Race: The Social Construct and Identity

Michelle Mejia-Benitez

April 25, 2022

Independent Research GT

Dr. Melissa Kiehl

 Abstract

Race has less stability and a greater role in society than meets the eye. It is

necessary to recognize this because the identity of individuals is being altered by

generalized/unrepresentative categories. Society expects people to fit into the categories

they create, but this does not respect the individual’s own views. A number of people

feel the pressure or confusion when selecting their race from limited options. Do parts

of people’s identities have to be lost in order to maintain the fake hierarchy humans use

to excuse oppression? It is necessary to research this topic because the consequences of

an unstable social construct have gone on for too long. With increasing awareness of

racism and race as a whole, it would be beneficial to research and address the problems

the concept of race presents. Researching the effects race has had on identity will

provide concise information that can later be applied to more issues surrounding race.

The paper will describe the data collection methods of surveys and interviews that led

to a partial conclusion. The data demonstrates that race is in fact a social construct, there

are distinct and unique interpretations of race, and that further investigation should be

done.
Introduction

The idea of race is unstable and difficult to define. There are many definitions of

race, especially as time passes and norms evolve. A social construct is an idea that exists

subjectively as a result of human creation. Racial categories have undergone many

changes, making individuals adjust and conform to the categories provided. Race is one

of the characteristics that contributes to an individual’s multifaceted identity. The sense

of belonging an individual holds to a social group is the specific aspect of identity that

this paper focuses on. Furthermore, the definitions of race that this paper references are

the idea that race is biological and the idea that race is a social construct. Various factors

influence why or when the definition of race changes, but the changes largely rely on

what society deems important. Race is a social construct that has a firm hold on our

society and changes based on society’s desires. Erratic definitions and understandings

of race perpetuate misinterpretations of an individual's identity. The purpose of this

paper is to identify the socially constructed characteristics of race, examine the

importance and relevance of race in an individual's identity, and analyze the efficacy of

current racial categories.

Review of Literature

The concept of race has experienced numerous changes in definition. From its

origin to its current state, race has demonstrated the characteristics of a social construct.

The idea of race was created by humans in order to satisfy their desires and “needs”.

Humans have an impulsive need to sort things into groups and apply labels. Race is

1
explained as an idea used to categorize individuals who share biological traits that

society deems significant (CrashCourse, 2017). Essentially, race is based on society’s

priorities. As those priorities change, so can the definition of race. Race installed its role

in society in an attempt to exert superiority and inferiority complexes (TED, 2020).

Humans wanted to establish a credible social hierarchy and used race as a primary

excuse.

The term “race” was popularized by humans during the time period that slavery

was predominant. Slavery predated the idea of race, indicating that “discoveries” and

“findings” of the concept of race were used to legitimize the discrimination and

seperation (Origin of Everything, 2018). The division and segregation within humans in

a society was established on the foundation that race categorized people based on

biological differences. However, in its earliest definitions, race was considered a

category used to describe kinship: a blood relationship between a family or group

(Origin of Everything, 2018). Race was not originally used along biological terms; it

adopted this definition as justification for society’s exploitation. In reality, the science

and biological basis behind the social construct of race is considered pseudoscience.

Pseudoscience is the occurrence of an assumption that is falsely regarded as scientific.

Race is falsely regarded as biological because there is not an obvious distinction

between racial groups. In fact, “all humans are genetically 99.9% the same. There’s more

genetic variation within what we call racial groups than there is between racial groups''

(TED, 2020). The biological differences race founded itself on are neither apparent nor

verificable. Evidently, ideas surrounding race often contradict themself. Socially

2
constructed racial categories do not align with biological understanding of human

variation (Graves, 2009) and inconsistency in definitions/categories of race wouldn’t be

as apparent if race were biologically based (Braveman & Parker Dominguez, 2021).

Society is constantly changing or adjusting the concept of race, making it difficult to see

the legitimacy in the supposed biological basis.

