Analog And Digital Electronics (20EE34P)

1. Introduction (Ist Week)

1.1 Active components: Electrical Components which need an external source to initiate the
operation are known as active components such as Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR),
Transistors, and Diodes.

Example:
Since a Diode is an active element so it needs an external source (either voltage or current) in
order to initiate the operation. When the diode is linked with an electric circuit, it does not start
conducting the current unless the source potential approaches to 0.5 V (for Germanium) or 0.7 V
(for Silicon).

1.2 Passive components: Electrical Components which do not need an external source to initiate
the operation are known as passive components such as Inductor, Resistor, and Capacitor.

Example:
Since a Resistor is a passive element so it does not need an external source (either voltage or
current) in order to initiate the operation. When the resistor is linked with an electric circuit with
the supply voltage, it starts working without utilizing any particular voltage.

Characteristics Active Component Passive Component

Power Delivers power to the circuit Employs power in the circuit
Elements Includes diodes, transistors, SCR, Includes resistor, capacitor,
batteries, and cells inductor, transformer, transducer
Operational Requires external source to their Does not require any external
Requirements operation source to their operation
Power gain Capable of providing power gain Cannot provide any power gain
(just like an amplifier)
Energy Storage Cannot store the energy Can store the energy (in case of
inductor and capacitor)
Energy behavior can be called as Energy Donor Can be called as Energy Acceptor
Current Flow Capable to control the current flow Cannot control the current flow in
in the circuit the circut
Linearity Normally non-linear Fall under linear category mostly
Amplification They can amplify the signal because of having They are not able to amplify the
gain more than one signal because of having gain less
than one
1.3 Difference between Active and Passive Components

1.3.1 Resistor: Resist is the word which means “to oppose”. Resistance is the property of
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opposing the flow of electrons, in a conductor or a semiconductor. A Resistor is an electronic

component which has the property of resistance. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to
reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate
many watts of electrical power as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only
change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to
adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for
heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

 Symbol and Units

The symbol for a Resistor is as shown below.

(a) Resistor, (b) Rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) Potentiometer (d) IEC resistor symbol

 The units of resistance is Ohms, which is indicated by Ω to omega Ω

Fig. 1.3.1 Picture of resistor

 The Different Types of Electrical Resistors 

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A resistor is a passive component in a circuit which provides resistance to the flow of

current. There are many different types of resistors. These resistors vary in their
construction, power dissipation capacities, and tolerance to various parameters (such as
temperature and light). The types of resistors include:
 Carbon Composition Resistor
 Thermistor
 Wire Wound Resistor
 Metal Film Resistor
 Carbon Film Resistor
 Variable Resistor
 Varistor
 Light Dependent Resistor

 Carbon Composition Resistor

A carbon composition resistor (also known as a carbon resistor) is a commonly used
resistor. These resistors are low cost and are easy to construct. Carbon resistors are
mainly made of carbon clay composition covered with a plastic case. The lead of the
resistor is made of tinned copper.
The main advantages of these resistors are that they are readily available, low
cost, and they are very durable.
These resistors are also available in a wide range of values, from as low as 1 Ω to
as high as 22 Mega Ω. For these reasons, carbon composition resistors are often included
in many of the

 Thermistor
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The word thermistor means a thermal resistor. Its resistance value changes with the
change in the temperature. Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient which
means its resistance will fall down when the temperature increases.
These are normally made of semiconductor materials. Resistance up to a few megaohms
can be obtained from thermistors.
They are used to detect small temperature changes, when there is a temperature change,
however small, there will be a large change in the value of the resistance.

