ACADEMIC DOCUMENT

BCS 152: COMMUNICATION AND STUDY

SKILL II
BCS 152: COMMUNICATION AND STUDY SKILL
Mulungushi University
School of Business Studies
P. o. Box 80415
GreatNorthRoadCampus
Kabwe
ZAMBIA

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Fax: +260-224637
E-mail: -
Website: www.mu.ac.zm
Centre for Distance Education

Nature and Purpose of communication

Definitions and meaning of communication

Several scholars have been studying communication for centuries. As such great
deal has been learnt about what it is and how it works (Bell and Smith, 2006). To
communicate effectively, you need to consider:

i) How communication takes place, and

ii) How people could communicate even better.
The word ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’, which
means ‘to make common’ (Bell and Smith, 2006, p. 14). The primary meaning of
communication is not to recite, deliver, speak, write or sermonize. These do not
make the flow of ideas and feelings common because communication is not a one-
way activity or process. It involves promotion of common interests shared by all
the participants in the communication process.

Communication means ‘making common’ your thoughts, ideas, opinions, feelings

and attitudes with the audience/receiver and receiving the response of your
audience to your thoughts and feelings. This is what skilled communicators do.
They promote mutual understanding by sharing meaning.

To do this, skilled communicators are able to send their information to the intended
receiver so that the receiver understands the information. According to Bell and
Smith (2006), it is essential for the communicator to be aware of the following
elements of communication:

a. The information source ( the idea or message they want to communicate)

b. The signal (the stream of words or images they use to send the message)
c. The transition (the sending of the message)
d. The channel (the medium in which they send the message);
e. The destination or receiver of the message; and

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 f. Feedback or response from the receiver.
Further, Adams and Calanes (2006) state that communication refers to the
perception, interpretation and response of people to messages produced by other
people. It is an exchange of information, ideas, opinions, feelings and attitudes
between two or more people. People send verbal and nonverbal messages, words,
gestures, facial expressions and so forth, and others observe, interpret and respond
to the messages in order to create mutual understanding.

This means that members of a group pay attention to each other and coordinate
their communication behaviour to accomplish group tasks. It is communication
with others that creates the interdependence necessary for individuals to be called a
group.

From the definition above by Adams and Calanes, communication can also be
viewed as a dialogue between the sender and the receiver of the message using
previously agreed symbols to present their thoughts. The primary aim of this
exchange of thoughts is to create mutual understanding between the sender and the
receiver; to share meaning. It is therefore, a two-way process in which people
share human experiences. This exchange of information can be through speech,
writing and body or visual means or the combination of the three methods.

Communication can also be defined as:

The giving, receiving or exchange of information and opinions, by writing,

speech or visual means or any combination of the three so that the material
communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned (Sillars,
2010, p.1).

From this definition, it can be deduced that it is a process of exchanging ideas,

facts, opinions, feelings and attitudes in order to create mutual understanding
between people and a process of sharing human experiences between people.

It is through communication that people persuade and influence others to do what

they want done. What people will do and how efficient they carry out their duties
largely depends on the quality of information they receive. To be useful,
information should be accurate, adequate and timely. Therefore, communication
affects performance.

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People use communication to manage and resolve conflicts.

Characteristics of communication
Leggett, et al, (1978) outline seven characteristics of the various definitions of
communication:

i. Communication is symbolic. People communicate with one another

through the use of symbols to convey their thoughts. These symbols
include use of words, the body or parts of the body, numerals, sounds,
pictures and actions. The symbolic nature of communication is central to
any definition of communication.
A symbol is anything that arbitrary represents something else with which
it has no natural or direct relationship. For example, your name has no
relationship with who you are. It is merely a symbol that represents you.
All words are symbols and there is no inherent or direct relationship
between the word and what it represents. Another example is that the
same food can be referred to as dinner, supper or evening meal.

The use of symbols in communication allows people to travel

simultaneously in the past, present and future. Symbols allow us to name
individual and group experiences, and naming our experiences is the
primary way we have to fuse that experience with meaning. That is, the
name carries with it a complex set of meanings (denotative and
connotative meanings). For example:
 Leader
 Chairperson
 Secretary
 Africa
 Fail
 Student.
 Chair
 Commander
 Balance – the amount/ balance the scale/ …

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Because symbols (words) are arbitrary, their meaning must be interpreted. A
problem can arise from misuse and misinterpretation of symbols (words). For
example by passing each other’s meaning (when you use homonyms). -Read
(present or past tense?), Pen (writing instrument and enclosure)

ii. The second characteristic of communication is that communication is

personal. This means that since communication is symbolic, meanings
are in people, not in words themselves. Consider the following
examples and see if everyone will have the same factors of
measurement/the same meaning:
 A nice person
 A good phone
 A beautiful woman
 A good student
Open to personal interpretations (arising from personal experiences)

iii. The third characteristic of communication is that it is a transactional

process, not a state. This means that communication is a complex
process involving human senses, feelings, emotions, meanings and
cultural experiences, not just words. It is difficult to tell the impact of
what you say on the listeners/receivers. It is also irreversible and affects
your future communication. It does not only involve sending but also
getting responses.

iv. Communication is both a sender and receiver phenomena. It is

interactive and has a dual nature. It is not a one-way process but rather
a two-way process. In this process no one is a permanent sender or
receiver.(role exchange/Interchangeability) Communication is
effective when two or more people interact through exchange of
information.

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 v. All messages involve content and relational dimensions. The content
dimension refers to the ideas or ‘what’ of the message while the
relational dimension refers to ‘how’ the message is expressed. This is
affected by the horizontal relationship of the interlocutors. Superior
/Senior and Subordinate/Junior: Major and Captain; Colonel and
Major,...

vi. Communication is intentional. Communication has as its central

interest those behavioural situations in which the source transmits a
message to the receiver with the intention to affect the latter’s behaviour
(Miller, 1966). It is not random or aimless, is purposeful.

vii. Communication is contextual. Communication always occurs within

some context such as cultural, relational, academic, religious, business or
psychological. Context helps to interpret spoken words.
Consider the following statement
Bring everything that is of no use in your house. Don’t forget your husband.

Nature of Communication
Communication is an integral part of human life. People spend most of their
time communicating with one self and with others. It is the art of sending and
receiving messages. Human communication has a profound effect on people. It is
through communication that people
conduct their life,
define themselves,
and it is vehicle by which relationships with others are
initiated,
maintained
and terminated.
It is therefore the life blood of human relationships and experiences.
It helps us to develop relationships, understand ourselves and others and the world
we live in.

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 It is a means through which people influence and persuade others to do what
they want done and influence change of behaviour. People are usually
persuaded by those they consider:

 As experts or specialists in that field;

 By those who are close to them;
 By those they like;
 By those they believe.
 By those who inspire them.
Persuasion is also dependent on one’s self-esteem. It is easier to persuade people
with low self-esteem than it is those with high self-esteem.

It is through communication that people manage and resolve conflicts. The

Russia –Ukraine situation??

STOP 15/03/2022, START 16/03/2022

Aspects of Communication
Leggett et al. (1978) identify three aspects of communication:

i. As an exchange of ideas, information, facts, opinions, feelings and

attitudes among people, communication is concerned with getting things
or tasks done. It is a tool that is used to get tasks done, to meet human
needs: get others do what you want them to do willingly in order to
achieve certain goals and objectives. In this respect, communication is
used to
 inform others,
 command,
 instruct,
 influence,
 persuade others,
 educate,
 make requests,
 seek information or
 entertain others.