Furthermore, race has gone from being based on biology and genetics to being

reflective of socially constructed meanings (Quintana, 2007). There is inconsistency

within the definition of race, not only from time period to time period, but from person

to person. Not even researchers are consistent in their meaning, making social concepts,

like race, challenging to understand (Chávez & Guido-DiBrtio, 2002). The idea of race is

often confusing and unreliable as it can have different implications as a cause of society,

culture, and time. The fluidity and malleability that makes up a social construct is

evident in the manner race has carried itself over time. Race has the characteristics of a

social construct, discrediting the claim that it is biological.

The idea of race was created by humans as an excuse for social hierarchies and

oppression. As such, it is a social construct with no biological basis. The nature of a

social construct is embodied in the way race is always changing in definition and

classifications. Consequently, these changes in definitions and categories makes it

difficult for individuals to confidently determine their racial identification.

Racial identification can be an important facet of an individual’s identity. The

manner in which a person relates to or feels connected to a category is a common source

of identity, not just in racial terms. In today’s society, race is an important matter as it

3
has caused disparities between humans and pressured individuals to see race and its

implications as a norm. While the questioning of the concept of race itself is seldom

brought to light, the recognition of the social divisions is frequently a topic of

discussion.

Divisions between humans can be used as an excuse for many of society’s flaws.

Race is society's lovely instrument that divides humans, props up unfair systems, and

assures people to believe in the norm (TED, 2020). The fact that race does all this for

society is why it is constantly placed on a podium with the belief that it is untouchable.

However, the awareness of race’s social constructedness reveals its problematic nature.

Race has proved relevant in many matters over time. From the establishment of

slavery, to lasting effects of discrimination, race has often been brought up and

analyzed to determine distributions of power and society’s priorities. Society uses and

changes the definition of race as needed when they want to distribute power (Origin of

Everything, 2018). Oftentimes, power is distributed unequally with the subliminal

purpose to further engrave the recognition of racial hierarchies. Superiority and

inferiority complexes within these hierarchies create personal experiences that impact

perceptions of race.

As a result, experiences with racial discrimination and oppression influence the

level of importance placed on the concept of race. Individuals may deem that race has

different impacts and relevance to their identity. Since the recognition of race, it was

ideal to be White. Belonging to this group provides benefits and opportunities

unknown to those that identify with other groups. In 1930, Mexican was listed as its

4
own racial category. The League of United Latin American citizens, LULAC, protested

to include “Mexican” in the White category rather than its own (Zocalo Public Square,

2009). To be separate from Whites was to be part of the minorities of “Blacks” and

“Chinese” that were facing problems and discrimination in the system. Unfortunately,

this situation in 1930 is not entirely different from today. Though Latino and Hispanic

individuals today are straying away from the desire to be included in the White

category, nonwhite individuals still face significantly more discrimination than the

White race. The frequency and impact of encounters with discrimination “stimulate

racial-ethnic identity development [and] demonstrate to have an impact on measures of

ethnic identity development…” (Quintana, 2007). The situations individuals have faced

as a result of racial implications and discrimination influence the way they view race

within their identity.

Therefore, racial identification varies depending on what an individual perceives

as race. Race is ascribed, meaning that people are assigned into racial categories based

on what other people see (Pipes, 2016). However, there are personal and contextual

implications that may influence perceived racial categories. As contexts change, the

expression of identity may change as well. While not reducible to simply moment and

place, identity exploration, expression, and centrality appear to be contextually

sen-sitive (Williams et al., 2012). Implications of race that are based on unique

experiences and particular circumstances incite polarity and incongruence within

recognized classifications of race. While racial categories may be ascribed, racial identity

is essentially up to interpretation.

