CHAPTER 36

FARADAY’S LAW OF
INDUCTION

IVe can often anticipate the outcome o f an experiment by considering

how it is related by symmetry to other experiments. For example, a current
loop in a magnetic field experiences a torque (due to the field) that rotates the loop.
Consider a similar situation: a loop o f wire in which there is no current is placed in a
magnetic field, and a torque applied by an external agent rotates the loop. We fin d that a
current appears in the loop! For a loop o f wire in a magnetic field, a current produces a
torque, and a torque produces a current. This is an example o f the symmetry o f nature.
The appearance o f current in the loop is one example o f the application o/Faraday’s law of
induction, which is the subject o f this chapter. Faraday's law, which is one o f the four
Maxwell equations, was deduced from a number o f simple and direct experiments, which
can easily be done in the laboratory and which serve directly to demonstrate Faraday's law.

Figure 1 shows a coil of wire as a part of a circuit con­

36-1 FARADAY’S EXPERIM ENTS
Faraday’s law o f induction was discovered through exper­
iments carried out by Michael Faraday in England in
1831 and by Joseph Henry in the United States at about
the same time.* Even though Faraday published his re­
sults first, which gives him priority o f discovery, the SI
unit o f inductance (see Chapter 38) is called the henry
(abbreviation H). On the other hand, the SI unit of capaci­
tance is, as we have seen, called thefarad (abbreviation F).
In Chapter 38, where we discuss oscillations in capacita-
tive-inductive circuits, we see how appropriate it is to
link the names o f these two talented contemporaries in a
single context.
taining an ammeter. Normally, we would expect the am­
meter to show no current in the circuit because there
seems to be no electromotive force. However, if we push a
bar magnet toward the coil, with its north pole facing the
coil, a remarkable thing happens. While the magnet is
moving, the ammeter deflects, showing that a current has
been set up in the coil. If we hold the magnet stationary
with respect to the coil, the ammeter does not deflect. If
we move the magnet away from the coil, the meter again
deflects, but in the opposite direction, which means that
the current in the coil is in the opposite direction. If we use
the south pole end of a magnet instead of the north pole

• In addition to their independent simultaneous discovery of the

law of induction, Faraday and Henry had several other similari­
ties in their lives. Both were apprentices at an early age. Faraday,
at age 14, was apprenticed to a London bookbinder. Henry, at
age 13, was apprenticed to a watchmaker in Albany, New York.
In later years Faraday was appointed director of the Royal Insti­
tution in London, whose founding was due in large part to an
American, Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford). Henry, on
the other hand, became secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
in Washington, DC, which was founded by an endowment from Figure 1 The ammeter A deflects when the magnet is mov­
an Englishman, James Smithson. ing with respect to the coil.

783
784 Chapter 36 Faraday’s Law o f Induction
Figure 2 The ammeter A deflects momentarily when switch
S is closed or opened. No physical motion of the coils is involved.
end, the experiment works as described but the deflec­
tions are reversed. The faster the magnet is moved, the
greater is the reading o f the meter. Further experimenta­
tion shows that what matters is the relative motion of the
magnet and the coil. It makes no difference whether we
move the magnet toward the coil or the coil toward the
magnet.
The current that appears in this experiment is called an
induced current and is said to be set up by an induced
electromotive force. Note that there are no batteries any­
where in the circuit. Faraday was able to deduce from
experiments like this the law that gives the magnitude and
direction o f the induced emfs. Such emfs are very impor­
tant in practice. The chances are good that the lights in the
room in which you are reading this book are operated
from an induced em f produced in a commercial electric
generator.
In another experiment, the apparatus of Fig. 2 is used.
The coils are placed close together but at rest with respect
to each other. When we close the switch S, thus setting up
a steady current in the right-hand coil, the meter deflects
momentarily; when we open the switch, thus interrupting
this current, the meter again deflects momentarily, but in
the opposite direction. None of the apparatus is physically
moving in this experiment.
Experiment shows that there is an induced em f in the
left coil o f Fig. 2 whenever the current in the right coil is
changing. It is the rate at which the current is changing and
not the size of the current that is significant.
The common feature of these two experiments is mo­
tion or change. It is the moving magnet or the changing
current that is responsible for the induced emfs. In the
next section, we give the mathematical basis for these
effects.
36-2 FARADAY’S LAW O F
INDUCTION___________________
Imagine that there are lines o f magnetic field coming from
the bar magnet of Fig. 1 and from the right-hand current
loop in Fig. 2. Some o f those field lines pass through the
Figure 3 The magnetic field B through an area A gives a
magnetic flux through the surface. The element of area dA is
represented by a vector.
left-hand coil in both figures. As the magnet is moved in
the situation o f Fig. 1, or as the switch is opened or closed
in Fig. 2, the number o f lines of the magnetic field passing
through the left-hand coil changes. As Faraday’s experi­
ments showed, and as Faraday’s technique o f field lines
helps us visualize, it is the change in the number of field
lines passing through a circuit loop that induces the emf in
the loop. Specifically, it is the rate of change in the number
of field lines passing through the loop that determines the
induced emf.
To make this statement quantitative, we introduce the
magneticflux^g. Like the electric flux (see Section 29-2),
the magnetic flux can be considered to be a measure o f the
number of field lines passing through a surface. In analogy
with the electric flux (see Eq. 7 of Chapter 29), the mag­
netic flux through any surface is defined as
B t/A . ( 1)
Here dA is an element of area of the surface (shown in Fig.
3), and the integration is carried out over the entire sur­
face through which we wish to calculate the flux (for exam­
ple, the surface enclosed by the left-hand loop in Fig. 1). If
the magnetic field has a constant magnitude and direction
over a planar area A, the flux can be written
= BA cos 0,>. ( 2)
where 6 is the angle between the normal to the surface and
the direction o f the field.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the tesla* meter which
is given the name o f weber (abbreviation Wb). That is,
1 weber = 1 tesla-meter^.
Inverting this relationship, we see that the tesla is equiva­
lent to the weber/meter^, which was the unit used for
magnetic fields before the tesla was adopted as the SI unit.
In terms o f the magnetic flux, the em f induced in a
circuit is given by Faraday's law of induction:
The induced emf in a circuit is equal to the negative
of the rate at which the magnetic flux through the cir­
cuit is changing with time.
 Section 36-3 Lenz *Law 785

In mathematical terms, Faraday’s law is Solution The absolute value of the final flux through each turn
of this coil is given by Eq. 2 with 0 = 0,
^ d<t>B
(3) <D^ = BA.
dt
The magnetic field B at the center of the solenoid is given by
where S is the induced emf. If the rate o f change o f flux is
Eq. 22 of Chapter 35, or
in units o f webers per second, the em f has units of volts.
The minus sign in Eq. 3 is very important, because it tells B = ^lQin = (47t X 10-^ T • m/AX 1.5 A)
us the direction o f the induced em f We consider this sign X (220 turas/cmXlOO cm/m)
in detail in the next section. = 4.15 X 10-2 T.
If the coil consists of N turns, then an induced em f In terms of its diameter d c , the area of the central coil (not of
appears in every turn, and the total induced em f in the the solenoid) is given by \nd}:, which works out to be 3.46 X
circuit is the sum of the individual values, just as in the 10“^ m2. The absolute value of the final flux through each turn
case o f batteries connected in series. If the coil is so tightly of the coil is then
wound that each turn may be considered to occupy the <D^ = (4.15 X 10-2 TX3.46 X 10-^ m2)
same region o f space and therefore to experience the same
= 1.44X 10-5 W b = 14.4//Wb.
change o f flux, then the total induced em f is
The induced em f follows from Faraday’s law (Eq. 4), in which
.d<t>s we ignore the minus sign because we are seeking only the abso­
6 = -N - (4)
dt * lute value of the emf:
There are many ways o f changing the flux through a
<^ =
loop: moving a magnet relative to the loop (as in Fig. 1),
changing the current in a nearby circuit (as in Fig. 2 and in which is the number of turns in the inner coil C. The change
also as in a transformer), moving the loop in a nonuni­ A<I>^ in the flux through each turn of the central coil is thus 14.4
form field, rotating the loop in a fixed magnetic field such /iWb. This change occurs in 0.16 s, giving for the magnitude of
that the angle 0 in Eq. 2 changes (as in a generator), or the induced emf
changing the size or shape of the loop. In each of these
N^<^B (130X14.4 X \Q-^ Wb)
methods, an em f is induced in the loop. <5 —
At 0.16 s
Finally, we note that, even though Eq. 3 is known as
= 1.2 X 10-2 V = 12 mV.
Faraday’s law, it was not written in that form by Faraday,
who was untrained in mathematics. In fact, Faraday’s We shall explain in the next section how to find the direction
three-volume published work on electromagnetism, a of the induced emf. For now, we can predict its direction by the
landmark achievement in the development of physics and following argument. Suppose an increase in the flux from the
chemistry, contains not a single equation! outer coil caused a current in the inner coil that produced a
magnetic field in the same direction as the original field. This
would in turn increase the flux through the area enclosed by the
outer coil, which should similarly cause its current to increase,
Sample Problem 1 The long solenoid S of Fig. 4 has 220 thereby increasing again the current in the inner coil, and so on.
tums/cm and carries a current / = 1.5 A; its diameter d is Is this a reasonable outcome?
3.2 cm. At its center we place a 130-tum close-packed coil C of
diameter d c ^ L \ cm. The current in the solenoid is increased
from zero to 1.5 A at a steady rate over a period of 0.16 s. What
is the absolute value (that is, the magnitude without regard for
sign) of the induced emf that appears in the central coil while the
current in the solenoid is being changed?