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 In this aspect, communication affects an individual’s performance. The
quality of work done largely depends on how effective communication is.
To be effective, communication should be:

 Clear to both parties involved;

 Complete by providing all the relevant details needed (being factual);
 Correct in all aspects (facts, spellings, grammar, punctuation, style,
format and tone);
 Concise by being brief and to the point, and avoiding unnecessary
information or wordiness/verbosity (the fact or quality of using more words
than needed)
 Courteous by being polite and tactful, choosing your words and tone
carefully; and,
 Ethical – do not distort information; manipulate figures, lie, or cheat.
Truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, respect for self and others,
accuracy and honesty are essential in ethical communication practice.
RARE Students

ii. The second aspect is that communication is used as a powerful strategy

to create, and maintain human relationships. We use communication
to get to know and understand ourselves and others. If communication is
used to get tasks done, then it is important to create supportive
relationships with others. We need to establish and maintain meaningful
and satisfactory human relations with others in order to achieve our
goals.
Human relations is a term that is used to describe how people who work
together THINK and TREAT one another. Often times, what you think
about yourself will determine how you treat yourself and what you think
about others will surely determine how you treat them. Human
communication is the heart of human relations. Communication is what
connects human beings and it helps you in the following ways:
 Self-awareness which helps you to understand yourself better. It helps
you to understand why you behave and act the way you do. This in
turn, helps you to understand why others behave and act differently.
How you behave affects others;

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  Self-acceptance-accepting yourself as you are;
 Self-disclosure enables others to know and understand you;
 Trust yourself and others;
 Conflict management and dispute resolution-human relationships are
conflictual by nature and communication helps you resolve conflicts
caused by misunderstanding by avoiding ‘blame game’, confrontation,
or use of power but rather build consensus.
iii. The third aspect of communication is concerned with improving skills
that will enable us to convey information from one person to another. In
order to get work done, meet human needs, establish and maintain mutual
human relations, we all need to obtain and develop sufficient
competence at communicating early in our lives and careers.
Since communication affects performance of individuals and their
relationship with others, we need to develop both sending and receiving
communication skills. We need to learn how to listen, speak, read and
write and interpret information, feelings and needs of others.

Importance of communication
In human life ability to communicate efficiently is of utmost importance.

It is the basis for personal and organizational success because what the individual
or organization will do, largely depends on ability to communicate and relate with
others. Information can only be useful if it is accurate, adequate, ethical and timely.

Effective communication is a pre-requisite for progress in life.In organizations,

communication:

• links all the sections and departments of the organization together in order
to co-ordinate their activities;

• Enables everyone in the organization to know what is expected of them

(rights and obligations);

• Is a means of motivating others and influencing them to do what you want

them to do willingly;

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 • Enables those in management or leadership to base their decisions on
information received;

• Increases individual and organizational performance

• Improves interpersonal and group relationships.

• Stops or reduces rumours or misinformation.

• Enhances unity in the organisation.

With effective flow of information, members of an organization,

• can identify problems and resolve them;

• Can make intelligent decisions;

• Co-ordinate work flow;

• Supervise others;

• Develop and maintain mutual relationships with others;

• Promote unity, cohesion and cooperation;

• Conduct the affairs of the organization more efficiently & from an informed
position;

Poor communication leads to:

 Poor performance; inefficiency, demoralizing/ low moral, absenteeism;

 Conflicts, disputes, suspicions, mistrust, confusion, strikes, works stoppages,
riots;
 Increased employee turnover/ attrition
 Rumours, poor decisions, costly errors;
 Indiscipline, accidents;
 Poor interpersonal and interdepartmental relationships, poor human
relations; and
 Poor customer service delivery


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Why should you study communication?
1. Communication is essential. Studying communication is essential for you
because it is central in your life. Effective communication can help you to
solve problems in your personal and professional life and improve your
relationships with others. Communication experts believe that poor
communication is the main cause of many problems.
2. Communication is consequential. Every act of communication has
consequences; positive or negative. In other words, communication can
either constructive or destructive. What you say can have positive or
negative results. Communication principles and practices can resolve
disputes among nations, friends and families. Effective communication may
not solve all the problems but better communication practices probably can
begin to solve or avoid many problems.
3. Communication is ubiquitous. Communication is inevitable. No one can
avoid communication because we engage in communication every day of
life and communication plays a major role in every aspect of life. The
ability to communicate effectively can enhance and enrich a person’s life.
4. Studying communication can improve the way you see yourself. Self
knowledge is as result of communication experiences. As we engage in
thought (intrapersonal communication) and interact with others
(interpersonal communication) we learn about ourselves.
This interaction helps us to develop self-awareness, self-concept and self-
efficacy. Communication affects self-perception which leads to greater
awareness and appreciation of self. This helps you to develop self-
confidence.
self-image, self-esteem, and the ideal self.
5. Studying can improve the way others see you (The way you present yourself
can change due to being exposed to new information/ trends.) This is
achieved through self-presentation and image management. As you
communicate, you learn how to control your behavior which will lead to
positive outcomes with others.

6. Studying communication can increase what you know about human

relationships. Studying communication includes learning about how people
relate to each other and what type of communication is appropriate for a
given situation. Most people value relationships with others and find great
comfort in family members, friends and community relationships. Within
these relationships, we learn about trust, intimacy and reciprocity.

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 Human relations provide us with affection (receiving and providing warmth
and friendliness), inclusion (feelings that we belong and providing others
with messages that they belong), pleasure (to share happiness and fun) and
control (to manage our lives and to have influence).

According to Schutz (1976) cited in Pierson (2003, p.170) there are three
basic IPC needs that are met when we interact with others;
 Need for inclusion or being involved with others;
 The need for affection (to love and be loved by others);
 The needs for control, influence others, and control our environment.
There are also negative aspects of interpersonal relationships such as obsession
which includes fatal attraction, and jealousy, misunderstandings, gossip, conflicts,
selfishness, sexual, physical, mental and emotional abuse. All these are harmful to
individuals and destructive to relationships.

We also learn that:

 We are different from each other,

 Some people may be receptive or dismissive towards us;
 Others may behave as if they are superior or inferior to us;
 Others may be approachable and others may not;
 Others may be helpful or harmful; and
 Others may see things differently.
7. Studying communication can teach you life skills which will enhance your
success in your academic and professional life. Any job advertisements will
give you an understanding of the importance of improving your
communication skills in work places. Communication skills are not only
important for students at university but throughout work life.
These life skills include:
 Oral skills such as listening and speaking skills;
 Critical thinking ;
 Decision making;
 Problem solving, conflict resolution;
 Team building.
8. Studying communication can help you exercise freedom of speech.
Communication shapes your political life- to receive and communicate
information to express personal opinion.

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Language and Communication
• Language is means through which human interactions take place: a medium
of communication;

• Language is a learnt, shared and arbitrary system of vocal symbols used by

people in the same speech community to interact/communicate their cultural
experiences and expectations;

• The use of language as means of communication entails use of words as

symbols that represent objects or concepts.

Variety and standards of language

• Language use changes with time and varies widely at any given time (old
and modern English)

• It varies from one geographical area to another, one occupational and social
group to another and from one setting/situation to another;

• The language used in conversation differs from written language according

to its audience and purpose.

Standard and Nonstandard English

• One of the most important kinds of variations is between standard and
nonstandard English;

• The distinction rests largely on the educational, economic and social status
of the people using the language (Leggett, Mead, and Charvat, 1978);

• Standard English describes the spoken and written language of educated

people;

It is the written language of business, education, journalism, law, public documents

and literature.

Varieties of Standard English

• Standard English varies according to its use or function;

• Such variations are referred to as functional varieties;

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 • Functional varieties are between informal and formal usage;

• The term Informal describes the English of everyday speaking and writing,
casual conversation between friends, business associates, personal letters,
and writing close to general speech.

• Formal English describes the language of books and articles, academic and
professional work

Nonstandard English
• Describes the language of people who have had relatively little formal
education;

• People who read and write but do not require that in their daily lives;

• It differs from standard English in its use of verb and pronoun forms;

• The distinctions between standard and nonstandard English are not between
good and bad or right and wrong but what is acceptable and what is not in a
particular situation.

Use of language
• Kuiper, Koenrand and Allan (2004) define a language as a code for
conveying a variety of information;

• A language contains set of symbols called words which are put together to
make phrases and sentences (word order);

• A code is a system of symbols that allows things to represent others for the
purpose of communication.

Language Functions
Language has three main functions:

• It is the primary vehicle for human communication (ceremonial and

perfomative);

• It reflects both the personality of an individual and the culture of his or her
society;

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 • It makes possible the growth and transmission of culture from one
generation to another.

Forms of Communication

Nonverbal Form:

• Refers to communicating without using words;

• Is more difficult to study as it varies from culture to culture;

• Is sometimes sent unconsciously- without thinking about the messages we

send;

• Body language, facial expressions and vocal expressions are not easy to
control (self presentation);

• Can be used to: confirm, substitute or contradict verbal messages;

• It also includes use of graphics, statistical data, use of time, space and
clothing.

