Chapter 2 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

Chapter 2
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
2.1 Field Quantities
Generally, the electromagnetic phenomenon in a region can be described using six major
field quantities (E, H, D, B, ρv, and J) and other derived quantities. Each field quantity is
in general a function of position and time.

Field Quantity Symbol SI Unit

1. Electric Field Intensity E Volt/m, Newton/Coulomb

2. Magnetic Field Intensity H Ampers/m

3. Electric Flux Density D Coulomb/m2

4. Magnetic Flux Density B Webers/m2

5. Electric Charge Density ρv Coulomb/m3

6. Electric Current Density J Ampers/m2

Given any medium, its electromagnetic characteristics are specified or determines by three
parameters:

σ - Conductivity of medium (mhos/m)

ε - Permittivity of medium (Farads/m)

µ - Permeability of medium (Henry/m).

In general, the parameters are dependent on time, frequency and temperature. But we
consider only linear and time-invariant characteristics.

Based onσ, ε, and µ, media can be classified into a number of categories:

Table 2.1 - Classification of media.

Medium Parameters
σ ≈ 0 (no conduction current)
ε = εo = 8.8542 x 10-12 F/m
1. Free Space
≈ 1/36π x 10-9 F/m
µ = µo = 4π x 10-7 H/m
σ≈0
2. Dielectric (e.g., paraffin)
ε ≥ εo

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Chapter 2 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

µ ≈ µo
σ >> 0
3. Conductors (e.g., copper) ε ≈ εo
µ ≈ µo
ε ≈ εo
4. Ferromagnets (e.g., iron, nickel)
µ >> µo

2.2 Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell summarized the laws of electromagnetics based on previous works. These are:

i. Gauss’s Law for Free Charges

It relates the electric flux density D to the charge density inside a volume:

∫ D ⋅ ds = ∫
S V
ρ v dv = Qtotal ,

or using Stokes’s theorem

∫ D ⋅ ds = ∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv = ∫
S V V
ρ v dv

⇒ ∇ ⋅ D = ∇ ⋅ (ε E ) = ρ v 2.1

ii. Gauss’s Law for Magnetic Flux

It states that the magnetic flux density B has no “flux source,” i.e., there are no magnetic
charges (solenoidal filed.)

∫ B ⋅ ds = 0, or
S

∇ ⋅B = 0 2.2

iii. Faraday’s Induction Law

It states that a changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in a path surrounding it.

∂ψ m ∂
Voltage = ∫ E ⋅ dl = −
L ∂t
=−
∂t ∫ B ⋅ ds
S

Using Stokes’s theorem

∂
∫ E ⋅ dl = ∫ (∇ × E ) ⋅ ds = − ∂t ∫ B ⋅ ds
L S S

∂B ∂H
⇒ ∇× E = − = −µ 2.3
∂t ∂t
iv. Ampere’s Circuital Law

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Chapter 2 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

It states that the line integral of the tangential component of H around a closed path is the
same as the total current flowing outwards from the surface enclosed by the path.

∂D
∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ ds + ∫
L S S ∂t
⋅ ds

∂D
where J = σE is conduction current density, and is defined as displacement current
∂t
(Maxwell’s major contribution.)
Using Stokes’s theorem:
∂D
∇× H = J + 2.4
∂t
v. Equation of Continuity
When there is a current flow from a closed surface, then there must be a negative rate of
decrease of the charge inside the closed volume.
∂
∫ J ⋅ ds = − ∂t ∫ ρ
S S
v dv

By divergence theorem:

∫ J ⋅ ds = ∫ ∇ ⋅ J dv
S V

∂ρ v
⇒ ∇⋅J = - , or
∂t
∂ρ v
∇⋅J + =0 2.5
∂t
Table 2.2 - Maxwell’s Equations in Final Form

Differential Form Integral Form Remarks

1. ∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∫ D ⋅ ds = ∫
S V
ρ v dv
Gauss’s law
Non-existence of isolated
2. ∇ ⋅B = 0 ∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
S magnetic charges
∂B ∂
3. ∇× E = −
∂t ∫ E ⋅ dl = ∂t ∫ B ⋅ ds
L S Faraday’s law

∂D  ∂D 
4. ∇× H = J +
∂t
∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫  J +
L S
 ⋅ ds
∂t  Ampere’s circuital law.

Example 1
a. Given E = E o e j (ωt + βx ) a z in free space, find H.

b. In a homogeneous region where µr = 1 and εr = 50, E = 20πe j (ωt − βz ) a x V/m and

B = µ o H m e j (ωt − βz ) a y T. Find ω and Hm if the wavelength is 1.78m.

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Chapter 2 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

2.3 Boundary Conditions

If a field exists in region consisting of two different media, the conditions that the field
must satisfy at the interface separating the media are called boundary conditions. These
conditions are helpful in determining the field on one side of the boundary if the field on
the other side is known.

