺°𝒓𝒙𝒏 = −𝟏𝟕𝟐. 𝟒
𝑲
Take note that the standard molar entropy of H2 is not zero. Unlike the
standard molar enthalpies of formation, the standard molar enthalpies of elements
at the reference temperature of 298 K is not zero.
GIBBS FREE ENERGY
• In the second law of thermodynamics, a reaction is spontaneous if the ∆𝑺universe is greater

than zero. To determine the sign of the ∆𝑺universe, however, both ∆𝑺system and ∆𝑺surroundings
need to be calculated. The complications of having to calculate the ∆𝑺surroundings to
determine whether a reaction will occur spontaneously can be eliminated.
• Recall that the equation of ∆𝑺surroundings is
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =
𝑇
And that the 𝑞sys of the surroundings is equal to the ∆𝑯system at constant pressure but
has opposite sign, therefore this equation becomes,
∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = − [eqn. 7]
𝑇
Substituting equation 7 to equation 4 gives

∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 −
𝑇
Multiplying both sides by –𝑻:
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 < 0 [eqn. 8]
This equation is the criterion for a spontaneous process at constant pressure and
temperature that is expressed only in terms of the properties of the system (∆𝑯system and
∆𝑺system). The term ∆𝑺surroundings is eliminated in the equation.
• A new state function was proposed by Josiah Willard Gibbs in order to express the
spontaneity of a reaction more directly. It is called Gibbs free energy (G), or simply free
energy which is defined as
𝑮 = 𝑯 − 𝑻𝑺 [eqn. 9]
where T is the absolute temperature. The change in the free energy of a system at constant
temperature and pressure is
∆𝑮system = ∆𝑯system –𝑻∆𝑺system [eqn. 10]
• Comparing equation 10 with equation 8, the change in the free energy of a system at
constant temperature and pressure, ∆𝑮, is equal to –𝑻∆𝑺universe:
∆𝑮sys = – 𝑻∆𝑺univ = ∆𝑯sys –𝑻∆𝑺sys < 0 [eqn. 11]

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• Thus, equation 11 provides us how the sign of ∆𝑮 will be interpreted in connection with the
spontaneity of processes that occur at constant temperature and pressure.
• We can now summarize the conditions for spontaneity and equilibrium at constant
temperature and pressure in terms of ∆G as follows:
∆𝑮 < 0 The reaction is spontaneous in the forward direction
∆𝑮 > 0 The reaction is nonspontaneous in the forward direction;
input of energy from the surroundings is required to make
it occur. However, the reverse reaction is spontaneous.
∆𝑮 = 0 The reaction is at equilibrium.
STANDARD FREE-ENERGY CHANGES

• Just like enthalpy and entropy, the standard free energies of formation, 𝐺𝑓° , can be used to
calculate the standard free energy change of a reaction:
°
∆𝐺𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛𝐺° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑚𝐺° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) [eqn. 12]
where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation.
Example 3
Let us consider again the melting of an ice cube in your palm problem that was
discussed in Example 1. We found out that the process is spontaneous because the sum
of the entropy change of the system and the surroundings is greater than zero. This time,
let us determine if we will arrive at the same conclusion about the spontaneity of the
reaction when the free energy change of the system, equation 8, is used. The data are as
follows from the previous calculation:
n of ice cube = 1 mole
∆𝑯system = 6.01 × 103 J/mol
∆𝑺system = 22.0 J/K
T of the reaction = 298 K
Substituting the above data to equation 6, the free energy change of the reaction is
∆𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐽 𝐽
∆𝐺𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = [(1𝑚𝑜𝑙) (6.01 𝑥 103 )] − [(298𝐾) (22.0 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾
∆𝑮𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 = −𝟓𝟒𝟔 𝑱
Since the sign of ∆𝑮system is negative, the melting of an ice cube in the palm is a
spontaneous reaction.
Example 4
Calculate the standard free energy change of the reaction at 298 K.
4 PCl3(g) → P4(g) + 6 Cl2(g)
using the following standard free energies of formation in kJ/mol:
Table 2. Supplied thermodynamic data for the standard free energies of the
following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
Substance PCl3(g) P4(g) Cl2(g)

∆𝐺𝑓° (kJ/mol) −269.6 24.4 0
(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10 edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)
th
Substituting the above data to equation 8, the free energy change of the reaction is
∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺𝑓° (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠) − ∑ 𝑛∆𝐺𝑓° (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠)
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = [(1𝑚𝑜𝑙) (24.4 )] − [(4 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (−269.6 )]
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
∆𝑮°𝒓𝒙𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑱
Since the sign of ∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.

7
APPLICATIONS OF EQUATION (Eqn. 10)
• In order to predict the sign of ∆G, according to Equation 10, we need to know both ∆H and
∆S. A negative ∆H, an exothermic reaction, and a positive ∆S, a reaction that results in an
increase in the microstates of the system, tend to make ∆G negative, although temperature
may also influence the direction of a spontaneous reaction. The four possible outcomes of
this relationship are:
1. If both ∆H and ∆S are positive, then ∆G will be negative only when the T∆S
term is greater in magnitude than ∆H. This condition is met when T is large.
2. If ∆H is positive and ∆S is negative, ∆G will always be positive, regardless of
temperature.
3. If ∆H is negative and ∆S is positive, then ∆G will always be negative
regardless of temperature.
4. If ∆H is negative and ∆S is negative, then ∆G will be negative only when T∆S
is smaller in magnitude than ∆H. This condition is met when T is small.
• The temperatures that will cause ∆G to be negative for the first and last cases depend on
the actual values of ∆H and ∆S of the system.
𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟑. 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐺 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 ∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆

• Under nonstandard state conditions, we must use the sign of ∆G rather than that of ∆G° to
predict the direction of the reaction. The sign of ∆G°, on the other hand, tells us whether
the products or the reactants are favored when the reacting system reaches equilibrium.
Thus, a negative value of ∆G° indicates that the reaction favors product formation whereas
a positive value of ∆G° indicates that there will be more reactants than products at
equilibrium.
TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Calcium oxide (CaO), also called quicklime, is an extremely valuable inorganic
substance used in steelmaking, production of calcium metal, the paper industry, water
treatment, and pollution control. It is prepared by decomposing limestone (CaCO3) in a kiln
at a high temperature.
CaCO3(s) ↔ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The reaction is reversible, and CaO readily combines with CO2 to form CaCO3. The
pressure of CO2 in equilibrium with CaCO3 and CaO increases with temperature. In the
industrial preparation of quicklime, the system is never maintained at equilibrium; rather,
CO2 is constantly removed from the kiln to shift the equilibrium from left to right, promoting
the formation of calcium oxide.
The important information for the practical chemist is the temperature at which the
decomposition of CaCO3 becomes appreciable (that is, the temperature at which the
reaction begins to favor products). We can make a reliable estimate of that temperature as
follows.

8
First, we calculate ∆H° and ∆S° for the reaction at 25°C, using the following data,
Table 4. Supplied thermodynamic data of the following substances at 1 atm and 25°C.
CaO CO2 CaCO3
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻𝑓° ( ) −635.6 -393.5 −1206.9
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
𝑆° ( ) 39.8 213.6 92.9
𝐾∙𝑚𝑜𝑙
(Source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10 edition, Appendix 3: Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C)
th
∆𝐻 ° = [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝑂) + ∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑂2 )] − [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )]

𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 ° = [(−635.6 ) + (−393.5 )] − (−1206.9 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 ° = 177.8
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Next, we apply Equation 6 to find ∆S°:

∆𝑆° = [𝑆°(𝐶𝑎𝑂) + 𝑆° (𝐶𝑂2 )] − 𝑆°(𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
∆𝑆° = [(39.8 ) + (213.6 )] − (92.9 )
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐽
∆𝑆° = 160.5
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
From this equation, ∆G° = ∆H° - T∆S°, we obtain

∆G° = 177.8 kJ/mol - (298 K) (160.5 J/K∙mol)(1 kJ/(1000 J)
∆G°= 130.0 kJ/mol
Because ∆G° is a large positive quantity, we conclude that the reaction is not favored for
product formation at 25°C (or 298 K). Indeed, the pressure of CO2 is so low at room
temperature that it cannot be measured.
To find the temperature at which the system is at its equilibrium, i.e., the ∆G° = 0, we set
∆G° of equation 10 equal to 0 and solve for the value of T.
∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

0 = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°
𝑇∆𝑆° = ∆𝐻°
∆𝐻°
𝑇=
∆𝑆°
𝑘𝐽 𝐽
(117.8 ) (1000 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑘𝐽
𝑇=
𝐽
160.5
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑇 = 1,108 𝐾 𝑜𝑟 835 ℃
Observe that in equation 10, ∆G° will become negative (∆G° < 0) if the term ∆H° < T∆S°. To
achieve this condition, temperature must be higher than 1,108 K (or 835°C). This means
that, at temperature T > 835°C, the reaction favors the formation of CaO and CO 2.
To show that ∆G° < 0 when T > 835°C, we solve for ∆G° at T = 840°C, or 1113 K.
∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

𝑘𝐽 𝐽 1 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺° = 177.8 − (1113 𝐾) (160.5 )( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 1000 𝐽
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺° = −0.8
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Clearly, the value of ∆G° is negative when the temperature is greater than 835°C.
9
Two points are worth making about such a calculation. First, we used the ∆H° and ∆S°
values at 25°C to calculate changes that occur at a much higher temperature. Because both
∆H° and ∆S° change with temperature, this approach will not give us an accurate value of
∆G°, but it is good enough for “ballpark” estimates. Second, we should not be misled into
thinking that nothing happens below 835°C and that at 835°C CaCO3 suddenly begins to
decompose.
Activity 1. Changes in Entropy
Learning Objectives: 1. Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.

2. Describe the degree of disorder of a system.
What you need: Pen, Paper and Periodic Table of Elements
PART A
What to do: Determine whether the entropy change is greater or lesser than zero for
each of the following processes. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Freezing ethanol
2. evaporating a beaker of liquid bromine at room temperature
3. dissolving sucrose in water
4. cooling nitrogen gas from 80°C to 20°C
PART B
What to do: Compute for the total entropy change (∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 ) in the oxidation of metallic iron
into ferric oxide (Fe2O3) under standard conditions. Determine the spontaneity of the
process at these conditions. (the ∆𝐻𝑓° for elemental substance is zero and that for Fe2O3 is -
824.2 kJ/mol)
4Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2Fe2O3 (s)
Activity 2. Standard Entropy
Learning Objectives:
1. Calculate the standard entropy changes of a reaction.
2. Identify the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.
Substance 𝑆° (
𝐽
)
𝐾∙𝑚𝑜𝑙
What you need: Pen and paper. Fe 27.3
PART A O2 205
Fe2O3 87.4
What to do: From the table of the standard entropy values, CaO 39.8
calculate the standard entropy changes for the following CO2 213.6
reactions at 25°C. Write your answers in a separate sheet of
CaCO3 92.9
paper.
NH3 193
1. CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) N2 192
2. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) H2 131
3. H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) HCl 187
Cl2 223
PART B
What to do: Identify whether the entropy change of the system in each of the following
reactions is positive or negative. Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.
1. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
2. NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g)
3. H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)
10
Activity 3. Gibbs Free Energy
Learning Objective: Solve problems involving the standard Gibbs free energy.
What you need: Pen, Paper, Periodic Table of Elements and Calculator.
Substance 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐺𝑓° ( )
What to do: Calculate the standard free-energy changes for 𝑚𝑜𝑙
the following reactions at 25°C and interpret the values CH4 -50.8
obtained from the calculations. Write your answers in a O2 0
separate sheet of paper. CO2 -394.4
H2O -237.2
1. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
MgO -569.6
2. 2MgO(s) → 2Mg(s) + O2(g)
Mg 0
Reflection
All things trend toward disorder. When cups of hot milk are left on the table for a
long period of time, the drinks cool to the temperature of their surroundings by losing their
heat. The cooling process occurs naturally without any external aid and is unidirectional.
The flow of heat is brought about by the temperature difference. How can you relate the
second law of thermodynamics in this process?
Your answer should consist at most five (5) sentences. Write your response on a separate
sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubric:
Reflection Rubric
5 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the concepts, and
has no misconception.
4 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the concept, but
with minimal misconception.
3 Practical application is explained consistent to the concepts, but with
misconceptions.
2 Practical application is explained but not consistent to the concepts.
0 No discussion provided.
References for learners
Silberberg, M. S. (2006). Chemistry: The molecular nature of matter and change (4th ed.). NY,
USA: McGraw Hill.
Brown, T., LeMay H. E., Bursten, B., Murphy, C., & Woodward, P. (2009). Chemistry: The
Central Science (11th ed.). USA: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Chang, R., & Goldsby, K. A. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed.). NY, USA: McGraw Hill.
Mcquarrie, D. A., Rock, P. A., & Gallogly, E. B. (2011). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Canada:
University Science Books.
Atkins, P. & De Paula, J. (2010). Physical Chemistry (9th ed.). Great Britain: Oxford University
Press.
Brady, J. E., & Senese, F. (2004). Chemistry: Matter and its Changes (4th ed.). USA: John Wiley
& Sons
Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. 2014. Chemistry. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.

11
12
Activity 3.
1. -818.0 kJ/mol
2. 1139kJ/mol
Activity 2.
Part A
1. 160.5 J/K.mol
2. -199 J/K.mol
3. 20 J/K.mol
Part B
1. Two reactant molecules combine to form one product molecule. Even though H2O is a
more complex molecule than either H2 and O2, the fact that there is a net decrease of
one molecule and gases are converted to liquid ensures that the number of microstates
will be diminished and hence ∆S° is negative.
2. A solid is converted to two gaseous products. Therefore, ∆S° is positive.
3. The same number of molecules is involved in the reactants as in the product.
Furthermore, all molecules are diatomic and therefore of similar complexity. As a result,
we cannot predict the sign of ∆S°, but we know that the change must be quite small in
magnitude.
Activity 1.
Part A
1. Upon freezing, the ethanol molecules are held rigid in position. This phase transition
reduces the number of microstates and therefore the entropy decreases; that is, ∆S < 0.
2. Evaporating bromine increases the number of microstates because the Br2 molecules
can occupy many more positions in nearly empty space. Therefore, ∆S > 0.
3. Sucrose is a nonelectrolyte. The solution process leads to a greater dispersal of matter
due to the mixing of glucose and water molecules so we expect ∆S > 0.
4. The cooling process decreases various molecular motions. This leads to a decrease in
microstates and so ∆S < 0.
Part B
1. 4979.3 J/K
Answer Key

Quarter 3 – Week 5: Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
First Edition, 2021
Writer Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Editors: Kevin Hope Salvaña

Regional Team Relyn D. Raza
Lilibeth Q. Apat
Delia P. Alcantara
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad, Ed.D.

Myra Joy B. Montero
Management Team Schools Division Superintendent: Josita B. Carmen, CESO V

Assistant Schools Division Superintendent: Jasmin R. Lacuna, CESE
CID Chief: Celsa A. Casa, PhD
LRMDS Manager: Bryan L. Arreo
Science EPS: Edna E. Trinidad, EdD

General Chemistry 2 Quarter 4 Week 5B
Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies
1. Explain chemical equilibrium in terms of the reaction rates of the forward and the reverse
reaction. STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-145
2. Calculate equilibrium constant and the pressure or concentration of reactants or products
in an equilibrium mixture. STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-148
3. State the Le Chatelier’s principle and apply it qualitatively to describe the effect of changes
in pressure, concentration and temperature on a system at equilibrium.
STEM_GC11CEIVb-e-149
1. write equilibrium constant expression for a given balanced chemical equation for
homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria;
2. solve problems involving equilibrium constant; and
3. predict the effects of change in concentration, pressure and temperature on a system in
equilibrium.
Key Concepts
• Chemical Equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium is a state of which the concentrations of the reactant and

product remain constant over time. Only reversible reactions attain equilibrium.
Decomposition of colorless dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) gas into brown nitrogen

dioxide gas is an example of a reversible reaction.
N2O4 (g) ⇋ 2NO2 (g)
When pure N2O4 gas is placed initially in a glass container at room temperature, a
brown color will be observed indicating the formation of NO2. The change in color intensifies
as more N2O4 is converted to NO2. Beyond that point, no further change in color is observed
because the concentrations of N2O4 and NO2 remain constant. When this happens, the
system has already reached equilibrium, a condition at which the rate of formation of N2O4
from NO2 is equal to the rate of the decomposition of N2O4 to NO2.
Similarly, if we placed NO2 initially in a glass container, the brown color of NO2 will
get lighter indicating the formation of N2O4. When this happens, the system has reached
the state of equilibrium when there is no observable change in color. Thus, equilibrium
exists in both cases.
Author: Pamela Lou C. Suazo

School/Station: Unidad National High School
email address: pamelalou.suazo@deped.gov.ph
2
In the case of reversible reaction, when forward reaction proceeds, more products
are formed. Conversely, when reverse reaction proceeds, more reactants are present. As the
reaction proceeds, the rate of the forward reaction decreases as time passes because the
concentration of reactants decreases. At the same time, the rate of the reverse reaction
increases as more products are formed. The system will eventually reach a point where the
rate of the forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. At this point,
the system is said to have reached a state of dynamic equilibrium. Hence, reaction does not
go to completion.
• Law of Mass Action and Equilibrium Constant Expression
At equilibrium, no apparent change in the state of the system is observed. This is

because when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions become equal, the
concentrations of the reactants and products remain constant over time. This principle is
known as the Law of Mass Action.
Consider the general reversible reaction below:

aA + bB ⇋ cC + dD
where A, B, C and D represent chemical species while a, b, c and d are their coefficients in
the balanced equation. The law of mass action is represented by the following equilibrium
expression:
[C]c [D]d
K =
[A]a [B]b
The square brackets indicate molar concentrations of chemical species at equilibrium while
K represents the equilibrium constant. The value of the equilibrium constant at a given
temperature can be calculated if we know the equilibrium concentrations of the reaction
components. If the value of K is greater than 1 (K>1), the equilibrium will lie to right and
favors the product. Conversely, if the value of K is less than 1 (K<1), the equilibrium will lie
to the left and favors the reactant.
• Homogeneous Equilibria
In a homogeneous equilibrium, the reactants and products are in the same phase.
Sample Problem. Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following reactions:
1. CO (g) + H2O (g) ⇋ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)

2. N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) ⇋ N2O (g)
Answer:
[CO2 ][H2 ]
1. K = [CO][H2 O]
[N2 O]
2. K =
[N2 ][𝑂2 ]2
Equilibrium constants for homogeneous gaseous equilibria may also be expressed in

terms of partial pressures. To differentiate the two equilibrium constant, the symbol Kc and
Kp are used instead of K. The symbol Kc is based from the molar concentrations while Kp is
based from partial pressures. The expression is written in much the same way as described,
only that the partial pressure is raised to the coefficient instead of the molar concentration.

