CHAPTER 9
Manufacture of Pasta Products
Claudio M. Pollini1
Pavan Tecnologie S.p.A.
Galliera Veneta, Padova, Italy
Francesco Pantò1
Antonio Nespoli1
Barilla G. e R. Fratelli S.p.A.
Parma, Italy
Overview
Pasta is consumed worldwide because it has many features
appreciated by the consumer, such as wide diversity of form,
long shelf life, good nutritional value, hygienic quality, and
relatively low cost. Durum wheat is the raw material of choice
for making pasta. Pasta processing aims to change the form of
the vitreous endosperm of durum wheat using only physical
methods. Indeed, pasta processing consists of three main unit
operations:
• Hydrating and mixing-­k neading of semolina to make a
dough (formation of gluten network),
• Shaping the dough through extrusion, and
• Stabilizing the shaped pasta pieces, usually by drying.
This sequence of operations was developed on an industrial,
automated scale beginning in the early 1930s with the introduc-
tion of the continuous press, then with the use of automatic dry-
ers, and finally, in the mid-­to-­late 1940s, with the manufacture
of continuous, automatic production lines. These machines pro-
cessed semolina into dried spaghetti or macaroni ready for pack-
aging (Marchylo and Dexter 2001). Although the fundamentals
of this process have not changed much since then, the average
output has increased dramatically (up to 8,000 kg/h, Fig. 9.1),
thanks to rapid integration of knowledge (empirical know-­how
of practitioners, scientific data on the physicochemical proper-
ties of the raw material and end products, and material science
1
Authors of the sections entitled Overview; Raw Materials for Pasta Produc-
tion; and Pasta-­Dough Formation, Extrusion, and Shaping on an Industrial
Scale.
2
Author of the section entitled Impact of Drying Conditions on Pasta
Characteristics.
3
Author of the section entitled Physicochemical Changes During Pasta-­Dough
Formation and Extrusion and Implications for Pasta Quality.
Mike Sissons2
NSW Department of Primary Industries
Tamworth Agricultural Institute
Calala, NSW, Australia
Joël Abecassis3
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique
UMR Ingenierie des Agropolymeres et Technologies Emergentes
INRA-­SupAgro-­CIRAD-­Université Montpellier 2
Montpellier, France
information), as well as the development of new sensors and au-
tomation for driving processing lines.
This chapter outlines the three main unit operations as
viewed from an industrial, technological perspective and de-
scribes the scientific basis for the main physicochemical changes
occurring during pasta manufacturing that influence final pasta
quality.
Raw materials for pasta production
Durum wheat pasta is made from durum wheat semolina to
which is added water, the “reactant” that allows modification of
the gluten via the input of mechanical and thermal energy to
produce the pasta. The wheat proteins (see Chapter 6 for details)
help strengthen pasta structure by means of entangled aggrega-
tion. Starch, the major component of semolina and pasta, occurs
in the form of granules dispersed within the protein network.
Under strong mechanical stresses, the starch granule may be
damaged, resulting in a higher capacity to fix water and thus
competing with protein for water absorption. Moreover, starch
damage results in the production of some reducing sugars able
to react with proteins to form undesirable reddish colored prod-
ucts during drying. High pigment content (flavonoids and carot-
enoids) is necessary to obtain the desirable yellow color of pasta.
However, attention must be given to enzyme activity, often re-
sponsible for oxidation phenomena that result in loss of color
and brightness and form peroxide compounds characterized by
gray color and a rancid smell. Minerals, vitamins, and fiber may
be considered inert compounds that do not interact during the
process chain but are important from a nutritional viewpoint.
However the calcium and magnesium contents have a techno-
logical significance because these minerals can inhibit gluten
x  161
162  x  Durum Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.

Fig. 9.1. Changes in pasta productivity over time.

network building and add unpleasant flavors (associated with Hydration and Mixing-­Kneading
chlorine and sulfur). In the next stage, the weighed semolina, which consists of
Besides simple and traditional ingredients for pasta making, particles of variable diameter (~100–500 µm), and a defined
a wide variety of additional ingredients may be used to diver- percentage of water pass through a mixing-­k neading process
sify the final product. The most-­traditional ingredients added to designed to produce homogeneously hydrated dough. Homo-
semolina are eggs and dry vegetables (spinach and tomato). Eggs geneous hydration is essential for production of high-­quality
provide several effects: aesthetic (a warm yellowish color), nutri- pasta. Mixers ensure homogeneity in water concentration
tional (proteins and fats), and also functional (binding capacity through their mixing action and also provide the necessary
of the egg’s albumins). Dried vegetables affect color and margin- residence time to let water diffuse evenly into the center of
ally affect taste. the granules. To obtain the most homogeneous hydrated mass
possible, semolina and water first undergo high-­speed premix-
Pasta-­Dough Formation, Extrusion, and ing (using a single or double shaft, vertical or horizontal) to
Shaping on an Industrial scale ensure intimate contact between semolina particles and water
droplets (Fig. 9.4 top). Further mixing then takes place in the
The basic components of a conventional industrial pasta pro- main mixing unit (Fig. 9.4 bottom), generally under vacuum,
cessing system (comprising the dosing, premixing, mixing, and before the mass passes into the extrusion section. In traditional
extrusion stages) are illustrated in Figure 9.2. mixer-­k neaders, as well as vacuum mixers, residence times
range from 10 to 15 min, according to the semolina’s particle
Raw Material Dosing size distribution, i.e., granulation. Other systems such as the
The initial step, raw material dosing, is of primary impor-
tance for the subsequent steps, i.e., dough formation and pasta
manufacture. The water-­semolina ratio determines the rheologi-
cal behavior of the semolina dough and the mechanical energy
input for each product. This ratio depends on semolina compo-
sition (protein content, starch damage, and fiber content), and
generally the final moisture of the dough is adjusted to 28–30%
(wb). Semolina dosers can be volumetric (Fig. 9.3) or gravimet-
ric, while water dosing can be achieved using either a mechani-
cally or a volumetrically based system that is synchronized with
the semolina doser. Alternatively, processes that are electroni-
cally based or managed by a programmable logic controller
(PLC) can be used to control water-­flow rate and thus dosing.
Water temperature is controlled by a simple thermostatic system
(probe and three-­way mixer valve) and usually ranges between
20 and 50°C (Dawe 2001a). All the components of solid and fluid Fig. 9.2. Flow chart showing the feed, dough mixing, and extrusion
dosers are built of stainless steel and/or food-­grade materials. steps in pasta preparation.