Nonverbal Form:

• Refers to communicating without using words;

• Is more difficult to study as it varies from culture to culture;

• Is sometimes sent unconsciously- without thinking about the messages we

send;

• Body language, facial expressions and vocal expressions are not easy to
control (self presentation);

• Can be used to: confirm, substitute or contradict verbal messages;

• It also includes use of graphics, statistical data, use of time, space and
clothing.

Verbal Form

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 • There is a limit to the use of non-verbal communication without the help of
words or language especially when discussing past events, ideas or
abstractions;

• We need symbols that stand for our thoughts;

• Verbal communication consists of words arranged in meaningful patterns;

• The use of words could be orally or written.

Mass Media

• This form includes use of both electronic and print media;

• Electronic media include phones, television, faxes, teleconferencing, internet

and many such devices for sending and receiving information;

• Print media include newspapers, magazines, journals.

Use of words

• Words are mere symbols used to convey meaning;

• But a word is not the same as the object it stands for;

• When words are used by group of people to share meaning, they have a
language;

• To communicate effectively, a language would have to describe exactly the

world it represents;

• Yet, languages usually lack the complexity and dynamics of the things they
try to describe.

The symbolic nature of words can be summarized in three premises:

• Words which make up our store of knowledge are not the things they
represent (a map is not the territory);

• Words can never say everything about anything (the map does not represent
all of the territory);

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 • With language it is possible to speak words about words, words about words
and so on (Berlo, 1960).

Elements of Effective writing

• We depend on language to express ourselves;

• The effective use of language requires effective use of words;

• It also depends on how words are put together meaningfully (word order);

• To use a language as means of expressing ourselves requires developing

both linguistic and communicative competences.

The Process of Communication

• The process of communication refers to both the elements of and how

communication takes place;

• The main terms or elements used to describe the process of communication

include:

– The source, sender, idea, encoding the idea/ message, transmission,

channel, noise, receiver, perception, decoding, interpretation,
understanding, and feedback.

Barriers to effective writing

• Barriers to effective use of language show in such forms as:

– Grammatical errors, that is failure to observe rules of the target

language;

– Poorly constructed sentences (word order and inflections);

– Inappropriate use of words, wrong spelling;

– Failure to use paragraphs and punctuation marks correctly;

– Failure to organize ideas logically and coherently.

Other barriers to effective communication

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 • Individual differences such as age, culture, attitudes, perceptions, social
status, level of education;

• Perceptual errors such as stereotyping, biasness, selective exposure and

selective perception;

• Severe competitiveness or rivalry between people; desire to manipulate

others, defensive climate;

• The context of communication;

• Sending the wrong message;

• Distortions, over communication;

• Poor communication skills, poor attitudes, poor interpersonal relationships,

hostility;

• Individual differences such as age, culture, attitudes, perceptions, social

status, level of education;

• Perceptual errors such as stereotyping, biasness, selective exposure and

selective perception;

• Severe competitiveness or rivalry between people; desire to manipulate

others, defensive climate;

• The context of communication;

• Sending the wrong message;

• Distortions, over communication;

• Poor communication skills, poor attitudes, poor interpersonal relationships,

hostility;

• Inference-observation confusion and frozen evaluation.

Study of words

• Words are the building blocks of sentences;

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 • We arrange words meaningfully to share messages with others;

• Words are symbols that are used to represent the world (concrete or
abstract);

• It is a name of something; a pairing of a symbol and something else

• The study of words begins with the dictionary;

A good dictionary records:

• Spelling of words;

– orthographic spelling (such as bread, brave, brain);

– Phonetic spelling which is concerned with how a word is pronounced

( such as /bred/, /breiv/, /brein/;

– Word history (etymology)

– Word class/part of speech;(nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,

adverbs, conjuctions, articles)

– Word structure

– Word forms, functions, relationship and word meaning.

Structure of words: Morphology

• A word has a class, structure, forms, function and meaning;

• The structure of a word refers to the internal parts that constitute the word;

• Morphology is the study of morphemes, the smallest units of grammar;

• A word has a stem and inflection;

• The process in which words have internal structure is known as

morphological process.

Morphemes

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Words are made up of morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest or minimal
building block of a word. It functions as part or the whole of a word:

Examples:

car, table, student, walk, write, work, speak

Ice-cold, sunlight, goodness, wonderful

Kindly, television, gentleness,

careful, carefully.

Types of morphemes

• Free morphemes refer to the part of the word that is a word on its own
(meaningful on its own;

• Examples: boy, happy, write, ice-cold, sun-light; gentle-man

• Bound morphemes refer to the part of the word that cannot stand on its own
( meaningless own its own):

• Examples: un-; -ly; -ish; -ful; -al

Use of morphemes

• A morpheme can be attached to the stem of the word at the beginning or end
of the word;

• Examples:

– Unhappy beautiful happily

– Impossible smartly joyful

– Normal worker workable

– Lovely co-pilot childhood

– careful Zambian organisation

Prefixes and suffixes

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 • A morpheme which is placed at the beginning of a stem/word is referred to
as a prefix;

• Another term we use for such a morpheme is affix;

• An affix placed after the stem is known as a suffix;

• Example of prefixes

– Uncooperative , unkind, impossible, befriend, dislike

Examples of suffixes Examples of suffixes

• Careful carefully slowly childish;

• Boyhood childish, selfish joyful;

• Zambian punishable careless;

• A prefix precedes a free morpheme;

– Unkind; rejoin, postpone,

• A suffix follows a free morpheme.

– Kindness scholarship beautiful

Derivational and Inflectional Morphology

• Bound morphemes are used in two distinctive ways:

– To create new words (derivational morphology);

– To change the form of words (inflectional morphology): for tenses

and plurals;

Words can be created by using prefixes, suffixes, or both (prefixation,

suffixation and affixation);

Words can also be formed by compounding two free morphemes (duty-free,

signpost);

Prefixes change the meaning of a word but do not change the word class.

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Suffixes

• Usually, but not always, change the class of the free morpheme to which
they are attached:

• Examples:

– Exploit (V) -ation exploitation (N)

– Joy (N) -ful joyful (Adj)

– Friend (N)-ship friendship (N)

Suffixes associated with nouns

• Words ending with the bound morphemes:

-acy, -action, -er/-or, -ess, -ity, -ment, -ness and –ship are usually nouns;

• Examples: diplomacy, similarity, taxation, department, writer, actor,

madness, relationship’

• Words with suffixes like: -able, -ful, -ical, -less, -like, -ous, and –y are
usually adjectives

Examples of suffixes associated with adjectives

• Profitable

• Accountable

• Desirable

• Empirical

• Gloomy

• Animal-like noise

• A godless society

• Courageous

Suffixes associated with verbs

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 • Words with the suffixes –ise or –ize are usually verbs:

Examples: dramatise, democratise, Zambianise, economize, sensitise;

• Suffixes associated with adverbs: Words with the suffix –ly are usually
adverbs

• Examples: slowly, quickly, carefully, faithfully, intelligently, and

democratically.

Inflectional morphology

Inflectional morphology

• Derivational morphology often involves a change in word class;

• However, inflectional morphology does not.

• In written English, inflection can mark the following:

i. Plurals:

Examples: student students; baby babies;

gas gases

Possessives of all nouns

ii. Examples:
iii. This girl’s purse.
iv. That is children’s hospital.
v. These are adults’ books.
vi. iii. Present tense:
vii. Examples: write- She writes; He cries.
viii. iv. Present participle form verbs:
ix. Examples: do doing; justify justifying

Form and Function of words

• The same form/class of a word may perform different function or job in a

sentence.
Example:

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 i. John bought a new computer ( John functioning as subject).
ii. The school bought John a computer ( John functioning as an object).
iii. He jumped out of a moving car (modify).
iv. We are moving to the new campus next week.

Grammatical categories of words

• The major categories include:

– Phrases

– Noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases;

– Independent clauses, dependent clauses,

– Simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, multi-

complex sentences.

Grammatical categories of words

• The major categories include:

– Phrases

– Noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases;

– Independent clauses, dependent clauses,

– Simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, multi-

complex sentences.

Grammatical functions of words

– Nouns, noun phrases can function as subjects or objects of verbs;

– Verbs are part of the predicate of in a sentence,

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 – Nouns and personal pronouns can function as subject, subject or
object complements in a sentence.

– Adjectives, adjective phrases, adverbs and adverb phrases

function as modifiers.