 Wire Wound Resistor

In wire wound resistor a wire of manganin or constantan is wound around a cylinder of
insulating material. The temperature coefficient of resistance of manganin and constantan is
almost zero. So, resistance variation with temperature of these resistors is negligible.
The wounded wire is covered with an insulating cover such as baked enamel. This cover
of insulating heat resistible material resists the effect of ambient temperature variation.
Different sizes and ratings of wire wound resistors can easily be achieved by using
different lengths and diameters of the wire.
These resistors are easily available for a wide range of ratings. The range of resistance
values varies from 1 Ω to 1 MΩ.
The cost of these resistors is much higher than carbon resistors. Normally a wire wound
resistor is used where a carbon composition resistor cannot meet the purpose because of its
limitations.
The main disadvantage of this resistor is the inductance that arises because of its coil-like
structure. At high frequency, the behavior of the circuit may be changed due to its reaction.

 Metal Film Resistor and Carbon Film Resistor

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The resistor is constructed by means of deposition a thin film of a conductive material

such as pure carbon or metal on to an insulating core.
The desired value of resistance of metal film resistor or carbon film resistor can easily be
obtained by either trimming the layer of the thickness or by cutting helical grooves of suitable
pitch along its length.
Metallic contact cap is fitted at both ends of the resistor. The caps are in contact with the
conductive film or helical grooves. The lead wire is welded to the end caps.
Metal Film Resistor or Carbon Film Resistor can be made up to a value of 10,000 MΩ
and the size of this type of resistor is much smaller than a wire wound resistor.
Because of their constructional features, these resistors are fully non – inductive.

 Variable Resistor
The variable resistor means its resistance value can be adjusted (similar to a
potentiometer). There are a rotating shaft and a wiping contact.
Basically, there is a resistive semicircular bar or coil and by wiping the contact we
change the effective length of the resistive element and hence the resistance gets changed. One
example of such resistors is a rheostat.
The variable resistor or rheostat can also be a linear sliding type where the sliding contact
moves on the resistive element linearly for adjustment of the effective resistance of the resistor.

 Non Linear Resistor or Varistor

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A varistor is a type of resistor in which we can alter the resistance by altering the applied
voltage. It is also called a voltage-dependent resistor. It is a nonlinear semiconductor device.
The word is derived from the words variable resistor. These are generally used as safety devices
to prevent excess transient voltage in the circuit so that the components of the circuits remain
protected. It even controls the operating conditions of the circuit. The design of this component
is just the same as that of a normal capacitor.
There are three types of varistors:
 Silicon carbide disc type varistor
 Silicon carbide rod type varistor
 Zinc oxide type varistor

 Light Dependent Resistor

A Light Dependent Resistor (or LDR) will vary in resistance depending on the intensity
of light falling on it. This is made of cadmium sulfide which contains a small number of
electrons when it is not illuminated.
When a light ray falls on it, electrons get ejected and hence the conductivity of it
increases. Hence, it offers low resistance when light falls on it and offers high resistance in the
dark.

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1.3.2 Identification Resistor: Resistors are very common components in electronic circuits
of all kinds. Their function is to resist the current flowing in the circuit, and how much resistance they
provide is measured in ohms. Most are printed with either a color code or an alphanumeric code to
indicate their ohmic value and tolerance, how much their resistance may vary. Learning the codes,
along with using a helpful mnemonic device, will allow you to identify resistors easily.

 Color coding of Resistor. “Color coding” is used in electronics to identify between different
components. In the case of resistors, color coding is used to identify a specific resistance value,
for example, a 100 ohms resistor or a 1-kilo ohms resistor with 5% tolerance. Electronic
components like resistors are very small in size and it’s difficult to print their value directly onto
the component surface. Hence a standard was formed in 1920 by the Radio Manufacturers
Association (now part of EIA – Electronic Industries Alliance) to identify values and ratings of
electronic components by printing color codes on them.  The color-coding technique makes it
easy to print values (based on color codes) on small components, such as resistors and facilitates
cost-effective manufacturing.
This technique of “color coding” has 2 disadvantages. The first one appeals to general users
where it becomes difficult to distinguish between colors (for example “Red” and “Brown” )
when the component is overheated. But this is not a major concern as the exact value can be
easily identified using a multimeter (in case of confusion). The next drawback is for a specific
group of people – color blind people cannot identify the device using color codes. However, they
too can depend on a multimeter to identify resistance values.