Fig. 9.3. Volumetric semolina doser, rotating
valve (for vacuum).
belt mixer and ripener also show comparable residence times,
whereas a twin-­screw extruder system requires a shorter time
of about 2 min coupled with the need for a significantly finer
semolina granulation.
Development of new approaches to mixing continues, as ex-
emplified by the introduction of a commercial premixer system
called Premix (Storci 2005) This process subjects the semolina
and water to centrifugal force during mixing to obtain uniform
surface hydration of the semolina particles in less than 2 s. The
hydrated particles have a dough rest period during transit on a
slow-­moving conveyor belt where the particles are not agitated.
They are then fed into the mixer and processed into various
dried and fresh pasta products. Alternatively, the hydrated parti-
cles can be more intensively mixed by a system of rapid kneading
rollers called Bakmix (Fava and Storci 2006) before processing.
These two systems are significantly different from the traditional
shaft mixer, with a shorter processing time as well as a different
kneading action.
The operation for vacuum presses is completely vacuum
sealed (typically 0.8–0.9 bar) from the semolina dosing to the
dies. An airlock is placed in the semolina dosing system to sepa-
rate the vacuum zone from ambient conditions but not in the
passage from the main mixer to the vacuum mixer. All parts
that contact product, such as mixing troughs, shaft(s), paddles,
and wall scrapers, are stainless steel. As seen in Figure 4 top,
tank closing lids are made of Plexiglas plates with a stainless
steel framework and gaskets for vacuum sealing. Opening and
Manufacture of Pasta Products  x  163
Fig. 9.4. Top, premixer; bottom, main
vacuum mixer.
closing is usually automated and synchronized while the system
is in operation. Additional water may be added with electrical
push-­button control, and a sensor surveys the mixture level
in the mixer. Overall process management is PLC-­based, with
alarm signals for anomalous working of water circuits, feeding
and dosing systems, and minimum or maximum levels.
Vacuum systems (Fig. 9.2) are designed to 1) obtain more-­
homogeneous water absorption by the starch granules and con-
sequently avoid formation of white spots; 2) prevent oxidation
of lipids, which is responsible for an unpleasant smell and gray-
ish color; 3) prevent oxidation of pigments to avoid changes in
the final color of pasta from a bright yellow to gray; 4) prevent
the growth and survival of aerobic microorganisms; and 5) ex-
tract air bubbles from the dough to prevent formation of white
points in the final dried product. Once the first mixing phase
commences, the gluten proteins are stretched, and, as the tem-
perature rises, an interlinked protein framework is established
(Dawe 2001a).
164  x  Durum Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
Pasta Dough Formation
After hydration and mixing, the wetted semolina particles
enter the extrusion stage, where pasta dough development largely
occurs. Extrusion (without heating and cooking) involves the op-
eration of a suitably designed screw inside a cylinder that trans-
ports the pasta dough along the screw concomitant with increas-
ing compression or pressure to stimulate dough development.
Friction must remain at low levels to prevent increased dough
temperature over 40°C, and the cylinder and head are cooled so
that their maximum temperature does not exceed 45°C. During
this stage, a transition occurs from hydrated granular semolina
to a homogeneous fluid, with an associated increase in specific
weight along the screw from 750 to 1,350 kg/m3.
The extrusion system is composed of 1) a screw-­barrel sub-
system, which pushes the product, and 2) a die that restricts the
flow-­out of the dough. As a consequence, the die creates increas-
ing back-­pressure along the screw, which results in dough de-
velopment. Further energy input is transferred to the forming
dough to push it through the die holes and shape the product.
For a typical spaghetti line, the specific mechanical energy given
Fig. 9.5. Stress generation in a single-screw extruder. D = diameter
of the screw, d = diameter of the core, H = height of the pitch, V =
linear speed.
Fig. 9.6. Inside of a grooved barrel. (Courtesy Pavan
Technologie)
should be in the range of 40–55 kJ/kg with good mechanical effi-
ciency (at least over 70%). This transfer of energy, combined with
a change in the pitch along the screw, generates shear within the
product (Fig. 9.5). Grooves along the sides of the barrel (Fig. 9.6)
also are important, as they increase the shear effect and make
the dough adhere to the barrel, which generates a kneading ac-
tion. This process leads to development of the gluten network but
also to damaged starch and heat generation. A cooling system is
necessary to keep the heat generated by the extrusion process
from causing negative effects on gluten network quality. One or
two carbon steel cylinders are fitted with stainless steel jackets
for temperature regulation of the compression screw as well as
the headpiece. Regulation temperature is obtained by means of
a circuit with a circulation pump, Pt100 temperature-­control
probe, and modulating valve; the headpiece is also equipped
with a thermometer for temperature display, and the entire sys-
tem is PLC-­managed. The material used to make dies is bronze
with inserts made of Teflon or bronze (Fig. 9.7), the design and
construction of which are arts in themselves and influence pasta
shape and smoothness (Dawe 2001b).
Extrusion and Shaping of Pasta
Shaping of pasta involves transforming the dough into a
specific form (spaghetti, macaroni, etc.) concomitant with de-
velopment of a continuous network of gluten protein, which sur-
rounds the starch granules. This process facilitates maintenance
of the pasta structure during cooking. Pasta shaping comprises
dough compression and extrusion phases, which take place as
the dough is forced under high pressure through small holes in
a die, followed by cutting. The die holes are designed to give the
desired pasta shape and size (Fig. 9.8). Compression and extru-
sion are obtained with different machines. Pasta shapes can be
obtained by extruding unshaped dough through a small metal
hole or by lamination (or sheeting) into a sheet of pasta, followed
by forming, folding, pinching, and cutting in different ways.
Lamination is in use more for manufacture of fresh pasta, while
extrusion is primarily used for dry-­pasta manufacturing. In this
chapter, we have considered only the extrusion process.
Fig. 9.7. Influence of different inserts on the surface characteristics
of pasta. Left, the surface of dry product produced by a Teflon insert;
right, that from a bronze insert. Note: short-good dies are used for
illustration only.