36-3 LENZ’ LAW

Thus far we have not specified the directions o f the in­

It _ j p x i _LLg r duced emfs. Although we can find these directions from a
formal analysis o f Faraday’s law, we prefer to find them
T ■ \ t l_ lj. j _ l l 3 c Axis

V IX |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |X |
from the conservation-of-eneigy principle. In mechanics
the energy principle often allows us to draw conclusions
Figure 4 Sample Problem 1. A coil C is located inside a sole­
about mechanical systems without analyzing them in de­
noid S. The solenoid carries a current that emerges from the tail. We use the same approach here. The rule for deter­
page at the top and enters at the bottom, as indicated by the mining the direction of the induced current was proposed
dots and crosses. When the current in the solenoid is chang­ in 1834 by Heinrich Friedrich Lenz (1804-1865) and is
ing, an induced emf appears in the coil. known as Lenz' law.
786 Chapter 36 Faraday’s Law o f Induction
Figure 5 When the magnet is pushed toward the loop, the
induced current i has the direction shown, setting up a mag­
netic field that opposes the motion of the magnet. This illus­
trates the application of Lenz’ law.
The induced current in a closed conducting loop ap­
pears in such a direction that it opposes the change
that produced it.
The minus sign in Faraday’s law suggests this opposition.
Lenz’ law refers to induced currents, which means that
it applies only to closed conducting circuits. If the circuit
is open, we can usually think in terms of what would
happen if it were closed and in this way find the direction
o f the induced emf.
Consider the first of Faraday’s experiments described in
Section 36-1. Figure 5 shows the north pole o f a magnet
and a cross section of a nearby conducting loop. As we
push the magnet toward the loop (or the loop toward the
magnet) an induced current is set up in the loop. What is
its direction?
A current loop sets up a magnetic field at distant points
like that o f a magnetic dipole, one face of the loop being a
north pole, the opposite face being a south pole. The north
pole, as for bar magnets, is that face from which the lines
o f B emerge. If, as Lenz’ law predicts, the loop in Fig. 5 is
to oppose the motion of the magnet toward it, the face o f
the loop toward the magnet must become a north pole.
The two north poles— one o f the current loop and one o f
the magnet— repel each other. The right-hand rule ap­
plied to the loop shows that for the magnetic field set up by
the loop to emerge from the right face of the loop, the
induced current must be as shown. The current is coun­
terclockwise as we sight along the magnet toward the loop.
When we push the magnet toward the loop (or the loop
toward the magnet), an induced current appears. In terms
o f Lenz’ law this pushing is the “change” that produces
the induced current, and, according to this law, the in­
duced current opposes the “push.” If we pull the magnet
away from the coil, the induced current opposes the
“pull” by creating a south pole on the right-hand face of
the loop o f Fig. 5. To make the right-hand face a south
pole, the current must be opposite to that shown in Fig. 5.
Whether we pull or push the magnet, its motion is auto­
matically opposed.
The agent that causes the magnet to move, either
toward the coil or away from it, always experiences a
resisting force and is thus required to do work. From the
Figure 6 Another view of the operation of Lenz’ law. When
the magnet is pushed toward the loop, the magnetic flux
through the loop is increased. The induced current through
the loop sets up a magnetic field that opposes the increase in flux.
conservation-of-energy principle this work done on the
system must exactly equal the internal (Joule) energy pro­
duced in the coil, since these are the only two energy
transfers that occur in the system. If the magnet is moved
more rapidly, the agent does work at a greater rate and the
rate of production of internal energy increases correspon­
dingly. If we cut the loop and then perform the experi­
ment, there is no induced current, no internal energy
change, no force on the magnet, and no work required to
move it. There is still an em f in the loop, but, like a battery
connected to an open circuit, it does not set up a current.
If the current in Fig. 5 were in the opposite direction to
that shown, as the magnet moves toward the loop, the face
of the loop toward the magnet would be a south pole,
which would pull the bar magnet toward the loop. We
would only need to push the magnet slightly to start the
process and then the action would be self-perpetuating.
The magnet would accelerate toward the loop, increasing
its kinetic energy all the time. At the same time internal
energy would appear in the loop at a rate that would
increase with time. This would indeed be a something-
for-nothing situation! Needless to say, it does not occur.
Let us apply Lenz’ law to Fig. 5 in a different way.
Figure 6 shows the lines o f B for the bar magnet.’" From
this point o f view the “change” is the increase in O j
through the loop caused by bringing the magnet nearer.
The induced current opposes this change by setting up a
field that tends to oppose the increase in flux caused by the
moving magnet. Thus the field due to the induced current
must point from left to right through the plane of the coil,
in agreement with our earlier conclusion.
It is not significant here that the induced field opposes
the field of the magnet but rather that it opposes the
change, which in this case is the increase in Oj, through the
loop. If we withdraw the magnet, we reduce through
the loop. The induced field must now oppose this de­
crease in <I>B(that is, the change) by reinforcing the mag­
netic field. In each case the induced field opposes the
change that gives rise to it.•
• There are two magnetic fields in this problem— one con­
nected with the current loop and one with the bar magnet. You
must always be certain which one is meant.

We can now obtain the direction o f the current in the
small coil C o f Sample Problem 1. The field o f the sole­
noid S points to the right in Fig. 4 and is increasing. The
current in C must oppose this increase in flux through C
and so must set up a field that opposes the field o f S. The
current in C is therefore in a direction opiK>site to that in
S. If the current in S were decreasinginste&d. of increasing,
a similar argument shows that the induced current in C
would have the same direction as the current in S.
Eddy Currents
When the magnetic flux through a large piece o f conduct­
ing material changes, induced currents appear in the mate­
rial (Fig. 7). These currents are called eddy currents. In
some cases, the eddy currents may produce undesirable
effects. For example, they increase the internal energy and
thus can increase the temperature of the material. For this
reason, materials that are subject to changing magnetic
fields are often laminated or constructed in many small
layers insulated from one another. Instead o f one large
loop, the eddy currents follow many smaller loops,
thereby increasing the total length of their paths and the
corresponding resistance; the resistive heating is
smaller, and the increase in internal eneigy is smaller. On
the other hand, eddy-current heating can be used to ad­
vantage, as in an induction furnace, in which a sample o f
material can be heated using a rapidly changing magnetic
field. Induction furnaces are used in cases in which it is
not possible to make thermal contact with the material to
be heated, such as when it is enclosed in a vacuum
chamber.
Eddy currents are real currents and produce the same
effects as real currents. In particular, a force F = /L x B is
exerted on the part o f the eddy-current path in Fig. 7 that
passes through the field. This force is transmitted to the
material, and Lenz’ law can be used to show (see Question
26) that the force opposes the motion o f the conductor.
/ drawn from the magnetic field, an induced current
\ B
\ (eddy current) appears as shown.
\
\
•\
/
Section 36-4 Motional E m f 787
This gives rise to a form o f magnetic braking, in which
magnetic fields applied to a rotating wheel or a moving
track produce forces that decelerate the motion. Such a
brake has no moving parts or mechanical linkages and is
not subject to the frictional wear o f ordinary mechanical
brakes. Moreover, it is most efficient at high speed (be­
cause the magnetic force increases with the relative
speed), where the wear on mechanical brakes would be
greatest.
36-4 M OTIONAL EM F
The example of Fig. 6 , although easy to understand quaU-
tatively, does not lend itself to quantitative calculations.
Consider then Fig. 8 , which shows a rectangular loop o f
wire o f width D, one end o f which is in a uniform field B
pointing at right angles to the plane of the loop. This field
B may be produced, for example, in the gap o f a large
electromagnet. The dashed lines show the assumed limits
of the magnetic field. The loop is pulled to the right at a
constant speed v.
The situation described by Fig. 8 does not differ in any
essential detail from that o f Fig. 6 . In each case a conduct­
ing loop and a magnet are in relative motion; in each case
the flux of the field of the magnet through the loop is being
caused to change with time. The important difference
between the two arrangements is that the situation o f Fig.
8 permits easier calculations.
The external agent (the hand in Fig. 8 ) pulls the loop to
the right at constant speed v by exerting a force F. We wish
to calculate the mechanical power P = Fv expended by
the external agent or, equivalently, the rate at which it
does work on the loop, and to compare that result with the
rate at which the induced current in the loop produces
internal energy.
Figure 7 When the conducting material is with­
788 Chapter 36 Faraday's Law o f Induction

r Figure 8 When the closed conducting loop is

withdrawn from the field, an induced current /
is produced in the loop. Internal energy is pro­
duced by the current at the same rate at which
mechanical work is done on the loop.