 How to Identify Resistor Color Code

The figure below shows the layout of the bands, the multiplier, and the tolerance value of a
resistor
 4-Band Resistor Color Code Identification
Let us consider the color code for the resistor with the bands BROWN-BLACK-RED-GOLD.
Brown corresponds to the value ‘1’ in the color chart. Black represents ‘0’ and Red represents
the multiplier ‘100’. Thus the value of the resistance to the corresponding color code is 10*100
= 1000 ohms or 1 kilo ohm with the tolerance band being Gold which represents a tolerance of
+/- 5%. Thus, the actual value of the 1 kilo ohm can be between 950 ohms and 1050 ohms.
“Band 1 – First digit value of resistor
Band 2 – Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 – Decimal Multiplier
Band 4 – Tolerance Value”

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 5-Band Resistor Color Code Identification

Let us consider the color code for the resistor with the bands YELLOW-VIOLET-BLACK-
BROWN-GREY. Yellow corresponds to the value ‘4’ in the color chart. Violet represents ‘7’
and Black represents the value ‘0’.  Brown represents the multiplier ‘10’. Thus the value of the
resistance to the corresponding color code is 470*10 = 4700 ohms or 4.7-kilo ohm with the
tolerance band being Grey which represents a tolerance of +/- 0.05%.
“Band 1 – First digit value of resistor
Band 2 – Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 – Third digit value of resistor
Band 4 – Decimal Multiplier
Band 5 – Tolerance Value”

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 6-Band Resistor Color Code Identification

Here also, if we can consider the same color code used for the 5-band, with an additional
temperature coefficient band with a blue color. This shows that the resistor has a value of 4.7
kilo ohms, with tolerance +/- 0.05% and with a temperature coefficient of 10 ppm/K.

“Band 1 – First digit value of resistor

Band 2 – Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 – Third digit value of resistor
Band 4 – Decimal Multiplier
Band 5 – Tolerance Value
Band 6 – Temperature Coefficient”

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1.3.3 Selection of Resistor:

 Resistor selection requires three steps:

1. Determine the resistance and the watts to be dissipated by the resistor
2. Determine the proper "Watt Size" (physical size) as controlled by watts, volts,
permissible temperatures, mounting conditions and circuit conditions
3. Choose the most suitable kind of unit, including type, terminals and mounting
In addition to choosing the appropriate type and rating of resistor, the style in which the resistor
must be mounted is also an important factor in choosing the appropriate resistor. Some of the
different methods of installing a resistor include:
 Bracket Mount Resistors
 Panel Mount Resistors
 PC Mount Resistors
 Surface Mount Resistors

1.4 Inductor:
An inductor is defined as a passive component that is used in most electrical circuits to store
energy in the form of magnetic energy when electric current flows through it. It is also known as
the coil, choke, or reactor. It is a two-terminal electrical component that is characterized by its
inductance. Inductance is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current. The
SI unit of inductance is Henry which is named after Joseph Henry who was an American
scientist.
According to the Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic induction, When the current flowing through
an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.
According to lens law, the direction of induced EMF opposes the change in current that created
it. Hence, induced EMF is opposite to the voltage applied across the coil. This is the property of
an inductor.
“Inductors are often referred to as "AC resistance". The main characteristic of an inductor is its
ability to resist changes in current ”

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 Inductor Symbols

The 
SI unit of inductance is Henry abbreviated as ‘H’.