Physicochemical changes during Pasta-­
dough Formation and Extrusion and
Implications for Pasta Quality
As seen in the previous sections of this chapter, pasta struc-
ture is developed during the three successive unit operations of
hydration, mixing, and extrusion, which aim at forming a con-
tinuous protein network entrapping starch granules (Resmini
and Pagani 1983, Peressini 2001). This microstructural organiza-
tion affects pasta sensory and nutritional quality. Consequently,
extrusion conditions represent a critical stage of pasta manufac-
ture that can alter pasta microstructure from a developed to a
damaged protein network (Fig. 9.9). There has been little scien-
tific research on pasta extrusion. Only three studies (Walsh et
al 1971, Abecassis et al 1994, Debbouz and Doetkott 1996) have
reported that extrusion parameters affect pasta quality. Walsh et
al (1971) showed that extrusion temperature is a critical param-
eter. Increasing it leads to better pasta appearance but decreased
cooking quality, as the pasta is less firm after cooking. Menger
(1977) stated that the extrusion temperature should not exceed
Fig. 9.8. Short-goods die and pasta product.
Fig. 9.9. Comparison of two cooked spaghetti strands obtained under
different extrusion conditions: mild (A) and severe (B). Under severe
conditions, the proteins (in blue-green) are concentrated in the mid-
dle of the cooked spaghetti section, causing increased starch release.
Manufacture of Pasta Products  x  165
50°C, whereas Medvedev et al (1987) found that the optimum
temperature is about 70°C. Using a fully instrumented pasta
press, Abecassis et al (1994) studied the effect of hydration, tem-
perature, and shearing on pasta quality. Their study drew several
conclusions.
• Temperature of extrusion is the main factor responsible
for the degradation of cooking quality. Figure 9.10 shows
an increase in cooking losses of 250% when the barrel
temperature was raised from 35 to 70°C.
• Increase in hydration causes a beneficial effect on cooking
quality by reducing the viscosity of the dough.
• At high extrusion temperature, the increase of screw rota-
tion speed enhances the cooking quality by reducing the
extrusion residence time.
• A large, open die surface improves the surface condition of
the cooked pasta but decreases its viscoelastic properties.
To avoid overheating the dough, an increase in hydration of
semolina, a decrease in residence time in the extrusion phase,
and reduction of the number of pre-­die and filter plates are rec-
ommended. The control of pasta temperature at the die is there-
fore the simplest way to guarantee end products of good quality.
Debbouz and Doetkott (1996) studied the effect of five process
variables (water absorption, barrel temperature, screw speed,
mixing time, and water temperature). Their results concur with
those reported by Abecassis et al (1994), demonstrating that
water absorption and barrel temperature have the greatest effect
on all pasta parameters. Mixing time had a significant effect on
pasta yellowness and firmness, while water temperature affected
only pasta firmness. Using response surface methodology, they
found that spaghetti color and cooking quality were optimized
at 31% dough moisture, 25 rpm screw speed, and 45–53°C barrel
temperature (Fig. 9.11).
At the physicochemical level, several changes occur from
semolina to extruded pasta, with a resulting large impact on the
structure of pasta. Accurate determination of the quantity of
Fig. 9.10. Relationship between cooking losses and extrusion tem-
perature of pasta. (Reprinted from Abecassis et al 1994)
166  x  Durum Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
water to be added to the semolina remains a key point and is still
determined by human expertise. The kinetics of water trans-
port in durum wheat endosperm was studied by Kratzer et al
(2008), applying a gravimetric method and magnetic resonance
imaging. The total water uptake of durum endosperm reaches a
swelling limit of 40 g/100 g (wb) after 60 min, with an apparent
diffusion coefficient of water of 0.76 × 10–10 m2/s.
During the mixing stage, heterogeneous hydrated semolina
lumps (~2–3 cm in diameter) are formed in the mixing cham-
ber. Water diffuses slowly into semolina particles and increases
the protein mobility through a plastifying effect (Hoseney et al
1986), allowing the formation of a protein network. However, no
major changes appear to occur at a microscopic level; i.e., under
scanning electron microscopy, starch granules are still distinctly
visible and firmly embedded within the protein matrix (Matsuo
et al 1978). As water absorption takes place below 50°C, starch
granules show no important structural changes (Vansteelandt
and Delcour 1998), and no indication of gluten network forma-
tion is apparent (Matsuo et al 1978), due to the limited hydra-
tion level and low energy input (Icard-­Vernière and Feillet 1999).
At a smaller scale, a slight increase (~3%) in protein solubility
in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is observed during mixing
(Icard-­Vernière and Feillet 1999). (SDS disrupts electrostatic, hy-
drophobic, and hydrophilic interactions.) According to Carini
et al (2009), the new mixing devices used for semolina hydra-
tion may affect the physicochemical properties and water status
of fresh pasta. Fresh pasta produced with Premix and Bakmix
processes (see section on hydration and mixing) was less exten-
sible and harder, and the pasta had greater cooking loss. These
mixers did not allow the development of a plastic and extensible
continuous phase due to the shorter mixing time and/or lack of
kneading action and/or lower water availability for proper glu-
ten development.
Fig. 9.11. Effect of extruder barrel temperature and semolina water
absorption on pasta quality. (Reprinted from Debbouz and Doetkott
1996)
During extrusion, the pressure builds up (5–15 MPa) due to
the restriction of the die, generating dough development inside
the screw. The mechanical energy transferred by the screw to the
product generates a shear stress, which is the origin of dough de-
velopment. However one part of this energy is dissipated in the
form of heat, resulting in rising dough temperature. Depending
on the moisture content of the hydrated semolina, its chemical
composition, and its protein content, as well as the press charac-
teristics (screw profile, screw speed), this transfer of energy re-
sults in the formation of different pasta structures as well as dif-
ferent protein networks and different degrees of starch damage.
Freshly extruded spaghetti presents a compact internal
structure with starch granules deeply embedded in a protein
matrix and aligned along the direction of the flow (Matsuo et al
1978). The starch granules within the pasta are irregular in size
and shape and appear to be slightly swollen (Tudorica et al 2002).
At the molecular level, the extent of protein denaturation
can be detected by monitoring the loss of protein solubility in
dilute acetic acid (Dexter and Matsuo 1977) or in SDS (Icard-­
Vernière and Feillet 1999). Different authors found different pro-
tein fractions to be affected by extrusion. According to Dexter
and Matsuo (1977), extrusion led to a loss of solubility of the
globulin fraction without affecting the albumin, gliadin, and
glutenin fractions. This loss of solubility could not be explained
by polymerization because no change in disulfide bonds or in
the molecular weight distribution of proteins was detected. They
hypothesized that globulins bind to the insoluble components of
semolina. On the contrary, Icard-­Vernière and Feillet (1999) ob-
served a decrease of protein solubility in SDS, mainly resulting
from a decrease in glutenin-­aggregate solubility that was con-
comitant with an increase in the insoluble fraction. This means
that bigger insoluble glutenin aggregates are formed during ex-
trusion. According to Weegels and Hamer (1998), the insolubi-
lization of proteins occurs at a temperature >60°C. Structural
transformations are therefore a consequence of both the me-
chanical (shearing stress) and thermal forces involved in extru-
sion (Dalbon et al 1996), and the local temperature of the dough
appears to be a crucial parameter for pasta quality.
Concerning the starch fraction, mechanical forces can lead
to moderate damage to starch granules (Lintas and D’Appolonia
1973). A local increase in temperature (>60°C) due to mechani-
cal forces can also lead to starch gelatinization. Measurements
by differential scanning calorimetry revealed a lower gelatiniza-
tion enthalpy of extruded pasta compared to that of semolina
(Vansteelandt and Delcour 1998, Zweifel et al 2000). Reduced
gelatinization enthalpy could be explained by the presence of
some gelatinized starch granules and/or some damaged starch
granules, which require less energy to melt (Biliaderis 1990).
Pasta color also is affected by the extrusion conditions. Most
of the biochemical changes in dough are due to carotenoid oxi-
dation. Borrelli et al (1999) determined that the phase mainly
responsible for pigment loss is pasta processing, with an aver-
age decrease of 16% in semolina β-­carotene content. They also
confirmed that lipoxygenase (LOX) activity is the main factor
involved in the loss of color, as the isoenzymatic forms (LOX-­2
and LOX-­3) are active at the pH of dough. According to Matsuo
et al (1970), the level of LOX activity is not as important as the
availability of the substrate. The level of macaroni brownness is
 Manufacture of Pasta Products  x  167