The flux <I>5 enclosed by the loop in Fig. 8 is
= BDx,
where Dx is the area o f that part of the loop in which B is
not zero. We find the em f <? from Faraday’s law:
We can also compute the rate at which energy is dissipated
in the loop as a result o f Joule heating by the induced
current. This is given by
( 10)

s -----^ ----- j^{BDx) = - B D ^ = BDv, (5) which agrees precisely with Eq. 9 for the rate at which
mechanical work is done on the loop. The work done by
where we have set —dx/dt equal to the speed v at which the external agent is eventually dissipated as Joule heating
the loop is pulled out o f the magnetic field, since x is of the loop.
decreasing. Note that the only dimension of the loop that Figure 9 shows a side view of the loop in the field. In Fig.
enters into Eq. 5 is the length D of the left end conductor. 9a the loop is stationary; in Fig. 9b we are moving it to the
As we shall see later, the induced em f in Fig. 8 may be right; in Fig. 9c we are moving it to the left. The lines o f B
regarded as localized here. An induced em f such as this, in these figures represent the resultant field produced by
produced by the relative motion o f a conductor and the the vector addition of the field due to the magnet and the
source o f a magnetic field, is sometimes called a motional field due to the induced current, if any, in the loop. Ac-
emf.
The em f BDv sets up a current in the loop given by
S BDv
( 6)
'= ^ = ^
where R is the loop resistance. From Lenz’ law, this
current (and thus S) must be clockwise in Fig. 8 ; it op­
poses the “change” (the decrease in 4>j) by setting up a
field that is parallel to the external field within the loop.
The current in the loop gives rise to magnetic forces F,,
F 2 , and F 3 that act on the three conductors, according to
Eq. 28 o f Chapter 34,
F = /L x B . (7)
Because F2 and F, are equal and opposite, they cancel
each other, F ,, which is the force that opposes our effort to
move the loop, is given in magnitude from Eqs. 6 and 7 as
B^D^v
F, = iDB sin 90° = ( 8)

The agent that pulls the loop must exert a force Fequal in
magnitude to F ,, if the loop is to move at constant speed.
The agent must therefore do work at the steady rate o f Figure 9 Magnetic field lines acting on a conducting loop in
a magnetic field when the loop is (a) at rest, (b) leaving the
BW V field, and (c) entering the field. Either attempt to move the
P = F^v = (9)
loop gives rise to an opposing force.
 Section 36-4 Motional E m f 789

cording to Faraday’s view, in which we regard the mag­ (b) The induced emf ^ is given by ^ = —d^a M t, which we
netic field lines as stretched rubber bands (see Section can write as
35-3), the magnetic field lines in Fig. 9 suggest convinc­ ,_ d^B _ dx _ d^B
ingly that the agent moving the coil always experiences an V,
dt dx dt dx
opposing force.

Sample Problem 2 Figure \0a shows a rectangular loop of
resistance R, width D, and length a being pulled at constant
speed V through a region of thickness d in which a uniform
magnetic field B is set up by a magnet. As functions of the
position X of the right-hand edge of the loop, plot (a) the flux
through the loop, (b) the induced emf and (c) the rate P of
production of internal energy in the loop. Use D = 4 cm, a =
10 cm, d = \ 5 cm, /? = 16 B = 2.0 T, and v = 1.0 m/s.
Solution (a) The flux is zero when the loop is not in the
field; it is BDa when the loop is entirely in the field; it is BDx
when the loop is entering the field and BD[a — {x — d)] when
the loop is leaving the field. These conclusions, which you
should verify, are shown graphically in Fig. 10^.
where d ^a /tix is the slope of the curve of Fig. \0b. The emf ^ is
plotted as a function of x in Fig. 10c. Using the same type of
reasoning as that used for Fig. 8, we deduce from Lenz’ law that
when the loop is entering the field, the em f ^ acts counterclock­
wise as seen from above. Note that there is no em f when the loop
is entirely in the magnetic field because the flux through the
loop is not changing with time, as Fig. 10^ shows.
(c) The rate of internal energy production is given by P —
S ^/R. It may be calculated by squaring the ordinate of the curve
of Fig. 10c and dividing by R. The result is plotted in Fig. \0d.
If the fringing of the magnetic field, which cannot be avoided
in practice (see Problem 43 of Chapter 35), is taken into account,
the sharp bends and comers in Fig. 10 will be replaced by smooth
curves. What changes would occur in the curves of Fig. 10 if the
loop were cut so that it no longer formed a closed conducting
path?

Sample Problem 3 A copper rod of length R rotates at angular

frequency cu in a uniform magnetic field B as shown in Fig. 11.
Find the emf ^ developed between the two ends of the rod. (We
might measure this emf by placing a conducting rail along the
dashed circle in the figure and connecting a voltmeter between
the rail and point O.)

Solution If a wire of length dr is moved at velocity v at right

angles to a field B, a motional emf d ^ will be developed (see Eq.
5) given by
d ^ = Bv dr.
The rod of Fig. 11 may be divided into elements of length dr, the
linear speed v of each element being (or. Each element is perpen­
dicular to B and is also moving in a direction at right angles to B
so that, since the em fs d ^ of each element are “in series,”

S = J J dS = Bvdr= J Bcor dr = ^BoR^.

/
/X

Coil I Coil Coil I Coil 'Coil

out I entering in I leaving out
0 5 10 15 20 25
X (cm) \X
\

Figure 10 Sample Problem 2. (a) A closed conducting loop

is pulled at constant speed completely through a region in
X X X /
which there is a uniform magnetic field B. (^) The magnetic /
flux through the loop as a function of the coordinate x of the
right side of the loop, (c) The induced emf as a function of x,
(d) The rate at which internal energy appears in the loop as it Figure 11 Sample Problem 3. A copper rod rotates in a uni­
is moved. form magnetic field.
790 Chapter 36 Faraday's Law o f Induction

For a second approach, consider that at any instant the flux
enclosed by the sector aOb in Fig. 11 is given by
<I>s = BA = B{{R^e\
where is the area of the sector. Differentiating gives
From Faraday’s law, this is precisely the magnitude of ^ and
agrees with the previous result.
36-5 INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELDS
Suppose we place a loop of conducting wire in an external
magnetic field (as in Fig. 12a). The field, which we assume
to have a uniform strength over the area o f the loop, may
be established by an external electromagnet. By varying
the current in the electromagnet, we can vary the strength
o f the magnetic field.
As B is varied, the magnetic flux through the loop varies
with time, and from Faraday’s and Lenz’ laws we can
calculate the magnitude and direction of the induced em f
and the induced current in the loop. Before the field began
changing, there was no current in the loop; while the field
is changing, charges flow in the loop. For charges to begin
moving, they must be accelerated by an electric field. This
induced electric field occurs with a changing magnetic
field, according to Faraday’s law.
The induced electric field is just as real as any that
might be set up by static charges; for instance, it exerts a
force on a test charge. Moreover, the presence o f the
electric field has nothing to do with the presence o f the
loop o f wire; if we were to remove the loop completely, the
electric field would still be present. We could fill the space
with a “gas” o f electrons or ionized atoms; these particles
would experience the same induced electric field E.
Let us therefore replace the loop o f wire with a circular
path o f arbitrary radius r (Fig. \lb). The path, which we
take in a plane perpendicular to the direction o f B, en­
closes a region o f space in which the magnetic field is
changing at a rate d^/dt. We assume that the rate dB/dt is

(c)

Figure 12 (a) If the magnetic field increases at a steady rate, a constant current appears, as
shown, in the loop of wire of radius r. {b) Induced electric fields exist in the region, even
when the ring is removed, (c) The complete picture of the induced electric fields, displayed as
lines o f force, (d) Four similar closed paths around which an em f may be calculated.