5
 Despite this, there is a widely accepted idea or lie that race is stable and “fixed”.

While an individual may have an interpretation of race based on their experiences,

pressure to conform to a single definition of race may cause the individual to believe

that their interpretation is wrong. For multiracial individuals, race is not fixed because

they have multiple or a mix of options. The spectrum of categories they may fall under

“... may lead them to question a fixed, biologically based view of race altogether”

(Pauker et al., 2018). Their experiences and struggles with fitting into just one or any

race causes internal conflict on what race truly means. Likewise, as a result of

connotations of race in America, race is often associated with physical characteristics

(Hitlin et al., 2007). Skin color is exclusively used to distinguish between White and

Black individuals. The focus on skin color contradicts other racial categories and

identities, such as Asain or Native Pacific Islander, where the foundation of race is

based on country of origin or heritage.

Correspondingly, the understanding of the difference between race and ethnicity

plays into a facet of an individual's identity. The basis for many assumptions about

racial and ethnic identity are due to the perceptions of the definitions of race and

ethnicity (Williams et al., 2012). Race and ethnicity are often confused for each other.

The standards for race depend on society’s need or interpretation of fundamental

physical/biological traits while ethnicity addresses cultural traits (religion, language,

customs) (CrashCourse, 2017). As social constructs, race and ethnicity are hard to

narrow down and define, demonstrating the root for the confusion and crossovers

6
between the two ideas. Perceptions of race: what it means, its role in society, etc.,

change frequently as a result of numerous factors and implications.

Nevertheless, society has placed a weight on the concept of race, making it a

necessity for the credibility of many established ideals. Ignorant to the erratic changes,

society continues to uphold race, causing it to certify itself as a facet in an individual's

identity. Likewise, the interaction between society’s demand for race and personal

experiences with it causes racial identification to be relevant to an individual's identity.

In order for individuals to be identified racially, there must be accurate and

representative racial categories. Unfortunately, the current racial categories do not

effectively or consistently represent the identity of individuals. Governments and

societies generalize racial categories and expect people to fall completely under one.

The government’s standard categories of race are purposefully vague and up for

interpretation. In the US Census, there have been many changes to the categories

presented for the “race question”. From the three categories assigned to people in 1790,

to the 19 categories available to choose from in the recent 2020 census (What Census,

2020), people have been sorted and labeled. Whether the labeling has been effective is

debatable. Despite the option to select “Other” and fill in a race on the Census, people’s

identity may not actually be represented because “The Office of Management and

Budget does not recognize some of the races as an official racial category. So even

though you’re allowed to be self-identified, some of the races the Census Bureau will go

back and recode you into one of the categories…” ( Zocalo Public Square, 2009). An

7
individual’s racial identification will not be represented if the government adjusts it to

fit its expectations.

As illustrated earlier in the paper, individuals identify themselves in different,

more personal ways than are ascribed to them. Whether it be a result of contextual

implications, not entirely understanding or (deeming important) the difference between

race and ethnicity, or other factors, the identity of an individual cannot be filtered or

narrowed down to just one part. Race contributes to identity, but it isn’t and shouldn’t

be a defining trait (Pauker et al., 2018). A multifaceted identity contains many parts, not

that just of race. Race may hold an important piece of an individual's identity as a result

of societal pressure. However, inaccurate racial categories cause a disruption within the

development of and confidence in racial identification.

There is a striking difference between how individuals identify themselves and

how society classifies them. The government census may classify/categorize people in a

way that they feel doesn’t represent who they are. “[Problems] arose in assigning

persons to specific racial categories. Some individuals probably felt that the race

classification did not acknowledge their true identities, especially if they were of mixed

ancestry or if their appearance did not meet stereotypical expectations” (Hirschman et

al., 2000). As the categories change and fluctuate, people may feel as if their identities

are never truly represented. For example, there is a lot of debate and deliberation in the

case of Hispanics and Latinos and how they should be categorized. “Hispanics have a

unique view of race that doesn’t necessarily fit within the official U.S. definitions”

(Gonzalez-Barrera & Lopez, 2015). These contrasting views on race create challenges in

8
the representation and self-identification of Hispanics. The racial identity of Hispanics

is inconsistent. In an interview with young Latinos, an interviewee explained that “[The

discussions surrounding Latino identification made them] feel pressured to fit a certain

mold here in the United States” (NBC News, 2019). Their personal identification is

different from how the government would classify them and results in pressure to

conform to dishonest representation.