3
Sample Problem. Write the Kp for the reaction:
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇋ 2 NH3 (g)
Answer:
(PNH 3 )2
Kp=
(PN2 ) (PH )3
2
Kc and Kp are related in the equation

Kp = Kc(RT)∆n
where R is the universal constant (0.0821 L ∙ atm/mol ∙ K), T is the absolute temperature
expressed in K, and ∆n is the difference between the number of moles of gaseous products
and that of gaseous reactants.
• Heterogeneous Equilibria
A heterogeneous equilibrium consists of reactants and products that exist in different

phases. In a heterogeneous equilibrium, pure solid and liquid are not included in the
equilibrium constant expression. The molar concentrations of these substances are always
constant.
Sample Problem. Write the Kc for the reaction:
CaCO3 (s) ⇋ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Answer: Kc = [CO2 ]
• Converting Kp to Kc
Sample Problem 1. Find Kc for the decomposition reaction of ammonium hydrosulfide to

ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gases.
NH4SH(s) ⇋ NH3 (g) + H2S (g) Kp = 0.19 (at 218°C)

Given:
Kp = 0.19
Temperature = 218+273=491 K
R = 0.0821
∆n = 2 moles of gaseous product –
0 mole of gaseous reactant
= 2
Solution:
Kp = Kc(RT)∆n
Kp
Rearranging the equation : Kc = (RT)∆n
Kp
Kc =
(RT)∆n
0.19
Kc =
(0.0821)(491 )2
Kc = 1.2 x 10-4
4
• Calculating Equilibrium Constant when equilibrium concentrations/partial pressures
are known
Sample Problem 2. The following equilibrium concentrations were observed for the Haber
process for synthesis of ammonia at 127°C:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇋ 2NH3 (g)
[NH3] = 3.1 X 10-2 mol/L

[N2] = 8.5 X 10-1 mol/L
[H2] = 3.1 X 10-3 mol/L
[NH3 ]2
Solution: K =
[N2 ][H2 ]3
(3.1 x 10-2 )2
=
(8.5 x 10-1 )(3.1 x 10-3 )3
K = 3.8 x 10-4
Sample Problem 3. The reaction for the formation of nitrosyl chloride gas
2NO (g) + Cl2 (g) ⇋ 2NOCl (g)
studied at 25°C. The pressures at equilibrium were found to be
PNOCl = 1.2 atm

PNO = 5.0 X 10-2 atm
PCl2 = 3.0 X 10-1 atm
Calculate the value of Kp for this reaction at 25°C.

(PNOCl )2
Solution: Kp =
(PNO )2 (PCl 2 )
(1.2)2
Kp =
(5.0 x 10-2 )2 (3.0 x 10-1 )
Kp = 1.9 x 103
• Calculating K from initial equilibrium concentrations/partial pressures

Sample Problem 4. A closed system initially containing 1.000 x 10–3 M H2 and
2.000 x 10–3 M I2 at 448°C is allowed to reach equilibrium. Analysis of the equilibrium
mixture shows that the concentration of HI is 1.870 x 10–3 M. Calculate K at 448°C for the
reaction taking place which is H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Given. balanced chemical equation: H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Initial concentrations: 1.000 x 10–3 M H2 and 2.000 x 10–3 M I2
equilibrium concentration: 1.870 x 10–3 M HI
Strategy: Using the ICE table, tabulate the given initial and equilibrium concentration.
Denote the changes in concentration using a variable as guided by
stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced chemical equation. Solve for the

5
unknown to calculate for the equilibrium concentrations of H2 and I2 and then
solve for K.
Solution: Let x = amount of H2 that changes to attain equilibrium
ICE Table
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)

Initial 1.000 x 10–3 M 2.000 x 10–3
M 0
Change -x -x + 2x
Equilibrium 1.000 x 10–3
M-x 2.000 x 10–3 M - x 1.870 x 10–3 M
[HI]eq = 2x = 1.870 x 10–3 M

1.870 x 10-3 M
x =
2
x = 9.350 x 10-4 M
[H2]eq = 1.000 x 10–3 M - x

= 1.000 x 10–3 M - 9.350 x 10-4 M
= 6.500 x 10-5 M
[I2]eq = 2.000 x 10–3 M - x

= 2.000 x 10–3 M - 9.350 x 10-4 M
= 1.065 x 10-3 M
[HI]2
Answer: K =
[H2 ][I2 ]
2
[1.870 x 10-3 M]
K =
[6.500 x 10-5 M][1.065 x 10-3 M]
K = 50.5
• Calculating equilibrium concentrations/ partial pressures from initial concentrations/

partial pressures and K values
Sample Problem 5. For the equilibrium Br2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ 2BrCl(g), the equilibrium constant
K is 7.00 at 400 K. If a cylinder is charged with BrCl (g) at an initial pressure of 1.00 atm
and the system is allowed to come to equilibrium, what is the equilibrium partial pressure
of BrCl?
Solution: Let x = amount of BrCl that changes to attain equilibrium.
ICE Table
Br2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ 2BrCl(g)
Initial 0 0 1.00 atm
Change +x +x - 2x
Equilibrium x x 1.00 atm - 2x
[PBrCl ]2
K =
[PBr2 ][PCl2 ]
[1.00 - 2x]2
7.00 =
[x][x]
6
1.00 atm-2x
√7.00 = √
x2
1.00-2x
2.65 =
x
2.65x = 1.00 – 2x
4.65x = 1.00
1.00
x =
4.65
x = 0.215
Answer:
(PBrCl)eq = 1.00 atm – 2x
(PBrCl)eq = 1.00 atm – 2 (0.215 atm)
(PBrCl)eq = 0.570 atm
• Le Chatelier’s Principle
We can qualitatively predict the effects of changes in concentration, pressure, and
temperature on a system at equilibrium by using Le Chatelier’s principle, which states when
stress is introduced into a system in equilibrium, the system will shift in order to relieve the
stress and regain equilibrium.
Change in Concentration
When the concentration of either a reactant or a product is increased, the equilibrium shifts
into the direction that would consume that added component. If the concentration is
decreased, then the equilibrium shifts into the direction that replenishes the lost
component.
Action Shift in Equilibrium

Adding more reactants Favors the forward reaction
Adding more products Favors the reverse reaction
Removing a reactant Favors the reverse reaction
Removing a product Favors the forward reaction
Figure 1. Lever-and-fulcrum analogy of equilibrium shift with

(a) addition or (b) removal of a reactant

7
Source: Adapted from Bayquen & Peña, General Chemistry 2, 137, Fig. 6-1.
Change in Temperature
When the temperature is increased, the reaction which consumes the applied heat
is favored i.e. the reaction which is endothermic. When the temperature is decreased, the
reaction which produces heat is favored i.e. the reaction which is exothermic.
Another way of interpreting the results is to treat heat as either a reactant or product.
When heat is added, equilibrium shifts to the reaction that consumes it. The same
generalization on the effect of changes in concentration is applied.
Change in Pressure (or Volume)

Changes in pressure due to changes in the volume of the container affect chemical
equilibrium. When the pressure is increased by decreasing the volume of the container,
the system adjusts by reducing the total pressure exerted by the gas particles present. The
equilibrium shifts toward the formation of a lesser number of gas particles.
Addition of a Catalyst
Catalyst can speed up the rate of a chemical reaction but they cannot affect the
system in equilibrium. If the catalyst can increase the rate of the forward reaction, it can
also increase the rate of the reverse reaction. Therefore, the catalyst only shortens the time
it takes to reach equilibrium but it has no effect on the equilibrium position.
Sample Problem. The Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen gas is an exothermic process.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇋ 2 NH3 (g) ∆Hrxn = -92.4 kJ
What will be the effect of the following condition on the equilibrium of the system?
A. Adding more H2
B. Removing N2
C. Removing NH3
D. Increasing the pressure in the reaction vessel
E. Decreasing the temperature of the system
Solution:
A. Adding H2 will favor the forward reaction.
B. Removing N2 will favor the reverse reaction.
C. Removing NH3 will favor the forward reaction.
D. Four moles of gas will produce two moles of NH3. An increase in pressure will shift
towards lesser number of gas particles. Thus, it will favor the formation of NH3.
E. The production of NH3 is an exothermic process, it will favor the forward reaction.

8
Activity 1. Write the Expression.
Learning Objectives: Write equilibrium constant expression for a given balanced chemical
equation for homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria.
What you need: pen and paper
What to do: Identify if the equilibrium is homogeneous or heterogeneous. Write both Kc and Kp for
each reversible reaction.
Homogeneous/
Reversible Reaction Kc Kp
Heterogeneous
1) 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇋ 2 SO3 (g)
2) 2NH3 (g) + H2SO4 (l) ⇋ (NH4)2SO4 (s)
3) S (s) + H2SO3 (aq) ⇋ H2S2O3 (aq)
4) CH4 (g) + 2H2S (g) ⇋ CS2 (g) + 4H2 (g)
5) C (s) + 2H2 (g) ⇋ CH4 (g)
Activity 2. Solve Me!
Learning Objectives: Solve problems involving equilibrium constant.

What you need: Pen, paper and calculator.
What to do: Solve the following problems. Write your solutions in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Calculate Kp for the following reaction:

PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ⇋ PCl5 (g) Kc = 1.67 at 500 K
2. At a particular temperature, a 3.0-L flask contains 2.4 moles of Cl2, 1.0 mole of NOCl, and
4.5 x 10-3 mole of NO. Calculate K at this temperature for the following reaction:
2 NOCl (g) ⇋ 2NO (g) + Cl2 (g)
3. The following equilibrium pressures at a certain temperature were observed for the reaction
2 NO2 (g) ⇋ 2NO (g) + O2 (g)
PNO2 = 0.55 atm

PNO = 6.5 x 10-5 atm
PO2 = 4.5 x 10-5 atm
Calculate the value for the equilibrium constant Kp at this temperature.
4. The atmospheric oxidation of nitrogen monoxide, 2 NO (g) + O2 (g) ⇋ 2NO2 (g), was studied
at 184°C with initial pressures of 1.00 atm of NO and 1.000 atm of O2. At equilibrium
PO2 = 0.56 atm. Calculate Kp.

9
5. To study the reaction between ammonia and oxygen, 4 NH3 (g) + 7 O2 (g) ⇋ 2N2O4 (g) + 6
H2O(g) a flask was filled with 2.40 M NH3 and 2.40 M O2 at a particular temperature; the
reaction proceed, and at equilibrium [N2O4] = 0.134 M. Calculate Kc.
Activity 3. Predict!
Learning Objectives: Predict the effects of change in concentration, pressure and temperature on
a system in equilibrium.
What you need: Pen and paper.
What to do: Predict how will the following conditions affect the equilibrium of the system.
1. Consider the equilibrium
N2O4 (g) ⇋ 2NO2 (g) ∆H° = 58.0 kJ
in which direction will the equilibrium shift when:

A. N2O4 is added
B. NO2 is removed
C. the pressure is increased by addition of N2
D. the volume is increased
E. temperature is decreased
2. For the reaction
PCl5 (g) ⇋ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) ∆H° = 87.9 kJ
in which direction will the equilibrium shift when

A. Cl2 (g) is removed
B. temperature is decreased
C. the volume of the reaction system is increased
D. PCl3 (g) is added
Reflection
Oceans absorb large amount of CO2 from the atmosphere. This may sound like a good thing,
but it is not. Emissions from vehicles and industries contribute high amount of carbon dioxide in
the air causing the ocean to be more acidic. Marine organisms also contribute to the CO 2
concentration through respiration. Let’s analyze the chemical reaction below.
CO2(g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H2CO (aq)
More CO2 shifts the equilibrium towards producing more carbonic acid, H2CO. The low
temperature in the colder regions of the globe also favors the dissolution.
Ocean acidification is quite complex. Phytoplankton cannot survive the acidic condition.
Organisms that depend on plankton for food will also be affected. Acidification can also lead to
coral bleaching and destruction. Moreover, calcium carbonate which makes up shells of marine
organisms is soluble in acidic conditions.
Despite all these, note that the dissolution of CO2 in water is a reversible process. Thus,
reducing the amount of CO2 in the air should reverse and minimize its adverse effect.
With that in mind, what can you contribute as a SHS student to reduce the adverse
effects of too much CO2? Make a short essay. Your answer should consist of at most five (5)
sentences. Write your essay on a separate sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubric:
10
Reflection Rubric
5 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to the

concepts, and has no misconception.
concept, but with minimal misconception.
3 Practical application is explained consistent to the concepts, but
with misconceptions.
2 Practical application is explained but not consistent to the
concepts.
References for learners
Bayquen, Aristea V., and Gardee T. Peña. 2016. General Chemistry 1. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc.
Patalinghug, Wyona C., Vic Marie I. Camacho, Fortunato B. Sevilla III, and Maria Cristina D.
Singson. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry 1. Quezon
City: Commission on Higher Education.
Silberberg, Martin S., and Amateis, Patricia. 2018. Chemistry: the Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change: Advanced Topics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Whitten, K. 2007. Chemistry. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan A. Zumdahl. 2014. Chemistry. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.
Answer Key
5. 3.69 x 10-8
e. left
4. 1.3 x 10-4
d. right d. left
3. 6.3 x 10-13 c. no shift c. right
2. 1.7 x 10-5 b. right b. left
1. 4.07 x 10-2 2. a. right 1. a. right
Activity 2. Activity 3. Activity 3.

11

Quarter 4 – Week 6A: Acid-Base Equilibria
First Edition, 2021
Writer Ryan Paul M. Vales
Editors: Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña

Regional Team Relyn D. Raza, PhD
Ace Michael B. Magalso
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad, EdD

Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Myra Joy B. Montero
Management Team Schools Division Superintendent: Josita B. Carmen, CESO V

Assistant Schools Division Superintendent: Jasmin R. Lacuna, CESE
CID Chief: Celsa A. Casa, PhD
LRMDS Manager: Bryan L. Arreo
Science EPS: Edna E. Trinidad, EdD

Author: Ryan Paul M. Vales

School/Station: Tagbina National High School
Division: Surigao del Sur
email address: ryanpaul.vales@deped.gov.ph
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 4, Week 6A
ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
 Most Essential Learning Competencies:

- Define Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-153)
- Discuss the acid-base property of water (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-154)
- Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-156)
 Specific Learning Objectives:
1. Define Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases.
2. Identify Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases in chemical equations.
3. Identify conjugate acids and bases in chemical equations.
4. Discuss the acid-base property of water.
5. Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
6. Define the pH scale as a measure of acidity/basicity of solution
7. Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
Time Allotment: 4 hours
Key Concepts
A. Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
 Substances may be acidic, basic or neutral. To differentiate acids and bases, Arrhenius,
Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis definitions can be used. The Arrhenius definition can be stated
as “Arrhenius acids form hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution while Arrhenius bases
form hydroxide ions (OH-)”. The Lewis’ theory uses structure and bonding to describe
acids and bases and specifically stated that “an acid accepts an electron pair while a
base donates an electron pair”.
 In 1923, Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently
developed the definition of acids and bases based on the substance’s ability to either donate
or accept protons (Hydrogen ions).
 Bronsted-Lowry acid is any substance that can donate a proton (H+) and a Bronsted-
Lowry base is a substance that can accept a proton (H+). A substance that can function
as both a Bronsted-Lowry acid and Bronsted-Lowry base is called amphoteric.
 Notice that hydrogen ion (H+) is referred to as proton. Recall that a hydrogen ion (H+) is a
hydrogen atom that has lost an electron. Since hydrogen has only one electron, a
hydrogen atom that has lost an electron is simply a particle that contains 1 proton in the
nucleus. Thus, a hydrogen ion is a proton.
 Consider the equation below.
HCl(aq) + NH3(aq) ⟶ NH4+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
The Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases states that the acid donates a proton (H+)
and the base accepts a proton (H+). In the equation above, the hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the
reactant becomes a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-) in the product. It donated the H+
and is therefore the proton donor. On the other hand, ammonia (NH3) becomes a positively
Author: Ryan Paul M. Vales 1

charged ammonium ion (NH4+), which means that NH3 accepted a proton. Therefore, HCl is
a Bronsted-Lowry acid and NH3 is a Bronsted-Lowry base.
 The equation below shows another example of Bronsted-Lowry acid and base.
HCl + H2O ⟶ Cl- + H3O+
Here, HCl donates a proton (H+) to H2O which accepts it, forming a positively charged
hydronium ion (H3O+) and a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-). Therefore, HCl is a
Bronsted-Lowry acid (proton donor) while H2O is a Bronsted-Lowry base (proton acceptor).
 Now consider the following equations:
(1) HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ H2CO3(aq) + OH−(aq)
(2) HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ CO32−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
In equation 1, HCO3− accepts a proton (H+) to form H2CO3 and is therefore a Bronsted-Lowry
base.
In equation 2, HCO3− donates a proton (H+) to form CO32- and is therefore a Bronsted-Lowry
acid.
HCO3− is an example of an amphoteric species. Recall that amphoteric species are
those which can act as either an acid or a base; in some situations, they donate a proton,
and in other circumstances, they accept a proton. Another common example of
amphoteric species is water.
 Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
 Bronsted and Lowry theorized that in acid-base reactions, there are actually pairs of
acids and bases in the reaction itself. That is, for every acid there is a conjugate base
associated with that acid. The conjugate base is the result of the acid losing (or
donating) a proton (H+). The figure below shows examples of acid and its conjugate
base.
Acid Conjugate Base
HCl ⟶ Cl-
H2SO4 ⟶ HSO4-
NH4 + ⟶ NH3
H2CO3 ⟶ HCO3-
CH3COOH ⟶ CH3COO-
HBr ⟶ Br-
HNO3 ⟶ NO3-
Notice that the difference between the conjugate base and the acid associated with it
is only a proton.
 There is also a corresponding conjugate acid for every base in an acid-base reaction.
The conjugate acid is the result of the base gaining (or accepting) a proton (H+). The
figure below shows examples of base and its corresponding conjugate acid.
Base Conjugate Acid
H2O ⟶ H3O+
NH3 ⟶ NH4+
CO32- ⟶ HCO3-
OH- ⟶ HOH
HCO3- ⟶ H2CO3
CN- ⟶ HCN
NH2- ⟶ NH3