Phrases

• A phrase a group of words that acts or functions as a noun, verb, adjective,

adverb or preposition;

• Such phrases can be classified as:

- Noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverb phrases or preposition

phrases.

Noun Phrases

• A noun phrase (NP) usually begins with a determiner and usually has a noun
as the most important word;

• It can function as a subject, object or complement in a clause/sentence;

Examples:

-The Dean of students has accommodated all the first years students.

• The Young often get mistreated by society.

• The blue sky above the beautiful sea ……

• The workers are picking the flowers.

• All the first year students have been registered.

• Some of those lazy students missed their deferred examination last week.

• The student sitting in the corner has been working on the project for weeks.

Adjective, adverb and prepositional Phrases

• An adjective phrase (AdjP) has an adjective as its main word;

25 | P a g e
 • Examples:

- The night became extremely dangerous.

- The newspaper arrived at 20:30 hours.

- You should submit the project paper by the last day of July.

- We finished the project early last month.

Auxiliary verbs

• A verb phrase may have up to four auxiliary verbs;

• The lexical verb will always be the last element in a verb phrase:

• Examples:

– We have finished the project.

– We may have been cheated by the security guard.

- You may have seen the Dean.

Prepositional verbs

• Some verb phrases are made up of a verb and a preposition or particle;

• These are called prepositional verbs;

• Such verbs cannot stand alone;

• They are followed by a noun phrase:

• Examples:

– We looked at the picture.

-He stood against his opponents.

Phrasal verbs

• Some verb phrases are called phrasal verbs;

• These are made up of a verb and an adverb;

26 | P a g e
 Examples:

- I gave away my tickets.

- We looked up the meaning of the word.

- The negotiations broke down.

- She grew up on the Copperbelt.

Phrasal and prepositional verbs are common in informal speech and

writing. They can be replaced by one lexical verb.

Word meaning

• Strictly speaking, dictionaries do not define words;

• They record the meaning of meanings that actual usage, past, present, has
attached to words;

• Most dictionaries list the meaning of a word in order of historical use;

• Others list the general and present meaning first;

• Technical words (jargon) are clearly labeled.

Denotative and connotative meaning

• Denotative meaning is the literal or dictionary meaning of words;

• Connotative meaning includes all the different associations and emotions

evoked by the word;

• Examples:

– Fail means inability to pass something or do something

Fail is associated with lack of intelligence, dull, lazy, inferior, and below
standard performance.

Sense relations

27 | P a g e
 • Words have relationships with other words;

• Words or expressions that share the same meaning with another word are
referred to as synonyms; (big, large, small, tiny; car, vehicle)

• Antonyms are words that have opposite meaning; (tall, short; big, small;
black, white)

• Homonyms are words that have the same form but have different meanings
or words that are pronounced in the way (homophones)but have different
meaning (site, sight, cite; soul, sole; were, where)

Polysemy

• Words often have different but related meanings;

• When this happens, we can see how the meanings relate to one another;

• Example: sight view,

– Column pillar, marchers in narrow file

– Speak, talk, chat, converse,

Polysemy

Polysemy refers to words with one form but multiple related meanings.

Superordinate, hyponyms, and hypernyms

• Antonyms can belong to groups of words denoting related things ( boy and
girl denote children; cold and hot denote temperature);

• The word child and the word temperature are sometimes called
superordinates or hypernyms;

• Words that are included under a superordinate are called hyponyms;

Examples:

 mammal-lion, rat, cow, dog;

28 | P a g e
 • Building : house, bungalow, factory;

• Move: jog, run, walk,

Semantic redundancy

• Using words that have similar or related meanings can result in semantic
redundancy or tautology:

• Examples:

- The farm has bought ten male bulls.

- One student was found with a pistol weapon.

- He painted naked nudes.

We bought flower plants.

Clauses

• Clauses (Cl) are the main structures used to compose sentences;

• A sentence may contain one main clause referred to a an independent

clause;

• This type of sentence can be called a simple sentence; it expresses one

complete idea or thought;

• It can also contain two independent clauses joined by coordinating

conjunction (double or compound sentence);

• A sentence may contain one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses (dependent clauses).

Elements of a Clause

• There are five types of Clause Element and each has a different function
and position within the clause:

1. Subject

2. Verb

29 | P a g e
 3. Object (direct and indirect objects)

4. Complement (subject and object complement)

Adverbials (adverb, prepositional).

Clause structure

• Most clauses have a subject and a verb;

• Other clause elements are optional;

• The optional elements are used depending on the information and the kind of
verb selected;

Examples:

-Subject + verb: They voted (yesterday).

-subject + verb + object:

The students will need some food.

Subject + verb+ indirect object + direct object

Example:

The University has given each student a computer.

• Subject + verb + subject complement

Example:

John is intelligent.

Mary is a nurse.

Alcohol is destructive.

Subject + verb +direct object +object complement.

Examples:

• The government has considered its election promises inappropriate.

30 | P a g e
 • The President appointed Ms Mwansa minister.

Subject + verb +adverbial

Examples:

They voted yesterday.

You must not go near that house.

They left their homes for a tour to Livingstone

Structure of Sentences

• The most important aspects of use of English are word order and inflections;

• Word order refers to how words are arranged to construct meaningful

sentences:

Examples:

– The lawyer called the thief a liar.

– The thief called the lawyer a liar.

– The liar called the lawyer a thief.

– Blue sky; sky blue.

Grammar of Sentences

• A sentence is basic to human communication;

• We use sentences to express our thoughts, feelings, opinions, ideas and

experiences;

• A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought/idea;

• A sentence must make sense;

• To make sense, a sentence should contain a subject and a predicate.

31 | P a g e
Examples

• The President signed the bill yesterday.

X One of the players.

X With reference to your letter.

X Although she has lived in Zambia for five years.

X Walked aimlessly for two hours.

• We have won the elections.

• All the workers have been awarded a salary increment.

Types of sentences

• Simple sentence: A simple sentence contains one clause or one main

clause

• Example:

– All the students have graduated.

– We completed the project yesterday.

– We gave our visitors special gifts.

– They worked carefully.

– All my students are intelligent.

– The school has bought computers for all the students.

Compound or Double sentences

• A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences linked by co-

ordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, yet);

• Each clause in a compound sentence can stand on its own;

• The co-ordinating conjunctions join sentences that share content in some

way;

32 | P a g e
 Example:

• The hall attendant weeded the borders and removed dead flowers from the
roses.

Other examples of compound sentences

• The children often watched television but (they) preferred (watching)

cartoons.

• We will write an assignment or (we will write) a test.

• We worked so hard yet (we) failed the test.

• Complex sentences

A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses.

Examples of complex clauses

• I decided that the car was too expensive.

• I wonder what I can do.

• I left the room while others were still writing the examination.

• Because I woke up late, I missed the test.

• We entered the room when it was time for our lecture.

Recognising subordinating clauses:

• A subordinating clause can be recognised by identifying a subordinating

conjunction, a wh-word or a non-finite verb

• I missed the test because I overslept.

• I woke up when my mother called.

• Leaving my failures behind, I was happy at last.

• The student who lives next door is a thief.

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 • Once alone, I cried.

• He promised to do his best as long as we took care of him.

Compound-complex sentences

• A compound- complex sentence contains two main clauses and one or

more subordinate clauses;

• Examples:

– John and Peter went to town but their sister stayed at home because
she was unwell.

– The lorry left when it had been loaded and returned after it had
delivered its load.

Mood of a sentence

• The mood of a sentence shows the attitude of the speaker to the action or
event referred to in the verb phrase;

• The speaker can tell, ask or command someone to do something;

• Declarative mood is used to make statements:

Example:

The project has been completed.

Interrogative mood

• The interrogative mood is used to ask questions;

• The subject of the interrogative follows the auxiliary verbs do, have, be, or
wh-words

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Examples:

i. Do you accept take responsibility for the incident?

ii. Have we completed the assignment?

iii. Were the students allowed to borrow books from the new library?

• The interrogative mood is used to ask questions;

• The subject of the interrogative follows the auxiliary verbs do, have, be, or
wh-words

Examples:

i. Do you accept take responsibility for the incident?

ii. Have we completed the assignment?

iii. Were the students allowed to borrow books from the new library?

• The imperative mood is used to command, or order;

• The imperative uses the verb in the base form and has no subject;

• We can use it to call or to address someone:

• Examples:

i. Close the door.

ii. Vote for her next week.