A possible solution or way to address the misrepresentation of racial identities is

the use of open-ended questions. “[Results] suggest some Americans view their racial

and ethnic identities in more complex terms than fixed choices may allow but choose to

not include their full sense of their racial identity when presented with fixed-choice

racial categories” (Croll & Gerteis, 2019). Open-field questions allowed more room for

honest self-identification than the fixed-choice question which categories as defined by

the government.

Recent years have shown a change in the adherence to the standard Census

Bureau categories. In a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center, “Nearly 1 one in

five people did not answer when asked to describe their race or ethnicity on the 2020 US

Census” (Cohn et al., 2021). The refusal to answer may imply that people are not

represented by the categories currently presented or are against the question as a whole

Moreover, current racial categories and methods of measurement do not

thoroughly represent an individual's racial identity. The difference between how the

government wants/expects people to categorize versus how individuals really see

9
themselves is caused by the fundamental difference in the perception of and

experiences with race.

Race must be recognized as a social construct. The idea that it is biological must

be dismissed as numerous analyses have demonstrated the biological claim to be null.

The constant and undependable fluctuation in the definitions of race emphasize its

characteristics as a social construct. Not only this, but the fluidity in the definition of

race causes a malleability and uncertainty in racial categories and identification. An

individual’s racial identity will not be accurately represented with so much confusion

and disparities. If race has been established as an important aspect to society, society

must provide just explanation rather than continue its habit of exploitation. The wideset

definition of race needs to be reevaluated and a better method to represent individuals

should be discussed.

Methods and Data Collection

The study of race as a social construct and its relation to identity called for a

qualitative ethnographic/descriptive research design model. The data collection process

sought to address and answer the research question and hypothesis. The question

seeking an answer is: How do personal and conceptual interpretations of race influence

identity? The researcher hypothesized that: Race is a social construct that has a firm

hold on our society and changes based on society’s desires. Erratic definitions and

understandings of race perpetuate misinterpretations of an individual's identity. The

method of data collection used was a survey with the accompaniment of interviews.

10
 Chronologically, the interviews were conducted before the surveys. Three

interviews were conducted with experts in topics involving race and identity. Dr.

Stephen Quintana, Dr. Alicia Chavez, and Mr. John Biewen were the professionals

interviewed. The experts were sent emails explaining the purpose of the study and the

request for an interview. A time and date was set up and the interview was conducted

over Zoom. Interview questions were formulated based on preliminary research and

written on a Google Document. The video conferencing app: Zoom was used to conduct

the interview. The voice messages app was used to record the interview and it was

transcribed by hand onto Google Documents. Based on the interview questions and

interviewee’s responses, the survey questions were created.

An initial survey was distributed randomly via social media. The survey was

released and given out from February 2nd to February 8th, 2022 and collected 25

responses. The participants were majority female, White and Asain (as corresponding

with US Census defined racial categories), and within the range of 13-17 years old. The

final and complete survey was distributed from February 20th to March 16th, 2022. A

total of 50 responses were collected from the final survey. The participants were

random, ranging from 13-77 years of age. The majority of the respondents were female

and White and Asain (as corresponding with US Census defined racial categories).

Social media remained the method of distribution. The number or type of

participants/responses was not controlled, there was only the set goal of 50 responses. A

more even distribution among the different races and genders was intended, yet that

was not the outcome. The results may not be entirely accurate because there was

11
over/under representation of groups. No bias was intended, but since type and

distribution of participants was not controlled, the responses did not come out as

expected.

Results and Data Analysis

The hypothesis was partially supported by the results. The data addressed topics

and ideas involving the research question, yet did not answer the question entirely. A

striking detail was that the initial survey appeared to receive responses more concise

with the hypothesis. The final survey supported the hypothesis in some places, but

demonstrated distinct implications with other factors.

