Electromagnetic Fields (ECEG-2122) : Magnetic Force & Materials

Electromagnetic Fields (ECEG-2122)
Chapter 5
Learning Outcomes:
Students should be able to
Calculate the magnetic force on a current-carrying wire
placed in a magnetic field and the torque exerted on a
current loop;
Relate the magnetic energy stored in a region to the
magnetic field distribution in that region;
Apply Faraday’s law to compute the voltage induced by a
stationary coil placed in a time-varying magnetic field or
moving in a medium containing a magnetic field.
1/27
Chapter 5 Magnetic Force & Materials
Contents
Force due to Magnetic Fields

Magnetic Boundary Conditions
Magnetic Energy
Faraday’s Law
Magnetic Properties of Materials
2/27
Force due to Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Forces and Torques

The electric field E at a point in space was defined as the
electric force Fe per unit charge acting on a charged test
particle placed at that point.
We now define the magnetic flux density B at a point in space
in terms of the magnetic force Fm that acts on a charged test
particle moving with velocity u through that point.
Experiments revealed that a particle of charge q moving with
velocity u in a magnetic field experiences a magnetic force Fm
given by
Fm = qu × B (N)
The strength of B is measured in tesla (T).
For a positively charged particle, the direction of Fm is that of
the cross product of u × B, which is perpendicular to the
3/27
Magnetic Forces and Torques ...
plane containing u and B and governed by the right-hand rule.
If q is negative, the direction of Fm is reversed. The

magnitude of Fm is given by
Fm = quB sin θ
where θ is the angle between u and B. We note that Fm is

maximum when u is perpendicular to B and zero when u is
parallel to B.
If a charged particle resides in the presence of both an electric
field E and a magnetic field B, then the total
electromagnetic force acting on it is
F = Fe + Fm = qE + qu × B = q (E + u × B)
4/27
The force is known as the Lorentz force. Electric and magnetic

forces exhibit a number of important differences:
1 Whereas the electric force is always in the direction of the
electric field, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
2 Whereas the electric force acts on a charged particle whether
or not it is moving, the magnetic force acts on it only when it
is in motion.
3 Whereas the electric force expends energy in displacing a
charged particle, the magnetic force does no work when a
particle is displaced.
This last statement requires further elaboration. Because the

magnetic force Fm is always perpendicular to u, Fm · u = 0.
5/27
Hence, the work performed when a particle is displaced by a

differential distance dl = udt is
dW = Fm · dl = Fm · udt = 0
Since no work is done, a magnetic field cannot change the

kinetic energy of a charged particle; the magnetic field can
change the direction of motion of a charged particle but not
its speed.
6/27
Magnetic force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
Exercise
An electron moving in the positive x direction perpendicular to a
magnetic field is deflected in the negative z direction. What is the
direction of the magnetic field?
Magnetic force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

A current flowing through a conducting wire consists of
charged particles drifting through the material of the wire.
When a current-carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a force equal to the sum of the magnetic forces
acting on the charged particles moving within it.
For a closed circuit of contour C carrying a current I , the
total magnetic force is
7/27
Magnetic force on a Current-Carrying Conductor ...
I
Fm = I dl × B (N)
C
If the closed wire shown in the figure, resides in a uniform

external magnetic field B, then B can be taken outside the
integral in which case
I
Fm = I dl × B = 0
C
8/27
This result, which is a consequence of the fact that the vector
sum of the infinitesimal vectors dl over a closed path equals
zero, states that the total magnetic force on any closed
current loop in a uniform magnetic field is zero.
In the study of magnetostatics, all currents flow through
closed paths. Consider the curved wire in the figure above
carrying a current I from point a to point b. In doing so,
negative charges accumulate at a, and positive ones at b.
The time-varying nature of these charges violates the static
assumptions.
If we are interested in the magnetic force exerted on a wire
segment ` residing in a uniform magnetic field, we obtain
I
Fm = I dl × B = I ` × B
`
9/27
where ` is the vector directed from a to b.
Exercise
The semicircular conductor shown in the figure lies in the x − y
plane and carries a current I . The closed circuit is exposed to a
uniform magnetic field B = ŷB0 . Determine (a) the magnetic force
F1 on the straight section of the wire and (b) the force F2 on the
curved section.
10/27
Magnetic Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop
When a force is applied on a rigid body that can pivot about
a fixed axis, the body will, in general, react by rotating about
that axis.
The angular acceleration depends on the cross product of the
applied force vector F and the distance vector d, measured
from a point on the rotation axis to the point of application of
F.
The length of d is called the moment arm, and the cross
product
T = d × F (N.m)
is called the torque.
The force F applied on the disk lies in the x − y plane and
makes an angle θ with d. Hence,
T = ẑrF sin θ
11/27
Magnetic Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop
where |d| = r , the radius of the disk, and F = |F|.
From T = ẑrF sin θ we observe that a torque along the