• The imperative mood is used to command, or order;

• The imperative uses the verb in the base form and has no subject;

• We can use it to call or to address someone:

• Examples:

i. Close the door.

ii. Vote for her next week.

35 | P a g e
To write effectively;

A. Sentences must be complete

English sentences consist of a subject (noun, pronoun or noun phrase)
and a predicate (containing a verb).

Examples:

i. The President /has signed the bill.

ii. Students/wrote the exam last week.

iii. We have completed the project.

iv. The Dean of Students wrote the letter.

Sentence Fragment

• When a group of words lacks either a subject or a predicate, the result is a

sentence fragment;

Examples:

i. The student who broke the window.

ii. Fell down yesterday.

iii. The pretty lady in the corner.

iv. The Dean finally agreed to see me. To talk about my financial problems.

B. Sentences must be distinct

• When two or more sentences run together as one without a conjunction
or full stop, the result is a run-on sentence:
Examples:
i. The students completed the project they submitted them to their tutor.
(run-on sentence)
ii. The students completed the projects, they submitted them to their tutors.
( comma splice)

36 | P a g e
iii. John is a student, he stole the laptop from the Dean’s office. (comma splice)
In writing a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop,
question or an exclamation mark.
C. Sentences must be orderly
Sentences must have their parts in right places for clarity:

Examples:
a). Martha placed both hands on the microphone, rising to speak.
(microphone cannot rise to speak)
b). He left his car behind, drinking a coke.
c). You can buy the fridge at a discount price which has a double door.

D. Sentences must be clear

Sentences must be clear to avoid ambiguity.

Examples:
i. When Mary visited her mother, she was unwell.
ii. If the baby does not thrive on fresh milk, boil it.
iii. The President said after elections he would raise taxes.
E. Subject and verb must agree in number
• The subject and the verb are the most important parts of a sentence;
• Therefore, when we write, we should choose verbs that agree with the
subject of the sentence in number.
Examples:
i. Goods sometimes cost/costs too much in rural areas.
ii. Each of the workers leaves/leave at 17:00 hours
Other examples
- Either Jim or Henry answers/answer the calls.
- Everyone of them knows/know the causes of our problems.

F. Pronouns in a sentence must agree with the nouns to which they refer.
Examples:
i. Each one of the workers must wear his/their protective clothes.

G. Do not shift tenses:

Example:

a). He sat down at her desk and begins to write the report.

37 | P a g e
 H. Avoid use of too many words

i. John is majoring in the field of computer science.

ii. Another aspect of the situation that needs to be examined is the matter of
advertising.

iii. It is a fact that many students read very little.

H. Reduce clauses to phrases

• Examples:

a). We had no lectures last week due to the fact that we were writing exams.

b). The computer, which is made of wood, has been used for three years.

c). The field trip we had last week was educative.

d). This book is intended and designed to explain the basic fundamentals of
economics.

J. Use of parallel structures

• The term parallel structure means that similar ideas should be expressed in
similar grammatical structures (Choy and Clark, 2006).

Examples:

i. We are expected to write all the assignments, to finish all the projects and
to submit them to the course lecturer.

Examples

Sentences that lack parallel structures are awkward:

Examples:

i. He loved to cook, to read and travelling to remote places.

ii. To live on your own is better than living with your parents.

To write effectively

• You should write clearly and logically;

38 | P a g e
 • Use complete sentences that are distinct;

• Avoid ambiguity;

• Punctuate your work correctly to avoid run-on sentences, sentence fragments

and comma splices;

• Subjects of the sentences must agree with the verbs;

• Pronouns must agree with the nouns they stand for;

• Each paragraph should cover one main point and linked to other paragraphs
logically.

Unit 9: Coherence and Cohesion

• Writing is done for a purpose and to achieve this purpose each sentence you
write should help to build the case which will get the reader understand your
argument;

• So single sentences only have meaning as long as they are part of your
exposition;

• A coherent piece of writing is one in which one central idea or theme guides
all the parts.

Features of coherent writing

• The content or ideas are presented one by one;

• Each sentence following the first fills in detail;

• The relationship of each sentence to the one before it and the one after it
should be clear;

• This is done through the grammar of coordination, subordination and

substitution.

Characteristics of Incoherent work

39 | P a g e
 • The ideas come one after the other without being related to each other;

• Incoherent work is not logical and may not follow through with the ideas
that have been put down already and which need completion;

• Paragraphs cover more than one main idea;

• Paragraphs are not arranged logically;

• Relationship of one paragraph to the next is not clear.

Coherence

• Coherence refers to a major idea (thesis) holding the passage or essay

together;

• A thesis tells the reader what the essay is about

• Cohesion occurs when a writer uses words which refer directly to other
words that have already been written in an essay;

• Coherence is invisible but cohesion is visible and can be pointed out.

• Each paragraph has a topic sentence (one main idea) plus supporting
sentences (supporting ideas).

Examples of cohesive ties

i. Peter went to the Dean’s office. He wanted to see his project supervisor.

In the above sentence, the pronouns He and his refer back to Peter.

This type of reference is known as anaphoric reference or backward reference;

These words (pronouns which substitute other words) that refer to something
already in the text hold the sentences together to make a text.

Example 2

• Sheila is a student at Mulungushi University. She is studying Agriculture

Business Management and her performance has been good.

-She must be referring back to Sheila.

40 | P a g e
 -Studying should be referring to student;

- her must be referring to Sheila.

• All these refer backwards (anaphoric references). They are also known as
endophoric because they refer to what is in the text.

Cataphoric reference

• Cataphoric reference points forward;

• Forward reference is used when a writer wishes to let the reader know that
some new information should be looked for or should be expected;

Example:

i). You should care for your day-old chicks like this:………………

• The phrase ‘like this’ points forward to the expected information (cataphoric
reference).

Types of Cohesive Ties

There are four types of cohesive ties that can be used to write cohesively:

i. Reference –using personal pronouns

ii. Substitution –using pronouns or synonyms

iii. Ellipsis

iv. Conjunction and subordination

v. Repetition

There are four types of cohesive ties that can be used to write cohesively:

i. Reference –using personal pronouns

ii. Substitution –using pronouns or synonyms

41 | P a g e
iii. Ellipsis

iv. Conjunction and subordination

v. Repetition

How to write good paragraphs

  Writing paragraphs are in fact the most basic structure in any writing. So
understanding how to write effective and intriguing paragraphs can improve your
writing greatly. So let's discover how to write a good paragraph.

What Is A Paragraph?

 A paragraph is a piece of writing that consists of several sentences. A paragraph

should always have complete, correct, and concise sentences. As well it should be
easy to read and well organized. The paragraph itself should focus on one subject,
theme, or central idea.

  In other words, a paragraph could be about an object such as a young boy. If the
paragraph starts out talking about the boy, it must stay the same throughout. For
example, if the writer were to talk about where a young boy lives and then go on to
describe what the boy looks like these are two separate ideas. This is demonstrated
below:

John lived in San Francisco, California, with his two parents. He had his own
bedroom, which he decorated himself. He and his parents all lived comfortably in
the cozy apartment on the third floor. The apartments were only three blocks from
where he attended J.U. High School.

John was only five years old, but he was extremely smart for his age. He wasn’t
that tall and he was a bit on the skinny side. He had big blue eyes, light brown
hair, rosy cheeks, and a friendly smile. Just looking at him he seemed like any
other kid-- quite normal. Yet, everyone in his class looked at him differently
because John could never be a normal kid. Instead, he wasn’t normal. No, he was
a genius.

 In this example you can see that the first paragraph is about where John lives and

42 | P a g e
the second paragraph covers another topic or idea, which is what he looks like.
When examining a paragraph you can always ask yourself, what is the main idea
in this paragraph? If you see two ideas as in the above example you might have to
create two paragraphs. Although, in order to understand what a paragraph is and
how to write one, you need to know how a paragraph is constructed.

Elements Of A Paragraph

 A paragraph should contain some structure and particular elements, which are
listed below in relative order:

1.A Topic sentence- motivates the reader to want to read more.

2.The First main point- proves, backs up, or explains the topic sentence.

3.The Second main point- usually provides a reason for the first point made.

4.The Third main point- can help prove the topic sentence or back up the first or
second main point of the paragraph.

5.The Conclusion- sums up the main points or ideas and it usually completes the
topic.