 Other Inductance Units

Typically, Henry is a big unit of inductance and used less frequently.
 Other smaller units like millihenry (mH) or micro-Henry is also used to especially
measure radio frequency and audio-frequency range.
 Sometimes the nano-henry unit is also used for a very high-frequency range. Henry is
basically used to measure high voltage.
 Different types inductors based on different factors and their applications.
Such as:
 Air Core Inductor
 Ferromagnetic/Iron Core Inductor
 Ferrite Core Inductor
 Iron Powder Core Inductors
 Ceramic Core Inductors
 Laminated Steel Core Inductor
 Toroidal Core Inductor
 Drum/Bobbin Core Inductor
 Multi-Layer Inductor
 Thin Film Inductor
 Molded Inductor
 Coupled Inductor
 Power Inductor
 Radio-Frequency RF Inductor

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 Chokes
 Variable Inductors

 How to Identify Inductor

 An inductor establishes a magnetic field when current passes through it. Most of the
inductors are in the range of milli Henry (mH) or micro Henry (µH). These are available
with air, ferrite and iron cores. In today’s market there are several inductors available
from various manufacturers and their size varies from larger to smaller units.
 Inductor values can be determined mainly by two ways, namely text coding and color
coding methods. Some inductors are larger in size, thus often their values are printed on
their body (name plate details).
 However, for smaller inductors, abbreviation or text is used because there may not be
enough room , for printing the actual value on it. Also, some inductor values can be
determined by reading color on the body of inductors by comparing them with color
coding chart.

 Inductor Value Identification using Text Marking
In this, the value of the inductor is printed on inductor body which consists of numerical digits
and alphabets. For this marking, micro Henry is the fundamental unit of measurement (even if
no units are given). The following are the steps of identifying the value of inductor by using text
marking method.
 It consists of three or four letters (including alphabets and numerical digits).
 First two digits indicate the value.

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 Third digit is the power to be applied for the first two , this means it is the multiplier and
power of 10. For example, 101 is expressed as 10*101 micro Henry (µH).
 Suffix or fourth letter or alphabet represents the tolerance value of the inductor. Suppose
if this letter is K, then tolerance value is ± 10%, for J it is ± 5%, for M it is ± 20% and so
on. Follow the tolerance value table given below to know each letter value.

 Example for Text Marking Method

 Suppose if an inductor is labeled as 223K, find the exact value of inductor.

 First two digits, i.e., 2 and 2 represent the first two digits of the inductor value. Third
digit, 3 is the multiplier and hence it is 10^3 = 1000. Now, multiplying with first two
digits we get 22000.
 Now, it is to be noted that no units are given, hence this value is in micro Henry (µH).
Thus the value becomes 22000 µH or 22mH.
 Last letter K represents the tolerance and is equal to ± 10%.
 Therefore, this is a 22000 µH or 22mH inductor with ± 10% tolerance.

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 Inductor Value Identification using Color Coding

The color coding system for inductors is very similar to that of resistors, especially in case of
molded inductors. This color coding is in accordance with the color code table. Starting from the
band closest to the one end, this color code sequence is identified. 4-band and 5-band color
coding methods are described below with examples.

 4-Band Inductor Color Code

The above figure shows the 4-band inductor consisting four different color bands. Similar to the
number coding, first and second color bands represents the first and second digits of the value,
third color band is the multiplier and fourth band is the tolerance.
Therefore the value of inductor can be determined by reading the colors of inductor body and
comparing them with color code chart. It is to be noted that the result of this color coded value is
in the unit of micro Henry (µH).
The table below shown gives the color corresponding to the numerical values for a four band
inductor.

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 4-Band Inductor Color Code Example

Let us consider the following inductor in order to identify the value of inductor using 4-band
color coding.

 Initially, note down the tolerance percentage of the inductor which is mostly colored in
gold, silver and black.
Now note the colors from other end of an inductor. In the inductor the first band is red;
according to the above table the number associated with this color is 2.
 Now move to second band, observe the color and note the associated number according
to the color given in the table. Here, the second band is violet and its number is 7. Then
the value becomes ‘27’.
 Coming to 3rd band i.e., multiplier is brown in color and its corresponding number is 10.

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 Thus the inductor value is 27 X 10 uH = 270 uH with a tolerance rating of ±5%.