probably controlled by peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase ac-
tivities (Kobrehel et al 1974). All these oxidative activities can be
prevented with the use of vacuum mixing systems.
Extrusion conditions also have an impact on the amounts
of reducing sugars and water-­soluble arabinoxylans, which in-
crease by 400 and 200%, respectively. According to Lintas and
D’Appolonia (1973), shearing stress is mainly responsible for
the release of water-­soluble arabinoxylans and reducing sugar,
whereas Samson and Morel (1995) consider the reason to be the
increased contacts between enzymes and substrates. The release
of reducing sugar might be related to the activation of β-­amylase
by water and mechanical work input. Semolina granularity can
impact reducing sugar production and Maillard reaction prod-
ucts during pasta processing (Sensidoni et al 1996). Whatever
the mechanisms, increasing the reducing sugar content has an
impact on the development of a reddish color in the end product
by delivering reactants to Maillard reactions when drying is op-
erated at high temperature.
Die characteristics strongly affect the appearance of the
pasta surface. Traditional dies made of bronze make the pasta
surface rough, which helps to capture sauce, whereas the Teflon
insert gives the product an even surface and a smoother texture.
Moreover, during cooking, the penetration of water is more rapid
in pasta extruded using a bronze die. Sensory tests show that the
cooked pasta texture is of a more uniform consistency compared
with that of the Teflon-­extruded product. Lucisano et al (2008)
found that pasta extruded through a bronze die had higher po-
rosity. This characteristic facilitates water uptake during cooking
but also may have some detrimental effects: a decrease of 20–30%
in breaking strength of the dry pasta; higher development of in-
sects, as the rough surface makes the deposition of the eggs eas-
ier; and a greater release of starch into the cooking water.
keeping product temperatures between 60 and 90°C. The differ-
ence between product temperature and air temperature is miti-
gated by air moisture content and ongoing evaporation through
the water-­removal process.
Moisture Transfer During Drying
In the dryer, a coupled process of thermal and mass flow can
be identified (Fig. 9.12). The limiting stage of drying is the dif-
fusion of water inside pasta. Because the diffusivity coefficient
increases with temperature, the drying speed can be increased
with the use of higher temperatures. The shaped dough contains
different types of water: free water (water activity [aw] = 0.95–1.0),
bulk capillary water (aw  = 0.80–0.95), intermediate molecular-­
layer water (aw = 0.35–0.80), and internal molecular-­layer water
(aw = 0.01–0.35). The migration of free and capillary water is very
easy, while the migration of water in the intermediate layer can
result in pasta checking. To avoid this phenomenon, it is very
important to prevent the generation of an external surface crust
by optimizing the speed of water release using a well-­designed
drying diagram.
Phase Transition and Checking
Moisture diffusion within the pasta generates a moisture
gradient that can cause thermoviscoelastic stresses that result in
TABLE 9.1
History of Pasta Drying Technologies
Drying Time (h)
Drying
Temp. Short-Cut Long-Cut
Technologies Period (°C) Pasta Pasta

Pasta Drying Technology Static cells Late 1950s 45–50 24 25–30

Low-temperature Late 1960s <60 15 24
Pasta drying has always been an extremely time-­consuming High-temperature 1970s <80 8 12
and labor-­intensive production step. The improvement and ad- Very-high-temperature 1990s–2000s 90 3–4 6–8
vancement of technology and equipment over the last 30 years Thermoactive system From 2000 100 2.5 5.5
have drastically reduced the direct need of labor to dry pasta
and, importantly, have reduced processing time. Pasta is perfect
to sell if defects are not visible at packaging. However, it can be
several weeks, depending on the shapes, before a positive answer
on cooking quality is obtained.

