Nuclear Physics

Edmar G. Pantohan
Properties of Nuclei
• All nuclei are composed of two types of particles: protons and neutrons.
• Atomic number Z, equals the number of protons in the nucleus.
• Neutron number N, equals the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
• Mass number A, equals the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
• A=Z+N
• Nucleon is a generic term used to refer to either a proton or a neutron.
• The symbol we use to represent nuclei is 𝐴𝑍𝑋.
• The isotopes of an element have the same Z value, but different N and A
values.
• For example, 116𝐶, 126𝐶, 136𝐶, 146𝐶 are four isotopes of carbon.
• Atomic mass is an average of the masses of the isotopes of a given
element and has units of u.
Properties of Nuclei
• Unified mass unit u, mass of one atom of the isotope 12C is exactly 12 u, where
1u=1.660559x10-27 kg.
• It is often convenient to express the particle’s mass in terms of its energy
equivalent.

• The size and structure of nuclei were first

investigated in the scattering experiments of
Rutherford.
Properties of Nuclei
• The most nuclei are approximately spherical and have an average radius
given by
(r0 =1.2 x 10-15 m)
• It follows from Equation 29.1 that the volume of a
nucleus is directly proportional to A; this
relationship suggests that all nuclei have nearly the
same density.
• Rutherford concluded that the positive charge in an
atom is concentrated in a small sphere, nucleus,
with radius no greater than about 10-14 m.
• Femtometer (fm) is the convenient unit of length in
nuclear physics.
(1 fm=10-15 m)
Properties of Nuclei
• Nuclei are stable because of nuclear force (about 2 fm), an attractive force
that acts between all nuclear particles.
• Strong nuclear force is nearly independent of charge.
• Light nuclei are most stable if they contain equal
numbers of protons and neutrons N=Z, but heavy nuclei
are more stable if N>Z.
• When Z=83, repulsive force between protons cannot
be compensated for by the addition of neutrons;
elements that contain more than 83 protons don’t have
stable nuclei, but, rather decay into other particles in
various amounts of time.
Properties of Nuclei
• Total mass of a nucleus is always (Eb/A is the binding energy per nucleon)
less than the sum of masses of its
nucleons.
• The total energy of the nucleus is
less than the combined energy of
the separated nucleons; this
difference in energy is called the
binding energy.
• The curve is slowly varying for
A>40, which suggests the nuclear
force saturates.
• Hydrogen isotopes: 11𝐻, ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛; 21𝐻, 𝑑𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚; and 31𝐻, 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑢𝑚.
• ∆𝑚 = (𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚𝑒 )- 𝑚𝑑 ; 𝑚𝑝 mass of proton, 𝑚𝑛 mass of neutron, 𝑚𝑒 mass of electron.
• Knowing A=Z+N, deuterium has 1 proton, 1 electron, and 1 neutron.
• ∆𝑚 = (1.007276u+1.008665u+5.486x10-4u)-2.014102u
Radioactivity
• In 1896 Becquerel accidentally discovered that
uranium salt crystals emit an invisible radiation.
• The radiation emitted by the crystals was of a new
type, one requiring no external stimulation.
• Three types of radiation can be emitted by a
radioactive substance: alpha (α) particles 42𝐻𝑒 nuclei;
beta (β) particles either electron or positrons; and
gamma (γ) rays high-energy photons.
• Positron is a particle similar to electron but has a
charge +e.
• Alpha particles penetrate a sheet of paper, beta
particles can penetrate a few millimeters of
aluminum, and gamma rays penetrate several
centimeters of lead.
Half-Life
• If radioactive sample contains N radioactive nuclei, the
number of nuclei, ΔN, that decay in a small time interval
Δt is proportional to N; λ is the decay constant.
• The decay rate, or activity R, is defined as the number of
decays per second.
• N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t,
N0 is the number present at time t=0.
Half-Life
• The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes
for half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay.
• n is the number of half-lives.
• Unit of activity R is curie (Ci); the SI unit of activity is the
becquerel (Bq).
R0 is the decay rate at t=0 and N0 is the number
of radioactive nuclei present at t=0.
Alpha Decay
• If a nucleus emits alpha particle 42𝐻𝑒, it loses two
protons and two neutrons.
• X is called the parent nucleus and Y is known as the
daughter nucleus.
• The half-life for 238U is 4.47x109 years, and the half-life
for 226Ra decay is 1.60x103 years.
• For alpha emission to occur, the mass of the parent must
be greater than the combined mass of the daughter and
the alpha particle.
• In the decay process, this excess mass is converted into
energy of other forms.
Beta Decay
• In beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the same number of
nucleons as the parent nucleus, but the atomic number is
changed by 1.
• The emitted electron is created in the nucleus by a process in
which a neutron is transformed into a proton.
• Only small number of electrons have KEmax on the graph;
where has the energy gone?
Beta Decay
• In 1930 Pauli proposed that a third particle must be present
to carry aways the missing energy and to conserve
momentum.
• Enrico Fermi named this particle the neutrino (𝜈); 𝜈ҧ indicates
an antineutrino.
• Neutrino has following properties:
• Zero electric charge
• A mass smaller than that of the electron, but probably not zero
• A spin of ½
• Very weak interaction with matter, making it difficult to detect
• The beta decay process of Eq. 29.13 in its correct form:
• The mass of the electron is much smaller than that of the lightest nucleon, so we can
approximate it as zero when we study nuclear decays and reactions.
Gamma Decay
• Very often a nucleus that undergoes radioactive decay is left in an excited
energy state.
• The nucleus can then undergo a second decay to a lower energy state-perhaps
even to the ground state-by emitting one or more high-energy photons.
• The photons emitted in the process are called gamma rays, which have very
high energy relative to the energy of visible light.
• A nucleus may reach an excited state as the result of a violent collision with
another particle.
• Asterisk indicates that carbon nucleus is left in an excited state following the
decay.
Practical Uses of Radioactivity
• CARBON DATING: Cosmic rays (high-energy particles
from outer space) in the upper atmosphere cause
nuclear reactions that create 14C from 14N. The ratio
of 14C to 12C (by numbers of nuclei) in the carbon
dioxide molecules of our atmosphere has a constant
value of about 1.3x10-12. All living organisms have
the same ratio of 14C to 12C because they
continuously exchange carbon dioxide with their
surroundings. When organism dies, it no longer
absorbs 14C from the atmosphere, so the ratio of 14C
to 12C decreases as the result of the beta decay of
14C.