 Examine the reaction between water and acetic acid. Identify the conjugate acids and
bases in the given acid-base reaction.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ CH3COO−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Step 1: Identify the acid and base on the reactant side.
CH3COOH donates a proton (H+) forming CH3COO−, so it is the acid. H2O
accepts proton (H+) forming H3O+, so it is the base.
Step 2: Identify the conjugate acid and base on the product side.
Check the product side to determine what product has lost a proton (this is
the conjugate base) and which product has gained a proton (this is the
conjugate acid).
CH3COO− is the conjugate base of CH3COOH. H3O+ is the conjugate acid of
H2O.
The conjugate acid/base pairs are CH3COOH/CH3COO- and H3O+/H2O.
 Consider this second example. Identify the conjugate acid-base pair.
HCO3−(aq) + H2O(l) ⟶ H2CO3(aq) + OH−(aq)
Step 1: Identify the acid and base on the reactant side.
HCO3- is the base and H2O is the acid.
Step 2: Identify the conjugate acid and base on the product side.
H2CO3 is the conjugate acid and OH- is the conjugate base.
Hence, the conjugate acid-base pairs are HCO3-/H2CO3 and H2O/OH-.
B. The Acid-Base Properties of Water

 One of the special properties of water is its being an amphoteric substance. It can function
as an acid or as a base. It is also a very weak electrolyte; thus, it is a poor conductor of
electricity. It undergoes ionization to a small extent as illustrated below:
H2O(l) ⇋ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
This reaction is also known as autoionization (partial ionization) of water. Within the
framework of Bronsted, autoionization of water can be described by the following
equation.
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇋ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
acid base conjugate acid conjugate base
The equation above shows that one water molecule acts as an acid and another molecule
as a base. Therefore, the conjugate acid-base pairs are H2O(acid)/OH- and H3O+/H2O(base).
It does not make any difference which of the equations above is used to explain the
ionization of water. Even though the second equation is more appropriate, the first equation
offers the simplistic view of the ionization. Also, these equations show that the [H3O+] is the
same as [H+]. Therefore, we can use these interchangeably.
 Both H+ and H3O+ are utilized interchangeably in chemistry notation. They are considered
equivalent notations in acid/base chemistry. The H3O+ ion is considered to be the same as
H+ ion as it is the H+ ion joined to a water molecule. The proton (H+) cannot exist solitarily
in aqueous solution, due to its positive charge it is attracted to the electrons in water
molecules and the symbol H3O+ is used to represent this transfer.

 Let us use the following equation that represents the ionization of water:
H2O(l) ⇋ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
According to the concept of chemical equilibrium, the equilibrium constant (Keq) is equal to
the product of the concentrations of the products divided by the products of the
concentrations of the reactants:
[H+][OH-]
Keq =
[H2O]
In pure water and dilute solutions and at constant temperature, the concentration of water
is constant. So we can rearrange the equation by collecting the constant terms on one side,
the Keq expression becomes:
Keq[H2O] = [H+][OH-]
Since Keq and water concentration are both constant, then it is replaced by:
Kw = [H+][OH-]
Kw is known as the ion-product of water; it is the product of molar concentrations of
hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxide ion (OH-) at a particular temperature.
In pure water at 25⁰C, the concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal and were found to be
[H+] = [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-7M
Substituting these values into the equation for the ion-product of water, we have Kw at 25⁰C
as
Kw = [H+][OH-] = (1.0 x 10-7) (1.0 x 10-7) = 1.0 x 10-14
Even when the concentrations of hydrogen ion and hydroxide ions are not the same, the
value of Kw being constant holds true for all aqueous solutions at 25⁰C.
Since Kw is always equal to 1.0 x 10-14 at 25⁰C, this equation is very useful in calculating
the [H+] or [OH-] when either of the two is given, through the following equations:
Kw 1.0x10-14 Kw 1.0x10-14
[H+] = = and [OH-] = =
[OH-] [OH-] [H+] [H+]
 Remember:
 If [H+] or [H3O+] = [OH-], it is a neutral solution.
 If [H+] or [H3O+] > [OH-], it is an acidic solution.
 If [H+] or [H3O+] < [OH-], it is a basic solution.
Sample Problem:
What is the hydroxide ion concentration in an aqueous solution if [H+] is 2.5x10-3M? Is the
solution acidic, basic or neutral?
Kw 1.0x10-14
[OH-] = = = 4.0x10-12 M
[H+] 2.5x10-3
The solution is acidic since [H+] = 2.5x10-3M is greater than [OH-] = 4.0x10-12M.

C. The pH Scale
 The hydrogen or hydronium ion concentration for many solutions is usually very small. For
instance, the concentration of hydrogen ion in pure water is 1x10 -7 M. In stomach, the
concentration of HCl is 0.01 M or 1x10-2 M. For strongly basic solutions, the [H+] may be
10-12 M or 10-13 M. Since the values are very small, it is better to use a scale that will make
the measurements compact and will make the comparison of values clearer, thus the use
of pH scale.
Figure 1. pH Scale
Source: Ophardt, C. (2003). pH Scale. Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/vchembook/184ph.html
A solution with more H+ ions than OH- ion is acidic. For aqueous solutions at 25⁰C, that
matches to pH less than 7.
A solution with more OH- ions than H+ ion is basic. For aqueous solutions at 25⁰C, that
corresponds to pH greater than 7.
A solution with the same concentration of H+ and OH- ions is neutral. For aqueous solutions
at 25⁰C, that corresponds to pH = 7.
 Soren Sorenson, a Danish biochemist, proposed the term pH to refer to the “potential of
hydrogen ion”. He defined the “p” as the negative of the logarithm (-log) of [H+]. That is, pH
is the negative logarithm of the molarity of hydrogen ion. The pOH is the negative logarithm
of the molarity of OH-, and pKw is the negative logarithm of the ion-product constant of water.
These definitions give the following equations:
pH = -log[H+] or pH = -log[H3O+]
pOH = -log[OH-]
pKw = -log[Kw]
Based on the discussion in section B (The Acid-Base Properties of Water), Kw = [H+][OH−]. If
this is expressed in terms of logarithms, then:
\
pKw = pH + pOH
Since at room temperature (25⁰C),
Kw = 1.0×10−14, then
pKw = -log(1.0×10−14) = 14, so
14 = pH + pOH

 The scale typically starts from 0 and ends at 14. To recall, if the pH < 7, the solution is an
acid. If pH > 7, the solution is basic. If pH = pOH = 7, then the solution is neutral.
 Considering that pH is a logarithmic scale, each increase on the scale entails a decrease by
the factor of ten on the concentration of H+. That is, one unit change in pH represents a
tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration. So, if substance A has a pH of 1 and
substance B has a pH of 2, substance A has a molarity ten times more concentrated than
substance B; substance A is 10 times more acidic than substance B.
 The pH scale does not have upper nor lower bounds since pH is an indication of the
concentration of H+. The concentration of H+ in water in most solutions typically fall between
a range of 1 M (pH=0) and 10-14 M (pH=14), hence a range of 0-14 provides a sensible (but
not absolute) “ends” for the scale. Since the concentrations of H3O+ or H+ ions can exceed
one molar, it is possible to have pH below zero and above 14.
 The following figure illustrates the pH of common solutions and where they are on the scale:
 Sample problem:
What is the pH of the blood if its [H+] is 3.50 x 10-8 M? Is the blood acidic or basic? What is
the
Figure 2. The pH Scale with Common Solutions (at 25⁰C)

Source: The pH Scale. (2021, March 20). Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
https://chem.libretexts.org/@go/page/25228

 Calculating pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions
 Sample Problem:
What is the pH of the blood if its [H+] is 3.50 x 10 -8 M? Is the blood acidic or basic?
What is the pOH and the [OH-]?
Given: [H+] = 3.50 x 10-8 M
Required: pH of the blood, determine if it is acidic or basic, pOH, [OH-]
Equations:
 Determine the pH and describe if it is acidic or basic
pH = -log[H+]
= -log (3.50 x 10-8)
pH = 7.46
(It is slightly basic.)
 Determine the [OH-]

Kw 1.0x10-14
[OH-] = + = = 2.9x10-7 M
[H ] 3.50x10-8
 Determine the pOH

pOH = -log[OH-]
= -log (2.9x10-7)
pOH = 6.54
Alternatively, the pOH can be solved this way too:

pKw = pH + pOH, so
pOH = pKw – pH (based on the discussion, typically pKw = 14)
= 14 – 7.46
pOH = 6.54

Activity 1. Comprehension Check!
1. Define Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases.
2. Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
3. Define the pH scale as a measure of acidity/basicity of solution
4. Calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
What you need: Pen, calculator
What to do: Read each item carefully. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. For
calculations, show all steps leading to the final answer.
1. Write True if the statement is correct and False if it is not:
a. A Bronsted-Lowry acid accepts hydrogen ions.
b. Conjugate acid is created when a base donates a proton.
c. When water molecule undergoes autoionization, a proton is transferred from one water
molecule to another to produce hydroxide ion and hydronium ion.
d. Water is considered amphoteric because it always acts as acid during a reaction.
e. It is impossible to have pH beyond 14 and below 0 since the pH scale ranges from 0-14
only.
f. In the pH scale, two unit change in pH represents a twentyfold change in the hydrogen
ion concentration.
g. The value of Kw being constant holds true for all aqueous solutions at 25⁰C.
h. Basic solutions have more OH- ions than H+ ions.
i. H+ and H3O+ are considered equivalent notations in acid-base chemistry.
j. At 25⁰C, neutral solutions have the same concentration of H+ and OH- ions.
2. The concentration of OH- ions in a particular household ammonia cleaning solution is

0.075M. What is the H+ ion concentration?
3. The pH of normal rain water is 5.80. What will be the pH of rainwater that falls near a coal-
burning power plant if its [H+] is 5.98 x 10-4 M? Compare the pH values of the normal
rainwater and the rainwater that falls near a coal-burning power plant.
4. The following table summarizes the [H+], [OH-], pH, pOH, and type of solution of some
common household items. Fill out the missing information based on the available data.
Type of solution
Solution [H+] [OH-] pH pOH
(acid, base, neutral)
Lemon juice 2.0x10-3 M
Shampoo 1.5x10-9 M
Vinegar 2.5
Soap 3.5

Activity 2. Acidic or Basic?
1. Identify Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases in chemical equations.
2. Identify conjugate acids and bases in chemical equations.
3. Discuss the acid-base property of water.
What you need: Pen and paper
What to do: Read each item carefully. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
Part A. Identify the Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases and its conjugated acids and bases in each
of the following chemical equations.
Equation Acid Base Conjugate Base Conjugate Acid

Example: HCl NH3 NH4+
Cl-
HCl + NH3 ⟶ NH4+ + Cl-
1. H2O + HF ⇋ F- + H3O+
2. HCOOH + CN- ⇋ HCN + HCOO-
3. CO32- + NH4+ ⇋ HCO3- + NH3
4. H2PO4- + OH- ⇋ HPO42- + H2O
5. H2SO4 + N2H5+ ⇋ HSO4- + N2H62+
Part B
1. Write a chemical equation that illustrates the autoionization of water.

2. Write the expression for the ion-product constant for water, Kw. Why is [H2O] absent from
this expression?
3. If a neutral solution of water, with pH = 7.00, is heated to 50° C, the pH drops to 6.63. Does
this mean that the concentration of [H+] is greater than the concentration of [OH-]? Explain.
Reflection
The pH level of the human blood must be maintained at a pH within 7.35-7.45. Excess
acidity or basicity in the blood, brought about by the food we take, would lead to disorder in the
metabolic processes; at times, the right amount of oxygen will not be circulated to the tissues. Our
natural filter, the kidneys, help preserve the normal pH level of the body. In at most five (5)
sentences, discuss ways that we can do so as not to overwork our kidneys in order to maintain
the pH balance of our body.
Write your responses on a separate sheet of paper. Be guided with the following rubrics:
Reflection Rubric
concepts, but with minimal misconception.
concepts and has many misconceptions.
0 No discussion

References for learners:
Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B., Shirley R. Jusayan, Veronica C. Sabularse, Joseph Carmelo K. San
Pascual, and Aprhodite M. Macale. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General Chemistry
2. Quezon City, Philippines: Commission on Higher Education, 2016.
Brønsted Concept of Acids and Bases. (2021, April 9). Retrieved April 9, 2021, from
Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases. (2021). Retrieved April 9, 2021, from
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/14-1-bronsted-lowry-acids-and-bases/
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 10th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2010.
CK-12 Foundation. (2014, August 2). Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases. Retrieved April 10, 2021,
from https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-chemistry-second-edition/r18/section/20.5/
Determining and Calculating pH. (2020, August 16). Retrieved April 16, 2021, from
Diversity of Materials in the Environment: Acids and Bases . (2014). Retrieved April 10, 2021,
from http://depedcsjdm.weebly.com/uploads/7/9/1/6/7916797/p_46-
60_qtr_1_module_4_acids__bases.pdf
The Acid-Base Properties of water and Ion Product. (2021). Retrieved April 9, 2021, from
https://faculty.ncc.edu/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=xZ3v05k1gPc%3D&tabid=1896
The pH Scale. (2021, March 20). Retrieved April 10, 2021, from
Answer Key
and the pH at which [H+] = [OH-] changes.
concentrations of H+ and OH-. As the temperature of water changes, the value of Kw changes,
3. No. In pure water, the only source of H+ is the autoionization reaction, which produces equal
considered a pure liquid and is eliminated from the equilibrium expression.
2. Kw = [H3O+] [OH-]. Because the concentration of H2O remains essentially constant, it is
1. H2O (l) + H2O (l) ⇋ H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
Part B
N2H62+ HSO4- N2H5+ H2SO4 H2SO4 + N2H5+ ⇋ HSO4- + N2H62+ 5.

H2O HPO42- OH- H2PO4- H2PO4- + OH- ⇋ HPO42- + H2O 4.
HCO3- NH3 CO32- NH4+ CO32- + NH4+ ⇋ HCO3- + NH3 3.
HCN HCOO- CN- HCOOH HCOOH + CN- ⇋ HCN + HCOO- 2.
H3O+ F- H2O HF H2O + HF ⇋ F- + H3O+ 1.
Conjugate Acid Conjugate Base Base Acid Equation
Part A
Activity 2:
**Since pOH=-log[OH-], to determine the [OH-] given the pOH, you may use this: 10-pOH = [OH-]
*Since pH=-log[H+], to determine the [H+] given the pH, you may use this: 10-pH = [H+]
base 3.5 10.5 3.2x10-4 M** 3.1x10-11 M Soap
acid 11.5 2.5 3.13x10-12 M 3.2x10-3 M* Vinegar
acid 8.8 5.2 1.5x10-9 M 6.7x10-6 M Shampoo
acid 11.3 2.7 5.0x10-12 M 2.0x10-3 M Lemon juice
(acid, base, neutral)
pOH pH [OH-] [H+] Solution
Type of solution
4. Answer to item 4:
burning power plant is lower than the pH of normal rainwater indicating acidic rainfall.
3. pH = -log[H+]= -log (5.98 x 10-4) = 3.22; The pH of the rainwater that falls near a coal-
2. [H+] = [OHw -] = 0.075 = 1.3x10-13 M
K 1.0x10-14
1. a. False; b. False; c. True; d. False; e. False; f. True; g. True; h. True; i. True; j. True
Activity 1:


(STEM) Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 4 – Week 6B: Acid-Base Equilibria
First Edition, 2021
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks, etc.)
Writer Cristobert C. Ayaton
Editors: Relyn D. Raza

Regional Team Ace Michael B. Magalso
Division Team Edna E. Trinidad

Pamela Lou C. Suazo
Myra Joy B. Montero
Ryan Paul M. Vales
Management Team Josita B. Carmen, CESO V, Schools Division Superintendent

Jasmin R. Lacuna, CESE, Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Celsa A. Casa, CID Chief
Edna E. Trinidad, EPS - Science
Bryan L. Arreo, LRMDS Manager

Author: CRISTOBERT C. AYATON

School/Station: LIANGA NATIONAL COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL – LIANGA I DISTRICT
Division: SURIGAO DEL SUR
email address: cristobert.ayaton@deped.gov.ph
1
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 4, Week 6B
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ________________________________
ACID-BASE EQUILIBRIA
Most Essential Learning Competencies:

• Describe how a buffer solution maintains its pH (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-160)
• Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
(STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-161)
1. Explain the common-ion effect;
2. Describe how a buffer solution functions;
3. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using Henderson-Hasselbalch equation; and
4. Appreciate the importance of buffer solutions in real-life.
Key Concepts
THE COMMON-ION EFFECT
Consider solutions that contain a weak acid, such as acetic acid (CH3COOH), and a soluble
salt of that acid, such as sodium acetate (CH3COONa). Notice that such solutions contain two
substances that has a common ion, which in this case is an acetate ion (CH3COO‾ ).
Sodium acetate, being a soluble ionic compound and a strong electrolyte, dissociates
completely in aqueous solution into its component ions, Na+ and CH3COO‾:
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎+ (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) [1]
In contrast, acetic acid is a weak electrolyte and ionizes partially in aqueous solution as
represented by its dynamic equilibrium:
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − (𝑎𝑞) [2]
The presence of a common ion suppresses the ionization of a weak acid or a weak base. The
addition of CH3COO‾ ions from CH3COONa to a solution of CH3COOH in water will suppress the
ionization of CH3COOH and consequently causes the equilibrium concentrations of the substances
in Equation 2 to shift from right to left, thereby decreasing the equilibrium concentration of
hydrogen ion (H+). Thus, a solution containing both CH3COOH and CH3COONa will be less acidic
than a solution containing only CH3COOH at the same concentration. In other words, the addition
of acetate ions causes the acetic acid to ionize less than it normally would.
The common-ion effect is the shift in equilibrium caused by the addition of a compound
having a common ion with the dissolved substance.
BUFFERS
A buffer solution (or simply buffer) is a solution of (1) a weak acid or a weak base and
(2) its salt; both components must be present. The solution has the ability to resist changes in
pH upon the addition of small amounts of either strong acid or strong base.