Technological Principles of Pasta Drying

Basically the principle of drying pasta consists of passing a
current of hot or warm air over a fresh pasta product so that the
thermohygrometric properties of the air progressively decrease
product moisture content to a level acceptable for dried pasta.
Dried pasta at room temperature is stable for years in a normal
storage environment. The evolution of technology and manu-
facturing (Table 9.1) has been directed specifically at optimiz-
ing the way in which air characteristics (speed, temperature, and
moisture) could be manipulated to dry pasta more quickly and
effectively while maintaining or improving the quality of the
final product. Nowadays, the majority of pasta-­drying processes
adopt air temperatures that range from about 70 to 100°C, while
Fig. 9.12. Heat and mass transfers during drying of pasta. Q1, the
thermal energy flow given by forced convection from hot air to pasta.
Q2, the thermal energy flow that diffuses from the surface to the cen-
ter of spaghetti. Q3, the (negative) thermal energy flow that leaves
pasta due to evaporation (an endothermic process). Q4, the (negative)
thermal energy flow used by the spaghetti structure to internally cre-
ate extra bonds (e.g., disulfide bridges). N1, the mass flow of water that
diffuses from the center to the surface of pasta. N2, the mass flow of
water that by convection leaves the spaghetti and passes to air.
168  x  Durum Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
superficial and subsurface cracks. Indeed, the rheological prop-
erties of the pasta change with the local moisture content and
the temperature of the matrix. Two phases were identified dur-
ing high-­temperature (HT) drying (80°C):
• Plastic. This phase extends from ~30% moisture (wb) (the
beginning of drying) to ~16–18% moisture. During this
phase, pasta may support deformations without genera-
tion of any cracks.
• Elastic. This phase extends from ~16–18% to ~12.5% mois-
ture (the final-­product moisture). At this stage, stresses gen-
erated by the drying process must be carefully controlled. If
the stresses become higher than the mechanical resistance of
the pasta matrix, cracks are generated within the product.
The transition point between the plastic and elastic phases is
of critical importance to final-­product stability. During drying,
pasta is subjected to internal tensions because the product vol-
ume is decreasing (“shrinking”) concomitant with loss of water.
Fig. 9.13. Drying cycle thermoactive system for long-cut pasta.
Fig. 9.14. Design for long-cut pasta drying plant.
For example, an extruded fresh spaghetti strand with a diameter
of ~1.87 mm has a final dried product diameter of ~1.67 mm, i.e.,
a reduction of ~0.2 mm. As a result, the external layers of the
spaghetti strand compress the internal structure and create ten-
sional stresses (thermoviscoelastic). Pasta in the plastic phase is
more able to relax and redistribute such stresses, but in the elas-
tic state it is unable to do so, which contributes to the creation of
possible points of fracture.
Pasta plant suppliers have proposed new production-­line de-
signs to optimally control the drying process and guarantee a
maximum technological safety margin. Such a process has been
patented by Pavan Mapimpianti S.p.A. (1995). The solution to
limiting stress generation within a product incorporates alter-
nate periods of drying (at a plastic stage) and stabilization (at an
elastic stage) (De Cindio and Pollini 1995, Migliori et al 2002a,b)
(Fig. 9.13) and consists of equipment shown in Figure 9.14 for
long-­cut pasta.

Long-­Cut Pasta Dryer Design and Technology
The technology behind the drying process is designed to
achieve complete drying and stabilization of the product by cre-
ating and maintaining the most appropriate temperature and
humidity conditions. After extrusion, the long-­cut pasta is au-
tomatically spread over sticks, cut, and trimmed to length, after
which the sticks and pasta are conveyed into the drying system
and moved through the remaining stages of the production line
(Fig. 9.14). Conveying sticks for long-­cut pasta generally are
made of stainless steel, are heated, and incorporate a system to
distribute oil over the stick surface. The sticks are transported
through the drying system by a system of special carbon steel
chains that are controlled, lubricated, and monitored closely to
ensure regularity of mechanical motion.
The drying process is subdivided into the following phases.
High-­temperature predrying
This phase is responsible for the majority of pasta moisture
loss. The pasta is preheated before it is fed into the predryer, and
heat and humidity are controlled automatically throughout by
heating ventilation units. Predryers usually are subdivided into
different areas with independent temperature and humidity
control along with overheated-­water–heat exchangers and air-­
extraction groups. The structure in processing areas is entirely
made of stainless steel.
A separation unit is sometimes included by pasta equipment
producers to separate the predryer and main dryer. This unit
is internally shaped like a labyrinth and allows much different
temperature and humidity conditions to be maintained in the
predryer and final dryer, which increases flexibility in the actual
implementation of drying diagrams.
High-­temperature drying
This drying phase takes place as the sticks and pasta travel
along successive tiers of chains that usually are separated from
each other. This separation allows the pasta to pass through
zones of different temperature and humidity and provides higher
flexibility in the setting of drying diagrams. Each tier of stainless
steel chains, which transport the sticks, is driven by an inde-
pendent gear and is equipped with specially shaped hooks that
enable the sticks to move in a vertical direction when they reach
the end of a tier. The transfer of sticks from one tier to the next is
accomplished by lifting devices installed in the dryer ends work-
ing in synchronization with the rest of the line. Temperature and
humidity are monitored constantly by specialized probes, and
the resulting feedback is used to maintain drying conditions as
programmed.
Thermal energy is transferred to the pasta by an airflow com-
ing from ventilation units and, as the sticks advance, the product
passes through successive drying and stabilization phases. The
design of drying lines can vary depending on capacity needs and
may have, one, three, or five stages. The worldwide adoption of
HT drying technology has been overwhelming, and this tech-
nology has replaced the majority of lower-­temperature drying
systems.
Manufacture of Pasta Products  x  169
Humidification
This phase, which is provided in most lines by the majority
of plants producers, is positioned right after the last dryer tier.
It is included to add back some moisture by steam injection and
thus eliminate residual tensions and enhance product stabiliza-
tion. This module has a steam injection unit complete with filter,
condensate discharge, and passage indicator, controlled by ap-
propriate probes and valves. A system installed on the discharge
side and synchronized with the rest of the line transfers the
sticks with dried product to the cooler by means of a stainless
steel lowering device. A labyrinth is placed between the humidi-
fier and device to guarantee constant humidity and temperature
values in the humidifier and also a seamless separation from the
cooler.
Cooling
This phase completes the pasta drying process by acclimatiz-
ing the pasta to a condition that is in balance with the ambient
outer environment, making it ready for immediate packaging.
Drying system modules are covered by outer panels made of
materials with high insulation power. They may be covered with
stainless steel sheeting with water-­tight portholes at the dryer
end for inspecting the dryer interior. Doors are included at ap-
propriate locations to facilitate easy access to internal parts of
the machines and to allow product sampling as well as mainte-
nance and cleaning. Sealing gaskets are included between fixed
panels and doors and are usually of a closed-­ring type made of
thick silicon material that, in some cases, can be inflated with
compressed air for optimal sealing. Dryers are equipped with
protection panels of transparent plastic material that can be eas-
ily removed, both to keep appropriate room conditions inside
the machine and to comply with safety and hygiene regulations.
The bottom sections of the dryers, or basements, generally are
equipped with a condensation collection and removal system.
A night-­storage section and/or a final-­product packaging
section are usually attached to the drying line. The storage sec-
tion has an air circulation system to maintain homogeneous
temperature and humidity conditions during storage; it is usu-
ally composed of a multitiered structure in painted carbon steel
with an outer covering of transparent polycarbonate panels that
enable viewing of the stored product. Long-­pasta lines also have
a machine to strip the stick and saw the pasta at a preset market-
ing length (Fig. 9.14). The nominal cutting length for standard
pasta is 260 mm, although different cutting lengths are avail-
able. The stripping and cutting device is composed of a belt made
with food-­grade material to convey the product, a cutting group,
a postcutting blower, a dust suction unit, a scrap grinder, and
a conveyor. Scraps produced during stripping and cutting are
reclaimed and ground to optimal dimensions for subsequent re-
mixing in the press.
Short-­Cut Pasta Dryer Design and Technology
As for long goods, the technology behind the short-­goods
drying process is designed to achieve complete drying and sta-
bilization of the product. However, the shape and structure of
170  x  Durum Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
short goods have a substantial influence on the technical re-
quirements for a short-­goods production line. Upon extrusion
through a pasta die chosen to produce the desired shape, the ex-
truded product is cut, and the pieces fall onto an inclined stain-
less steel chute and drop onto a conveyor that transports the
pasta to the first drying stage (Fig. 9.15).
The pasta-­cutting unit is a wheeled carbon steel structure,
complete with platform, ladder, protection, and an automatic
centering and positioning system designed to correctly align
the cutter with the die. The pasta is cut by stainless steel blades
housed in a blade holder. The number of blades and speed of the
cutters may vary depending on the different shapes produced.
The cutting-­system ventilation and temperature conditions are
monitored with probes and automatically controlled. The sys-
tem is equipped with safety and control devices for all functions.
The phases of the short-­goods drying process are similar to
those seen for long goods (Fig. 9.16), with certain modifications,
discussed in the following sections.
High-­temperature predrying with shaking
This phase is responsible for the majority of pasta moisture
loss and is necessary to avoid superficial stickiness that could
cause the short goods to stick together as they are transported
along the drying line. The shaker predryer is equipped with an
odd number of stainless steel vibrating tiers, and the pasta is aer-
Fig. 9.15. Short-cut pasta production line.
Fig. 9.16. Drying cycle thermoactive system for short-cut pasta.
ated for a few minutes with a stream of hot air that superficially
dries it to minimize stickiness. The tiers are designed to vibrate
so that the pasta travels from the upper to the lower tiers. The
product is then fed into the dryer by means of an encased eleva-
tor bucket system and a loading vibrator. The pasta-­conveying
buckets are hinged to two conveying chains with a set of dis-
charge points for uniform overturning of the bucket contents
over the whole discharge width of the dryer tiers.
Final high-­temperature drying
This drying phase takes place as pasta travels along a “chan-
nel” of vibrating tiers that usually are separated from each other
to allow the pasta to pass through zones of different temperature
and humidity levels. As with the long-­cut pasta, this design pro-
vides higher flexibility in the setting of the drying diagrams. The
final dryer is a sturdy stainless steel structure with a feeding el-
evator as the inlet on one side and with the exit on the other side
joined to another elevator. The vibrating-­tier surfaces are made
of stainless steel mesh affixed to independent vibrating frames,
which are removable and interchangeable. Stainless steel springs
support the vibrating frames, and absorbers are in place to avoid
excessive vibrations during machine start-­up and shut-­down.
The vibrating motion is generated by motorized vibrators with
adjustable inertial masses.
Pasta undergoes drying and stabilization phases in the dryer
as it travels through the different zones of temperature, humid-
ity, and airflow, following a drying cycle, as illustrated in Figure
9.16. Depending on the technological approach, ventilation may
be designed to stream air through or over the product or both.
The pasta frequently is remixed as it falls from one tier to the
next, which ensures uniform drying. The number of different
temperature and humidity zones depends on production capac-
ity and the machinery builder’s design. The reticulated tiers or
slotted metal belts usually are dimensioned to a nominal ca-
pacity determined by pasta shape and have a specific weight of
300–400 kg/m3.
 Manufacture of Pasta Products  x  171