The very purpose of this research was to discover and evaluate the personal

interpretations of race and their relationship with identity. Below is Figure 1, a chart of

all the personal definitions of race collected from the final survey. The question asked

the survey respondents, “What is race: How would you define it?”.

Figure 1.
Definitions of Race

White (4) Honestly, I am Race is I believe that Race is the

not really sure. basically a race is a way classification
According to social construct that people use we use to often
some forms, it in my opinion. to categorize describe skin
seems to mean It was created themselves by color or
the color of by humans to things like skin different
your skin, but categorize tone, ancestry, groups of
according to other humans etc. A lot of the people by their
others it seems who just came time it is to “background.”
to mean what from different prove things It’s commonly
region of the areas. Ethnicity like confused with
world you are is useful "superiority" or ethnicity and
from, because it may "inferiority" nationality.

12
 assuming you help to explain towards
fit into a the culture and another race,
non-white experience of a although it has
category, person but little to do with
because white broad racial that.
does not terms such as
specifically "black"
mention what
part of the
world you are
from. It's a
really strange
term if you
think about it.

Asain (2) Race is a where you Um. I would Race is a way

cultural and come from probably to associate a
identification geographically, describe race person with
of human the culture you as like, a group another group
beings used by were raised that you are a of people
society. Race around; there part of based based on the
does not set us are too many on your color of their
apart as we are factors of race ancestry. skin and other
all human with to make one Maybe. Sorry defining
unique and concrete I’m not physical
different definition of it wording a features.
backgrounds really good rn.

Biracial / black Race is a A way to Race is a social Basically

and Asian puzzle piece of differentiate construct that categories that
your identity. humans based we have used people are
But it doesn't on their to differentiate placed in
DEFINE you in physical traits, ourselves. because of
any way. It's but most of the Humans are their physical
just a small time it’s based more alike appearance
part of what off of people’s than we are like the color of
makes up skin color different. your skin
"you".

African-Ameri A Race was made A group of A social

can category/group to divide black people with construct that
that you people from similar features attempts to
belong to. white. I that originate categorize
What you honestly don’t from a certain people by
identify as in know how to continent or shared

13
 relation to the define race. region physical traits.
color of your
skin.

Hispanic Race is how A title used to if someone is Your skin color

Latino people identify identify black white and hair and
themselves and someone using east asain other physical
are proud to their ethnicity south asian traits and who
say where they and physical hispanic or your parents
are from. aspects. native are.
american

Korean a social A sociological What type of Race is how

construct used construction to human you one is
to justify achieve look like. identified
hating people hierarchical Where your based on their
of different power ancestors are physical
skin colors arrangements from. characteristics.

Race is based how people are The A part of the People with
on physical categorized distinguishing geographic shared cultural
appearance based on factors region one backgrounds
usually and features (like between originated grouped
your features. skin color) human traits from. together
and people

Race is a way Groups of a group of race is like like if you are

to measure humans are people based white, black, white asian
ethnicity in divided based on shared asian so on Hispanic etc
society on ancestry. qualities

Race is The region of Heritage, The biology of Color of your

someone’s the world one culture, and who you are skin
ethnic is from customs.
background

Social
construct

There were a variety of answers in the chart above. The definitions of race were

almost never exactly the same. It is likely that a few respondents misunderstood the

14
questions, hence White , Asian, etc being used as a “definition of race”. Yet, the

frequency of these types of answers could be a result of enforced notions that race can

be defined and confined to a single word, a category.

The inconsistency in the qualitative data indicates support for the hypothesis’

claim of erratic definitions and understanding of race. Based on the array of answers

and definitions, it is deductible that individual and personal experiences (whether it be

education, home life, etc.) with the concept of race could have led to the distinct and

unique perspectives.

Despite the apparent individuality and variance, there were themes and

keywords that appeared frequently. Similar words, phrases, or concepts are highlighted

in colors accordingly. Explanations of race that describe physical characteristics are

highlighted in purple. Definitions that make note of skin color specifically are

highlighted in yellow. Physical characteristics and skin color are common

interpretations of race that are likely a result of the claimed and subliminally

established biological understanding of race.