2
Composition and Action of Buffers
A buffer contains high concentrations (10-3 M or more) of a weak conjugate acid-base pair.
It resists changes in pH because it contains (1) relatively large amount of acid to neutralize any
added OH‾ ions from a small amount of strong base and (2) a relatively large amount of base to
neutralize any added H+ ions from a small amount of strong acid. However, the acid and the base
composing the buffer must not consume each other through a neutralization reaction. To satisfy
these requirements, a buffer must contain a weak acid and its conjugate base (supplied by a salt)
or a weak base and its conjugate acid (supplied by a salt).
Example of a weak conjugate acid-base pair is CH3COOH/CH3COO‾ (or we can write it as

CH3COOH/CH3COONa). It can be prepared by adding comparable molar amounts of acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and its salt sodium acetate (CH3COONa) to water. A solution containing these two
substances has the ability to neutralize an added acid or base. The dissociation of sodium acetate
in water is presented by Equation [1]. When we add an acid to the solution, the H+ ions will be
neutralized by the conjugate base in the buffer, CH 3COO‾, as shown by the equation
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
When we add a base to the solution, the OH‾ ions will be neutralized by the acid in the buffer as
shown by the equation
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂 − (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
The effectiveness of a buffer solution is called its buffering capacity. It depends on the amount of
acid and base from which the buffer is made. The larger the amount, the greater the buffering
capacity.
Calculating the pH of a Buffer
Consider a general formula of an acid, HA. Its conjugate base, A‾, can be supplied from one
of its salts, MA, where M+ could be Na+, K+, or any other cation that does not react with water. The
acid-dissociation equilibrium can be represented by the equation
𝐻𝐴(𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴− (𝑎𝑞) [3]
The corresponding acid-dissociation constant, Ka, can be expressed as
[𝐻 + ][𝐴− ]
𝐾𝑎 = [4]
[𝐻𝐴]
where [H+], [A‾], and [HA] represent concentrations of H+ ions, the conjugate base, A‾, and the
acid, HA, respectively.
Solving Equation [4] for [H+], we have
𝐾𝑎 [𝐻𝐴]
[𝐻 + ] = [5]
[𝐴− ]
From Equation [5], we can say that the [H+] and, thus, the pH depend on two factors: (1) the value
of Ka for the weak acid component of the buffer and (2) the ratio of the concentrations of the
conjugate acid-base pair, [HA]/[A‾].
Taking the negative logarithm on both sides of Equation [5], we have

3
[𝐻𝐴] [𝐻𝐴]
− log[𝐻 + ] = − log (𝐾𝑎 ) = −log 𝐾𝑎 − log [6]
[𝐴− ] [𝐴− ]
Recall that -log[H+] = pH and, thus, -log Ka = pKa, we now have
[𝐻𝐴] [𝐴− ]
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 − log = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log [7]
[𝐴− ] [𝐻𝐴]
(Remember the logarithm rules.)
A more general form of Equation [7] is
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒]
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log [8]
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑]
Equation [7] or [8] is called the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. If we know the Ka and
concentrations of the acid and the salt of the acid, we can calculate the pH of the buffer solution.
In doing equilibrium problem calculations involving common-ion effect, we can assume to

neglect the equilibrium concentrations of the acid and base in the buffer solution given that:
1. Concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair are both reasonably high (≥ 0.1 M).
2. If both concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair are less than 0.1 M, at least they are
a thousand times larger than Ka.
Therefore, we can usually use the initial concentrations of the acid and base components of the
buffer directly in the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Note that the H-H equation is just an
approximation, and a more detailed calculation may need to be performed to obtain equilibrium
concentrations.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1: What is the pH of a buffer that is 0.12 M in lactic acid, CH3CH(OH)COOH
and 0.10 M in sodium lactate, CH3CH(OH)COONa? For lactic acid, Ka = 1.4 x 10-4.
STRATEGY AND ANSWER: The conjugate acid-base pair is CH3CH(OH)COOH/CH3CH(OH)COO‾.

The concentration of the base, [base] or [CH3CH(OH)COO‾] = 0.10 M and the concentration of the
acid, [acid] or [CH3CH(OH)COOH] = 0.12 M. From the given value of K a, we can calculate pKa as
𝑝𝐾𝑎 = − log(1.4 × 10−4 ) = 3.85
Since we already know the values of pKa, [base], and [acid], we can now calculate the pH of the
buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒] 0.10 𝑀
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log = 3.85 + log ( ) = 3.77
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑] 0.12 𝑀
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2: Calculate the pH of a 0.30 M NH3/0.36 M NH4Cl buffer system. Ka for NH4+
= 5.6 x 10-10.
STRATEGY AND ANSWER: The conjugate acid-base pair is NH3/NH4+. The concentration of the
base, [base] or [NH3] = 0.30 M and the concentration of the acid, [acid] or [NH 4+] = 0.36 M. From
the given value of Ka, we can calculate pKa as
𝑝𝐾𝑎 = − log(5.6 × 10−10 ) = 9.25

4
Since we already know the values of pKa, [base], and [acid], we can now calculate the pH of the
buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒] 0.30 𝑀
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log = 9.25 + log ( ) = 9.17
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑] 0.36 𝑀
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3: Calculate the pH of a buffer system containing 0.10 M CH3COOH and 0.10
M CH3COONa. Ka = 1.8 x 10-5
ANSWER: [base] = 0.10 M, [acid] = 0.10 M, and pK a = 4.74
[𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒] 0.10 𝑀
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + log = 4.74 + log ( ) = 4.74
[𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑] 0.10 𝑀
In this problem, pH = pKa. This happens when [base] = [acid]. Recall that log (1) = 0.
Activity 1. Let’s Check What You Have Learned
Objectives:
1. Explain the common-ion effect; and
2. Describe how a buffer solution functions.

What to do: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. For a generic equilibrium 𝐻𝐴(𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻 + (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐴− (𝑎𝑞), which of these statements is true?
A. The equilibrium constant for this reaction changes as the pH changes.

B. If you add the soluble salt KA to a solution of HA that is at equilibrium, the pH would
increase.
C. If you add the soluble salt KA to a solution of HA that is at equilibrium, the concentration
of A- would decrease.
D. If you add the soluble salt KA to a solution of HA that is at equilibrium, the concentration
of HA would decrease.
2. Which acid-base pair can be a buffer system?
A. HCl / KCl C. H2SO4 / HSO4‾

B. HNO3 / NO3‾ D. H3PO4 / NaH2PO4
3. Perchloric acid, HClO4, is a strong acid and its conjugate base perchlorate ion, ClO4‾ is an
extremely weak base. What can we infer from this statement?
A. The solution cannot act as a buffer system since perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, readily combines
with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4.
B. The solution can act as a buffer system since perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, readily combines
with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4.
C. Perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, will not combine with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4. Thus,
the solution cannot act as a buffer system.
D. Perchlorate ion, ClO4‾, will not combine with a H+ ion in solution to form HClO4. Thus,
the solution can absolutely act as a buffer system.

5
4. Which of the following correctly shows an effect to the pH of a buffer?
A. A buffer’s pH changes largely when no weak acid or base is added to it.

B. A buffer’s pH changes largely when a small amount of weak acid or base is added to it.
C. A buffer’s pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to
it.
D. A buffer’s pH changes very little when a large amount of strong acid or base is added to
it.
5. A buffer contains a weak acid, HA, and its conjugate base, A‾. The weak acid has a pKa of
4.5, and the buffer has a pH of 4.3. Without doing a calculation, which of these possibilities
is correct?
A. [HA] = [A‾]
B. [HA] > [A‾]
C. [HA] < [A‾]
D. [HA] ≥ [A‾]
Activity 2. Solve me!
Objective:
1. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
What you need: Paper, pen, calculator

What to do: Answer as directed. Show your solution for necessary calculations. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. To mimic a blood buffer, a scientist prepared 1.00 L buffer containing 0.0025 mol carbonic
acid, H2CO3, and 0.025 mol hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO3‾. Calculate the pH of the buffer.
The Ka of carbonic acid is 4.3 x 10-7.
2. The pH of an acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer is 4.50. Calculate the ratio

[CH3COO‾]/[CH3COOH]. Refer to Sample Problem 3 for the Ka value.
Hint: Let [CH3COO‾]/[CH3COOH] = x. If log 𝑥 = 𝑦, then 𝑥 = 10𝑦 .
Read the selection below pertaining to “Ocean Acidification.”
Seawater is a weak basic solution, with pH values typically between 8.0 and 8.3. This pH
range is maintained through a carbonic acid buffer system similar to the one in blood. Just as in
our bodies, the carbonic acid buffer system can be perturbed by removing or adding CO2(g). The
concentration of dissolved CO2 in the ocean is sensitive to changes in atmospheric CO 2 levels.
According to studies, the atmospheric CO2 concentration has risen by approximately 30%
over the past three centuries. Human activity has played a prominent role in this increase.
Scientists estimate that one-third to one-half of the CO2 emissions resulting from human activity
have been absorbed by Earth’s oceans. While this absorption helps mitigate the greenhouse
gas effects of CO2, the extra CO2 in the ocean produces carbonic acid (H2CO3), which lowers
the pH.
If the amount of atmospheric CO2 continues to increase at the present rate, scientists
estimate that seawater pH will fall to 7.9 sometime over the next 50 years. While this change
might sound small, it has dramatic ramifications for oceanic ecosystems. Ocean acidification

6
makes it more difficult in exoskeleton formation for a number of marine organisms, including
stony corals, and existing shells may begin to dissolve.
Reflection: As a concerned individual, this calls for an act to mitigate the problem on ocean
acidification caused by anthropogenic emissions of CO2. In consideration to this perennial
challenge, we are left to answer a very important question: What can we do to help solve this
problem?
Your answer should consist at most five (5) sentences. Write your response on a separate sheet.
Be guided with the following rubric:
Reflection Rubric
concept, but with minimal misconception.
concepts.
Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B., Jusayan, Shirley R., Macale, Aphrodite M., Sabularse, Veronica C.,
and San Pascual, Joseph Carmelo K. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 2. Quezon City: Commission on Higher Education.
Brown, T. L., LeMay, H. E., Bursten, B. E., Murphy, C. J., & Woodward, P. M. (2012). Chemistry:
The Central Science. (13th ed.) Pearson Prentice Hall.
Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. 2016. Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Answer Key
Activity 1 – 1. B; 2. D; 3. C; 4. C; 5. B
Activity 2 – 1. pH = 7.37; 2. [CH3COO‾]/[CH3COOH] = x = 0.569

7
General Chemistry 2_Grade12 (STEM)

Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 4– Week 7: THE REDOX REACTIONS
First Edition, 2021
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Writer Emely M. Tragua
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Author: Emely M. Tragua

School/Station: Kitcharao National High School
Division: Agusan del Norte
email address: emely.tragua001@deped.gov.ph
0
General Chemistry 2, Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 7
THE REDOX REACTIONS
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELCs)
1. Define oxidation and reduction reactions. STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-169

2. Balance redox reactions using the change in oxidation number method.
STEM_GC11ABIVf-g170

1. recognize redox reactions;
2. identify reducing and oxidizing agents in a given redox reaction;
3. balance redox equations using change in oxidation number method;
4. write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions for a given redox reaction; and
5. balance a redox reaction using the half-reaction method.
Key Concepts
❖ Recognizing Redox Reactions
1. What are redox reactions?
Historically, the term “oxidation” referred to reactions of substances with Oxygen,

while “reduction” involved removal of Oxygen. Many known redox reactions today do not
involve reactions with Oxygen. Oxidation-reduction reactions are those that involve a
movement of electron or electrons from one particle to another. The movement of
electrons can be a complete transfer, such as in the formation of some ions, or a partial
transfer due to rearrangements in forming new covalent bonds. When electrons transfer,
there should be atoms that would give away electrons and atoms that would accept the
electrons. Therefore, redox reactions are made up of two half-processes that occur together:
the losing of electrons or oxidation and the gaining of electrons or reduction.
Example 1: Consider the reaction between magnesium (Mg) metal and oxygen (O2) gas. The
equation for the reaction is given below.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s)
The product of the reaction of the two elements, Mg metal, and O2 gas, is a white solid,
magnesium oxide, MgO. MgO is an ionic compound and is made up of Mg 2+ and O2- ions.
Oxidation Reaction: any chemical reaction in which an element increases in oxidation

number or loses electrons.
oxidation
0 +2 The +2 charge means that the Mg atom lost two
Example: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s) electrons to Oxygen.
(Mg is being oxidized)

1
Reduction Reaction: any chemical reaction in which an element decreases in oxidation
number or gains electrons.
reduction The -2 charge means that the O atom gains two
0 -2 electrons from Magnesium.
Example: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) —> 2MgO(s)
(O is being reduced)
NOTE: oxidation cannot occur without reduction!
In the reaction between Mg and O2, the electrons lost by Mg were gained by O.
Electrons from Mg transferred to O.
The combustion or burning of Mg is a reaction that involved a transfer of electrons

between Mg and O. It is a redox reaction.
When Mg lost electrons, it was OXIDIZED. Loss of electrons is OXIDATION.

When O gained electrons, it was REDUCED. Gain of electrons is REDUCTION.
A helpful mnemonic:
**LEO says GER**

(Loss of Electrons; Oxidation)
(Gain of Electrons; Reduction)
Figure 1. Representation of Oxidation and Reduction

http:// classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/courses/bio225/chap05/Slide11.GIF)
Example 2. The reaction of hydrogen gas, H2, and fluorine gas F2 yields hydrogen fluoride,
HF, a covalent compound. No ions were formed, but the reaction is a redox reaction.
Was there electron transfer?
In H2, the electrons in each of the hydrogen atoms are evenly distributed between the
atoms since the two atoms attract the bonding electrons equally. That is also true in
F2.
However, the H – F bond is a polar bond, with the partially negative end of the dipole
at the fluorine end of the bond. This is because F is very electronegative and can pull
the bonding electrons towards itself and away from H, as shown in the next page.