positive z direction corresponds to a tendency for the cylinder
to rotate counterclockwise and, conversely, a torque along the
−z direction corresponds to clockwise rotation.
These directions are governed by the following right-hand
rule: when the thumb of the right hand points along the
direction of the torque, the four fingers indicate the direction
that the torque tries to rotate the body.
12/27
Magnetic Boundary Conditions
In electrostatic fields we derived a set of boundary conditions

that describes how, at the boundary between two dissimilar
contiguous media, the electric flux and field D and E in the
first medium relate to those in the second medium.
We now derive a similar set of boundary conditions for the
magnetic flux and field B and H.
By analogy, application of Gauss’s law for magnetism, leads to
the conclusion that
I
B · ds = 0 → B1n = B2n
S
Thus the normal component of B is continuous across the

boundary between two adjacent media.
For linear, isotropic media, the boundary condition for H is
13/27
Magnetic Boundary Conditions ...
µ1 H1n = µ2 H2n
To obtain the boundary condition for the tangential

component of H, we follow the same basic procedure that we
used to establish the boundary condition for the tangential
component of E.
n̂2 × (H1 − H2 ) = Js
This equation implies that the tangential components of H

parallel to Js are continuous across the interface, whereas
those orthogonal to Js are discontinuous in the amount of Js .
14/27
Magnetic Boundary Conditions ...
Surface currents can exist only on the surfaces of perfect

conductors and superconductors. Hence, at the interface
between media with finite conductivities, Js = 0 and
H1t = H2t
Exercise
With reference to the above figure, determine the angle between
H1 and nˆ2 = ẑ if H2 = (x̂3 + ẑ2) (A/m), µr 1 = 2 and µr 2 = 8 and
Js = 0.
Answer: θ = 20.6◦
15/27
Mangetic Energy
When we introduced electrostatic energy, we did so by

examining what happens to the energy expended in charging
up a capacitor from zero voltage to some final voltage V .
We introduce the concept of magnetic energy by considering
an inductor with inductance L connected to a current source.
Suppose that we were to increase the current i flowing
through the inductor from zero to a final value I .
Hence, the total energy in joules (J) expended in building up
a current I in the inductor is
Z Z Z I
1
Wm = pdt = ivdt = L idi = LI 2 (J)
0 2
We call this the magnetic energy stored in the inductor.
16/27
Magnetic Energy ...
The expression for Wm suggests that the energy expended in

building up the current in the inductor is stored in the
magnetic field with magnetic energy density wm , defined as
the magnetic energy Wm per unit volume,
Wm 1
wm = = µH 2 (J/m3 )
V 2
Even though this expression was derived fro a solenoid, it
remains valid for any medium with a magnetic field H.
The total magnetic energy stored in a magnetic field H is
Z
1
Wm = µH 2 dV (J)
2 V
17/27
Exercise
Derive an expression for the magnetic energy stored in a

coaxial cable of length ` and inner and outer radii a and b.
The current flowing through the cable is I and its insulation
material has permeability µ.
18/27
Faraday’s Law
The close connection between electricity and magnetism was
established by Oersted, who demonstrated that a wire
carrying an electric current exerts a force on a compass needle
and that the needle always turns so as to point in the Φ̂
direction when the current is along the ẑ direction.
The force acting on the compass needle is due to the
magnetic field produced by the current in the wire.
Faraday hypothesized that if a current produces a magnetic
field, then the converse should also be true: a magnetic field
should produce a current in a wire.
To test his hypothesis, he conducted numerous experiments in
his laboratory in London over a period of about 10 years, all
aimed at making magnetic fields induce currents in wires.
Henry placed next to permanent magnets or current carrying
loops of all different sizes, but no currents were ever detected.
19/27
Faraday’s Law ...
Eventually, these experiments led to the discovery by both