the same at every point in the area enclosed by the path.
The circular path encloses a flux which is changing at a
rate d^gldt owing to the variation in the magnetic field.
An induced em f appears around the path, and therefore
there is an induced electric field at all points around the
circle. From symmetry, we conclude that E must have the
same magnitude at all points around the circle, there
being no preferred direction in this space. Furthermore, E
can have no radial component, a conclusion that follows
from Gauss’ law: construct an imaginary cylindrical
Gaussian surface perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 1 2b. If
there were a radial component to E, there would be a net
electric flux into or out o f the surface, which would re­
quire that the surface enclose a net electric charge. Since
there is no such charge, the electric flux must be zero and
the radial component of E must be zero. Thus the induced
electric field is tangential, and the electric field lines are
concentric circles, as in Fig. 12c.
Consider a test charge moving around the circular
path o f Fig. Mb. The work W done on the charge by the
induced electric field in one revolution is <?^o- Equiva­
lently, we can express the work as the electric force q^E
times the displacement Inr covered in one revolution.
Setting these two expressions for W equal to one another
and canceling the factor q^, we obtain
S = E{2nr). ( 11)
The right side o f Eq. 1 1 can be expressed as a line integral
o f E around the circle, which can be written in more
general cases (for instance, when E is not constant or
when the chosen path is not a circle) as
E-ds. ( 12)
Note that Eq. 1 2 reduces directly to Eq. 11 in our special
case o f a circular path with constant tangential E.
Replacing the em f by Eq. 12, we can write Faraday’s
law o f induction (<? = —d^g/dt) as
d0 g
E'ds = - (13)
f dt
It is in this form that Faraday’s law appears as one of the
four basic Maxwell equations of electromagnetism. In
this form, it is apparent that Faraday’s law implies that a
changing magnetic field produces an electric field.
In Fig. 12, we have assumed that the magnetic field is
increasing; that is, both dB/dt and d^gldt are positive.
By Lenz’ law, the induced em f opposes this change, and
thus the induced currents create a magnetic field that
points out o f the plane of the figure. Since the currents
must be counterclockwise, the lines o f induced electric
field E (which is responsible for the current) must also be
counterclockwise. If, on the other hand, the magnetic
field were decreasing (dB/dt < 0), the lines o f induced
electric field would be clockwise, such that the induced
current again opposes the change in O*.
Section 36-5 Induced Electric Fields 791
Faraday’s law in the form of Eq. 13 can be applied to
paths of any geometry, not only the special circular path
we chose in Fig. 1 2b. Figure 12d shows four such paths, all
having the same shape and area but located in different
positions in the changing field. For paths 1 and 2, the
induced em f is the same because these paths lie entirely
within the changing magnetic field and thus have the
same value of d^g/dt. However, even though the em f
(= # E • ds) is the same for these two paths, the distribu­
tion of electric field vectors around the paths is different,
as indicated by the lines of the electric field. For path 3, the
em f is smaller because both and d^g/dt are smaller,
and for path 4 the induced em f is zero, even though the
electric field is not zero at any pont along the path.
The induced electric fields that are set up by the induc­
tion process are not associated with charges but with a
changing magnetic flux. Although both kinds o f electric
fields exert forces on charges, there is a difference between
them. The simplest evidence for this difference is that
lines o f E associated with a changing magnetic flux can
form closed loops (see Fig. 12); lines of E associated with
charges do not form closed loops but are always drawn to
start on a positive charge and end on a negative charge.
Equation 15 of Chapter 30, which defined the potential
difference between two points a and b, is
—W
n - K — ^ E’ds. (14)
HO
If potential is to have any useful meaning, this integral
(and Wai,) must have the same value for every path con­
necting a and b. This proved to be true for every case
examined in earlier chapters.
An interesting special case comes up if a and b are the
same point. The path connecting them is now a closed
loop; Vg must be identical with Vg, and Eq. 14 reduces to
E-ds = 0. (15)
However, when changing magnetic flux is present, • ds
is not zero but is, according to Faraday’s law (see Eq. 13),
—d^s/dt. Electric fields associated with stationary
charges are conservative, but those associated with chang­
ing magnetic fields are nonconservative\ see Section 8-2.
The (nonconservative) electric fields produced by induc­
tion cannot be described by an electric potential.
A similar argument can be given in the case o f magnetic
fields produced by currents in wires. The lines of B also
form closed loops (see Fig. 9 of Chapter 35), and conse­
quently magnetic potential has no meaning in such cases.
Sample Problem 4 In Fig. \lb , assume that R = 8.5 cm and
that dB/dt = 0.13 T/s. {a) What is the magnitude of the electric
field E for r = 5.2 cm? (b) What is the magnitude of the induced
electric field for r = 12.5 cm?
792 Chapter 36 Faraday's Im w o f Induction

36-6 TH E BETATRON*

The betatron is a device for accelerating electrons (also

known as beta particles) to high speeds using induced
electric fields produced by changing magnetic fields. Such
high-energy electrons can be used for basic research in
physics as well as for producing x rays for applied research
in industry and for medical purposes such as cancer ther­
Figure 13 The induced electric field found in Sample Prob­ apy. The betatron provides an excellent illustration o f the
lem 4. “reality” o f induced electric fields. Typically, betatrons
can produce energies o f 100 MeV, in which case the elec­
trons are highly relativistic (v = 0.999987c). Betatrons can
Solution {a) From Faraday’s law (Eq. 13) we have produce enormous currents, in the range o f 10^-10* A.
d<5>s They are, however, pulsed machines, producing pulses of
E(2nr) = - -
dt • typical width /rs or less separated by time intervals in the
range of 0.0 1 -1 s.
We note that r < R . The flux through a closed path of radius r
is then
Figure 14 shows a cross section through the inner struc­
ture o f a betatron. It consists of a large electromagnet M,
<t>s = B ( n r \
so that the field of which (indicated by the field lines) can be
varied by changing the current in coils C. The electrons
E(2nr) = - ( n r ^ ) ^ . circulate in the evacuated ceramic doughnut-shaped tube
marked D. Their orbit is at right angles to the plane o f the
Solving for E and taking magnitudes, we find figure, emerging from the left and entering at the right.
dB The magnetic field has several functions: (1) it guides
-I dt
(16)
the electrons in a circular path; (2) the changing magnetic
field produces an induced electric field that accelerates the
Note that the induced electric field E depends on dB /dt but not
on B. For r = 5.2 cm, we have, for the magnitude of E, electrons in their path; (3) it maintains a constant radius
of the path o f the electrons; (4) it introduces electrons into
dB the orbit and then removes them from the orbit after they
r= K 0 .1 3 T /sX 5 .2 X lO” " m)
dt have attained their full energy; and (5) it provides a restor­
= 0.0034 V/m = 3.4 mV/m. ing force that tends to resist any tendency o f the electrons
to leave their orbit, either vertically or radially. It is re­
(b) In this case we have r> R so that the entire flux of the
markable that the magnetic field is capable o f performing
magnet passes through the circular path. Thus
all these operations.
The coils carry an alternating current and produce the
From Faraday’s law (Eq. 13) we then find magnetic field shown in Fig. 15. For electrons to circulate
in the direction shown in Fig. 14 (counterclockwise as
E(2nr) = - ^ = -(nR ^)^. viewed from above), the magnetic field must be pointing
upward (taken as positive in Fig. 15). Furthermore, the
Solving for E and again taking magnitudes, we find changing field must have positive slope {d B /d t > 0 so that
dB d^e/dt > 0) if the electrons are to be accelerated (rather
-I dt r
(17) than decelerated) during the cycle. Thus only the first
quarter-cycle o f Fig. 15 is useful for the operation o f the
An electric field is induced in this case even at points that are well betatron; the electrons are injected at / = 0 and extracted
outside the (changing) magnetic field, an important result that at / = T /4 . For the remaining three-quarters o f a cycle,
makes transformers (see Section 39-5) possible. For r = 12.5 cm,
the device produces no beam.
Eq. 17 gives
,(8.5 X 10-^ m)"
£ = i(0.13T/s)-
12.5 X 10-2 m

= 3.8 X 10-2 V/m = 3.8 mV/m.

Equations 16 and 17 yield the same result, as they must, for * For a review of developments and applications of betatrons
r = R. Figure 13 shows a plot of E{r) based on these two equa­ and similar devices, see “Ultra-high-current Electron Induction
tions. Accelerators,” by Chris A. Kapetanakos and Phillip Sprangle,
Physics Today, February 1985, p. 58.
 Section 36-7 Induction and Relative Motion (Optional) 793

I Axis Figure 14 A cross section of a betatron, showing

the orbit of the accelerating electrons and a “snap­
shot” of the time-varying magnetic field at a cer­
tain moment during the cycle. The magnetic field
is produced by the coils C and is shaped by the
magnetic pole pieces M.

From Faraday’s law (Eq. 3) this is also the average emf in volts.
Thus the electron increases its energy by an average of 430 eV
per revolution in this changing flux. To achieve its full final
energy of 100 MeV, it has to make about 230,000 revolutions in
its orbit, a total path length of about 12(X) km.
(b) The length of the acceleration cycle is given as 4.2 ms, and
the path length is calculated above to be 1200 km. The average
speed is then
- 1200X 103m 4, 0^ ,
4 .2 X ir » s
This is 95% of the speed of light. The actual speed of the fully
accelerated electron, when it has reached its final energy of 100
MeV, is 99.9987% of the speed of light.