Final cooling texture

Once the drying phase is completed, the pasta is transferred
to the cooling phase, which completes the pasta-­drying process.
In this phase, product is passed through a belt-­type cooler to
achieve temperature and moisture values in balance with the
outer ambient environment, making it suitable for immediate
packaging.
As with long-­goods dryers, the structure of the short-­
goods drying line is largely stainless steel with effective in-
sulation. The control system adjusts temperature, humidity,
and ventilation automatically, using comparable machinery
systems.
Impact of drying conditions on pasta
characteristics
Physicochemical Changes During Pasta Drying
and Implications for Pasta Quality
Low-­temperature (LT) pasta drying (40–50°C), which was
the norm 30 years ago, has been steadily replaced with HT
(60–80°C) drying (Pavan 1979, Manser 1980) and, more recently,
ultrahigh-­temperature (UHT, 85–110°C) drying (Frances and
Ollivier 1985). Drying times have consequently been reduced to
4–5 hr for long goods and 2–3 hr for short goods (Pollini 1996).
High temperatures (>60°C) and relative humidities (74–90%)
can be employed at either the start of the drying phase (eHT)
with high product moisture (~30%) or during the final stages of
the drying phase (HT) at low product moisture (<15%) (Pollini
1996). The water activity of the pasta and the duration of the HT
drying are critical to pasta quality (Dexter et al 1981, 1984; Baroni
1988; Feillet 1988). Accordingly, late application of high tempera-
ture (lHT drying), when pasta moisture is lower, improves pasta
cooking quality (Manser 1983, Resmini and Pagani 1983, Zweifel
et al 2003, Baiano et al 2006).
Both HT and UHT drying have allowed the production of
pasta with acceptable or even superior cooking quality from
lower-­grade raw material (Malcolmson et al 1993). Other im-
provements found include improved microbiological safety,
higher productivity, improved pasta color and firmness, and
lower cooking loss. The temperature control during drying is
important to avoid cracking in the dried product and to improve
the color of the pasta and the texture after rehydration and cook-
ing, as explained below.
HT drying leads to higher firmness and lower stickiness of
cooked pasta and improved strand strength (Dexter et al 1981,
Aktan and Khan 1992, Cunin et al 1995). Pasta firmness depends
upon the amount of gluten and its strength in the pasta core.
HT drying can strengthen the protein network, which increases
firmness but also reduces starch swelling. Stickiness of pasta
is related to the properties of the outer layer, how much starch
swelling has occurred, and amylose leaching. The more of the
latter, the stickier will be the pasta surface. Similarly, the integ-
rity of the outer layers determines the amount of material that
can be rinsed from the cooked spaghetti, which correlates with
stickiness (Dexter et al 1985, D’Egidio et al 1993). A strong pro-
tein network reduces the tendency for amylose to leach into the
cooking water and, in turn, reduces pasta stickiness and cooking
loss (De Stefanis and Sgrulleta 1990, Zweifel et al 2003, Baiano et
al 2006) (Table 9.3).
Decreased water uptake during cooking occurs in pasta
dried at 80°C in comparison with that in pasta dried at 60°C,
according to Fang and Kahn (1996). Others have found the op-
posite (Atkan and Khan 1992, Dalbon et al 1995). Water uptake
depends on the length of cooking. It is likely that a strong pro-
tein matrix encapsulating the starch granules reduces starch
swelling and water diffusion during cooking and hence reduces
the pasta’s water uptake. Reduced swelling also enhances pasta
firmness. A higher drying temperature promotes a stronger net-
work in the pasta so that the outer regions of the pasta tend to
have a more intact network, with less-­swollen starch granules
(Resmini and Pagani 1983, Zweifel et al 2003). Anese et al (1999)
suggested that pasta improves further if the drying temperature
is increased and applied later in the drying process (1HT vs.
eHT) when pasta moisture is low. However, industrial experi-
TABLE 9.2
Yellownessa of Spaghetti Dried with Various Drying Programsb,c
LT HT UHT
Product (50°C) (75°C) (95°C)
Fine durum semolina, 100% 64.4 65.9 69.1
Fine durum semolina, 80%,
+ soft wheat, 20% 57.7 60.8 64.3
a CIE b* values.
b Adapted from Johnston and Dintheer (2001).
c LT = low-temperature, HT = high-temperature, UHT = ultrahigh-temperature.