  So just to recap, normally a paragraph starts out with a topic sentence or idea. The
topic sentence is followed by the first, second, or third main points and then details
are added in between each point in order to explain the idea fully. Once one idea or
concept has been described the paragraph is brought to a conclusion by usually
summing up the main points or making a transition into the next paragraph.
However, for a closer look, let’s work through an example that shows us how to
construct a paragraph by using the five elements listed above.

Example
1. The Topic Sentence:

The poodle makes a perfect pet because poodles offer their owners a

43 | P a g e
companionship for life, not to mention that they have a loveable personality.

·This could be your topic sentence. It tells the reader that poodles are in fact
perfect pets. This may or may not be true and so you would need to provide proofs
as to why this could be true. However, it is an interesting statement and catchy
because the reader wants to hear why the author thinks so, or what justifies this
statement.

2. The First Main Point:

Poodles are sweet, smart, playful, and well mannered and they love to be around
people. They are always willing to lend their unquestionable love and loyalty when
you need the most and they are yours for life.

· This main point talks about the dogs’ personality and their companionship
relating to the topic sentence, helping prove that poodles are ideal pets. Although,
most likely a reader would need more convincing.

3. The Second Main Point:

Apart from being a happy spirited dog and a great companion, the poodle is small
and doesn’t require a lot of room, so they are ideal for apartments or city settings.

· This is more convincing now. Most of the people that live in cities or small
apartments are looking for a small dog that is suited to their city lifestyle and this
sentence proves that these dogs are ideal as pets. However, you still need more
proof of this fact because not all of us live in the city.

4. The Third Main Point:

The poodle is suited to most environments and lifestyles; whether it'll be living in
the suburbs or downtown, with one person or a couple, or even living with a family
and children, the poodle fits right in.

44 | P a g e
· This point backs up the topic sentence that the poodle is the perfect pet because it
mentions that this dog will fit into any type of family. This third point helps prove
that this breed of dog is suited for most lifestyles and settings.

5. Conclusion:

The poodle is a dog that warms your heart with its character. It becomes a part of
your family no matter where you live and it can provide you with love and
companionship that you won’t want to do without. In fact, you can’t ask for a
better dog.

· The conclusion sums up all the other points made and ties all the points nicely
together. After reading the paragraph and all its elements as a unit the reader
should feel a sense of unity. Often a well written paragraph will feel complete and
it will seem natural to stop reading when the paragraph closes. So keep in mind
for every great piece of writing there are great paragraphs put together.

         Now if you read all the sentences you will see how nicely this paragraph
flows together because it contains all the elements of a paragraph. It demonstrates
the topic sentence, discusses one main idea (a poodle), and concludes without
leaving any loose ends:

         The poodle makes a perfect pet because poodles offer their owners a
companionship for life, not to mention that they have a loveable personality.
Poodles are sweet, smart, playful, and well mannered and they love to be around
people. They are always willing to lend their unquestionable love and loyalty when
you need the most and they are yours for life. Apart from being a happy spirited
dog and a great companion, the poodle is small and doesn’t require a lot of room,
so they are ideal for apartments or city settings. The poodle is suited to most
environments and lifestyles; whether it be living in the suburbs or downtown, with
one person or a couple, or even living with a family and children, the poodle fits
right in. The poodle is a dog that warms your heart with its character. It becomes a
45 | P a g e
part of your family no matter where you live and it can provide you with love and
companionship that you won’t want to do without. In fact, you can’t ask for a better
dog.

A good paragraph has:

i. Unity;

ii. Coherence;

iii. Adequate development.

• Unity means that a paragraph should have a single clear controlling idea
and all the details in that paragraph should be related to that controlling idea.

• The controlling idea usually appears at the beginning of the paragraph: the
first sentence in the paragraph;

Coherence

• Coherence requires that all the sentences in a paragraph should be

connected in an orderly and clear way so that the reader can easily see how
each sentence follows the previous one, and how all sentences relate to the
controlling idea.

• Adequate development: this requires that there should be enough details,

facts, examples, evidence, explanation or reasons included in a paragraph to
make the controlling idea clear and meaningful to the reader. Avoid one
sentence paragraphs.

• Coherence requires that all the sentences in a paragraph should be

connected in an orderly and clear way so that the reader can easily see how
each sentence follows the previous one, and how all sentences relate to the
controlling idea.

• Adequate development: this requires that there should be enough details,

facts, examples, evidence, explanation or reasons included in a paragraph to
make the controlling idea clear and meaningful to the reader. Avoid one
sentence paragraphs.

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Example

The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Dutch

education is lagging behind expectation and desire. Hence, the advisory
‘Committee On Multimedia In Teacher Training’ (COMMITT, at present
PROMMITT), established by the Dutch Minister of Education, has drawn up
recommendations on the design of the learning process in the future and the role
of ICT to support this process, with a focus on teacher training.

The committee argues for a powerful role of teacher training in the process of
educational innovation and the implementation of ICT. The teacher training
institutes are providing the teachers of the future and the committee assumes that
teachers are the key figures in arranging learning processes. The institutes,
therefore, have to anticipate new developments and prepare prospective teachers
for their future role.

Coherent paragraphs

• Each paragraph usually starts with a topic sentence which tells the reader
what to expect in the paragraph;

• The topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences to expand it such as

examples, and explanations;

• Use transitional words to link ideas in preceding paragraphs

Transitional words

• Linking adverbs and conjunctions are joining words that provide links either
within a sentence or within the larger context of discourse (Thorne, 2008).

• Types of transitional words:

i. Additive adverbs: furthermore, in addition, besides, incidentally, similarly,

moreover;

ii. Adversative adverbs: however, nevertheless, on the contrary;

iii Casual adverbs: therefore, as a result, consequently, thus;

47 | P a g e
iv. Temporal adverbs: meanwhile, after that, then, at once;

v. Sentence adverbs (conjuncts):

firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, in conclusion

Subordinating conjunctions

• Time: when(ever), while, as, before, until, since, once, when;

• Place: where, wherever;

• Purpose: so that, in order that;

• Reason: because, as, since;

• Condition: if, unless, whether;

• Contrast: although, while, whereas;

• Comparison: as, than, like, as if, as though

Unit 10: Attending and conducting interviews

In a labour market there are many qualified candidates competing for the same
position. How you do on the interview can often determine whether you get the
job.

Table of Contents

 Types of Interviews
 Interviewing Strategies
 Illegal Questions
 Who gets Hired?
 Negotiating Your Compensation Package
 More Information About The Interview

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

There are several different types of interviews which you may encounter. You
probably won't know in advance which type you will be facing. Below are some

48 | P a g e
descriptions of the different types of interviews and what you can expect in each of
them.

 Screening Interview
A preliminary interview either in person or by phone, in which a company
representative determines whether you have the basic qualifications to
warrant a subsequent interview.
 Structured Interview
In a structured interview, the interviewer explores certain predetermined
areas using questions which have been written in advance. The interviewer
has a written description of the experience, skills, and personality traits of an
ideal candidate. Your experience and skills are compared to specific job
tasks. This type of interview is very common and most traditional interviews
are based on this format.
 Unstructured Interview
Although the interviewer is given a written description of the ideal
candidate, in the unstructured interview, the interviewer is not given
instructions on what specific areas to cover.
 Multiple Interviews
Multiple interviews are commonly used with professional jobs. This
approach involves a series of interviews in which you meet individually with
various representatives of the organization. In the initial interview, the
representative usually attempts to get basic information on your skills and
abilities. In subsequent interviews, the focus is on how you would perform
the job in relation to the company's goals and objectives. After the
interviews are completed, the interviewers meet and pool their information
about your qualifications for the job. A variation on this approach involves a
series of interviews in which unsuitable candidates are screened out at each
succeeding level.
 Stress Interview
The interviewer intentionally attempts to upset you to see how you react
under pressure. You may be asked questions that make you uncomfortable
or you may be interrupted when you are speaking. Although it is uncommon
for an entire interview to be conducted under stress conditions, it is common
for the interviewer to incorporate stress questions as a part of a traditional
interview. Examples of common stress questions are given later in this
document.
 Targeted Interview
Although similar to the structured interview, the areas covered are much

49 | P a g e
 more limited. Key qualifications for success on the job are identified and
relevant questions are prepared in advance.
 Situational Interview
Situations are set up which simulate common problems you may encounter
on the job. Your responses to these situations are measured against pre-
determined standards. This approach is often used as one part of a traditional
interview rather than as an entire interview format.
 Group Interview
You may be interviewed by two or more company representatives
simultaneously. Sometimes, one of the interviewers is designated to ask
stress questions to see how you respond under pressure. A variation on this
format is for two or more company representatives to interview a group of
candidates at the same time.