Faraday and Henry that:
Magnetic fields can produce an electric current in a closed
loop, but only if the magnetic flux linking the surface area of
the loop changes with time. The key to the induction process
is change.
Explain the induction process briefly in your own words.
A galvanometer is a predecessor of the voltmeter and
ammeter.
20/27
Faraday’s Law ...
When a galvanometer detects the flow of current through the

coil, it means that a voltage has been induced across the
galvanometer terminals. This voltage is called the
electromotive force (emf), Vemf , and the process is called
electromagnetic induction.
The emf induced in a closed conducting loop of N turns is
given by
Z
dΦ d
Vemf = −N = −N B · ds (V )
dt dt S
This result is attributed to Faraday and known as Faraday’s

law.
An emf can be generated in a closed conducting loop under
any of the following three conditions:
21/27
Faraday’s Law ...
1 A time-varying magnetic field linking a stationary loop; the

induced emf is then called the transformer emf, Vemf tr .
2 A moving loop with a time-varying area (relative to the

normal component of B) in a static field B; the induced emf
m .
is then called the motional emf, Vemf
3 A moving loop in a time-varying field B.
The total emf is given by

tr m
Vemf = Vemf + Vemf
m = 0 if the loop is stationary [case (1)] and
with Vemf
tr
Vemf = 0 if B is static [case (2)]. For case (3), both terms
are important.
22/27
Exercise
An inductor is formed by winding N turns of a thin conducting
wire into a circular loop of radius a. The inductor loop is in the
x–y plane with its center at the origin, and connected to a resistor
R, as shown in the figure. In the presence of a magnetic field
B = B0 (ŷ2 + ẑ3) sin ωt, where ω is the angular frequency, find
a the magnetic flux linking a single turn of the inductor,
b the transformer emf, given that
N = 10, B0 = 0.2T , a = 10cm, andω = 103rad/s,
c tr at t = 0, and
the polarity of Vemf
d the induced current in the circuit for R = 1kΩ (assume the
wire resistance to be much smaller than R).
23/27
Magnetic Properties of Materials
Because of the similarity between the pattern of the magnetic

field lines generated by a current loop and those exhibited by
a permanent magnet, the loop can be regarded as a magnetic
dipole with north and south poles.
The magnetic moment m of a loop of area A has magnitude
m = IA and a direction normal to the plane of the loop (in
accordance with the right-hand rule).
Magnetization in a material is due to atomic scale current
loops associated with: (1) orbital motions of the electrons and
protons around and inside the nucleus and (2) electron spin.
The magnetic moment due to proton motion typically is three
orders of magnitude smaller than that of the electrons, and
therefore the total orbital and spin magnetic moment of an
atom is dominated by the sum of the magnetic moments of its
24/27
Magnetic Properties of Materials ...
electrons.
The magnetic behavior of a material is governed by the

interaction of the magnetic dipole moments of its atoms with
an external magnetic field.
The nature of the behavior depends on the crystalline
structure of the material and is used as a basis for classifying
materials as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic.
The atoms of a diamagnetic material have no permanent
magnetic moments.
In contrast, both paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials
have atoms with permanent magnetic dipole moments, albeit
with very different organizational structures.
25/27
Magnetic Properties of Materials ...
26/27
Reading Assignment: Maxwell’s Equations for Time-Varying Fields
27/27

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Electromagnetic Fields (ECEG-2122)

Force due to Magnetic Fields

Magnetic Forces and Torques

plane containing u and B and governed by the right-hand rule.

If q is negative, the direction of Fm is reversed. The

where θ is the angle between u and B. We note that Fm is

The force is known as the Lorentz force. Electric and magnetic

This last statement requires further elaboration. Because the

Hence, the work performed when a particle is displaced by a

Since no work is done, a magnetic field cannot change the

Magnetic force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

If the closed wire shown in the figure, resides in a uniform

where ` is the vector directed from a to b.

where |d| = r , the radius of the disk, and F = |F|.

From T = ẑrF sin θ we observe that a torque along the

In electrostatic fields we derived a set of boundary conditions

Thus the normal component of B is continuous across the

To obtain the boundary condition for the tangential

This equation implies that the tangential components of H

Surface currents can exist only on the surfaces of perfect

When we introduced electrostatic energy, we did so by

We call this the magnetic energy stored in the inductor.

The expression for Wm suggests that the energy expended in

Derive an expression for the magnetic energy stored in a

Eventually, these experiments led to the discovery by both

When a galvanometer detects the flow of current through the

This result is attributed to Faraday and known as Faraday’s

1 A time-varying magnetic field linking a stationary loop; the

2 A moving loop with a time-varying area (relative to the

The total emf is given by

Because of the similarity between the pattern of the magnetic

The magnetic behavior of a material is governed by the

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