color
TABLE 9.3
The drying program can improve the pasta yellowness and
Cooking Lossa of of Spaghetti Dried with Various
brightness. With HT and UHT appropriately applied, the color Drying Programsb,c
of the pasta is more yellow and brilliant than when LT drying is
used (Table 9.2). Improved yellowness of pasta dried at higher LT HT UHT
Product (50°C) (75°C) (95°C)
temperatures is thought to result from inactivation of lipoxygen-
ases in the dough, which are active up to 90°C (Milatovic and Fine durum semolina, 100% 8.0 7.0 6.9
Fine durum semolina, 80%,
Mondelli 1991). These enzymes are active in the presence of oxy- + soft wheat, 20% 8.3 7.7 6.9
gen and can oxidize the yellow pigments in pasta. However, non- a Amount of material left in the cooking water after cooking the pasta as a
enzymatic browning (the Maillard reaction) may occur, leading
percent of the initial amount of pasta.
to development of a reddish color when high temperature is ap- b Adapted from Johnston and Dintheer (2001).

plied at low product moisture. c LT = low-temperature, HT = high-temperature, UHT = ultrahigh-temperature.

172  x  Durum Wheat: Chemistry and Technology, 2nd ed.
ence shows that this does not provide any benefit and is not used
(C. M. Pollini, personal communication). Pasta dried with HT
drying also has better cooking properties.
organoleptic quality
Several scientific reports support an improvement in the or-
ganoleptic quality of pasta with HT drying, in which firmness,
bulkiness, and surface stickiness are all improved compared to
those from LT drying (Dexter et al 1982, Abecassis et al 1984, De
Stefanis and Sgrulleta 1990, D’Egidio and Nardi 1991, Baiano et
al 2006). These effects are similar to those measured with instru-
ments to assess texture.
starch digestion
Late-­moisture UHT drying reduced in-­vitro starch diges-
tion by 10% in comparison to LT and HT drying (Resmini and
Pagani 1983, Casiraghi et al 1992). Molecular rearrangements of
the proteins may have led to the formation of large protein ag-
gregates, which reduce the accessibility of a-­amylase in the pasta
during starch digestion. However, Casiraghi et al (1992) found
no improvement in the in-­vivo glycemic response in humans fed
pasta dried at different temperatures (50–90°C).
Nutritional value
The content of the nutritionally valuable amino acid lysine
in pasta can be reduced during drying (Resmini et al 1990,
Dintheer 2001). Even though these losses are lower with LT than
with HT drying, the difference in the two types of technologies
is minor from a nutritional point of view. For instance, 100 g of
LT-­dried pasta contains ~26% recommended dietary intake vs.
22% in HT-­dried pasta (R. Ranieri, unpublished data). In any
case, long drying times could be shortened to minimize losses
(Dexter et al 1984, Sensidoni et al 1999).
Under HT drying conditions and relative humidity ranging
from 30 to 12%, the Maillard reaction can easily occur in pasta
products during thermal processing. The term Maillard reaction
is used to characterize a group of chemical reactions involving
free amino groups and carbonyl groups, usually from reducing
sugars. This process can reduce the nutritional value of the pro-
teins and create off-­flavors and colors. The extent of the Maillard
TABLE 9.4
Effect of Drying Parameter on Maillard Reaction in Pasta
Main Factors in Maillard
Reactions Effects
Drying temperature With high temperature, reaction starts
more rapidly.
Drying time The longer the time, the more evident the
reaction.
Product moisture and pH The lower the moisture, the stronger the
reaction. The lower the pH, the slower
the reaction.
Raw material reducing-sugar The higher the reducing-sugar content in
content (affected by the pasta, the greater the amount of
granulometry, starch damage) Maillard products.
reaction is influenced by 1) the availability of reactants, specifi-
cally reducing sugars (these can be increased with starch dam-
age and the presence of a-­amylase in the grain), 2) the tempera-
ture and moisture of the product, and 3) the water activity of the
pasta (Sensidoni et al 2003). Very high temperatures are required
before brown coloring (i.e., melanoidins) and off-­flavors are de-
tected (Table 9.4).
Effects of Drying Temperature on Starch
and Protein Components
Pasta can be considered a mixed polymer system of starch
and protein. When water is added to the semolina, plasticiza-
tion of the proteins occurs, which allows the pasta to be shaped
during extrusion or sheeting. During drying, the gluten is trans-
formed from a glassy to a rubbery state above about 55°C, but the
exact temperature depends on the moisture. With HT drying,
the pasta remains in a rubbery state even at 12% moisture. At
higher temperatures (90°C), the glutenin and gliadin can form
disulfide cross-­links, leading to large protein polymers, which
increases the rigidity of the protein network (Schofield et al 1983,
Weegels and Hamer 1998, Lamacchia et al 2007, Lagrain et al
2008). Typically, the gluten proteins become less soluble in acetic
acid (Aktan and Khan 1992), and the molecular weight distri-
bution shows an increase in the large polymeric fraction and a
decrease in the large and small monomeric fractions (Lamacchia
et al 2007). Probably the monomeric proteins are partly dena-
tured and incorporated into high molecular weight polymers to
produce enhanced aggregation. Protein extractability was con-
stant with LT drying but decreased markedly with HT and UHT
drying due to enhanced protein aggregation of the denatured
protein (Zweifel et al 2003). These effects allow a network of de-
natured protein to entrap the starch granules in the pasta, which
is visible using microscopy. This helps to prevent starch granules
from escaping from pasta during cooking (Resmini and Pagani
1983, Heneen and Brismar 2003). In addition, less swelling of
starch and disintegration of starch granules occur (Fardet et al
1998).
It is well known that both protein content and protein com-
position are important factors determining the quality of pasta
dried at low temperature (Matweef 1966, Matsuo et al 1972,
Dexter and Matsuo 1980, Feillet 1984, Autran et al 1986). At
higher drying temperature, protein content has been found to be
more important than composition (Matsuo 1988, D’Egidio et al
1990, Novaro et al 1993). Cubadda et al (2007) reported that fac-
tors that promote a strong gluten network during pasta drying
(such as high gluten content, strong gluten, and HT drying) have
a positive effect on pasta cooking quality. However, at a protein
content ≥12.5% (dm), gluten strength has little effect on pasta
cooking quality irrespective of the drying program used.
During drying, starch can also be transformed and is affected
by the drying temperature and moisture conditions. Changes
in the starch properties caused by the drying temperature can
impact pasta quality (Guler et al 2002). Pasta dried at high tem-
perature had lower sensory scores based on total organic mate-
rial and cooking loss as compared with the very HT-­dried pasta.
Annealing (a process of heat treating starch granules at a tem-
perature above the glass transition temperature but below the