Intriguingly, there were a handful of responses that were aware of race’s social

constructedness (highlighted in green). The recognition of race as a social construct

indicates a step in the right direction. As more studies and research come out

investigating race and bringing light to its societal role, there is a shift from the

demographic terms of race (biology, physical characteristics, skin color) to a

consciousness of race being a social construct and its influence on identity.

15
Figure 2.

The yes and no in the key represent the answer to whether the racial category

they chose was representative of their racial and ethnic identity. Those that felt

represented (answered yes) disagreed with feeling pressure. However, the amount of

people that felt misrepresented (answered no) admitted to feeling some pressure to fit

in a certain category.

Though the results were not as obvious and clear as would have best addressed

the research question and hypothesis, the data can be interpreted to show a slight trend.

16
Figure 3.

Question:
In your studies and research what factors have you seen influence the concept of race
the most?

Dr. Quintana “I think there’s the lived experience of race versus

the official categories… out of all the interviews with
high school kids, adults, college students… no one
felt that they fit the racial definition exactly. They
always felt that they’d say “I’m this racial status”
and then describe how they don't quite fit the
stereotypes or prototypes associated with it too. I
think that trying to identify it categorically makes it
hard for someone to feel like they fit completely into
that box... They always feel like there are some parts
of themself that don’t fit the prototype or how
they’re supposed to be”

Dr. Chavez “Confidence. One of the most fascinating studies I

ever did was in how people learn to value people
that are different from them… The more that
someone felt good about their own identities, the
more they were likely to feel good about, welcoming
and valuing other people’s identities. They weren't
so afraid if they were more confident in who they
were… A lot of times people just assume that there’s
loss in my identity if you have a strong identity,
unless we already feel good about who we are…
When people feel good about their own identities,
and I don’t mean in a socialist way, I mean in an
authentic, deep way… then it’s pretty easy to take on
someone else’s even very drastic difference from us
and feel comfortable”

Mr. Biewen “It’s always been people who are in the advantaged
group reinforcing and strengthening this narrative
in order to remain on top and hold onto power and
control and wealth… It’s about money, you have to
follow the money. The biggest factors have been
money, power, and control”

17
 The three interviewed professionals described the most relevant and influential

factors of race as indicated in their research. Each provides a unique answer that

explains different aspects of race. Dr. Quintana explains the factor of the relationship

between people and racial categories. Dr. Chavez describes the understanding and

acceptance of race between people. Lastly, Mr. Biewen references a bit of both previous

factors by unfolding how racial categories are used by the government, creating a

crutch for discrimination between people in order to advance a party economically

and/or socially.

Discussion and Conclusion

The secondary research that investigated and interpreted scholarly sources better

supported the research question and hypothesis than the data. However, the data does

connect to the secondary research because it gages similar themes and ideas. The

secondary research explained how race was a social construct and the data helped

demonstrate it. Similarly, the secondary research implied possible personal experiences

and definitions of race and the data gave real ones.

The disparities in demographic information definitely impacted the results. 46%

of the participants were White while other categories were significantly less. Similarly,

more than half of the respondents (60%) were female. Also, the survey questions were

adjusted too many times. The frequent changes and edits caused the survey to decrease

its connection to the research question and hypothesis.

The study should be changed by asking questions more in line with the research

rather than adhering to recommendations by people that did not do the research and

18
did not really understand the purpose of the survey. Once altered and the connection

between the questions and the research is strengthened, the study should be replicated

because it is important to gauge the relevance and impact of race on people’s identities

and on society.

Based on this research and its results, future studies should focus on

investigating specific racial groups at a time and do a final comparative analysis in

order to see trends, patterns, and disparities between all racial groups. Future studies

should try to achieve a more diverse set of respondents. Based on the results of the

study, society should open its eyes to its innate obligation to construct categories and

label and sort people into them. There should be more recognition of the prevalence of

race in our identities and the continuous and growing power it had over experiences

and social interactions.