Figure 15 The variation with time of the betatron magnetic

field B during one cycle.
36-7 INDUCTION AND RELATIVE
MOTION (Optional)
In Section 35-7, we discussed that the classification of electro­
magnetic effects into purely electric or purely magnetic was de­
Sample Problem 5 In a 100-MeV betatron, the orbit radius R pendent on the reference frame of the observer. That is, what
is 84 cm. The magnetic field in the region enclosed by the orbit appears to be a magnetic field in one frame of reference can
rises periodically (60 times per second) from zero to a maximum appear as a mixture of electric and magnetic fields in another
average value ^av,m = 0.80 T in an accelerating interval of one- frame of reference. Since motional emf is determined by the
fourth of a period, or 4.2 ms. (a) How much energy does the velocity of the object moving through the magnetic field, it
electron gain in one average trip around its orbit in this changing clearly depends on the reference frame of the observer. Other
flux? (b) What is the average speed of an electron during its observers in different inertial frames will measure different veloc­
acceleration cycle? ities and different magnetic field strengths. It is therefore essen­
tial in calculating induced emfs and currents to specify the refer­
Solution (a) The central flux rises during the accelerating in­ ence frame of the observer.
terval from zero to a maximum of Figure 16a shows a closed loop which an external agent (not
shown) causes to move at velocity v with respect to a magnet that
provides a uniform field B over a region. An observer 5 is at rest
= (0.80 T)(7r)(0.84 m)^ = 1.8 Wb. with respect to the magnet used to establish the field B. The
The average value of d ^ g ld ^ during the accelerating interval is induced emf in this case is a motional ^m/because the con­
then ducting loop is moving with respect to this observer.
Consider a positive chaiige carrier at the center of the left end
/ ^ \ ____ L « » 5 _ . 4 3 0 W b / s of the loop. To observer S, this charge q is constrained to move
\ dt )„ 4l 4.2X10->S through the field B with velocity y to the right along with the
794 Chapter 36 Faraday ’5 Law o f Induction

Figure 16 A closed conducting loop is in

motion with respect to a magnet that pro­
duces the field B. (a) An observer 5, fixed
with respect to the magnet, sees the loop
moving to the right and observes a magnetic
force Fg cos 6 acting upward on the positive
charge carriers, (b) An observer S \ fixed
with respect to the loop, sees the magnet
moving toward the left and observes an elec­
tric force acting upward on the positive
charge carriers. In both figures there are in­
ternal forces of collision (not shown) that
keep the charge carriers from accelerating.

ih)

loop, and it experiences a magnetic force given by F = ^ X B by this agent appears as internal energy in the loop, as we have
(not shown in Fig. 16fl). This force causes the carriers to move seen in Section 36-4.
upward (in the y direction) along the conductor; eventually, they Let us then calculate the work d W done on the carrier in time
acquire the drift velocity Vd» as shown in Fig. 16a. dt by the force N; it is
The resultant equilibrium velocity of the carriers is now V, the
d W = N (v dt) (19)
vector sum of v and v^. In this situation the magnetic force F^ is
in which v dt is the distance that the loop (and the carrier) has
F^ = X B (18) moved to the right in Fig. 16a in time dt. We can write for A^(see
Eq. 18 and Fig. 16a)
acting (as usual) at right angles to the resultant velocity V of the
N = F g S \ n d = ^ (q VB)( vJ V ) = qBv^. ( 20)
carrier, as shown in Fig. 16a.
Acting alone, F^, would tend to push the carriers through the Substituting Eq. 20 into Eq. 19 yields
left wall of the conductor. Because this does not happen the
d W = (q B v fK v d t)
conductor wall must exert a normal force N on the carriers (see
Fig. 16a) of magnitude such that lies parallel to the axis of the = (qBv){v^ dt) = qBv ds (21)
wire; in other words, N exactly cancels the horizontal compo­ in which ds (= dt) is the distance the carrier drifts along the
nent of F/,, leaving only the component Fg cos 6 that lies along conductor in time dt.
the direction of the conductor. This latter component of force on The work done on the carrier as it makes a complete circuit of
the carrier U also canceled out in this case by the average impul­ the loop is found by integrating Eq. 21 around the loop and is
sive force F, associated with the internal collisions that the car­
rier experiences as it drifts with (constant) speed through the I V = ^ d l V = qBvD. ( 22)
wire.
The kinetic energy of the charge carrier as it drifts through the
This follows because work contributions for the top and the
wire remains constant. This is consistent with the fa a that the
bottom of the loops are opposite in sign and cancel, and no work
resultant force acting on the charge carrier (=¥g + Fj + N) is
is done in those portions of the loop that lie outside the magnetic
zero. The work done by F^ is zero because magnetic forces,
field.
acting at right angles to the velocity of a moving charge, can do
An agent that does work on charge carriers, thus establishing a
no work on that charge. Thus the (negative) work done on the
current in a closed conducting loop, can be viewed as an emf
carrier by the average internal collision force Fj must be exactly
Using Eq. 22, we find
canceled by the (positive) work done on the carrier by the force
N. Ultimately, N is supplied by the agent that pulls the loop
( 23)
through the magnetic field, and the mechanical energy expended Q Q

which is the same result that we derived from Faraday’s law of
induction; see Eq. 5. Thus a motional em f is intimately con­
nected with the sideways deflection of a charged particle moving
through a magnetic field.
We now consider how the situation of Fig. \ 6a would appear
to an observer S ' who is at rest with respect to the loop. To this
observer, the magnet is moving to the left in Fig. 16b with veloc­
ity —V , and the charge q does not move in the x ' direction with
the loop but drifts clockwise around the loop. S ' measures an
em f <?' which is accounted for, at the microscopic level, by pos­
tulating that an electric field E' is induced in the loop by the
action of the moving magnet. The emf is related to E' by
Eq. 12,
?' = ^ E '-
The induced field E", which has the same origin as the induced
fields that we discussed in Section 36-5, exerts a force ^E' on the
charge carrier.
The induced field E' that produces the current exists only in
the left end of the loop. (As we carry out the integral of Eq. 12
around the loop, contributions to the integral from the x ' com­
ponent of E ' cancel on the top and bottom sides, while there is no
contribution from parts of the loop that are not in the magnetic
field.) Using Eq. 12 we then obtain
S '= E'D. (24)
For motion at speeds small compared with the speed of light,
the emfs given by Eqs. 23 and 24 must be identical, because the
relative motion of the loop and the magnet is identical in the two
cases shown in Fig. 16. Equating these relations yields
E 'D = BDv,
or
E ' = vB. (25)
In Fig. 16b the vector E' points upward along the axis of the left
end of the conducting loop because this is the direction in which
positive charges are observed to drift. The directions of v and B
are clearly shown in this figure. We see then that Eq. 25 is consist­
ent with the more general vector relation
E' = VX B. (26)
We have not proved Eq. 26 except for the special case of Fig. 16;
nevertheless it is true in general, no matter what the angle be­
tween Vand B.
We interpret Eq. 26 in the following way. Observer S fixed
with respect to the magnet is aware only of a magnetic field. To
this observer, the force arises from the motion of the charges
through B. Observer S ' fixed on the charge carrier is aware of an
electric field E' also and attributes the force on the charge (at rest
initially with respect to S ') to the electric field. S says the force is
of purely magnetic origin, while S ' says the force is of purely
QUESTIONS
1. Show that 1 volt = 1 weber/second.
2. Are induced emfs and currents different in any way from
emfs and currents provided by a battery connected to a
conducting loop?
Questions 795
electric origin. From the point of view of 5, the induced emf is
given by #(v X B)*ds. From the point of view of S', the same
induced emf is given by # E ' • ds, where E' is the (induced) elec­
tric field vector that S ' observes at points along the circuit.
For a third observer S ", relative to whom both the magnet
and the loop are moving, the force tending to move charges
around the loop is neither purely electric nor purely magnetic,
but a bit of each. In summary, in the equation
F/^ = E + VX B,
different observers form different assessments of E, B, and v but,
when these are combined, all observers form the same assess­
ment of F/^, and all obtain the same value for the induced emf in
the loop (which depends only on the relative motion). That is,
the total force (and, hence, the total acceleration) is the same for
all observers, but each observer forms a different estimate of the
separate electric and magnetic forces contributing to the same
total force.
The essential point is that what seems like a magnetic field to
one observer may seem like a mixture of an electric field and a
magnetic field to a second observer in a different inertial refer­
ence frame. Both observers agree, however, on the overall mea­
surable result, in the case of Fig. 16, the current in the loop. We
are forced to conclude that magnetic and electric fields are not
independent of each other and have no separate unique exis­
tence; they depend on the inertial frame, as we also concluded in
Section 35-7.
All the results of this section assume that the relative speed
between S and S ' is small compared with the speed of light c. If v
is comparable to c, the appropriate set of relativistic transforma­
tions must be applied. In this case, we would find that the in­
duced emfs measured by S and S ' would no longer be equal, and
that the induced electric field is not given by Eq. 26. However, if
we are careful to define all quantities in the proper relativistic
manner, we find again that the basic laws of electromagnetism,
including Faraday’s law, hold in all inertial reference frames.*
Indeed, such considerations led Einstein to the special theory of
relativity; in the language of special relativity, we say that Max­
well’s equations are invariant with respect to the Lorentz trans­
formation. ■
* For a careful discussion of motional emfs in the case of veloci­
ties that are not necessarily small compared with c, see “Applica­
tion of Special Relativity to a Simple System in which a Mo­
tional emf Exists,” by Murray D. Sirkis, American Journal o f
Physics, June 1986, p. 538. Further considerations of the relativ­
istic transformation of electric and magnetic fields can be found
in Introduction to Special Relativity, by Robert Resnick (Wiley,
1968), Chapter 4.
3. Is the size of the voltage induced in a coil through which a
magnet moves affected by the strength of the magnet? If so,
explain how.
4. Explain in your own words the difference between a mag­
796 Chapter 36 Faraday's Law o f Induction

netic field B and the flux of a magnetic field Are they

vectors or scalars? In what units may each be expressed?
How are these units related? Are either or both (or neither)
properties of a given point in space?
5. Can a charged particle at rest be set in motion by the action
of a magnetic field? If not, why not? If so, how? Consider
both static and time-varying fields.
6. Account qualitatively for the configurations of the lines of B
in Fig. 9a-c. Figure 19 Question 13.
7. In Faraday’s law of induction, does the induced emf depend
on the resistance of the circuit? If so, how?
axis from left to right. If a clockwise current i is suddenly
8. You drop a bar magnet along the axis of a long copper tube.
established in the larger loop, by a battery not shown,
Describe the motion of the magnet and the energy inter­
(a) what is the direction of the induced current in the smaller
changes involved. Neglect air resistance.
loop? (^) What is the direction of the force (if any) that acts
9. You are playing with a metal loop, moving it back and forth on the smaller loop?
in a magnetic field, as in Fig. 9. How can you tell, without
14. What is the direction of the induced emf in coil Y of Fig. 20
detailed inspection, whether or not the loop has a narrow
(a) when coil Y is moved toward coil X I (b) When the
saw cut across it, rendering it nonconducting?
current in coil X is decreased, without any change in the
10. Figure 17 shows an inclined wooden track that passes, for relative positions of the coils?
part of its length, through a strong magnetic field. You roll a
copper disk down the track. Describe the motion of the disk
as it rolls from the top of the track to the bottom.