2
Figure 2. Polarity in an HF molecule
Image source: www.chemwiki.ucdavis.edu
In the H – F bond, the bonding electrons are found closer to F atom, making it appear
that the electrons being shared have moved closer to F atom than to H atom. It is as
if H atom “lost” its electron and was “gained,” although just partially, by F atom.
The formation of HF from H2 and F2 is a redox reaction as illustrated in the two-half

reactions below.
2. Bookkeeping of electrons: Oxidation Numbers
A simple way of determining if a reaction is redox or not is by assigning oxidation

numbers to the elements involved in the reaction. The oxidation number of an atom
may be its actual or apparent charge in the substance.
Assigning oxidation numbers is like a bookkeeping technique that allows:

a. counting of the number of electrons lost /gained by a reactant, and
b. identifying the atom oxidized and the atom reduced.
Rules for Assigning oxidation numbers (ON):

1. A metal or nonmetal in the free state, which occurs as an element, is assigned an
oxidation number of zero (0).
e.g., all atoms in the following have ON of zero (0): Zn, H2, P4
2. A monoatomic ion has an oxidation number equal to its charge.
e.g., ON of Ca2+ is +2, ON of Br - is -1.
3. A. In its compounds, a hydrogen atom is usually assigned an ON of +1.
e.g., all H in H2O, HF, NH3, CH3COOH, H2SO4 are all +1.
B. In metallic hydride, a hydrogen atom is assigned an ON of -1
e.g., LiH, MgH2
4. In its compounds, an oxygen atom is assigned an ON of -2.
e.g., all O atoms in the oxygen-containing examples given for the previous rule is -
-2 except for peroxide, example H2O2 where the ON of hydrogen is +1 and oxygen
is -1.
5. In all its compounds, F has an ON of -1.
e.g., HF, NF3, Cl2F2, ClF3.
6.The sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements in any neutral atom or molecule
is zero.
e.g., the sum of ON of the following is zero: Al, H20, Br2, Cl2, F2, H2SO4
3
In H2O, each H has an ON of +1 and O has -2. Total ON is 2(+1) + -2 = 0
e.g., How to get the value of S in H2SO4?
H=+1;O=-2; S=?
2(H) +1 (S )+ 4(O)=0
2(+1) + S + 4(-2)=0
(+2) +S+(-8)=0
S = (+8)+(-2)
S = +6
7. The sum of the ON of all atoms in a polyatomic group is equal to the group's net
charge.
e.g., In PO43-, the ON of P is calculated as follows:
Net charge (or total ON) = -3
PO4 = -3
1(P) +4(O)= -3
P +4(-2)=-3
P=-3+8
P = +5
Sample Activity 1: Using the above rules, assign oxidation numbers for all atoms:
1. HCOOH
3. CO32−
(Answer: H = +1; O = -2; C = +2)
(Answer: C = +4; O = -2;)
2(H) +1(C) +2(O) =0 1(C) +3(O) =-2
2(+1) +1(+2) +2(-2) =0 1(+4) +3(-2) =-2
(+2) + (+2) + (-4) =0 (+4) + (-6) =-2
(+4) +(-4) =0
2. Ba (OH)2 4. NH4+
(Answer: N = -3; H = +1)
(Answer: H = +1; O = -2; Ba = +2)
1(N)+ 4(H)= +1
1(Ba)+2(O)+2(H)=0 1(-3) +4(+1) = +1
1(+2) +2(-2) +2(+1) =0 (-3) + (+4) = +1
(+2) +(-4) +(+2) =0
(+4) +(-4) =0
Sample Activity 2: Assign oxidation numbers above each atom of a compound in the
reactants and products:
HNO3(aq) + SO2(aq) —> H2SO4(aq) + NO2(l)
+1+5-2 +4 -2 +1 +6 -2 4. -2
+4 polyatomic ion
3. Is the reaction redox?
Use the equation in sample activity 2 above to show if a reaction is a redox reaction.
a. Are there atoms that changed in oxidation numbers from the reactant side to the
product side? Which are these?
The elements that changed in ON are: +1+5-2 +4-2 +1+6 -2 +4 -2
N from +5 to +4; S from +4 to +6
The presence of elements that change in oxidation number in the equation is an
indication that the reaction is indeed redox. However, there should always be one that
4
will show an increase in ON (or the ON becoming more positive) and a decrease in ON
(or the ON becoming less positive).
b. For the elements that changed in ON, which lost electrons? Which gained electrons?
S was oxidized (change in ON from +4 to +6): lost of electrons
N was reduced (change in ON from +5 to +4): gained of electrons
(H and O did not change in ON and were neither reduced nor oxidized)
Are there reactions that are not redox? An example of a non-redox reaction is the
neutralization reaction between HCl and NaOH. No change in ON can be seen from the
reactant side to the product side for all the elements involved.
+1-1 +1-2+1 +1-2 +1-1
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) —> H2O(aq) + NaCl(l)
Sample Activity 3: Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the equation and
determine if the reaction is redox:
+3 -2 +2-2 0 +4-2
1. Fe2O3(s) + CO (g) —> Fe(s) + CO2 (g) (redox; Fe and C changed ON)
+1 +4 -2 +1+7-2 +4-2 +1-2 +1 +7 -2

2.Na2CO3(aq) + 2HClO4(aq) —> CO2 (g) + H2 O (l) + 2NaClO4 (aq) (not redox; no change in ON)
+2 +5-2 +1-1 +2-1 +1+5-2

3. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI(aq) —> PbI2(s) + 2KNO3 (aq) (not redox; no change in ON)
+2 -2 0 +2.5-2 -1
4. 2S2O32- (aq) + I2 (aq) —> S4O62- (aq) + 2I- (aq) (redox; S and I changed ON)
Even without going through the details above to show the change in oxidation number
and electron transfer, some redox reactions are easy to recognize.
If in the reaction, a reactant or product is an element (neutral, independent form
consisting of only one element), and the same element is in combined or in ion form on the
other side of the equation, the reaction is definitely redox.
Here are some examples to illustrate this:
1. Al(S) + H2SO4(aq) —> Al2(SO4)3(s)+ H2(g) (Al is uncombined or in element state in the
reactant side.)
2. SO2(g) + O2(g) —> SO3(g) (Oxygen is in element form on the reactant side.)
3. FeO(s) + CO(g) —> Fe(s) + CO2(g) (Fe is obtained as the element on the product side.)
❖ The key reactants in a redox reaction
The main reactants in a redox reaction are the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.
Oxidizing Agent: A substance that causes the oxidation of another element;

contains the substance being reduced.
Reducing Agent: A substance that causes the reduction of another element;

contains the substance being oxidized.
If oxidized → a reducing agent(reactant)

If reduced → an oxidizing agent(reactant)
5
0 0 +2 -2
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Mg is oxidized; Mg is the reducing agent.
O is reduced; O2 is the oxidizing agent.
The reactant that carries the atom or element oxidized is called REDUCING AGENT
(RA). The reactant that carries the atom or element reduced is called OXIDIZING
AGENT (OA). In this case, Mg is the reducing agent. While it is said that O is reduced,
it is O2, and not just O, that is the oxidizing agent.
The reducing agent and the oxidizing agent are reactants, not just the atoms oxidized
or reduced. It is also important to remember that RA and OA cannot be any of the
products of the reaction.
Consider the following examples, the ON of each element has been placed above their
respective symbols.
0 +2 -1 +2 -1 0
Example 1: Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + Cu(s)
Zn is oxidized; Zn is the reducing agent.
Cu is reduced; CuCl2 is the oxidizing agent.
Example 2: +3 -2 +2 -2 0 +4 -2
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) — Fe(s) + CO2 (g)
Atom oxidized: C
Atom reduced: Fe
Reducing agent: CO
Oxidizing agent: Fe2O3
Points to remember:
LEORA – Lose Electrons – Oxidation – Reducing Agent (the reactant that loses electrons
undergoes oxidation and is the reducing agent).
GEROA– Gain Electrons – Reduction – Oxidizing Agent (the reactant that gains electron
undergoes reduction and is the oxidizing agent).
If there is no change in oxidation numbers, it is not a redox reaction!
❖ Balancing Redox Equations by the Change in Oxidation Number Method
Redox equations are balanced based on the same conservation principles used in
balancing any chemical equation. In previous lessons, the students have balanced many
redox equations without being told that those were redox reactions. However, some redox
reactions may not be easy to balance, and the additional knowledge that the reaction involves
electron transfer is a useful one. In redox reactions, the reduction of an atom cannot happen
without another being oxidized. More importantly, the total number of electrons lost by
the reducing agent is equal to the number of electrons gained by the oxidizing agent.
One way to balance redox reactions is by keeping track of the electron transfer
using each of the atoms' oxidation numbers. For the oxidation-number-change method,
start with the unbalanced skeleton equation. The example below is for the reaction of iron
6
(III) oxide with carbon monoxide. This reaction takes place in a blast furnace during the
processing of iron ore into metallic iron.
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) Fe(s) + CO2(g)

Step 1. Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the equation and write the numbers
above the atom.
+3 -2 +2-2 0 +4 -2
Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) Fe (s) + CO2 (g)
Step 2: Identify the atoms that are oxidized and those that are reduced. The carbon atom is
being oxidized in the above equation since its oxidation increases from +2 to +4. The
iron atom is being reduced since its oxidation number decreases from +3 to 0.
Oxidation: C +2 —> +4 2 electrons lost / C atom; 2 electrons lost/CO

Reduction: Fe +3 —> 0 3 electrons gained / Fe atom; 6 electrons gained/ Fe2O3
Step 3: Use a line to connect the atoms that are changing oxidation numbers. On the line,
write the oxidation-number change.
The carbon atom’s oxidation number increases by 2, while the iron atom’s oxidation
number decreases by 3. As written, the number of electrons lost does not equal the number
of electrons gained. In a balanced redox equation, these must be equal. So, the increase in
the oxidation number of one atom must be made equal to the decrease in the other's oxidation
number.
Step 4: Use coefficients to make the total increase in oxidation number equal to the total
decrease in oxidation number. In this case, the least common multiple of 2 and 3 is
6. The oxidation-number increase should be multiplied by 3, while the oxidation-
number decrease should be multiplied by 2. The coefficient is also applied to the
formulas in the equation. So, a 3 is placed in front of the CO and front of the CO2. A 2
is placed in front of the Fe on the right side of the equation. The Fe2O3 does not require
a coefficient because the subscript of 2 after the Fe indicates that there are already
two iron atoms.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) —> 2Fe (s) + 3CO2(g)

Step 5: Check the balancing for both atoms and charge. Occasionally, a coefficient may need
to be placed in front of a molecular formula that was not involved in the redox
process. In the current example, the equation is now balanced.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) —> 2Fe (s) + 3CO2(g)

7
The number of atoms in the reactants is equal to the atoms in the products.
Elements Reactants Products
Fe 2 2
O 6 6
C 3 3
❖ Balancing Redox Equations by the Half-Reaction Method
Some redox equations are given in net ionic forms, and at times, there are oxygen or
hydrogen atoms on one side of the equation but none on the other side. These are not easy
to balance by inspection or by the change in oxidation number method but can be balanced
by the half-reaction method or the ion-electron method.
This method makes use of another conservation principle, that of balancing charges:
the sum of the charges of all substances on the reactant side should be equal to the sum of
the charges of all substances on the product side. Apply this method in balancing the
equation for the reaction between MnO2 and HCl. The reaction occurs in acid conditions. The
equation to be balanced is given in a net ionic form.
MnO2(s) + Cl-(aq) —> Mn2+(aq) + Cl2(g)
In this method, a redox reaction is seen as a pair of half-reactions that occur
simultaneously: the oxidation and reduction half-reactions. The half-reactions are balanced
separately and then added to each other to arrive at the balanced equation.
1. Split the equation into half-reactions. It is unnecessary to assign oxidation numbers, nor
to identify which is the oxidation half-reaction or the reduction half-reaction at this
point.
Half-reaction 1: MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq)
Half-reaction 2: Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
For each half-reaction,
2. Balance elements other than O and H.
Half-reaction 1 Half-reaction 2
MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
(there is one(1) Mn on both sides, so no (a coefficient of two (2) is placed for Cl- since
change made) there are two(2) Cl atoms in Cl2)
3. Balance the O atoms by adding the appropriate number of H 2O molecules.
MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
(add two(2) molecules of H2O to the product (no change made since there are no O
side to balance the 2 O atoms in the reactant atoms on either side of the equation)
side)
4. Balance the H atoms by adding the appropriate number of H+.
4H+ + MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g)
(add four (4) H+ to the reactant side to (no change made since there are no H
balance the H atoms at the product side) atoms on either side of the equation)

8
5. Balance charges on both sides by adding electrons to the more positive side.
2e-+ 4H+ + MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —> Cl2(g) + 2e-
Sum of charges on reactant side: +4 Sum of charges on reactant side: -2

Sum of charges on product side: +2 Sum of charges on the product side: 0
(add two (2) electrons to the reactant side to (add two (2) electrons to the product side to
make the sum of charges on this side equal to make charges on this side equal to the
that in product side) reactant side)
The half-reaction representing oxidation and that representing reduction can be

identified by the electrons' position to balance charges. It is in half-reaction 1, and the
electrons are on the reactant side. This means electrons have to be added or gained by the
reactant to be transformed into the product. This half-reaction is the reduction half-reaction
(RHR), and MnO2 is the oxidizing agent.
In half-reaction 2, the electrons are on the product side. This means that it has to
give up or lose electrons for the reactant to be transformed into the product. This half-reaction
is the oxidation half-reaction (OHR), and Cl- is the reducing agent.
6. Make the number of electrons lost equal to the number of electrons gained by multiplying
the half-reaction with the appropriate factor.
2e-+ 4H+ + MnO2(s) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O 2Cl-(aq) —>Cl2(g) + 2e-

The number of electrons gained and lost are equal.
7. Add the two half-reactions. Simplify the equation by removing the appropriate numbers of
substances that appear on both sides. These would be electrons and probably H 2O
molecules.
2e-+ 4H+ + MnO2(s) + 2Cl-(aq) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O + Cl2(g) + 2e-

The balanced equation is.
4H+ + MnO2(s) + 2Cl-(aq) —> Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O + Cl2(g)

H 4 4
Mn 1 1
O 2 2
Cl 2 2
If the redox reaction occurs in basic or alkaline conditions, the half-reactions are
balanced as in acid conditions, but an additional step to convert to basic condition is done
before the balanced half-reactions are added to form the whole equation. An example is
worked on below.
HS-(aq) + ClO3-(aq) —> S(s) + Cl-(aq)
Step Half-reaction 1 Half-reaction 2

1 HS-(aq) —> S(s) ClO3-(aq) —> Cl- (aq)
2 HS-(aq) —> S(s) ClO3- (aq)—> Cl- (aq)
3 HS- (aq) —> S(s) ClO3-(aq)—> Cl-(aq) + 3H2O
4 HS-(aq) —> S(s) + H+ 6H+ + ClO3- (aq) —> Cl-(aq) + 3H2O
5 HS-(aq) —> S(s) + H+ + 2e- 6e- + 6H+ + ClO3-(aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 3H2O
6 3[HS-(aq) —> S(s) + H+ + 2e-]
3HS-(aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H+ + 6e- 6e-+ 6H+ + ClO3- (aq) —> Cl-(aq) + 3H2O

9
Step 7: For each half-reaction, add as many OH- as there are H+ on both sides of the half-
reactions.
7 3OH-+ 3HS-(aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H+ + 6e-+ 6OH-+ 6e-+ 6H+ + ClO3-(aq) —> Cl-(aq) +3H2O+
3OH - 6OH-
Step 8: Combine H+ and OH- to form water, H2O. Simplify the half-reactions by cancelling
similar substances.
8 3OH- + 3HS- (aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H2O + 6e- 6e- + 6H2O + ClO3 - (aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 3H2O + 6OH-
6e- + 3H2O + ClO3 - (aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 6OH-
Step 9. Add the half-reactions and simplify the equation if necessary.
3OH- + 3HS- (aq) —> 3S(s) + 3H2O + 6e-
6e- + 3H2O + ClO3- (aq) —> Cl- (aq) + 6OH-
3HS- (aq) + ClO3-(aq) —> 3S(s) + Cl- (aq) + 3OH-(aq)
H 3 3
S 3 3
Cl 1 1
O 3 3
In summary, the choice of which balancing method to use depends on the kind of
reaction. The oxidation-number method works best if the oxidized and reduced species
appear only once on each side of the equation and if no acids or bases are present. The half-
reaction method is more versatile and works well for reactions involving ions in an aqueous
solution.
Activity 1. Reducing Agent (RA) vs. Oxidizing Agent (OA)

1. Recognize redox reactions.
2. Identify reducing and oxidizing agents in a given redox reaction.
What to do: Complete the table below by following the steps and write your answer in a
separate sheet of paper.
1. Assign oxidation numbers for all elements in the equation.
2. Determine if the reaction is redox or not.
3. Identify the element oxidized and the element reduced.
4. Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.
The sample equation is done for you.
Chemical Equation REDOX Atom Atom Reducing Oxidizing
Yes/No Oxidized Reduced Agent Agent
+2 -2 0 +2.5 -2 -1
Yes S I S2O32- I2
S2O3 2-
(aq) + I2 (aq) —>S4O62- (aq) + I- (aq)
1.
Na(s) + Cl2(g) —>NaCl(s)
2.
Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+ (aq) + Cu(s)
3.
H2(g) + F2(g) —> HF(g)
4.
SiO2(s) + C(s) —> Si(s) + CO(g)
5. Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI(aq) —>
PbI2(s) +2KNO3(aq)
Guide Question:
Why is it important to assign oxidation numbers to all the atoms in the equation?
10
Activity 2. Balancing Redox Reactions
1. Balance redox equations using change in oxidation number method.
2. Write the oxidation and reduction half reactions for a given redox reaction.
3. Balance a redox reaction using the half-reaction method.
What to do:
Part A. Identify if the following equations are balanced. If not, balance them using the
change in oxidation number method. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
1. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) —> 2NaCl(s)

2. Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+(aq) + Cu(s)
3. Zn(s) + 2HNO3(l) —> Zn(NO3)2(s) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)
4.SiO2(s) + C(s) —> Si(s) + CO(g)
Part B. Balance the following redox equations using the half-reaction method:
1. Cr2O72- (aq) + HNO2(aq) → Cr3+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) (acidic)

2. Cr(OH)3 (s) + ClO3- (aq) → CrO42- (aq) + Cl- (aq) (basic)
Guide Questions:
1. When balancing redox reaction in a basic solution, how many OH- should be added to
each side?
2. When does the oxidation-number approach and the half-reaction method work best?
Reflection: Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper.
Select one of the following redox reactions that is beneficial to humans. Explain.
A. Photosynthesis
B. Combustion
C. Galvanization of steel
D. Electroplating
Rubrics for Guide questions and Reflection:

5 –Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
4 - Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts but with minimal misconception.
3 –Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
2- Explanation is not consistent with the concepts.