19
 References

Braveman, P., & Parker Dominguez, T. (2021). Abandon "race." focus on racism.

Frontiers in Public Health, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.689462

Chavez, A. F., & Guido-DiBrito, F. (2002). Racial and ethnic identity and development.

In M. C. Clark & R. S. Caffarella (Eds.), New directions for adult and continuing

education (84th ed., Vols. Winter 1999, pp. 39-47). Jossey-Bass Publishers.

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1009.6973&rep=rep1&t

ype=pdf

Cohn, D., Brown, A., & Lopez, M. H. (2021, May 14). Only about half of Americans say

census questions reflect their identity very well. Pew Research Center. Retrieved

December 9, 2021, from

https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2021/05/14/only-about-half-of-americ

ans-say-census-questions-reflect-their-identity-very-well/

CrashCourse. (2017, November 20). Race & ethnicity: Crash course sociology #34

[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7myLgdZhzjo

Croll, P. R., & Gerteis, J. (2019). Race as an open field: Exploring identity beyond fixed

choices. American Sociological Association, 5(1), 55-69.

https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2332649217748425

Gonzalez-Barrera, A., & Lopez, M. H. (2015, June 15). Is being Hispanic a matter of race,

ethnicity, or both? Pew Research Center. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from

20
 https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/15/is-being-hispanic-a-matter-of-

race-ethnicity-or-both/

Graves, J. L. (2010). Biological V. social definitions of race: Implications for modern

biomedical research. The Review of Black Political Economy, 37(1), 43-60.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12114-009-9053-3

Hirschman, C., Alba, R., & Farley, R. (2000). The meaning and measurement of race in

the U.S. census: Glimpses into the future. Demography, 37(3), 381-393.

http://faculty.washington.edu/charles/new%20PUBS/A86.pdf

Hitlin, S., Brown, J. S., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (2007). Measuring Latinos: Racial vs. ethnic

classification and self-understandings. Social Forces, 86(2).

NBC News. (2018, September 14). Defining Latino: Young people talk identity,

belonging | NBC Latino | NBC news [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QePAmImu2wA

Origin of Everything. (2018, April 3). The origin of race in the USA [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CVxAlmAPHec

Pauker, K., Meyers, C., Sanchez, D. T., Gaither, S. E., & Young, D. M. (2018). A review of

multiracial malleability: Identity, categorization, and shifting racial attitudes.

Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 12(6).

https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12392

Pipes, E. (2016, February 23). Race, ethnicity, nationality and jellybeans [Video].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqV3CK6QfcU

21
Quintana, S. M. (2007). Racial and ethnic identity: Developmental perspectives and

research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 259-270.

http://mattbarreto.com/mbarreto/courses/quintana_2007.pdf

TED. (2020, November 1). The lie that invented racism | John Biewen [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIZDtqWX6Fk

What census calls us. (2020, February 6). Pew Research Center. Retrieved January 6,

2022, from https://www.pewresearch.org/interactives/what-census-calls-us/

Williams, J. L., Tolan, P. H., Durkee, M. I., Francois, A. G., & Anderson, R. E. (2012).

Integrating racial and ethnic identity research into developmental understanding

of adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 304-311.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00235.x

Zocalo Public Square. (2009, November 24). How the census defines race [Video].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=55ZCzRGV6jY

22
 Appendix

Link to Initial Survey

Link to Responses to Initial Survey

Link to Final Survey

Link to Responses to Final Survey

Figure 1.