Figure 20 Question 14.

Figure 17 Question 10. 15. The north pole of a magnet is moved away from a copper
ring, as in Fig. 21. In the part of the ring farthest from the
reader, which way does the current point?
11. Figure 18 shows a copper ring, hung from a ceiling by two
threads. Describe in detail how you might most effectively
use a bar magnet to get this ring to swing back and forth.
t

Figure 21 Question 15.

16. A circular loop moves with constant velocity through re­

gions where uniform magnetic fields of the same magnitude
are directed into or out of the plane of the page, as indicated
in Fig. 22. At which of the seven indicated positions will the
Figure 18 Question 11. em f be (a) clockwise, (b) counterclockwise, and (c) zero?

12. Is an emf induced in a long solenoid by a bar magnet that

moves inside it along the solenoid axis? Explain your an­
swer.
13. Two conducting loops face each other a distance d apart, as
shown in Fig. 19. An observer sights along their common Figure 22 Question 16.

17. A short solenoid carrying a steady current is moving toward
a conducting loop as in Fig. 23. What is the direction of the
induced current in the loop as one sights toward it as shown?
Figure 23 Question 17.
18. The resistance R in the left-hand circuit of Fig. 24 is being
increased at a steady rate. What is the direction of the in­
duced current in the right-hand circuit?
Figure 24 Question 18.
19. What is the direction of the induced current through resistor
R in Fig. 25 {a) immediately after switch S is closed, (b) some
time after switch S is closed, and (c) immediately after switch
S is opened? {d) When switch S is held closed, from which
end of the longer coil do field lines emerge? This is the
effective north pole of the coil, (e) How do the conduction
electrons in the coil containing R know about the flux
within the long coil? What really gets them moving?
Figure 25 Question 19.
20. Can an induced current ever establish a magnetic field B
that is in the same direction as the magnetic field inducing
the current? Justify your answer.
21. How can you summarize in one statement all the ways of
determining the direction of an induced em f ?
22. The loop of wire shown in Fig. 26 rotates with constant
angular speed about the x axis. A uniform magnetic field B,
Questions 797
whose direction is that of the positive y axis, is present. For
what portions of the rotation is the induced current in the
loop (a) from P to Q, (b) from Q to F, and (c) zero? Repeat if
the direction of rotation is reversed from that shown in the
figure.
Figure 26 Question 22.
23. In Fig. 27 the straight movable wire segment is moving to
the right with constant velocity v. An induced current ap­
pears in the direction shown. What is the direction of the
uniform magnetic field (assumed constant and perpendicu­
lar to the page) in region A?
_ i
A
i _
Figure 27 Question 23.
24. A conducting loop, shown in Fig. 28, is removed from the
permanent magnet by pulling it vertically upward, (a) What
is the direction of the induced current? (6) Is a force required
to remove the loop? (Ignore the weight of the loop.) (c) Does
the total amount of internal energy produced depend on the
time taken to remove it?
Figure 28 Question 24.
25. A plane closed loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field. In
what ways can the loop be moved without inducing an emf?
Consider motions both of translation and rotation.
26. A strip of copper is mounted as a pendulum about O in Fig.
29. It is free to swing through a magnetic field normal to the
page. If the strip has slots cut in it as shown, it can swing
freely through the field. If a strip without slots is substituted,
the motion is strongly damped (magnetic damping). Ex-
798 Chapter 36 Faraday's Law o f Induction
Figure 29 Question 26.
plain the observations. {Hint: Use Lenz’ law; consider the
paths that the charge carriers in the strip must follow if they
are to oppose the motion.)
27. Consider a conducting sheet lying in a plane perpendicular
to a magnetic field B, as shown in Fig. 30. {a) If B suddenly
changes, the full change in B is not immediately detected at
points nesi P (electromagnetic shielding). Explain, (b) If the
resistivity of the sheet is zero, the change is never detected at
P. Explain, (c) If B changes periodically at high frequency
and the conductor is made of material with a low resistivity,
the region near P is almost completely shielded from the
changes in flux. Explain, (d) Why is such a conductor not
useful as a shield from static magnetic fields?
P 36. In Fig. \ 6a we can see that a force (F^ cos 6) acts on the
Conducting
sheet
Z Z Z W//////////^^^^^^
Figure 30 Question 27.
PROBLEMS
Section 36-2 Faraday*s Law o f Induction
1. At a certain location in the northern hemisphere, the Earth’s
magnetic field has a magnitude of 42 p Y and points down­
ward at 57® to the vertical. Calculate the flux through a
horizontal surface of area 2.5 m^; see Fig. 31.
2. A circular UHF television antenna has a diameter of 11.2
cm. The magnetic field of a TV signal is normal to the plane
of the loop and, at one instant of time, its magnitude is
28. (a) In Fig. 126, need the circle of radius r be a conducting
loop in order that E and be present? (b) If the circle of
radius r were not concentric (moved slightly to the left, say),
would ^ change? Would the configuration of E around the
circle change? (c) For a concentric circle of radius r, with
r > R, does an emf exist? Do electric fields exist?
29. A copper ring and a wooden ring of the same dimensions are
placed so that there is the same changing magnetic flux
through each. Compare the induced electric fields in the two
rings.
30. An airliner is cruising in level flight over Alaska, where
Earth’s magnetic field has a large downward component.
Which of its wingtips (right or left) has more electrons than
the other?
31. In Fig. \2dhow can the induced emfs around paths 1 and 2
be identical? The induced electric fields are much weaker
near path 1 than near path 2, as the spacing of the lines of
force shows. See also Fig. 13.
32. A cyclotron (see Section 34-3) is a so-called resonance de~
vice. Does a betatron depend on resonance? Discuss.
33. Show that, in the betatron of Fig. 14, the directions of the
lines of B are correctly drawn to be consistent with the direc­
tion of circulation shown for the electrons.
34. In the betatron of Fig. 14 you want to increase the orbit
radius by suddenly imposing an additional central flux
(set up by suddenly establishing a current in an auxiliary coil
not shown). Should the lines of B associated with this flux
increment be in the same direction as the lines shown in the
figure or in the opposite direction? Assume that the mag­
netic field at the orbit position remains relatively unchanged
by this flux increment.
35. In the betatron of Fig. 14, why is the iron core of the magnet
made of laminated sheets rather than of solid metal as for
the cyclotron of Section 34-3?
charge carriers in the left branch of the loop. However, if
there is to be a continuous current in the loop, and there is, a
force of some sort must act on charge carriers in the other
three branches of the loop to maintain the same drift speed
in these branches. What is its source? (Hint: Consider that
the left branch of the loop was the only conducting element
the other three being nonconducting. Would not positive
charge pile up at the top of the left half and negative charge at
the bottom?)
changing at the rate 157 mT/s. The field is uniform. Find the
emf in the antenna.
3. In Fig. 32 the magnetic flux through the loop shown in­
creases according to the relation
<D^ = 6r2 + 7f,
where is in milliwebers and t is in seconds, (a) What is the