• SMOKE DETECTORS
• RADON DETECTION
Radon Detection
• After the discovery of radium by the Curies, it was found that the air in contact
with radium compounds becomes radioactive, the product was therefore called
radium emanation.
• Rutherford and Frederick Soddy succeeded in condensing this emanation,
confirming that it was a real substance: the inert, gaseous element now called
radon (Rn).
• To use radioactive dating techniques, we need to recast some of the equations
already introduced. From Eq. 29.3 we have λN=R and λN0=R0 where R is the
present activity.
Nuclear Reactions
• Nuclear reactions are changes in the structure of nuclei by bombarding them
with energetic particles.
• Rutherford was the first to observe nuclear reactions. He found that protons
were released when alpha particles were allowed to collide with nitrogen
atoms.
• Balancing atomic numbers and mass numbers, enables us to conclude that X
is 178𝑋, oxygen has atomic number 8.
Q Values
• In nuclear reactions mass numbers and atomic numbers must be balanced in
the equations. We will now consider the energy involved in these reactions
because energy is another important quantity that must be conserved.
• In Eq. 29.22 the sum of the mass of 21𝐻 2.014102u and 147𝑁 14.003074u is
16.017176u while the sum of the mass of 126𝐶 12.000000u and
4
2𝐻𝑒 4.002602u is 16.002602u. Thus the total mass before the reaction is
greater than the total mass after the reaction, 16.017176u-
16.002602=0.014574u. This lost mass is converted to kinetic energy carried
away by the carbon and helium nuclei.
• The energy required to balance the equation is called the Q value of the
reaction. In equation 29.22 the Q value is 13.576 MeV.
Q Values
• Nuclear reactions in which there is a release of energy- that is positive Q values- are said to
be exothermic reactions.
• In Eq. 29.23 the masses of alpha particle and nitrogen nucleus:
4.002602u+14.003074u=18.005676u while the masses of oxygen nucleus and proton:
16.999133u+1.007825u=18.006958u. The total mass after reaction is greater than the total
mass before the reaction. The mass deficit is 0.001282u, equivalent to an energy deficit of
1.194 MeV. So Q value is - 1.194 MeV.
• Reactions with negative Q values are called endothermic reactions. Such reactions won’t
take place unless the incoming particle has at least enough kinetic energy to overcome the
energy deficit.
• Eq. 29.24 shows the minimum kinetic energy (threshold energy) for incoming particle to
conserve both energy and momentum.