11
BYJUS."Redox Reactions." Accessed April 11, 2021. https://byjus.com/jee/redox-

reactions/
Chemistry Libretexts. "Balancing Redox Reactions- Half-Reaction Method" Accessed April

10,2021.https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3
A_Introductory_Chemistry_(CK12)/22%3A_OxidationReduction_Reactions/22.10%3A
_Balancing_Redox_Reactions-_Half-Reaction_Method
CK-12."Balancing Redox Reactions: Oxidation Number Change Method" Accessed April

9,2021,https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry-flexbook-
2.0/section/22.9/primary/lesson/balancing-redox-reactions%253a-oxidation-
number-change-method-chem
CourseHero."Types of Reactions:Redox and Non-Redox C12-1-10". Accessed April

8,2021.https://www.coursehero.com/file/28503590/Redox-and-Non-Redox-
Reactions-Experiments-Demonstrations-C12-1-10doc/
Teacherph. “General Chemistry 2: Senior High School SHS Teaching Guide “Accessed
January 9, 2021.https://www.teacherph.com/general-chemistry-2-teaching-guide/
Web.Gccaz. Edu.” Electrochemistry.” Accessed April 9, 2021.

https://web.gccaz.edu/~jaszi38221/2014/spring/Lectures/CHM%20152%20Electro
chemistry%20Spring%202014%206pp.pdf
Answer Key

12
13
Activity 2. Balancing Redox Reactions
Part A. Identify if the following equations are balanced. If not, balance them using the change in oxidation
number method.
1. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) —> 2NaCl(s): Balanced
2. Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+(aq) + Cu(s): Not Balanced
Step 1. Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the equation and write the numbers above the atom.
0 +2 +3 0
Al(s) + Cu2+(aq) —> Al3+(aq) + Cu(s)
Step 2: Identify the atoms that are oxidized and those that are reduced. In the above equation, the carbon atom is
being oxidized since its oxidation increases from +2 to +4. The iron atom is being reduced since its oxidation number
decreases from +3 to 0.
Oxidation: Al 0 —> +3 3 electrons lost / Al atom
Reduction: Cu +2 —> 0 2 electrons gained / Cu atom
Step 3: Use a line to connect the atoms that are undergoing a change in oxidation number. On the line, write the
oxidation-number change.
Step 4: Use coefficients to make the total increase in oxidation number equal to the total decrease in oxidation
number. In this case, the least common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6. So, the oxidation-number increase should be
multiplied by 2, while the oxidation-number decrease should be multiplied by 3 The coefficient is also applied to
the formulas in the equation. So, a 2 is placed in front of the Al and Al 3+ and a 3 is placed in front of the Cu and
of the Cu2+
Step 5: Check the balancing for both atoms and charge. Occasionally, a coefficient may need to be placed in front of
a molecular formula that was not involved in the redox process. In the current example, the equation is now balanced.
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+ (aq) —> 2Al3+(aq) + 3Cu(s)
Al 2 2
Cu 3 3
Part B. Balance the following redox equations using the half-reaction method:
1.

14
2.

15
General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12 (STEM)

Learning Activity Sheets Quarter 4 – Week 8, Part A
First Edition, 2021
Writer: Charlyn M. Campado
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Salvaña
Romeo A. Villarin
Jesusa C. Olayon
Archie G. Layago, PhD
Division Team Delia P. Alcantara

Edgardo Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Emely M. Tragua
Jane C. Basul
Management Team:
Romeo O. Approvechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division Superintendent

Love Emma B. Sudarion, Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Printed in the Philippines by: Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)
Author: Charlyn M. Campado

email address:charlyn.campado001@deped.gov.ph
0
WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12 (STEM), Quarter 4, Week 8, Part A
Understanding Galvanic Cell and Cell Potential
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC)
Identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell.

(STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-172)
Define reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential.
(STEM_ GC11ABIVf-g-176)
After going through this learning activity sheet, you are expected to:
1. identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell; and
2. define reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential.
Time Allotment: 1 hour
Key Concepts
The Galvanic Cell
 Galvanic cell, also called a voltaic cell, is a type of electrochemical cell that uses chemical
reactions to generate electrical energy. It consists of at least two half cells, a reduction cell
and an oxidation cell. It acts as a device in which simultaneous oxidation and reduction
reactions take place to convert the chemical energy into electrical energy, which can be used
for any commercial purposes.
 Galvanic cell separates the flow of electrons through the process of oxidation and reduction.
As a result, a half reaction occurs and connecting each with a wire creating a path for the
flow of electrons through the wire. This flow of electrons is called a current. Current can be
made to flow through a wire completing a circuit and obtaining its output in any device
such as a watch or a television.
 Parts of a Galvanic Cell
 Anode – is where oxidation takes place

 Cathode – is where reduction takes place
 Salt bridge – contains electrolytes needed to
complete a galvanic cell circuit
 Half-cells – are compartments that separates
reduction and oxidation reactions
 External circuit – is where the flow of electrons
are conducted between electrodes
 Load – is the part of a circuit that utilizes the
flow of electron for functioning
Figure 1. Parts of a Galvanic Cell

Source: https://www2.chem.wisc.edu/

1
Reduction Potential, Oxidation Potential and Cell Potential
 Electrode Potential: Oxidation Potential and Reduction Potential
Electrode potential refers to the difference of equilibrium potential between the
surrounding solution and the metal electrode. It is the tendency of losing and gaining
electrons in an electrode. When a metal is dipped into a solution of its own ions, it will create
a potential difference at the interface of the solution and the metal. A measure of electrode’s
tendency to undergo reduction or oxidation process refers to the magnitude of the potential
difference. It is a reduction potential when reduction takes place at the cathode. On the
other hand, it is an oxidation potential when oxidation reaction takes place at the anode.
Oxidation potential refers to the ability of an electrode to become oxidized giving up or
losing electrons. Reduction potential refers to the the ability of anion solution to become
reduced picking up or gaining electrons from its own electrode. An ion is more easily reduced
if the reduction potential of an ion is greater. For instance, in a Daniel cell, an example of a
Galvanic Cell, as shown in the figure below, Cu+2 is reduced due to greater reduction
potential than Zn, which is oxidized.
At Anode: Oxidation
Salt Bridge
Zn(s) Zn+2(aq) + 2e-
anode cathode
At Cathode: Reduction
Cu+2(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
Oxidation half reaction Reduction half reaction

Figure 2. Daniel Cell
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=StWm-a_j65U
A positive charge is developed on the metal rod as metal ions are deposited on the metal
surface. Oxidation is the reverse of reduction so reduction potential can be obtained from
oxidation potential by changing the sign. In general for an electrode:
Oxidation potential = – Reduction potential
Example, in a zinc electrode, the standard oxidation potential is represented as
Eo (Zn/Zn2+) = 0.76V and standard reduction potential as Eo (Zn2+/Zn) = -0.76V.
Electrochemical series is a series of chemical elements arranged in order of their

standard electrode potentials.
Table 1. Electrochemical Series
Source: https://www.pinterest.ph
2
 Cell Potential refers to the potential difference between the electrodes corresponding to an
external electron flow from anode to cathode. Cell potential is the combination of reduction
potential at the cathode and oxidation potential at the anode.
ECell = EOx,Anode + ERed,Cathode
since: Oxidation potential = – Reduction potential

so: EOx,Anode = -ERed,Anode
therefore: ECell = -ERed,Anode + ERed,Cathode
or: ECell = ERed,Cathode – ERed,Anode
Activity 1. Just React!
Learning Objective:
Identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell.
What you need: Pen and Paper
What to do: Analyze the figure below and answer the guide question correctly. Use a separate
sheet of paper for your answer.
Figure 3. A Galvanic Cell

Source: mcoord@2015
Guide Question:
What reaction takes place in (a) an electrode made of zinc and (b) an electrode made
of copper? Describe the reaction that occurs in each part.
Rubrics:
3 – Answers are scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
2 - Answers are scientifically consistent with the concepts but with minimal misconception.
1 – Answers are consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
Activity 2. You Have Potential!
Learning Objective:
Define electrode potential, reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential.
What you need:

Pen and Paper

3
What to do: Read each statement below and identify if it defines electrode potential, reduction
potential, oxidation potential or cell potential. Write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. It refers to the difference of equilibrium potential between the surrounding

solution and the metal electrode.
2. It is the reaction that takes place at the cathode.
3. It is the reaction that takes place at the anode.
4. It is the ability of anion solution to become reduced picking up or gaining
electrons from its own electrode.
5. It is the ability of an electrode to become oxidized giving up or losing electrons.
6. It refers to the potential difference between the electrodes corresponding to an
external electron flow from anode to cathode.
7. It is the combination of reduction potential at the cathode and oxidation
potential at the anode.
8. An example of this reaction is Zn(s) Zn+2(aq) + 2e- .
9. An example of this reaction is Cu (aq) + 2e-
+2 Cu(s) .
10. It is illustrated as: ECell = EOx,Anode + ERed,Cathode
Reflection
Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper.
Galvanic cells are portable and can be self-

contained. Thus, they can be used as fuel cells and
batteries. A battery or a storage cell is a galvanic cell or
a series of galvanic cells that has all the reactants
required to produce electricity. What is the best
way to store, handle and care for batteries, whether (a) (b)
at home or on the road?
Figure 4. Sample of Galvanic Cell: (a) dry
cell, (b) wet cell
Source: http://www.differencebetween.info/
Rubrics:
3 – Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.

1 – Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.

4
BYJU”S. 2021. “Galvanic Cell (Voltaic Cell).”Accessed April15, 2021.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/galvanic-cell/
BYJU”S. 2021. “Reduction Potential.” Accessed April15, 2021.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/reduction-potential/
Chemistry Libretexts. 2020. “Galvanic Cells.”Accessed April15, 2021.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_
Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Basics_of_Electrochemistry/Electrochemistry/Ga
lvanic_Cells#:~:text=A%20galvanic%20cell%20consists%20of,cell%20and%20an%20oxidat
ion%20cell.&text=Each%20half%20cell%20consists%20of,also%20called%20a%20voltaic
%20cell.
Digital Kemistry. 2020. “What is the |Difference between Oxidation potential and Reduction
potential | Electrode potential”. Accessed April15, 2021.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=StWm-a_j65U
Ekeeda. 2018. “Electrode Potential and Cell Potential - Electrochemistry - Chemistry Class 12.”
Accessed April15, 2021.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=axgRTKiu30o
Electrochemistry. “Galvanic Cells”. Accessed April15, 2021.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/chemistry/electrochemistry/galvanic-cells/
Answer Key
10. Cell Potential

9. Oxidation Potential
8. Reduction Potential
7. Cell Potential
6. Cell Potential
1. Electrode Potential
Activity 2 You Have Potential!
electrode losses mass and during reduction electrode gains mass.

occurs in an electrode made of copper, at the cathode. During oxidation
1.Oxidation occurs in an electrode made of zinc, at the anode while reduction
Activity 1 Just React!

5
General Chemistry 2, Grade 12

Quarter 4– Week 8-B: CALCULATING STANDARD CELL POTENTIAL
First Edition, 2021
the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit. Such agency or
office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort has been
exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from the respective copyright owners.
The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Writer Jay N. Bernat
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Z. Salvana
Romeo A. Villarin
Jesusa C. Olayon

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Emely M. Tragua
Management Team Romeo O. Aprovechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division Superintendent

Author: Jay N. Bernat

School/Station: Agay National High School
email address: jay.bernat001@deped.gov.ph
0
General Chemistry 2, Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 8-B
CALCULATING STANDARD CELL POTENTIAL
Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies (MELCs)
Calculate the standard cell potential. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g 178)

Relate the value of the cell potential to the feasibility of using the cell to generate electric
current. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g 179)

1. identify spontaneous and non-spontaneous in the given redox reactions;
2. decide which will remain as reduction reaction and will be reversed as oxidation reaction in
the given half-reactions; and
3. calculate standard cell potential in the given redox reactions.
Key Concepts
❖ Standard Cell Potential
Galvanic cell or voltaic cell is a device that uses redox reaction to create electricity. A battery
is an example of a galvanic or voltaic cell. The chemicals present inside a battery react together in an
oxidation-reduction reaction that makes electricity. Galvanic or voltaic cells allow the redox activity
to be quantified by an easily measured property called potential. This property is more commonly
called voltage in terms of electrical applications. It is a measure of energy accompanying the transfer
of charge. Potentials are measured in volt unit, V=J/C or 1 volt = 1 Joule of energy/1 Coulomb of
charge.
When measured for purposes of electrochemistry, a potential reflects the driving force for a
specific type of charge transfer process, namely, the transfer of electrons between redox reactants.
Considering the nature of potential in this context, it is clear that the potential of a single half-cell or
a single electrode can’t be measured; “transfer” of electrons requires both a donor and recipient, in
this case a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent, respectively. Instead, a half-cell potential may only
be assessed relative to that of another half-cell. It is only the difference in potential between two half-
cells that may be measured, and these measured potentials are called cell potentials, Ecell, defined
as
Ecell = Ecathode − Eanode
where Ecathode and Eanode are the potentials of two different half-cells functioning as specified in the
subscripts. As for other thermodynamic quantities, the standard cell potential, E°cell, is a cell
potential measured when both half-cells are under standard-state conditions (1 M concentrations, 1
atm, 298 K):
E0cell = E0cathode − E0anode
in which reduction reaction takes place in the cathode while oxidation reaction takes place in the
anode.
To simplify the collection and sharing of potential data for half-reactions, the scientific
community has designated one particular half-cell to serve as a universal reference for cell potential
measurements, assigning it a potential of exactly 0 V. This half-cell is the standard hydrogen
electrode (SHE) and it is based on half-reaction below:
2H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
A typical SHE contains an inert platinum electrode immersed in precisely 1 M aqueous H+ and
a stream of bubbling H2 gas at 1 bar pressure, all maintained at a temperature of 298 K as shown in
Figure 1.
1
Figure 1. A Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) showing a stream of bubbling H2 gas
Retrieved from: https://openstax.org/resources/a05122bd8eb816d073b80f8bfd82a27003021417
The assigned potential of the SHE permits the definition of a conveniently measured potential
for a single half-cell. The electrode potential (EX) for a half-cell X is defined as the potential
measured for a cell comprised of X acting as cathode and the SHE acting as anode:
Ecell = EX − ESHE
ESHE = 0 V(defined)
Ecell = EX
When the half-cell X is under standard-state conditions, its potential is the standard
electrode potential, E°X. Since the definition of cell potential requires the half-cells function as
cathodes, these potentials are sometimes called standard reduction potentials.
This approach to measuring electrode potentials is illustrated in Figure 2, which depicts a cell
comprised of an SHE connected to a copper(II)/copper(0) half-cell under standard-state conditions.
Figure 2. A Copper-SHE Cell connected to a voltmeter

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/new-chm-152-unit-8-power-points-sp13-140227172047-phpapp01-171219132037/95/new-
chm152unit8powerpointssp13140227172047phpapp01-33-638.jpg?cb=1513690818
A voltmeter in the external circuit allows measurement of the potential difference between the
two half-cells. Since the Cu half-cell is designated as the cathode in the definition of cell potential, it
is connected to the positive input of the voltmeter, while the designated SHE anode is connected to
the negative input. These connections is consistent with the sign conventions of electrochemistry as
described above. A cell potential of +0.337 V is measured, and so
E0cell = E0Cu = +0.377 V

2
❖ Calculating Standard Cell Potential
A table of E° values can be used to determine the reactions that will occur spontaneously and
the standard cell potential for any combination of two half-cells without actually constructing the
cell.
Table 1. Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solutions at 250C
Retrieved from https://img.17qq.com/images/bjejjdgppbz.jpeg
The half-cell with the higher reduction potential according to the table will undergo reduction
within the cell. The half-cell with the lower reduction potential will undergo oxidation within the cell.
If those specifications are followed, the overall cell potential will be a positive value. The cell
potential must be positive in order for redox reaction of the cell to be spontaneous. If a negative cell
potential were to be calculated, that reaction would be spontaneous in the reverse direction.
Steps in calculating for Standard Cell Potential at its standard state:

1. Write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions for the cell.
reduction reaction: Y2+(aq) + 2e- → Y(s)
(Reduction gains electrons, hence, it is located on the reactant side.)
oxidation reaction: X(s) → X+(aq) + e-
(Oxidation loses electrons, hence, it is located on the product side.)
2. Use the table of Standard Reduction Potentials to determine the half-cell reactions potential.
(a) Eored for the half-cell that undergoes reduction reaction can be looked up straight away in
the table:
3
Y2+(aq) + 2e- → Y(s) Eo(reduction)
(b) In order to find the Eo value of the half-cell for the oxidation reaction, reverse the reaction
and write it as a reduction equation.
oxidation reaction: X(s) → X+(aq) + e-
reverse reaction: X+(aq) + e- → X(s)
Look up the value of Eo for this reversed reaction: X+(aq) + e- → X(s) Eo(rev)
Note: The E value for the oxidation reaction is the same as for the reversed reaction BUT the
o
sign will be the opposite (change + to -, or, change - to +)

X(s) → X+(aq) + e-
Eo(oxidation) = -Eo(rev)
3. Add the two half-cell potentials to get the overall standard cell potential.
E⁰ cell = E⁰red + E⁰ ox
Sample Problem:
Find the standard cell potential for an electrochemical cell with the following cell reaction.
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
1. Write the (a) oxidation and (b) reduction half-reactions for the cell.
Oxidation: Zn (s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
2. Look up the reduction potential, E⁰red, for the reduction half-reaction in a table of reduction
potentials (Table 1).
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) E0red = +0.34 V
3. Look up the reduction potential for the reverse of the oxidation half-reaction and reverse the
sign to obtain the oxidation potential. For the oxidation half-reaction,
E⁰ ox = -E⁰red
Zn (s) → Zn (aq)
2+ + 2e - E0red = -0.76 V
Zn (s) → Zn (aq)
2+ + 2e - E0ox = +0.76 V
Since Zn has lower reduction potential than Cu, Zn will undergo oxidation reaction.
4. Add the two half-cell potentials to get the overall standard cell potential.
Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
2+ - E0red = +0.34 V
Zn (s) → Zn (aq + 2e
2+ - E0ox = +0.76 V
E⁰ cell = (+0.34 V) + (+0.76 V)
E⁰ cell = +1.10 V
Since the standard cell potential is positive, so the reaction is spontaneous as written.
Activity 1. Spontaneous or Not?
Learning Objective:
Identify spontaneous and non-spontaneous in the given redox reactions.
What to do: Using the Standard Reduction Potential Table, use half-reaction potentials to identify
whether the following redox reactions are spontaneous or non-spontaneous. All the reactants
and products are in their standard states. The first one is done for you.