In n is a unit vector directed from medium 2 to medium 1, σs and ks are the surface charge
density and surface current density, respectively, then electromagnetic fields must satisfy:

a. Tangential Components:

n × (E1 − E 2 ) = 0 2.6
n × (H 1 − H 2 ) = k s 2.7
or, E1t = E 2t (continuous)
H 1t − H 2t = k s (discontinuous)
b. Normal Components:

n ⋅ (B1 − B 2 ) = 0 2.8
n ⋅ (D1 − D 2 ) = σ s 2.9
or, B1n = B 2 n (continuous)
D1n − D 2 n = σ s (discontinuous)
Exercise 5

E1, H1, B1, D1,

ε1, µ1, σ1, n medium 2
σs
ks
E2, H2, B2, D2,
ε2, µ2, σ2, medium 1

Fig. 1.7

Prove Eqs 2.6 – 2.9.

Exercise 1
Two extensive homogeneous isotropic dielectrics meet on plane z = 0. For z ≥ 0, εr1 = 4 and for z ≤
0, εr1 = 3. A uniform electric field E 1 = 5a x − 2a y + 3a z kV/m exists for z ≥ 0. Find E2 for z ≤ 0.

(Answer: E 2 = 5a x − 2a y + 4a z kV/m)

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Chapter 2 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

2.4 Time-Harmonic Fields

Though the time dependence of EM fields can be arbitrary, in practice we generally deal
with steady-state sinusoidal time-varying fields. By time-harmonic quantities we mean
quantities which vary periodically or sinusoidal with time. Besides their practical value,
sinusoidal analysis can be extended to most waveforms by Fourier and Laplace transform
techniques. Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors, which are more convenient to work
with. Before applying phasors to EM fields, it is worthwhile to have a brief review of the
concept of phasors.

A phasor z is a complex number that can be written as (in rectangular form):

z = x+ jy 2.10
or in polar form as:
z = re jφ = r (cos φ + j sin φ ) ≡ r∠φ 2.11

where j = − 1, r = z = x 2 + y 2 , φ = tan −1 ( y x )
To introduce the time element, we let
φ = ωt + θ 2.12
where θ may be a function of time or space coordinates or a constant. Thus the real (Re)
and imaginary (Im) parts of z = re jφ = re jθ e jωt are:
Re(re jφ ) = r cos(ωt + θ ) 2.13
Im(re jφ ) = r sin(ωt + θ ) 2.14
Thus a sinusoidal current i (t ) = I o cos(ωt + θ ) , for example, equals the real part of I o e jθ e jωt .
The complex term I o e jθ , which results from dropping the time factor e jωt in i(t), is called
the phasor current and denoted by bold-face letter I; i.e.,
I = I o e j θ = I o ∠θ 2.15
Thus i (t ) = I o cos(ωt + θ ) , the instantaneous form, can be expressed as
(
i (t ) = Re Ie jωt )
In general, a phasor could be a scalar or vector. If a vector A( x, y, z, t ) is time-harmonic
field, the phasor form of A is A( x, y, z ) ; they are related as:

(
A = Re Ae jωt ) 2.16
Note that
∂A  ∂ 
= Re A e jωt 
∂t  ∂t 
(
= Re jωAe jωt )
⇒ A ′ = jωA

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Chapter 2 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

Thus showing that taking the time derivative of the instantaneous quantity is equivalent to
multiplying its phasor form by jω. That is
∂A
→ jωA
∂t
Similarly,
A
∫ A∂t → jω
Example 2
2π
20 j x
8 o 3 a
Given that A = 10 cos(10 t − 10 x + 60 )a z and B = a x + 10e y, express A in phasor
j
form and B in instantaneous form.

Exercise 2
If P = 2 sin(10 8 t + x − π4 )a y and Q = e jx (a x − a z ) sin πy , determine the phasor form of P and

the instantaneous form of Q.

Answer: 2e
(
j x − 34π )a sin πy cos(ωt + x)(a x − a z )
y,

Time-Harmonic Maxwell’s Equations Assuming Time Factor ejωt

Differential Form Integral Form

1. ∇ ⋅ D = ρv ∫ D ⋅ ds = ∫
S V
ρ v dv

2. ∇ ⋅B = 0 ∫ B ⋅ ds = 0
S

3. ∇ × E = − j ωB ∫ E ⋅ dl = − jω ∫ B ⋅ ds
L S

4. ∇ × H = J + jω D ∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫ (J + jωD)⋅ ds
L S

Note: Maxwell’s equations in phasor form result in time-independent equations. Herein is

the justification for using phasors; the time factor can be suppressed in our analysis of
time-harmonic fields and inserted when necessary.
Exercise 3
Show that the above equations are correct.

Example 3
In a medium characterized by σ = 0, µ = µ o , ε = 4ε o ,

(
E = 20 sin 10 8 t − βz a y V/m )

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Chapter 2 Class Notes on EM Waves and Guided Structures ECEG-4303

determine β and H.

Exercise 4
A medium is characterized by σ = 0, µ = 2 µ o , ε = 5ε o . If H = 2 cos(ωt − 3 y )a z A/m, calculate ω
and E.
( )
Answer: 2.846 x 108 rad/s, − 476.8 cos 2.846 × 10 8 t − 3 y a x V/m.

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