Figure 32 Problems 3 and 11.
absolute value of the em f induced in the loop when t = 2.0 s?
(b) What is the direction of the current through the resistor?
4. The magnetic field through a one-tum loop of wire 16 cm in
radius and 8.5 in resistance changes with time as shown in
Fig. 33. Calculate the emf in the loop as a function of time.
Consider the time intervals (a)t = 0 t o t = 2 s;(b )t = 2 s to
t = 4 s; (c) t = 4 s to t = 8 s. The (uniform) magnetic field is
at right angles to the plane of the loop.
Figure 33 Problem 4.
5. A uniform magnetic field is normal to the plane of a circular
loop 10.4 cm in diameter made of copper wire (diameter =
2.50 mm), (a) Calculate the resistance of the wire. (See Table
1 in Chapter 32.) (b) A t what rate must the magnetic field
change with time if an induced current of 9.66 A is to appear
in the loop?
6. A loop antenna of area A and resistance R is perpendicular
to a uniform magnetic field B. The field drops linearly to
Problems 799
zero in a time interval At. Find an expression for the total
internal eneiigy dissipated in the loop.
7. Suppose that the current in the solenoid of Sample Problem
1 now changes, not as in that sample problem, but according
to i = 3.0t + l.Ot^, where / is in amperes and t is given in
seconds, {a) Plot the induced emf in the coil from t = 0 to
t = 4 s. {b) The resistance of the coil is 0.15 fl. What is the
current in the coil at t = 2.0 s?
8. In Fig. 34 a 120-tum coil of radius 1.8 cm and resistance 5.3
Q is placed outside a solenoid like that of Sample Problem 1.
If the current in the solenoid is changed as in that sample
problem, (a) what current appears in the coil while the sole­
noid current is being changed? (b) How do the conduction
electrons in the coil “get the message” from the solenoid that
they should move to establish a current? After all, the mag­
netic flux is entirely confined to the interior of the solenoid.
9. You are given 52.5 cm of copper wire (diameter = 1 .1 0
mm). It is formed into a circular loop and placed at right
angles to a uniform magnetic field that is increasing with
time at the constant rate of 9.82 mT/s. At what rate is inter­
nal eneigy generated in the loop?
10. A closed loop of wire consists of a pair of identical semicir­
cles, radius 3.7 cm, lying in mutually perpendicular planes.
The loop was formed by folding a circular loop along a
diameter until the two halves became perpendicular. A uni­
form magnetic field B of magnitude 76 mT is directed per­
pendicular to the fold diameter and makes angles of 62 and
28® with the planes of the semicircles, as shown in Fig. 35.
The magnetic field is reduced at a uniform rate to zero
during a time interval of 4.5 ms. Determine the induced
em f
Figure 35 Problem 10.
11. In Fig. 32 let the flux for the loop be 0^(0) at time t = 0.
Then let the magnetic field B vary in a continuous but un-
800 Chapter 36 Faraday’s Law o f Induction

specified way, in both magnitude and direction, so that at

time t the flux is represented by <I>b(0- (^) Show that the net
charge q{t) that has passed through resistor R in time t is

<7(0 = ;^[<l>i,(0)-<l>i,(0],

independent of the way B has changed, (b) If = <[>^,(0)

in a particular case we have q(t) = 0. Is the induced current
necessarily zero throughout the time interval from 0 to /?
1 2 . Around a cylindrical core of cross-sectional area 12.2 cm^
are wrapped 125 turns of insulated copper wire. The two
terminals are connected to a resistor. The total resistance in Figure 37 Problem 15.
the circuit is 13.3 Q. An externally applied uniform longitu­
dinal magnetic field in the core changes from 1.57 T in one
direction to 1.57 T in the opposite direction in 2.88 ms. How
much charge flows through the circuit? (Hint: See Prob­
lem 11.)
13. A uniform magnetic field B is changing in magnitude at a
constant rate dB/dt. You are given a mass m of copper
which is to be drawn into a wire of radius rand formed into a
circular loop of radius R. Show that the induced current in h
the loop does not depend on the size of the wire or of the loop Figure 38 Problem 16.
and, assuming B perpendicular to the loop, is given by
m dB
17, In Fig. 39, the square has sides of length 2.0 cm. A magnetic
AnpS dt ’
field points out of the page; its magnitude is given by ^ =
where p is the resistivity and 6 the density of copper. 4/^y, where B is in tesla, / is in seconds, and y is in meters.
14. A square wire loop with 2.3-m sides is perpendicular to a Determine the emf around the square at / = 2.5 s and give its
uniform magnetic field, with half the area of the loop in the direction.
field, as shown in Fig. 36. The loop contains a 2.0-V battery
with negligible internal resistance. If the magnitude of the
field varies with time according X o B = 0.042 —0.87r, with
B in tesla and t in seconds, what is the total emf in the
circuit?

Figure 39 Problem 17.

Section 36-4 Motional em f

Figure 36 Problem 14.
15. A wire is bent into three circular segments of radius r = 10.4
cm as shown in Fig. 37. Each segment is a quadrant of a
circle, ab lying in the x y plane, be lying in the yz plane, and
ca lying in the z x plane, (a) If a uniform magnetic field B
points in the positive x direction, find the em f developed in
the wire when B increases at the rate of 3.32 mT/s. (b) What
is the direction of the emf in the segment bcl
16. For the situation shown in Fig. 38, a = 12 cm, b = \6 cm.
The current in the long straight wire is given by i = 4.5/^ —
10/, where / is in amperes and / is in seconds. Find the emf in
the square loop at t = 3.0 s.
18. An automobile having a radio antenna 110 cm long travels
at 90 km /h in a region where Earth’s magnetic field is 55pT.
Find the maximum possible value of the induced emf.
19. A circular loop of wire 10 cm in diameter is placed with its
normal making an angle of 30® with the direction of a uni­
form 0.50-T magnetic field. The loop is “wobbled” so that
its normal rotates in a cone about the field direction at the
constant rate of 100 rev/min; the angle between the normal
and the field direction (=30®) remains unchanged during
the process. What emf appears in the loop?
20. Figure 40 shows a conducting rod of length L being pulled
along horizontal, frictionless, conducting rails at a constant
velocity v. A uniform vertical magnetic field B fills the re­
gion in which the rod moves. Assume that L = 10.8 cm.
V = 4.86 m/s, and B = 1.18 T. (a) Find the induced emf in
the rod. (b) Calculate the current in the conducting loop.
Assume that the resistance of the rod is 415 mO, and that the

r netic field, due to the current / in the larger loop, is nearly
L
Figure 40 Problem 20.
resistance of the rails is negligibly small, (c) At what rate is
internal energy being generated in the rod? (d) Find the
force that must be applied by an external agent to the rod to
maintain its motion, (e) At what rate does this force do work
on the rod? Compare this answer with the answer to (c).
21. In Fig. 41 a conducting rod of mass m and length L slides
without friction on two long horizontal rails. A uniform
vertical magnetic field B fills the region in which the rod is
free to move. The generator G supplies a constant current /
that flows down one rail, across the rod, and back to the
generator along the other rail. Find the velocity of the rod as
a function of time, assuming it to be at rest at r = 0.
22. In Problem 21 (see Fig. 41) the constant-current generator G
is replaced by a battery that supplies a constant emf €.
(a) Show that the velocity of the rod now approaches a
constant terminal value v and give its magnitude and direc­
tion. (b) What is the current in the rod when this terminal
velocity is reached? (c) Analyze both this situation and that
of Problem 21 from the point of view of energy transfers.
23. A circular loop made of a stretched conducting elastic mate­
rial has a 1.23-m radius. It is placed with its plane at right
angles to a uniform 785-mT magnetic field. When released,
the radius of the loop starts to decrease at an instantaneous
rate of 7.50 cm/s. Calculate the emf induced in the loop at
that instant.
24. Figure 42 shows two parallel loops of wire having a common
axis. The smaller loop (radius r) is above the larger loop
Problems 801
(radius /?), by a distance x :> R. Consequently the mag­
constant throughout the smaller loop and equal to the value
on the axis. Suppose that x is increasing at the constant rate
d x /d t = V. (a) Determine the magnetic flux across the area
bounded by the smaller loop as a function ofx. (b) Compute
the emf generated in the smaller loop, (c) Determine the
direction of the induced current flowing in the smaller loop.
25. A small bar magnet is pulled rapidly through a conducting
loop, along its axis. Sketch qualitatively (a) the induced
current and (b) the rate of internal energy production as a
function of the position of the center of the magnet. Assume
that the north pole of the magnet enters the loop first and
that the magnet moves at constant speed. Plot the induced
current as positive if it is clockwise as viewed along the path
of the magnet.
26, A stiff wire bent into a semicircle of radius a is rotated with a
frequency v in a uniform magnetic field, as suggested in Fig.
43. What are (a) the frequency and (b) the amplitude of the
emf induced in the loop?
Figure 43 Problem 26.
27. A rectangular loop of turns and of length a and width b is
rotated at a frequency v in a uniform magnetic field B, as in
Fig. 44. (a) Show that an induced emf given by
<? = InvN abB sin In v t = <^o sin 27Tv/
appears in the loop. This is the principle of the commercial
alternating current generator, (b) Design a loop that will
produce an emf with = 150 V when rotated at 60 rev/s in
a magnetic field of 0.50 T.
28. A conducting wire of fixed length L can be wound into N
circular turns and used as the armature of a generator. To get
the largest emf, what value of N would you choose?
29. The armature of a motor has 97 turns each of area 190 cm^
and rotates in a uniform magnetic field of 0.33 T. A poten­
tial difference of 24 V is applied. If no load is attached and
802 Chapter 36 Faraday's Law o f Induction

friction is neglected, find the rotational speed at equilib­

rium.
30. A generator consists of 100 turns of wire formed into a
rectangular loop 50 cm by 30 cm, placed entirely in a uni­
form magnetic field with magnitude B = 3.5 T. What is the
maximum value of the em f produced when the loop is spun
at 1000 revolutions per minute about an axis perpendicular
to B?
31. At a certain place, the Earth’s magnetic field has magnitude
B = 59 pT and is inclined downward at an angle of 70® to
the horizontal. A flat horizontal circular coil of wire with a
radius of 13 cm has 950 turns and a total resistance of 85 Q.
It is connected to a galvanometer with 140 Cl resistance. The
coil is flipped through a half revolution about a diameter, so
it is again horizontal. How much charge flows through the Figure 46 Problem 34.
galvanometer during the flip? (Hint: See Problem 11.)
32. In the arrangement of Sample Problem 3 put 5 = 1.2 T and
R = 5.3 cm. If ^ = 1.4 V, what acceleration will a point at