INTERVIEWING STRATEGIES

The interview strategies discussed below can be used effectively in any type of
interview you may encounter.

 Before the Interview

 During the Interview
 After the Interview

Before the Interview

Prepare in advance. The better prepared you are, the less anxious you will be and
the greater your chances for success.

 Role play. Find someone to role play the interview with you. This person
should be someone with whom you feel comfortable and with whom you
can discuss your weaknesses freely. The person should be objective and
knowledgeable, perhaps a business associate.
 Use a mirror or video camera when you role play to see what kind of image
you project.
 Assess your interviewing skills. What are your strengths and weaknesses?
Work on correcting your weaknesses, such as speaking rapidly, talking too
loudly or softly and nervous habits such as shaking hands or inappropriate
facial expressions.

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  Learn the questions that are commonly asked and prepare answers to them.
Practice giving answers which are brief but thorough.
 Decide what questions you would like to ask and practice politely
interjecting them at different points in the interview.
 Evaluate your strengths. Evaluate your skills, abilities, and education as they
relate to the type of job you are seeking.
 Practice tailoring your answers to show how you meet the company's needs,
if you have details about the specific job before the interview.
 Assess your over-all appearance. Find out what clothing is appropriate for
your industry. Although some industries such as fashion and advertising are
more stylish, acceptable attire for most industries is conservative.
 Have several sets of appropriate clothing available since you may have
several interviews over a few days.
 Your clothes should be clean and pressed, and your shoes polished.
 Make sure your hair is neat, your nails clean, and you are generally well
groomed.
 Research the company. The more you know about the company and the job
you are applying for, the better you will do in the interview. Get as much
information as you can before the interview.
 Have extra copies of your résumé available to take on the interview. The
interviewer may ask you for extra copies.
 Make sure you bring along the same version of your résumé that you
originally sent the company. You can also refer to your résumé to complete
applications that ask for job history information (e.g., dates of employment,
names of former employers and their telephone numbers, job
responsibilities, and accomplishments).
 Arrive early at the interview. Plan to arrive 10 to 15 minutes early. Give
yourself time to find a rest room so you can check your appearance.

It's important to make a good impression from the moment you enter the reception
area. Greet the receptionist cordially and try to appear confident. You never know
what influence the receptionist has with your interviewer. With a little small talk,
you may get some helpful information about the interviewer and the job opening.
If you are asked to fill out an application while you're waiting, be sure to fill it out
completely.

During the Interview

The job interview is usually a two way discussion between you and a prospective
employer. The interviewer is attempting to determine whether you have what the

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company needs, and you are attempting to determine if you would accept the job if
offered. Both of you will be trying to get as much information as possible in order
to make those decisions.

The interview that you are most likely to face is a structured interview with a
traditional format. It usually consists of three phases. The introductory phase
covers the greeting, small talk, and an overview of which areas will be discussed
during the interview. The middle phase is a question and answer period. The
interviewer asks most of the questions, but you are given an opportunity to ask
questions as well. The closing phase gives you an opportunity to ask any final
questions you might have, cover any important points that haven't been discussed,
and get information about the next step in the process. 

Introductory Phase

This phase is very important. You want to make a good first impression and, if
possible, get additional information you need about the job and the company.

 Make a good impression. You only have a few seconds to create a positive
first impression which can influence the rest of the interview and even
determine whether you get the job. The interviewer's first impression of you
is based mainly on non-verbal clues. The interviewer is assessing your over-
all appearance and demeanor. When greeting the interviewer, be certain your
handshake is firm and that you make eye contact. Wait for the interviewer to
signal you before you sit down. Once seated, your body language is very
important in conveying a positive impression. Find a comfortable position so
that you don't appear tense. Lean forward slightly and maintain eye contact
with the interviewer. This posture shows that you are interested in what is
being said. Smile naturally at appropriate times. Show that you are open and
receptive by keeping your arms and legs uncrossed. Avoid keeping your
briefcase or your handbag on your lap. Pace your movements so that they
are not too fast or too slow. Try to appear relaxed and confident.
 Get the information you need. If you weren't able to get complete
information about the job and the company in advance, you should try to get
it as early as possible in the interview. Be sure to prepare your questions in
advance.

Knowing the following things will allow you to present those strengths and
abilities that the employer wants:

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 o Why does the company need someone in this position?
o Exactly what would they expect of you?
o Are they looking for traditional or innovative solutions to problems?

  When to ask questions. The problem with a traditional interview structure

is that your chance to ask questions occurs late in the interview. How can
you get the information you need early in the process without making the
interviewer feel that you are taking control? Deciding exactly when to ask
your questions is the tricky part. Timing is everything. You may have to
make a decision based on intuition and your first impressions of the
interviewer. Does the interviewer seem comfortable or nervous, soft spoken
or forceful, formal or casual? These signals will help you to judge the best
time to ask your questions. The sooner you ask the questions, the less likely
you are to disrupt the interviewer's agenda. However, if you ask questions
too early, the interviewer may feel you are trying to control the interview.
Try asking questions right after the greeting and small talk. Since most
interviewers like to set the tone of the interview and maintain initial control,
always phrase your questions in a way that leaves control with the
interviewer. Perhaps say, "Would you mind telling me a little more about the
job so that I can focus on the information that would be most important to
the company?"  If there is no job opening but you are trying to develop one
or you need more information about the company, try saying, "Could you
tell me a little more about where the company is going so I can focus on
those areas of my background that are most relevant?" You may want to
wait until the interviewer has given an overview of what will be discussed.
This overview may answer some of your questions or may provide some
details that you can use to ask additional questions. Once the middle phase
of the interview has begun, you may find it more difficult to ask questions.

Middle Phase

During this phase of the interview, you will be asked many questions about your
work experience, skills, education, activities, and interests. You are being assessed
on how you will perform the job in relation to the company objectives.

All your responses should be concise. Use specific examples to illustrate your
point whenever possible. Although your responses should be prepared in advance
so that they are well phrased and effective, be sure they do not sound rehearsed.
Remember that your responses must always be adapted to the present interview.
Incorporate any information you obtained earlier in the interview with the

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responses you had prepared in advance and then answer in a way that is
appropriate to the question.

Below are frequently asked questions and some suggested responses:

 "Tell me about yourself." Briefly describe your experience and

background. If you are unsure what information the interviewer is seeking,
say, "Are there any areas in particular you'd like to know about?"
 "What is your weakest point?" (A stress question) Mention something that
is actually a strength. Some examples are:
o "I'm something of a perfectionist."
o "I'm a stickler for punctuality."
o "I'm tenacious."

Give a specific situation from your previous job to illustrate your point.
 

 "What is your strongest point?"

o "I work well under pressure."
o "I am organized and manage my time well."
o If you have just graduated from college you might say,
o "I am eager to learn, and I don't have to unlearn old techniques."

Give a specific example to illustrate your point.

 "What do you hope to be doing five years from now?"

o "I hope I will still be working here and have increased my level of
responsibility based on my performance and abilities."
 "Why have you been out of work for so long?" (A stress question)
o "I spent some time re-evaluating my past experience and the current
job market to see what direction I wanted to take".
o "I had some offers but I'm not just looking for another job; I'm
looking for a career." 
 "What do you know about our company? Why do you want to work
here?"  This is where your research on the company will come in handy.
o "You are a small/large firm and a leading force in the local/national
economy"
o "Your company is a leader in your field and growing."
o "Your company has a superior product/service."

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You might try to get the interviewer to give you additional information about the
company by saying that you are very interested in learning more about the
company objectives. This will help you to focus your response on relevant areas.

 "What is your greatest accomplishment?" Give a specific illustration

from your previous or current job where you saved the company money or
helped increase their profits. If you have just graduated from college, try to
find some accomplishment from your school work, part-time jobs, or extra-
curricular activities.
 "Why should we hire you?" (A stress question) Highlight your background
based on the company's current needs. Recap your qualifications keeping the
interviewer's job description in mind. If you don't have much experience,
talk about how your education and training prepared you for this job.
 "Why do you want to make a change now?"
o "I want to develop my potential."
o "The opportunities in my present company are limited." 
 "Tell me about a problem you had in your last job and how you
resolved it." The employer wants to assess your analytical skills and see if
you are a team player. Select a problem from your last job and explain how
you solved it.