Definitions of Race

White (4) Honestly, I am Race is I believe that Race is the

not really sure. basically a race is a way classification
According to social construct that people use we use to often
some forms, it in my opinion. to categorize describe skin
seems to mean It was created themselves by color or
the color of by humans to things like skin different
your skin, but categorize tone, ancestry, groups of
according to other humans etc. A lot of the people by their
others it seems who just came time it is to “background.”
to mean what from different prove things It’s commonly
region of the areas. Ethnicity like confused with
world you are is useful "superiority" or ethnicity and
from, because it may "inferiority" nationality.
assuming you help to explain towards
fit into a the culture and another race,
non-white experience of a although it has
category, person but little to do with
because white broad racial that.
does not terms such as
specifically "black"
mention what
part of the
world you are
from. It's a
really strange

23
 term if you
think about it.

Asain (2) Race is a where you Um. I would Race is a way

cultural and come from probably to associate a
identification geographically, describe race person with
of human the culture you as like, a group another group
beings used by were raised that you are a of people
society. Race around; there part of based based on the
does not set us are too many on your color of their
apart as we are factors of race ancestry. skin and other
all human with to make one Maybe. Sorry defining
unique and concrete I’m not physical
different definition of it wording a features.
backgrounds really good rn.

Biracial / black Race is a A way to Race is a social Basically

and Asian puzzle piece of differentiate construct that categories that
your identity. humans based we have used people are
But it doesn't on their to differentiate placed in
DEFINE you in physical traits, ourselves. because of
any way. It's but most of the Humans are their physical
just a small time it’s based more alike appearance
part of what off of people’s than we are like the color of
makes up skin color different. your skin
"you".

African-Ameri A Race was made A group of A social

can category/group to divide black people with construct that
that you people from similar features attempts to
belong to. white. I that originate categorize
What you honestly don’t from a certain people by
identify as in know how to continent or shared
relation to the define race. region physical traits.
color of your
skin.

Hispanic Race is how A title used to if someone is Your skin color

Latino people identify identify black white and hair and
themselves and someone using east asain other physical
are proud to their ethnicity south asian traits and who
say where they and physical hispanic or your parents
are from. aspects. native are.
american

24
 Korean a social A sociological What type of Race is how
construct used construction to human you one is
to justify achieve look like. identified
hating people hierarchical Where your based on their
of different power ancestors are physical
skin colors arrangements from. characteristics.

Race is based how people are The A part of the People with
on physical categorized distinguishing geographic shared cultural
appearance based on factors region one backgrounds
usually and features (like between originated grouped
your features. skin color) human traits from. together
and people

Race is a way Groups of a group of race is like like if you are

to measure humans are people based white, black, white asian
ethnicity in divided based on shared asian so on Hispanic etc
society on ancestry. qualities

Race is The region of Heritage, The biology of Color of your

someone’s the world one culture, and who you are skin
ethnic is from customs.
background

Social
construct

Figure 2.

25
Figure 3.

Question:
In your studies and research what factors have you seen influence the concept of race
the most?

Dr. Quintana “I think there’s the lived experience of race versus

the official categories… out of all the interviews with
high school kids, adults, college students… no one
felt that they fit the racial definition exactly. They
always felt that they’d say “I’m this racial status”
and then describe how they don't quite fit the
stereotypes or prototypes associated with it too. I
think that trying to identify it categorically makes it
hard for someone to feel like they fit completely into
that box... They always feel like there are some parts
of themself that don’t fit the prototype or how
they’re supposed to be”

Dr. Chavez “Confidence. One of the most fascinating studies I

ever did was in how people learn to value people
that are different from them… The more that

26
 someone felt good about their own identities, the
more they were likely to feel good about, welcoming
and valuing other people’s identities. They weren't
so afraid if they were more confident in who they
were… A lot of times people just assume that there’s
loss in my identity if you have a strong identity,
unless we already feel good about who we are…
When people feel good about their own identities,
and I don’t mean in a socialist way, I mean in an
authentic, deep way… then it’s pretty easy to take on
someone else’s even very drastic difference from us
and feel comfortable”

Mr. Biewen “It’s always been people who are in the advantaged
group reinforcing and strengthening this narrative
in order to remain on top and hold onto power and
control and wealth… It’s about money, you have to
follow the money. The biggest factors have been
money, power, and control”

27