33.
the end of the rotating rod experience?
Figure 45 shows a rod of length L caused to move at constant
4
speed V along horizontal conducting rails. In this case the
magnetic field in which the rod moves is not uniform but is
provided by a current / in a long parallel wire. Assume that
V = 4.86 m/s, a = 10.2 mm, L = 9.83 cm, and / = 110 A.
(a) Calculate the emf induced in the rod. (b) What is the
current in the conducting loop? Assume that the resistance
of the rod is 415 m^2 and that the resistance of the rails is
negligible, (c) At what rate is internal energy being generated
Figure 47 Problem 35.
in the rod? {d) What force must be applied to the rod by an
external agent to maintain its motion? (e) At what rate does
this external agent do work on the rod? Compare this an­
swer to (c). 36. Figure 48 shows a “homopolar generator,” a device with a
solid conducting disk as rotor. This machine can produce a
greater em f than one using wire loop rotors, since it can spin
at a much higher angular speed before centrifugal forces
disrupt the rotor, (a) Show that the emf produced is given by
S = nvBR^
where v is the spin frequency, R the rotor radius, and B the
uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the rotor, {b) Find
the torque that must be provided by the motor spinning the
rotor when the output current is /.

Figure 45 Problem 33.

34. Two straight conducting rails form an angle 0 where their

ends are joined. A conducting bar in contact with the rails
and forming an isosceles triangle with them starts at the
vertex at time t = 0 and moves with constant velocity v to
the right, as shown in Fig. 46. A magnetic field B points out
of the page, (a) Find the emf induced as a function of time. Figure 48 Problem 36.
(b) If 0 = 110®, B = 352 mT, and t; = 5.21 m/s, when is the
induced emf equal to 56.8 V?
35. A rectangular loop of wire with length a, width b, and resist­ 37. A rod with length L, mass m, and resistance R slides without
ance R is placed near an infinitely long wire carrying current friction down parallel conducting rails of negligible resist­
/, as shown in Fig. 47. The distance from the long wire to the ance, as in Fig. 49. The rails are connected together at the
loop is D. Find (a) the magnitude of the magnetic flux bottom as shown, forming a conducting loop with the rod as
through the loop and {b) the current in the loop as it moves the top member. The plane of the rails makes an angle 6 with
away from the long wire with speed v. the horizontal and a uniform vertical magnetic field B exists

Figure 49 Problem 37.
throughout the region, (a) Show that the rod acquires a
steady-state terminal velocity whose magnitude is
m gR sin d
y=
cos2 e
(b) Show that the rate at which internal energy is being
generated in the rod is equal to the rate at which the rod is
losing gravitational potential energy, (c) Discuss the situa­
tion if B were directed down instead of up.
38. A wire whose cross-sectional area is 1.2 mm^ and whose
resistivity is 1.7 X 10"* Q*m is bent into a circular arc of
radius r = 24 cm as shown in Fig. 50. An additional straight
length of this wire, OP, is free to pivot about O and makes
sliding contact with the arc at P. Finally, another straight
length of this wire, OQ, completes the circuit. The entire
arrangement is located in a magnetic field 5 = 0.15 T di­
rected out of the plane of the figure. The straight wire OP
starts from rest with 6 = 0 and has a constant angular accel­
eration of 12 rad/s^. (a) Find the resistance of the loop
OPQO as a function of 6. (b) Find the magnetic flux through
the loop as a function of 0. (c) For what value of 6 is the
induced current in the loop a maximum? (d) What is the
maximum value of the induced current in the loop?
Figure 50 Problem 38.
39. An electromagnetic “eddy current” brake consists of a disk
of conductivity a and thickness / rotating about an axis
through its center with a magnetic field B applied perpendic­
ular to the plane of the disk over a small area (see Fig. 51).
If the area a ^ is at a distance r from the axis, find an approxi­
mate expression for the torque tending to slow down the
disk at the instant its angular velocity equals co.
Figure 51 Problem 39.
Problems 803
Section 36-5 Induced Electric Fields
40. A long solenoid has a diameter of 12.6 cm. When a current /
is passed through its windings, a uniform magnetic field
B = 28.6 mT is produced in its interior. By decreasing /, the
field is caused to decrease at the rate 6.51 mT/s. Calculate
the magnitude of the induced electric field (a) 2.20 cm and
(b) 8.20 cm from the axis of the solenoid.
41. Figure 52 shows two circular regions /?, and R 2 with radii
r, = 21.2 cm and Tj = 32.3 cm, respectively. In R , there is a
uniform magnetic field = 48.6 mT into the page and in
R 2there is a uniform magnetic field B2 = 112 mT out of the
page (ignore any fringing of these fields). Both fields are
decreasing at the rate 8.50 mT/s. Calculate the integral
for each of the three indicated paths.
Figure 52 Problem 41.
42. Figure 53 shows a uniform magnetic field B confined to a
cylindrical volume of radius R. B is decreasing in magnitude
at a constant rate of 10.7 mT/s. What is the instantaneous
acceleration (direction and magnitude) experienced by an
electron placed at a, at b, and at cl Assume r = 4.82 cm.
(The necessary fringing of the field beyond R will not change
your answer as long as there is axial symmetry about the
perpendicular axis through b.)
Figure 53 Problem 42.
43. Prove that the electric field E in a charged parallel-plate
capacitor cannot drop abruptly to zero as one moves at right
angles to it, as suggested by the arrow in Fig. 54 (see point a).
In actual capacitors fringing of the lines of force always
occurs, which means that E approaches zero in a continuous
and gradual way; compare with Problem 43, Chapter 35.
(Hint: Apply Faraday’s law to the rectangular path shown by
the dashed lines.)
804 Chapter 36 Faraday 5 Law o f Induction

+9

Et T t ? f t t t t t f t t ? f f tl t U

I I
-9
Figure 54 Problem 43.

44. Early in 1981 the Francis Bitter National Magnet Labora­

tory at M.I.T. commenced operation of a 3.3-cm diameter
cylindrical magnet, which produces a 30-T field, then the
world’s largest steady-state field. The field can be varied
sinusoidally between the limits of 29.6 T and 30.0 T at a
frequency of 15 Hz. When this is done, what is the maxi­
mum value of the induced electric field at a radial distance
of 1.6 cm from the axis? This magnet is described in Physics
Today, August 1984.
45 A uniform magnetic field B fills a cylindrical volume of
radius R. A metal rod of length L is placed as shown in Fig.
55. If B is changing at the rate dB /d t, show that the emf that
is produced by the changing magnetic field and that acts
between the ends of the rod is given by
\r ^
( 6)
Figure 56 Problem 46.
must (/) guide the electrons in their circular path and (//)
generate the electric field that accelerates the electrons.
Which quarter cycle(s) in Fig. 56b are suitable (a) according
to (/), {b) according to (//), and (c) for operation of the
betatron?
47. In a certain betatron, the radius of the electron orbit is
32 cm and the magnetic field at the orbit is given by B^^ =
0.28 sin 120;:/, where t is in seconds and B ^^ is in tesla. In
the betatron, the average value B^„ of the field enclosed by
the electron orbit is equal to twice the value B^^ at the
electron orbit, (a) Calculate the induced electric field felt by
the electrons at / = 0. (b) Find the acceleration of the elec­
trons at this instant. Ignore relativistic effects.
48. Some measurements of the maximum magnetic field as a
function of radius for a betatron are:

r(cm ) B (tesla) r(cm ) B (tesla)

0 0.950 81.2 0.409
10.2 0.950 83.7 0.400
68.2 0.950 88.9 0.381
\\ ^ --- —-------------------V 73.2 0.528 91.4
/ 0312
!\
‘ \ /
/ 75.2 0.451 93.5 0.360
\ / 77.3 0.428 95.5 0.340
/
1 \ \ _ , ^
Show by graphical analysis that the relation B^y = 2 B ^
^ -------------------1 mentioned in Problem 47 as essential to betatron operation
is satisfied at the orbit radius /? = 84 cm. (Hint: Note that
Figure 55 Problem 45.
B. =— r B (r )ln r d r
nR^ Jo
Section 36~6 The Betatron and evaluate the integral graphically.)
46. Figure 56a shows a top view of the electron orbit in a beta­
tron. Electrons are accelerated in a circular orbit in the x y Section 36-7 Induction and Relative Motion
plane and then withdrawn to strike the target T. The mag­ 49. {a) Estimate 6 in Fig. 16. Recall that = 4 X 10“ ^ cm/s in a
netic field B is along the z axis (the positive z axis is out of the typical case. Assume v = \ 5 cm/s. {b) It is clear that 6 will be
page). The magnetic field along this axis varies sinusoi­ small. However, must we have for the arguments
dally as shown in Fig. 56b. Recall that the magnetic field presented in connection with this figure to be valid?