gelatinization temperature) at limited moisture levels leads to a
rearrangement of the starch polymers within the starch gran-
ules. The annealing can increase the gelatinization temperature
of the starch in HT-­dried pasta (Cunin et al 1995, Vansteelandt
and Delcour 1998, Yue et al 1999). Although starch crystallin-
ity does not change with drying temperature, suggesting that
drying does not induce starch gelatinization (Guler et al 2002,
Baiano et al 2006), typically, a broadening of the gelatinization
temperature is obtained as the drying temperature is increased
and the enthalpy of gelatinization is reduced. All of the changes
in starch properties might be due to the conformational changes
in starch granules.
At the microscopic level, pasta dried at high temperature
differs from LT-­dried pasta in that the starch granules swell
slightly, as they appear elongated compared to round granules in
pasta dried at low temperature (Thorvaldsson et al 1999, Zweifel
et al 2003). Zweifel et al (2003) emphasizes that drying tempera-
ture can induce structural changes in the pasta that affect pasta
texture, color, and sensory qualities. Both more protein dena-
turation and greater order to the starch occur as the tempera-
ture is increased from 80 to 100°C. In addition, whether high
temperature is applied at low, intermediate, or high moisture
also affects pasta texture. The impacts of high temperature are
less when applied at high moisture conditions (early in drying).
Drying creates moisture gradients within the pasta, and possibly
the protein and starch transformations within different parts of
the pasta may differ. Both the starch and protein changes that
occur in the pasta during drying have an impact on the pasta
texture. However, the relative effects and contributions of the
two fractions on textural changes in the cooked pasta are dif-
ficult to unravel because their effects are superimposed.
More-­recent work of Petitot et al (2009) has shown that, as
drying temperature increases to 70°C, a moderate impact on
starch and protein structure in the pasta occurs (reduced gela-
tinization enthalpy and higher protein aggregation). However,
application of UHT (90°C) drying, especially at high pasta mois-
ture, caused larger changes. The pasta structure was more stable
and crystalline with more protein aggregation. Similar results
have been reported by others (Aktan and Khan 1992, Zweifel et
al 2003, Lamacchia et al 2007). After cooking, pasta dried with
UHT drying underwent less-­marked changes in protein aggre-
gation during cooking than did LT-­and HT-­dried pasta. Perhaps
complete aggregation had already occurred during the drying
at ultrahigh temperature. Late-­moisture UHT drying produced
pasta with larger protein polymers. Consequent effects on pasta
texture were an increase in dry pasta hardness and breaking
energy (tensile test) of 15 and 40%, respectively, for UHT-­dried
relative to LT-­dried pasta. A stronger protein network forms at
ultrahigh temperature, which makes the pasta more resistant to
compression and tensile forces. However, differences in pasta
microstructure were not evident with the different drying cycles.
Conclusions
Few food industries have evolved as greatly as pasta manu-
facturing over the last 30 years. This development is the conse-
quence of joint efforts of academic research and technological
research. The scientific work has helped researchers to better un-
Manufacture of Pasta Products  x  173
derstand the physicochemical basis of pasta quality and the im-
pact of processing (shaping and drying) on these characteristics.
Suppliers and manufacturers have incorporated into the design
of their new lines all this information but also improvements
from other disciplines, such as new materials and equipment,
in order to drive the process by a technological route. All these
efforts have led to a significant improvement in the quality of the
end products and the development of new pasta design.
Today, this technology is mature, but new challenges are
arising for these industries. One of the main challenges will in-
volve energy usage: to reduce the energy to prepare pasta prod-
ucts and/or to reduce the energy needed to cook pasta while
maintaining the same sensorial properties in the end products.
Current technology consists of forming a conventional pasta
with a thickness of <0.7 mm and steaming to add a large amount
of energy to reach starch gelatinization. This allows a reduction
in cooking time, but the overall preparation time is not dramati-
cally reduced, as water needs to be boiled. Reducing the total en-
ergy expenditure as well as the cooking preparation time would
represent a real breakthrough for the pasta industry.
Another expectation is to improve some nutritional proper-
ties of pasta products. Indeed, pasta is considered a good source
of complex carbohydrates exhibiting a low glycemic index.
Improved nutritional properties can be envisaged through a
formulation approach (enrichment in protein or in fiber) to
reach a wider range of consumer categories. A complementary
approach would consist of considering the impact of processing
unit operations on pasta microstructure and on its nutritional
behavior to see whether it would be possible to modulate its nu-
tritional properties. This would open the way to the controlled
release of some target molecules by adjusting technological pro-
cesses. Such an issue would represent a new frontier in which
partnerships between academia, suppliers, and manufacturers
would be strengthened. It is also true that pasta is normally
eaten with sauces and other foods that can complement its
high-­quality carbohydrates to produce a meal achieving nu-
trient balance, including important macronutrients as well as
micronutrients.
As a general conclusion, until now pasta manufacturing has
been optimized to meet current expectations of manufacturers
in terms of process reproducibility, but future efforts should help
to develop new technologies to enable more flexibility. Indeed,
increasing the flexibility of pasta lines would allow pasta manu-
facturers to define and optimize their technological route them-
selves to better meet consumer expectations.
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