 In some cases we can have this multiplier band color as gold or silver. If the multiplier is
gold divide the value by ‘10’ and if the multiplier band is silver, divide the value by
‘100’.
 Example 2
Consider the below inductor with band colors yellow, violet, black and silver.

 1st band yellow = 4

 2nd band violet = 7
 3rd band black = 1
 4th band is silver = ±10% tolerance.
Thus by this we can say that the inductor is 47 uH with ±10% tolerance.

 Applications of inductors can be seen in the following

 Tuning circuits
 Sensors
 Store energy in a device
 Induction motors
 Transformers
 Filters
 Chokes
 Ferrite beads
 Inductors used as relays

1.5 Capacitor:

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A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive component that has the ability to store
the energy in the form of potential difference between its plates. It resists a sudden change in
voltage. The charge is stored in the form of potential difference between two plates, which form
to be positive and negative depending upon the direction of charge storage.
A capacitor is made of two conductors that are separated by the dielectric material. A non-
conducting region is present between these two plates which is called as dielectric. This
dielectric can be vacuum, air, mica, paper, ceramic, aluminum etc. The name of the capacitor is
given by the dielectric used.

 Symbol and Units

The standard units for capacitance is Farads. Generally, the values of capacitors available will be
in the order of micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads. The symbol of a capacitor is as shown
below.

The Capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the distance between the plates and is inversely
proportional to the area of the plates. Also, the higher the permittivity of a material, the higher
will be the capacitance. The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric flux is being
generated per unit charge in that medium. The following image shows some practical capacitors.

 How are Capacitors Classified?

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The types of capacitors available range from a very small delicate trimming capacitors using an
oscillator or radio circuits, up to large power metal-can type capacitors used in high voltage
power correction and smoothing circuits.

 According to structure, capacitors are classified as:

 Fixed Capacitors
 Variable Capacitors
 Trimmer Capacitors
 The capacitors are classified into two types as:
According to polarization, capacitors are classified as:
 Polarized
 Unpolarized
A polarized capacitor is an important component of the electronic circuit and often termed as
an electrolytic capacitor. These capacitors are used to achieve high capacitive density.
Unpolarized capacitors are preferred over polarized capacitors because it doesn’t get
destroyed by reverse voltage and can be used in pure AC circuits. They also find applications in
DC circuits as they don’t have positive and negative ends. The frequency of the unpolarized
capacitor is high and the leakage current is low.

 Types of Capacitors
Let us now know various types of capacitors. Capacitors are categorized into 2 mechanical
groups. Fixed Capacitors consisting of fixed capacitance value and variable capacitance with
variable capacitance value. following are a brief description of various capacitor types and their
properties.
 Ceramic Capacitors
 Film Capacitors
 Power Film Capacitors
 Electrolytic Capacitors
 Ceramic capacitors
 Film capacitors
 Paper capacitors
 Electrolytic capacitors
 Ceramic Capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is considered to be one of the most commonly used capacitors. The
material used in this capacitor type is dielectric. Also, ceramic capacitors are a non-polar device
which means that they could be used in any direction in the circuit.
 Ceramic Capacitor Symbol

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 Film Capacitors
Film capacitors are also known as a polymer film, plastic film, or film dielectric. The
advantage of film capacitors is that they are inexpensive and come with limitless shelf life. The
film capacitor uses a thin dielectric material with the other side of the capacitor metalized.
Depending on the application, the film capacitor is rolled into thin films. The general voltage
range of these capacitors is from 50 V to 2 kV.

 Film Capacitor Symbol

 Power Film Capacitors

Construction techniques and materials that are used in power film capacitors are similar to
that of ordinary film capacitors. Polypropylene film is used as a dielectric in a capacitor.