4
Table 2. Spontaneity of Redox Reactions
Redox Reaction Half-cell Half-cell E0oxidatio E0reductio E0redox Spontaneo

Reaction Reaction n n us?
(Oxidation) (Reduction)
Yes No
Ca2+(aq) + 2 I-(aq) 2 I-(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2e → 0.54 V -2.87 V -2.33 V No

→ Ca(s + I2(aq) I2(aq) + 2e- Ca(s)
1.) Pb2+(aq) + 2I-

→ Pb(s) + I2(g)
2.) Mg2+(aq) +
2Br-(aq) → Mg(s)
+ Br2(g)
3.) 2 H+(aq) +
2 Br-(aq) → H2(g) +
Br2(aq)
4.) Ce4+(aq) +
Fe2+(aq) → Ce3+(aq)
+ Fe3+(aq)
5.) Cr2+(aq) +
Cu2+(aq) →
Cr3+(aq) +
Cu+(aq)
Guide Questions:
1.What is the relationship between the E0 value of the half-cell reaction and the possibility of
spontaneous redox reaction?
2. What sign must the overall cell potential be in order for a reaction to be spontaneous?
Activity 2. The Last Redox Standing

Learning Objective:
Decide which will remain as reduction reaction and will be reversed as oxidation reaction in
the given half-reactions.
What to do: Given the following half-cell reactions, decide which will remain as reduction reaction
and which will be reversed as oxidation reaction. Identify the E0 of the half-reaction. Encircle the
appropriate word. The first one is done for you.
1. Zn2+(aq) + 2e- → Zn(s) E0 = -0.76 V reduction or oxidation

Al3+(aq) + 3e- → Al(s) E0 = -1.66 V reduction or oxidation
2. Mg2+(aq) + 2e- → Mg(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation
3. Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Au3+(aq) + 3e- → Au(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation
4. Ni2+(aq) + 2e- → Ni(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation
5. Al3+(aq) + 3e- → Al(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

Fe2+(aq) + 2e- → Fe(s) E0 =_______ reduction or oxidation

5
Guide Questions:
1. What type of reaction will the half-cell with the higher reduction potential undergo?
2. If both of the half-cell reactions undergo reduction reaction, what will you do to create a
spontaneous redox reaction?
Activity 3. Finding E0redox

Learning Objective:
Calculate the standard cell potential in the given redox reactions.
What to do: Given the following half-cell reactions, calculate the E0 by:
a. writing the balanced net-ionic equation for the overall reaction.
b. identifying the metal ions which undergo reduction reaction and oxidation reaction.
c. calculating the standard cell potential E0 for the overall reaction at 250C.
Sample Problem:
What is the standard cell potential, E0 of the reaction: Zn(s) + Pb2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Pb(s)?
a. Zn2+(aq) + 2e– → Zn(s)
Pb2+(aq) + 2e– → Pb(s)
b. Reduction: Pb2+(aq) + 2e– → Pb(s) E0 = -0.13 V
Oxidation: Zn aq) + 2e → Zn(s)
2+( – E0 = -0.76 V
c. E redox = E reduction + E oxidation
0 0 0
E0redox = -0.13 V + (-0.76 V)

E0redox = -0.13 V + 0.76 V
E0redox = 0.63 V
You may start here:

1. Ag → Ag+ and Sn → Sn2+
2. Pb2+ → Pb and Mg2+ → Mg
3. Al 3+ → Al and Fe2+ → Fe
Reflection
When a car is not used for 4-5 days, usually the battery is discharged. What will you do to prevent
this situation to happen?
Rubrics for Guide questions and Reflection:

3 –Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
1 –Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
AUS-e-TUTE.”Calculating Standard Electrode Potentials for Redox Reactions Tutorial”. Accessed

April 16, 2021. https://www.ausetute.com.au/calcelemf.html
Chemistry Libretexts. "Calculating Standard Cell Potentials". Accessed April 10,2021.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Book%3A_Introductory_C
hemistry_(CK12)/23%3A_Electrochemistry/23.06%3A_Calculating_Standard_Cell_Potentials
#:~:text=The%20overall%20cell%20potential%20can,Step%202%3A%20Solve.&text=Before%
20adding%20the%20two%20reactions,must%20be%20multiplied%20by%20two.

6
Ck12.org. “Calculating Standard Cell Potential”. Accessed April 12, 2021.
https://www.ck12.org/chemistry/calculating-standard-cell-potentials/lesson/Calculating-
Standard-Cell-Potentials-CHEM/
misteranthony.weebly.com. “Electrochemical Cell Worksheet. Accessed April 18,

2021.http://misteranthony.weebly.com/uploads/5/1/5/7/51577565/voltaic_cell_workshee
t.pdf
Plps-k12.org. “Ch_17_Electrochemistry_Practice_Problems”. Accessed April 18,2021.

https://www.plpsk12.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=2482&dataid
=3257&FileName=Ch%2017%20Electrochemistry%20Practice%20Problems%20I%20-
%20key.pdf
Socratic.org. “How do you calculate electrochemical cell potential?”. Accessed April 13, 2021.
https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-you-calculate-electrochemical-cell-potential
Answer Key

7
8
General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12 (STEM)

Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 4 – Week 8C: Electrochemistry Involved in Commercial Cells and Corrosion
First Edition, 2021
Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work
of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government
agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation
of such work for a profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as
a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective
copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use
these materials from the respective copyright owners. The authors do not represent
nor claim ownership over them.
Writer: Rosemalyn L. Pahamtang
Editors:
Regional Team
Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Romeo A. Villarin
Jesusa C. Olayon
Division Team
Jane C. Basul, PhD
Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo B. Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat
Management Team
Romeo O. Approvechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division Superintendent
Love Emma B. Sudarion, Assistant Schools Division Superintendent
Jane C. Basul, EPS – Science
Bernie Pamplona, LRMDS Manager – OIC

Author: Rosemalyn L. Pahamtang

School/Station: Carmen National High School
Email address: rosemalyn.pahamtang001@deped.gov.ph
General Chemistry 2, Quarter 4, Week 8-C
Electrochemistry Involved in Commercial Cells and Corrosion
Name: __________________________ Section: ___________________________
Most Essential Learning Competencies:
1. Describe the electrochemistry involved in some common batteries: a. Leclanché

dry cell; b. button batteries; c. fuel cells; and d. lead storage battery.
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-180)
2. Apply electrochemical principles to explain corrosion.
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-181)
1. describe the electrochemistry involved in Leclanche’ dry cell, button batteries,
fuel cells and lead storage battery;
2. explain corrosion in terms of the electrochemical reactions involved; and
3. enumerate some measures by which metals can be protected from corrosion.
Key Concepts:
 Electrochemistry
It is a field of chemistry which deals with the interconversion of chemical
energy and electrical energy that has many familiar applications in daily life. All
kinds of batteries, from those utilized to power a flashlight to a calculator to an
automobile, rely on chemical reactions to produce electricity. Redox chemistry,
electron transfer, is behind all electrochemical processes.
 Electrochemical Cell
It is any device that converts chemical energy from the reactions that occur in
the cells and in turn convert the chemical energy to electrical energy.
Electrochemical reactions produce the current obtained from cells and batteries.
1. Leclanché Dry Cell

The dry cell, the most familiar type of battery, is used in flashlights, radios,
some calculators, electronic devices like Walkman and Game Boy, and many other
gadgets. In spite of its name, the Leclanché dry cell is actually a “wet cell”: The zinc
casing acts as the anode and a graphite rod is the cathode. Leclanché cell involves
the two following half-reactions:
– anode (oxidation): Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
– cathode (reduction): 2MnO2 + 2NH4+ + 2e− → 2MnO(OH) + 2NH3
The chemical process involved in producing electricity in a Leclanché cell
begins when zinc atoms oxidize on the surface of the anode, i.e. they loses both

1
their valence electrons forming positively charged Zn2+ ions. As the Zn2+ ions stay
away from the anode, with their e- on its surface, the anode becomes more negatively
charged compared to cathode. When the cell is connected in an exterior electrical
path, the extra electrons on the zinc anode move through the circuit to
the carbon rod, the flow of electrons forming an electric current.
As the current moves around the circuit and then the electrons enter the
cathode (carbon rod), they react with manganese dioxide (MnO2) and water (H2O) to
yield manganese oxide (Mn2O3) and negatively charged hydroxide ions. This is
followed by a secondary acid-base reaction in which the hydroxide ions (OH–) receives
a proton (H+) from the ammonium ions present in the ammonium
chloride electrolyte to yield molecules of ammonia and water.
Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l), or if one
also considers the hydration of the Mn2O3(s) into Mn(III) oxy-hydroxide:
Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + 2MnO(OH)(s) + 2NH3(aq)

Alternately, forming Mn(II) hydroxide occurs as the reduction reaction of
Mn(IV) can proceeded.
Zn(s) + MnO2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Mn(OH)2(s) + 2 NH3(aq)
The half-reactions at the anode and the cathode which are responsible for the
electrical energy derived from the cell can be summarized as follows:
 cathode (reduction): 2MnO2(s) + 2NH+4(aq) + 2e− → Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

 anode (oxidation): Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e−
 overall:2MnO2(s)+2NH4Cl(aq)+Zn(s) → Mn2O3(s) + Zn(NH3)2Cl2(s) + H2O(l), Ecell = 1.5 V
2. Mercury and Silver Button Cells

Mercury is used to prevent corrosion that can result to gas buildup which in
turn can cause bulging and leakage or can adversely affect battery performance.
Button batteries are used to power watches, calculators, and cameras. In these
"button" batteries, the anode is a zinc–mercury amalgam, and the cathode uses
either HgO or Ag2O as the oxidant. The cathode and overall reactions and cell output
for these two sorts of button batteries are as follows:
For HgO:
 cathode (Hg): HgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− → Hg(l) + 2OH−(aq)
 anode(Zn): Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-
 overall (Hg): Zn(s) + 2HgO(s) → Hg(l) + ZnO(s), Ecell = 1.3 V or:
For Ag2O:
 cathode (Ag): Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e− → 2Ag(s) + 2OH−(aq)
 anode(Zn): Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) → ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-
 overall (Ag): Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) → 2Ag(s) + ZnO(s), Ecell = 1.6 V

2
3. Fuel Cells
These cells transform the energy of a fuel to electrical energy and are used for
handy power generation, static power generation, and power for transportation. The
following half reactions occur in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
 cathode (reduction): 4e- + O2(g) + 2H2O(g) → 4OH-(aq)
 anode (oxidation): 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) → 4H2O(g) + 4e−
 overall: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g), Ecell = 1.2 V
4. Lead Storage Cell
This is the battery used in cars and trucks. A typical 12-V battery consists of
6 cells connected in series to give a total potential of 12 V in the form of several Pb
plates dipped in H2SO4 solution. When the battery discharges, it produces
electrical energy as a galvanic cell. When it recharges, it uses electrical energy as
an electrolytic cell where the half-cell reactions and the overall reaction is reversed.
The half reactions in each cell during discharge and recharge are as follows:
 cathode (reduction): PbO2(s) + SO4−2 + 4H+ + 2e− PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
 anode (oxidation): Pb(s) + SO4 (aq)
−2 PbSO4(s) + 2e−
 overall: PbO2(s) + 2HSO4(aq) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l), Ecell = 1.2 V
 discharge equation: ( ) forward reaction; recharge equation: ( ) reverse reaction
 Corrosion of Metals
Corrosion is a common term used for the deterioration of metals through an
electrochemical process. Although this process is usually described in terms of the
metal iron, it is not limited to iron but can happen to any metal that has lower
reduction potential than that of hydrogen. Tarnish in silver, green patina in copper
and brass are the examples of metal corrosion and the most common which is the
rust in iron.
Figure 1. (a) tarnish in silver; (b) green patina in brass/copper; (c) rust in iron
Source: https://www.wholeheartedmen.com/wp content/uploads/2014/09/silver.jpg
Silverwares slowly form a layer of silver sulfide (Ag2S) when it comes into
contact with foodstuffs in a period of time. This is known to as the tarnish in silver.
Silver tends to be oxidized to Ag+. The negative oxidation potential implies that the
process takes place gradually.
Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e–
Copper is also prone to corrosion. When exposed in air, copper forms a coating
of green patina called copper (II) carbonate (CuCO3). It appears when Cu metal
oxidized into Cu2+ which also occurs in a relatively slow pace as suggested by the
negative oxidation potential:
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–

3
If the function of cells is a positive application of electrochemistry, corrosion
is the application of electrochemistry with negative effect. The electrochemical
nature of corrosion can be deduced from the nature of the four major components
necessary for corrosion to occur, namely:
 a metal anode where corrosion will take place;
 a cathode where no corrosion will take place;
 an electrolyte which can be soil, water, moisture, etc.; and
 an electrical assembly between the metal anode and cathode.
The reaction requires the existence of H2O and O2. Rusting of iron includes a
series of redox reactions which appear at different areas of the same iron sample.
Figure 2. Electrochemical processes involved in rust formation

Source: Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B. et.al. Teaching Guide for Senior High School Gen. Chem. 2
The anode reaction happens in one region of the metal where the oxidation of
iron occurs:
Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e– (E°oxidation = +0.44 V)
On another side of the metal, the electrons given up at the anode are used to
reduce O2 to H2O. This region serves as the cathode.
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– → 2H2O(l) (E°reduction = +1.23 V)
Note that the reaction potential is positive which means that the reaction is
spontaneous. The reaction also shows that the oxidation of iron is favored by acidic
conditions indicated by the presence of hydrogen ions at the cathode.
The Fe2+(aq) produced at the anode is oxidized by the O2(g) in air to Fe3+ which
forms iron (III) oxide in the hydrated form. This hydrated iron (III) oxide is what we
call rust.
4Fe2+(aq) + O2(g) + 4H2O(l) + 2H2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.H2O(s) + 8H+(aq)
To prevent corrosion of iron, the metal can be coated with a substance that
cannot be oxidized like a coat of paint or with a metal that is easier to oxidized than
iron. This is the basis of galvanization of iron where iron is coated with zinc metal to
protect the iron from corrosion. The reduction potentials of Fe2+ and Zn2+ is more
easily reduced than Zn2+ which means that Zn is more easily oxidized than Fe and
will therefore act as the anode; Fe, in turn, will act as the cathode at which O 2(g) is
reduced.

4
Activity 1. Know Me and Give My Reactions!
Learning Objective:
Describe electrochemistry involved in Leclanche’ dry cell, button
batteries, fuel cells and lead storage battery.
What to do: Given the diagrams below, identify what battery or cell being shown and
write the half reactions for oxidation and reduction reactions in a separate
sheet of paper. Number 1 is done for you.
Name of Oxidation Reduction
No. Battery or Cell battery or Reaction Reaction
cell
2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) 4e- + O2(g) +

→ 4H2O(g) + 4e− 2H2O(g) →
4OH-(aq)
1
Source: https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry
Guide Questions:
1. Based on the half reactions of the four (4) types of batteries/cells, identify the
electrode where oxidation and reduction reaction occur?
2. In oxidation reaction, the electrons are _________while in a reduction reaction,
the electrons are ________.
3. Describe the reactions that play a critical role in the cells within batteries.
 Refer to rubrics on page 7 for scoring the guide questions.

5
Activity 2A. Is Corrosion Possible or Not?
1. Explain corrosion in terms of the electrochemical reactions involved.
2. Enumerate some measures by which metals can be protected from corrosion.
What to do: Given the reactivity series of metals, determine if the following scenario
allows corrosion to take place or not. Write CP if corrosion is possible otherwise
write CN if corrosion is not possible in a separate answer sheet.
Figure 3. Reactivity Series of Metals

Source: https://byjus.com/chemistry/reactivity-series/
2
____1. Painting metals.

____2. Applying grease or oil on metals.
____3. Coating iron or steel with copper.
____4. Putting an iron nail in pure water and exposed to oxygen in air.
____5. Putting an iron nail in a sealed test tube of air and a drying agent e.g.
anhydrous calcium chloride which absorbs any moisture.
Activity 2B. Which is Which?

What to do: Read and analyze each question. Write your answer in a separate
answer sheet.
A. Given each pair of metals, which is more likely to corrode (oxidize)?
___(1) Mg or Ca ___(2) Au or Hg ___(3) Fe or Zn
B. Consider the following metals: Ag, Au, Mg, Ni, and Zn. Which of these metals could
be used as a sacrificial anode in the cathodic protection of an underground steel
storage tank? (4) _______ and (5) _____
Activity 2C. Electrochemical Reactions in Corrosion, Match Me!
What to do: Match Column A to Column B. Write your answer in a separate answer
sheet.
Column A Column B
1. Rusting of
Iron A. 2Ag(s) + H2S(g) → Ag2S(s) + H2(g)
2. Formation of
green patina B. 4Fe2+(aq) + O2(gas) + 6H2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.H2O(s)+ 8H+(aq)
3. Tarnishing of
silver C. 2CuO(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → Cu2CO3(OH)2(s)

6
Reflection
Read and analyze the question. Write your answer in a separate sheet.
Why is it that from nails and bolts to bridges, to roofing and framing
components, countless items are made of galvanized iron and not from pure iron?
Rubrics for Reflection:
Points Description
3 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to
the concepts, and has no misconception
2 Practical application is scientifically explained consistent to
the concepts, but with minimal misconception
1 Practical application is explained consistent to the concepts,
but with misconceptions
References for Learners:
Barrameda, Ma. Corazon B. et.al. Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Chemistry 2, pp 574-580. Published by the Commission on Higher Education,
2016.
Ilao, Luciana V., Loctoc, Betty M., and Paderna-Gayon, EdEdwehna Elinore S. “
General Chemistry 2”: K to 12, STEM. 1st ed., edited by Josefina G. Belen, 217-
220. 856 Nicanor Reyes Sr. St. Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines: rex
Bookstyore, Inc., 2016.
Website:
Chemistry Libretexts. 2021. “ Battery and Fuel Cells”. Accessed April 15, 2021.
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry__The_
Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/20%3A_Electrochemistry/20.7%3A_Batteries_and_Fuel_Cells
Chemistry Libretexts. 2021. “Corrosion”. Accessed April 15, 2021.