Some Questions You Should Ask

 "What are the company's current challenges?"

 "Could you give me a more detailed job description?"
 "Why is this position open?"
 "Are there opportunities for advancement?"
 "To whom would I report?"

Closing Phase

During the closing phase of an interview, you will be asked whether you have any
other questions. Ask any relevant question that has not yet been answered.
Highlight any of your strengths that have not been discussed. If another interview
is to be scheduled, get the necessary information. If this is the final interview, find
out when the decision is to be made and when you can call. Thank the interviewer
by name and say good-bye.

DO:

 Be sincere and direct

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  Be attentive and polite
 Ask relevant questions
 Answer questions concisely
 Use specific examples to illustrate points

DON'T:

 Smoke
 Try to control the entire interview
 Bring up salary, benefits or working hours
 Be too serious
 Let your depression or discouragement show
 Make negative comments about anyone or anything, including former
employers
 Look at your watch
 Take extensive notes

After the Interview

You are not finished yet. It is important to assess the interview shortly after it is
concluded. Following your interview you should:

 Write down the name and title (be sure the spelling is correct) of the
interviewer
 Review what the job entails and record what the next step will be
 Note your reactions to the interview; include what went well and what went
poorly
 Assess what you learned from the experience and how you can improve your
performance in future interviews
 Make sure you send a thank you note within 24 hours; your thank you note
should:
 Be hand-written only if you have a very good handwriting; most people type
thank you notes
 Be on good quality paper
 Be simple and brief
 Express your appreciation for the interviewer's time
 Show enthusiasm for the job
 Get across that you want the job and can do it

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Everyone knows that a thank you letter should be sent after an interview, but very
few people actually send one. Make sure you are one of those few. It could give
you the edge.

Phone follow-up. If you were not told during the interview when a hiring
decision will be made, call after one week. At that time, if you learn that the
decision has not been made, find out whether you are still under
consideration for the job. Ask if there are any other questions the interviewer
might have about your qualifications and offer to come in for another
interview if necessary. Reiterate that you are very interested in the job. If
you learn that you did not get the job, try to find out why.

You might also inquire whether the interviewer can think of anyone else
who might be able to use someone with your abilities, either in another
department or at another company. If you are offered the job, you have to
decide whether you want it. If you are not sure, thank the employer and ask
for several days to think about it. Ask any other questions you might need
answered to help you with the decision. If you know you want the job and
have all the information you need, accept the job with thanks and get the
details on when you start. Ask whether the employer will be sending a letter
of confirmation, as it is best to have the offer in writing.

ILLEGAL QUESTIONS

During an interview, you may be asked some questions that are considered illegal.
It is illegal for an interviewer to ask you questions related to sex, age, race,
religion, national origin, or marital status, or to delve into your personal life for
information that is not job-related. What can you do if you are asked an illegal
question? Take a moment to evaluate the situation. Ask yourself questions like:

 How uncomfortable has this question made me feel?

 Does the interviewer seem unaware that the question is illegal?
 Is this interviewer going to be my boss?

Then respond in a way that is comfortable for you. If you decide to answer the
question, be succinct and try to move the conversation back to an examination of
your skills and abilities as quickly as possible. For example, if asked about your
age, you might reply, "I'm in my forties, and I have a wealth of experience that
would be an asset to your company." If you are not sure whether you want to
answer the question, first ask for a clarification of how this question relates to your

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qualifications for the job. You may decide to answer if there is a reasonable
explanation.

If you feel there is no justification for the question, you might say that you do not
see the relationship between the question and your qualifications for the job and
you prefer not to answer it.

Deadly Mistakes of Job Hunters

You’ve been looking for a job for several months without much success. You
started out feeling positive about getting a job and as time passes without any
offers coming in, your confidence is slowly eroding. Now you’re worried if you’ll
ever get another job. Every little thing is starting to feel really hard and you’re just
fed up.

If you keep doing what you’ve always done, you’ll get what you’ve always got.
It’s time to regroup, rethink and reassess your strategy. Let’s take an objective look
at what you might be doing wrong. There are 7 deadly mistakes you must not
make.

MISTAKE NO. 1 – You are not ready

Perhaps you’re looking for a new role due to a redundancy, or perhaps you quit
because you couldn’t stand it anymore or perhaps you were let go for a multitude
of reasons. You’re still hurting from being in a difficult situation. A big mistake is
to market yourself when you are still feeling emotional and your confidence is at
low ebb. It’s best to market yourself after you have acknowledged the change,
acknowledged that there are some things you cannot change and identified the
things you can. The key is to remember you are still the same competent
professional you’ve always been and you have a mountain of value to offer the
right employer in the right environment. If you don't believe in yourself, who will?
Employers are looking for professionals who believe in their abilities and know
that they can hit the ground running without any emotional baggage. Take time to
rebuild your self-confidence and get into the right frame of mind for the job search.

MISTAKE NO. 2 – You don’t know what you want and what’s important to
you

You haven’t assessed what drives you in your career or what your specific skills,
knowledge and key motivators are. You may be applying for roles that are not
suited to you. To make successful applications you must know what makes you
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tick and the reasons why a role appeals to you. As you go through to the interview
process, employers will want to know how close a ‘fit’ you are to their needs, their
corporate culture and team environment. You need to prepare well so that you can
eloquently communicate your value, key drivers and be authentic in your
responses.

MISTAKE NO. 3 – Your resume and communication strategies are

haphazard

You’re sending out the same generic resume and cover letter for every application.
You’re sending out dozens of applications online and not getting much positive
response. Your resume and cover letter often are the first point of contact with the
screener. If it is generic and the reader has to search too hard for what they are
looking for, or they can’t find what they require in your resume, it will probably
end up in the ‘no’ bin. Take time to tailor your resume and cover letter effectively
for each and every role. When people ask you how they can help you, you
communicate ineffectively because you haven’t thought about how you are going
to position yourself. Create a strong positioning statement and know what you will
say when you are asked, ‘So why are you looking for a job?’

MISTAKE No. 4 – You don’t look the part in person or online

You haven’t thought enough about the image you are projecting to others. Before
they even meet you they may be able to view your LinkedIn profile and other
social media sites and they will form an opinion of you before that first handshake.
Have you positioned yourself honestly and professionally? You haven’t done your
research to find out what will be appropriate attire for the interview and on the job.
As first impressions are so important and you only get a few seconds to make a
first impression, think about what others see when you walk into a room.

MISTAKE No. 5 – You don’t know how to use all the job search methods
effectively

You have been focusing mainly on advertised roles and missing out on expanding
your network to uncover the hidden jobs. You don’t know how to network
effectively, what to say and what to ask for. You are getting frustrated with
recruitment consultants, as you don’t know what they are really looking for. You
are on LinkedIn but you’re not using it to your advantage.

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MISTAKE No. 6 – You are not able to convey your value in interviews

You have not been preparing for your interviews effectively. Or you’ve prepared
and when you start talking you oversell and come across as overly confident. The
key to successful interviews is to prepare, prepare, prepare! Employers are looking
for someone to provide the functional skills they need, with the soft skills required
for the role, who is willing to work they way that fits with the organisation’s
requirements and gets along with and fits the culture of the team. In order to
convey your suitability you need to research, practice your interview techniques,
listen carefully to the questions, answer with examples of your successes and
follow up with a ‘thank you’ email after the interview.

MISTAKE No. 7 – You don’t know your worth or how to settle into a new
role

When the offers come in, you haven’t researched what the market rate is for the
role and you don’t know how to negotiate for the best outcome for you and the
company. You lack the confidence to ask for what you know could be a good
outcome for both of you. If you accept a new role, when you begin you are not
aware of how to settle in, develop good working relationships and get some wins
on the board without looking like the ‘eager new employee’ during the crucial first
90 days in the role.

If any of these 7 deadly mistakes resonate with you, it’s now time to take action to
fix things. Take all measures to build your confidence, do your research, prepare
well for each step in the process so you can ace that interview and transition
smoothly into your new role!

Career and Skill Development

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