 Electrolytic Capacitors
In an electrolytic capacitor metallic anode coated with an oxidized layer used as a dielectric.
These capacitors are polarized. Electrolytic capacitors are categorized based on their dielectric.
 Aluminum electrolytic capacitors – aluminum oxide (dielectric).
 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors – tantalum pentoxide (dielectric).
 Niobium electrolytic capacitors – niobium pentoxide (dielectric)

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 Applications of Electrolytic Capacitors

 Electrolytic capacitors are used when there is a requirement for large capacitance.
 They are used as filtering devices that lower the ripple voltage.
 They are used in audio amplifiers to reduce the electrical noise that is induced by the
main supply.
 Electrolytic capacitors are used in smoothing the input and output signals in a DC signal
that has a weak AC component.
 Paper Capacitor
Paper capacitor is also known as a fixed capacitor in which paper is used as the dielectric
material. The amount of electric charge stored by the paper capacitor is fixed. It consists of two
metallic plates and paper which is used as a dielectric material is placed between these plates.

 Paper Capacitor Symbol

 Applications of Paper Capacitor

 These capacitors are used in noise filtering, coupling, and decoupling systems.
 They are also used for blocking the DC signals so that AC signals are passed through.
 Sensors such as humidity sensors, fuel level sensors, etc used paper capacitors.
 Paper capacitors are used in audio systems of cars as they provide extra power to the
amplifiers.

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 Selection of capacitor: The factors to be considered are

 Operating voltage
 Size
 Leakage resistance
 Allowable tolerance, stability
 Stability: The value of the capacitor changes with the time and temperature.
 Cost: It should be economical
 Precision: +/- 20% is not common
 The Target PF and current Power Factor at site
 The Average & Maximum Demand in KVA or KW at the proposed site of installation
 Nature of Load of the Site.
 The availability of space at the site of installation, power cables etc

The Ceramic Caps

The smaller values in the kit are 50V rated ceramic capacitors. These are small,
nonpolarized caps with yellow blob for their body.

The value is printed on each in a three-digit code. This code is similar to the color code on
resistors, but uses digits instead of colors. The first two digits are the two most significant digits
of the value, and the third digit is the exponent on the 10. The value is expressed in terms of
pico-Farads.

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To decode the value, take the first two digits, then follow them with the number of zeros
indicated by the third digit. 104 becomes "10" followed by "0000," or 100000 pF, more
succinctly written as 100 nF

Electrolytic Caps
Electrolytic caps have larger, cylindrical bodies that look like small soda cans. They
typically offer higher capacitance than ceramic caps. Unlike ceramics, they are polarized.

From Left to Right: 1µF, 10µF, 100µF, 1000µF

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The markings on the 'lytic caps are easily legible -- the value and units are printed right on
the body.
The value is followed with the voltage rating, indicating the maximum DC potential that the
cap can withstand without damage. In this kit, the 1 µF is rated to 50V, the others are rated to
25V.

Polarized
The higher capacitance of electrolytics comes with a somewhat tedious detail -- they are
polarized. The positive leg needs to be kept at a higher DC potential than the negative leg. If
they're installed backwards, they're prone to explode.
Thankfully, the leads are clearly marked.

There are two polarity indicators on an electrolytic cap:

 The stripe painted on the body usually denotes the negative lead.
 The positive lead is longer than the negative lead.

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2.0 Semiconductors:
The construction of every discrete (individual) solid-state (hard crystal structure) electronic
device or integrated circuit begins with a semiconductor material of the highest quality.

 Definition:
“Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a conductivity between
that of a good conductor and that of an insulator.”

 Semiconductor Materials :
In general, semiconductor materials fall into one of two classes:
1) single-crystal semiconductors. (a) Germanium (Ge)
(b) Silicon (Si)
have a repetitive crystal structure

2) Compound-crystal semiconductors. (a)gallium arsenide (GaAs),

(b)cadmium sulfide (CdS),
(c)gallium nitride (GaN), and
(d)gallium arsenide phosphide(GaAsP)
are constructed of two or more semiconductor materials of different atomic structures.

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