Answer Key:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_The_Centra
l_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/20%3A_Electrochemistry/20.8%3A_Corrosion
Chemistry. “Corrosion”. Accessed April 15, 2021.

https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/17- 6-corrosion/
BYJU’S. 2021. Reactivity Series.” Accessed April 16, 2021.

https://byjus.com/chemistry/reactivity-series/

7
8
Galvanizing is a process of coating iron or steel with zinc in order to provide greater
protection against corrosion for the iron or steel base. Galvanized iron is the same as pure iron,
the only difference is that it features a layer of zinc. The added layer of zinc helps to protect the
iron from rust and corrosion. Without it, the iron will be exposed to moisture and oxygen from
its surrounding environment. If left unchecked, this will trigger a chemical reaction with the
iron known as oxidation. Oxidation will cause the iron to rust and corrode.
Name of Oxidation Reduction Reaction
battery Reaction
or cell
2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) →4H2O(g) + 4e− 4e- + O2(g) + 2H2O(g) → 4OH-(aq)
Pb(s) + SO4−2(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e− PbO2(s) + SO4−2 + 4H+ + 2e− →
PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− 2MnO2(s) + 2NH+4(aq) + 2e− → Mn2O3(s)
+ 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
Zn(s)+2OH-(aq) → ZnO(s)+H2O(l)+2e- HgO(s)+H2O(l) + 2e− → Hg(l) + 2OH−(aq)
In oxidation reaction, the electrons are lost while in a reduction reaction, the
electrons are gain.
3. A battery consists of one or more electrochemical cells. Each cell contains two
metal electrodes and at least one electrolyte solution. The battery operates through
electrochemical reactions called oxidation and reduction. These reactions involve
the exchange of electrons between chemical species. If a chemical species loses
one or more electrons, this is called oxidation reaction. The opposite process, the
gain of electrons, is called reduction reaction. Redox chemistry, electron transfer,
is behind all electrochemical processes.

Quarter 4 – Week 8D: Electrode Reaction during Electrolysis
First Edition, 2021
Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for the exploitation of such work for a profit.
Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.
Borrowed materials (e.g., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks,
etc.) included in the activity sheets are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort
has been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from the respective
copyright owners. The authors do not represent nor claim ownership over them.
Writer Christy Marie N. Comedoy
Editors:
Regional Team Kevin Hope Z. Salvaña
Jesusa C. Olayon
Romeo Villarin
Engr. Raul Galleros

Delia P. Alcantara
Edgardo Tupas
Jesusa C. Olayon
Lilibeth S. Apat
Management Team Romeo O. Aprovechar, PhD, CESO IV, Schools Division Superintendent

WEEKLY LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET
General Chemistry 2 Grade 12, Quarter 4, Week 8D
Electrode Reactions during Electrolysis
Name: _____________________________________________________ Section: ____________________
Most Essential Learning Competency (MELC)
Explain the electrode reactions during electrolysis. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-182)

Describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes. (STEM_GC11ABIVf-g-183)
1. trace the movement of electrons during electrolysis;
2. write the reaction that occurs in the cathode and the anode and;
3. describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes.
Key Concepts
Definition of Terms:
a. anion – is a negative ion that is attracted to the positive electrode (anode).

b. cation – is a positive ion that is attracted to the negative electrode (cathode).
c. electroplating – is a process of coating a metal with another metal by the use of electric
current.
d. electrode – is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves an electrolyte during
electrolysis. It could be a cathode (negative electrode) or anode (positive electrode).
e. electrolyte – is an ionic compound which when molten or in aqueous solution conducts
an electric current and gets decomposed in the process.
f. molten – is a liquified substance by the use of heat.
What is electrolysis?
Scientists have learned how to utilize the power of
electricity to split elements and compounds. This process is
called electrolysis. It would be easier for the term 'electrolysis'
to remember if you break the word into its parts, “electro”
refers to electric and “lysis” is the scientist's way of saying that
something is splitting. Therefore, electrolysis is “electric
splitting”.
Figure 1. Essential parts of electrolytic cell
Source:https://knowledgebank.nie.edu.sg/projects/Chemistry.pdf
Parts of an electrolytic cell
An electrolytic cell consists of two electrodes namely; cathode and anode. They are
immersed either in a molten salt or in a solution. A battery or some other source of electrical
energy acts as an electron pump, which will push electrons into one electrode and pulling them
from the other. Same with voltaic cells, the electrode at which reduction occurs is called the
cathode (negative electrode), and the electrode at which oxidation occurs is called the anode
(positive electrode).
Author: Christy Marie N. Comedoy

email address: christymarie.naive@deped.gov.ph
1
Table 1. Essential Parts and Function of Electrolytic Cell
Parts Function
Battery • provides electrical energy to drive the chemical reaction
• (+) terminal pulls electrons from anode
• (-) terminal supplies electrons from anode
Electrolyte • either in solution or molten state
• presence of free mobile ions to allow flow of electricity
Electrodes Anode ( + electrode) Cathode ( - electrode)
(usually carbon • connected to (+) terminal of battery • connected to (-) terminal of battery
rods/ metal • attracts negatively charged ions • attracts positively charged ions
plates) • oxidation occurs • reduction occurs
**Anode – Oxidation occurs ** Cathode – Reduction occurs
Electrode reactions in molten NaCl electrolysis

If the molten sodium chloride NaCl(l) is placed into a container and the inert electrodes
of carbon C(s) are inserted and attached to the positive and negative terminals of a battery, an
electrolytic reaction will occur.
1. Electrons from the negative terminal will travel to the cathode and are used to reduce
sodium ions into sodium atoms. Sodium will plate onto the cathode and will be deposited
there. The sodium ion will then migrate towards the cathode.
Na+ + e− ⇌ Na(s)
2. Negative chlorine ions migrate towards the anode and release electrons as they oxidize to
form chlorine atoms. Chlorine atoms will then combine together to form chlorine gas
which will bubble away.
2Cl− ⇌ Cl2(g) + 2e−
3. The site of oxidation is still the anode and the site of reduction is still the cathode, but
the charge on these two electrodes are now reversed. Anode is now positive charged and
cathode has a negative charge.
4. It is very important to note the conditions under which the electrolyte cell operates. The
substance that is the strongest reducing agent will undergo oxidation while the substance
that is the strongest oxidizing agent will be reduced. If we will be using aqueous solution of
sodium chloride instead of molten sodium chloride, hydrogen would undergo reduction
instead of sodium because it is a stronger oxidizing agent than that of sodium.
a. b.
Figure 2. (a) Electrolysis of molten Sodium chloride(NaCl), (b) Movement of electrons in
the molten Sodium chloride(NaCl) electrolysis
Source: (a) Central Chemistry 12ed. by Brown, Le May et. al (b) http://www.chemunlimited.com/Electrolysis.pdf
An electrolysis reaction, which is carried out in an electrolytic cell, uses an external

source of electricity to drive a nonspontaneous electrochemical reaction. A molten salt or an
electrolyte solution can either be used as the current-carrying medium within an electrolytic cell.

2
By comparing the reduction potentials associated with possible oxidation and reduction
processes, the products of electrolysis can be generally predicted. If the electrode is involved or
consumed in the electrolysis reaction, the electrodes are called active. These active electrodes are
important in electroplating and in metallurgical processes.
During electrolysis of molten NaCl, Na+ ions pick up electrons and are reduced to Na at the
cathode (Figure 2a). As Na+ ions near the cathode are depleted, additional Na+ ions migrate in. In
the same way, there is a net movement of ions to the anode where they are oxidized. The
electrode reactions for the electrolysis are the following:
Electrolysis of molten salts requires very high temperatures because ionic substances has
high melting points. Do we obtain the same products if we electrolyze the aqueous solution of a
salt instead of the molten salt? Frequently the answer is NO because water itself might be
oxidized to form O2 and or reduced to form H2 rather than the ions of the salt.
In the electrolysis of NaCl, the electrodes are inert. It means that they do not react but merely
serve as the surface where oxidation and reduction occur. Several practical applications of
electrochemistry, however, are based on active electrodes—electrodes that participate in the
electrolysis process.
Figure 4 shows an electrolytic cell for electroplating nickel
onto a piece of steel. The anode is a strip of nickel metal,
and the cathode is the steel. The electrodes are immersed in
a solution of NiSO4(aq). When an external voltage is applied,
reduction occurs at the cathode. The standard reduction
potential of Ni2+ (Eored = -0.28 V) is less negative than that
of H2O (Eored = -0.83 V), so Ni2+ is favorably reduced, placing
a layer of nickel metal on the steel cathode.
At the anode, the nickel metal is oxidized. To explain this
behavior, we need to compare the substances in contact
with the anode, H2O and NiSO4(aq), with the anode material,
Ni. For the NiSO4(aq) solution, neither Ni2+ nor SO42- can be
Figure 3. Electrolytic cell with an oxidized (because both already have their elements in their
active metal electrode highest possible oxidation state). The H2O solvent and Ni
Source:General Chemistry, 12th ed.-Brown.pdf
atoms in the anode, however, can both undergo oxidation.
The strongest reducing agents, which are the substances oxidized most readily, have the most
negative E°red values. Thus, it is the Ni(s), with its Eored = -0.28 V, that is oxidized at the anode
rather than the H2O. If we look at the overall reaction, it appears as if nothing has been
accomplished. However, this is not true because Ni atoms are transferred from the Ni anode to
the steel cathode, plating the steel with a thin layer of nickel atoms. The standard emf
(electromotive force) for the overall reaction is:
Eocell = Eored (cathode) - Eored (anode) = (-0.28 V) – (-0.28 V) = 0
Because the standard emf is zero, only a small emf is needed to cause the transfer of nickel
atoms from one electrode to the other.

3
Some Commercial Electrolytic Processes
The following are examples of commercial electrolytic
processes:
➢ Electroplating - uses electrolysis to deposit a thin layer of
one metal on another metal to improve beauty or resistance
to corrosion. Examples include electroplating nickel or
chromium onto steel and electroplating a precious metal like
silver onto a less expensive one. Widely used in industries
such as automobile, airplanes, electronics, jewelry, and toys.
➢ Hall-Héroult process – is the electrolytic process used
Figure 4. Electroplating
commercially to produce aluminum by Charles M.Hall and silver onto a spoon
Paul Héroult. Hall began working on the problem of reducing Source:https://chem.libretexts.org.
aluminum in about 1885 after he had learned from a
professor the difficulty of reducing ores of very active metals.
Before the development of an electrolytic process, aluminum
was obtained by a chemical reduction using Sodium or
Potassium as the reducing agent; a costly procedure that
made aluminum metal expensive. As late as 1852, the cost of
aluminum was $545 per pound which is far greater than the
cost of gold. Since aluminum has such a high affinity for
oxygen and is never found pure, electrolysis can be used to
produce 99.5% pure aluminum by separating the oxides. Now, Figure 5. Hall-Heroult
aluminum is found in its oxidized form which is called Process
Source:Central Chemistry 12th ed by
Bauxite. Brown, Le May et.al
➢ Electrorefining of metals – is another application of electrolysis and is important for
other chemical processes. It is common to purification of Copper, Silver, Gold, Aluminum
and many more.
➢ Manufacture of chemicals such as Chlorine, Sodium chloride and bleach.
Activity 1. Trace the Split
1. Trace the movement of electrons during electrolysis.
2. Write the reactions that occurs in the cathode and anode.
What you need:

Pen and paper
What to do: Analyze Figure 6 to answer the

following questions. Write your answers on
a separate sheet.
1. What ions are present in this reaction?
2. Which one will move towards the
cathode?
3. Which one will move towards the
anode?
4. Write the anode half-reaction.
5. Write the cathode half-reaction. Figure 6. Movement of electrons in the molten
6. Write the complete redox reaction. sodium chloride(NaCl) electrolysis
Source: http://www.chemunlimited.com/Electrolysis.pdf

4
7. In an electrolytic cell the electrode at which the electrons enter the solution is called the
______ ; the chemical change that occurs at this electrode is called _______.
Activity 2. How We Do the Move!
Learning Objective:
Describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes.
What you need:

Pen and paper
What to do: Analyze Figure 7 that has a spoon and is dipped in a

silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution for it to be plated with silver (Ag).
Write your answers on a separate sheet.
Guide Questions:
1. Which is the anode? cathode?
2. Write an equation for the reaction taking place in the
cathode and the anode. Indicate whether it undergoes
reduction or oxidation.
3. What electrolyte is used in the set-up? Figure 7. Electroplating
4. Trace the flow of ions in the electrodes. silver onto a spoon
Source:https://chem.libretexts.org.
Reflection
Electrolysis of water or water splitting uses electric current to split water (H2O) to
hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2). Although oxygen dissolves naturally when water comes in
contact with air, it becomes a problem with polluted waters because dissolved oxygen is depleted
there. This is the time where supply of dissolved oxygen from electrolysis would be of great help.
On the other hand, hydrogen gas obtained from water splitting can be used as an alternative
source of clean fuel. Since electrolysis uses electricity, do you think the extraction of hydrogen
gas from water can be sustained? Yes or no? Why?
Rubrics:
3 – Explanation is scientifically consistent with the concepts and has no misconception.
1 – Explanation is consistent with the concepts but with misconceptions.
Brown, T., LeMay, H.E., Bursten, B., Murphy, C. & Woodward, P. (2009).Chemistry the Central
Science (12th ed., pp.860-870). Philippines: Pearson Education South Asia PTE. LTD.
Chang, Raymond. (2007). Chemistry (9th ed., pp. 434-485). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hein, M., Pattison, S., Arena, S.,(2012). Introduction to General Organic and Biochemistry (10th
ed., pp. 64-66). USA. John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Science.uwaterloo.ca. (2016). Electrolysis. Retrieved 15 April 2021, from
http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c123/heating.html
Whitten, K. (2007). Chemistry (8th ed., pp. 124-128). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

5
Internet Sources:
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/Matter/Electrolysishtm. Retrieved . April 16, 2021
https://www.helpteaching.com/lessons/69/electrolysis. Retrieved April. 16, 2021
https://study.com/academy/lesson/Electrolysis.html Date Accessed: Apr. 17, 2021
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-chemistry-flexbook2.0/section/13.18/primary/lesson/
Electrolysis Date Accessed: Apr. 15, 2021
http://www.chemunlimited.com/Electrolysis.pdf Date Accessed: April 20, 2021
https://chem.libretexts.org/Electrolysis.pdf Date Accessed: April 19, 2021
Answer Key

6

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COPYRIGHT PAGE FOR UNIFIED LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS

General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12

First Edition, 2021

Writer Myra Joy B. Montero

Division Team Edna E. Trinidad

Management Team Josita B. Carmen, CESO V, Schools Division Superintendent

Printed in the Philippines by:

ENTROPY & FREE ENERGY

Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________

Most Essential Learning Competencies

❖ Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy. STEM_GC11CTIVa-b-140

Time allotment: 2 hours

Learning Objectives: The learners will be able to:

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

• Entropy (S) is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. It is described as

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

ENTROPY CHANGES IN THE SYSTEM

where n and m are the stoichiometric coefficients of the chemical equation.

S° (J/mol∙K) 213.6 186.2 130.6 188.7

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

GIBBS FREE ENERGY

• In the second law of thermodynamics, a reaction is spontaneous if the ∆𝑺universe is greater

Substituting equation 7 to equation 4 gives

Multiplying both sides by –𝑻:

∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = ∆𝐻𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 − 𝑇∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 < 0 [eqn. 8]

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

STANDARD FREE-ENERGY CHANGES

Substance PCl3(g) P4(g) Cl2(g)

Since the sign of ∆𝐺°𝑟𝑥𝑛 is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟑. 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐺 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑝 ∆𝐺 = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆

(source: Chemistry Raymond Chang 10th edition, page 818)

TEMPERATURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

∆𝐻 ° = [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝑂) + ∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑂2 )] − [∆𝐻𝑓° (𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 )]

Next, we apply Equation 6 to find ∆S°:

From this equation, ∆G° = ∆H° - T∆S°, we obtain

∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

∆𝐺° = ∆𝐻° − 𝑇∆𝑆°

Activity 1. Changes in Entropy

Learning Objectives: 1. Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy.

4Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) → 2Fe2O3 (s)

Activity 2. Standard Entropy

References for learners

Author: Myra Joy B. Montero

General Chemistry 2 – Grade 12

First Edition, 2021

Development Team of Learner’s Activity Sheets

Writer Pamela Lou C. Suazo

Editors: Kevin Hope Salvaña

Division Team Edna E. Trinidad, Ed.D.

Management Team Schools Division Superintendent: Josita B. Carmen, CESO V

Printed in the Philippines by:

Chemical Equilibrium and Le Chatelier’s Principle

Name: ___________________________________________ Section: ____________________

Most Essential Learning Competencies

Time allotment: 5 hours

Learning Objectives: The learners will be able to:

Chemical equilibrium is a state of which the concentrations of the reactant and

Decomposition of colorless dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) gas into brown nitrogen

Author: Pamela Lou C. Suazo

• Law of Mass Action and Equilibrium Constant Expression

Name: _______________________ Section:

Name: _______________________ Section:

Name: _______________________ Section: