Archive 

FLUID FLOW
August 1999 Vol. 78 No. 8 
Feature Article
Understand
centrifugal compressor,
equipment interaction
Operating scenarios provide insights into predicting
behavior during changes

K. Majumdar, Abu Dhabi National Oil Co., Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.

any compressor operators often find difficulty in

comprehending compressor behavior with respect to system changes,
particularly when coupled with other operational changes. An example
is how to predict possible flow increase when there is still some room
for a speed increase. Where will the new operating point be if a
change is made — will it shift along the constant pressure line to the
right, along the system curve or along the compressor curve itself?
How are power consumption and efficiency predicted in such cases?
For the benefit of operators, compressor behavior with respect to the
connected systems and related problems are presented for common
operating scenarios.

Fig. 1 shows a typical arrangement of a compressor operating in a

process system. The compressor is taking suction from a source, point
A at pressure P1, and discharging at pressure P2 at point B into a
process system consisting of pipelines, valves and equipment. The gas
is transported through this system to be delivered to point C at
pressure P3. The line pressure drop, (P2– P3), is usually denoted as  P
(delta P) of the system.
 Fig. 1. Typical process compressor arrangement.

System curve. The plot of pressure drop versus flow gives the
system curve (Fig. 2a). The total pressure drop has two components,
the superincumbent pressure or static pressure difference between
points B and C, and the dynamic pressure drop, i.e., the drop due to
friction, velocity change, etc. The static pressure drop of any system is
constant and is independent of the flow through the system, whereas
dynamic pressure drop varies directly as the square of the velocity or
flowrate.

Fig. 2a. Total pressure drop has two components.

The system curve is independent of the gas supply source or the

equipment that is delivering gas into the system. The curve remains
unchanged unless any component of the system is changed, like
opening a manual or a control valve, pipe size change, etc. As a valve
in the system is opened, flow increases, i.e., the pressure drop
decreases, shifting the system curve to the right (curve b in Fig. 2a).
When the valve is throttled, the system curve moves to the left (curve
c).

Compressor curve basics. The flow, Q, head (or differential

pressure, P) and speed, N, relationship of a centrifugal compressor is
very similar to that of a centrifugal pump (Fig. 2b). The major
difference is that a pump handles liquid, which is a noncompressible
fluid. Hence, density and volumetric flow remain unchanged
throughout the flow process. A compressor handles only gas, which is
compressible. As the pressure of a gas stream changes during
compression or flow, density or specific volume changes
correspondingly.

Fig. 2b. Compressor operating limits are between surge

and stonewall.

As shown in Fig. 2b, centrifugal compressors have continuously

falling pressure-flow characteristics. A family of parallel curves
represents compressor operation at different speeds. For a compressor
operating at a constant speed, the pressure increases as the flow
decreases and vice versa. If reduction in flow continues, at one point
compressor operation becomes unstable and a momentary flow
reversal takes place. This leads to a very rapid pulsating flow
backward and forward through the compressor internals, resulting in
severe vibration and consequent damage. This phenomenon is known
as surge and the flow at which surge occurs is the surge point for that
particular speed. The surge point shifts to the right as speed increases
(Fig. 2b). The line joining the surge points of curves at different
speeds is the compressor surge line. To avoid surge, compressors are
always operated at flows greater than surge point, i.e., at a reasonable
distance to the right of the surge line.

As flow increases, a point is reached at the right-hand extreme of the

compressor curve after which the flow can not increase no matter what
changes are made on the outlet side. This point is known as stonewall
for the compressor for that particular speed. Like the surge point, the
stonewall point also shifts to the right as speed increases (Fig. 2b).
However, unlike surge, no adverse effect occurs to the compressor at
the stonewall point. Therefore, the operating regime of a compressor
is confined between these two limits, i.e., surge and stonewall. The set
of curves including the limit lines is also known as the compressor
operating map.

Relationship between compressor and system curves.

When a compressor is connected to a system, the operating point can
be obtained by superimposing the system curve (Fig. 2a) on the
compressor curve (Fig. 2b), resulting in Fig. 2c. The point at which
the compressor curve for a particular speed meets the system curve
represents the compressor operating point for that speed. That means
the compressor would deliver flow and pressure corresponding to the
intersection point in Fig. 2c. Under no circumstances can the
compressor deliver any other flow or pressure (at that speed), unless a
change is made in the system. Only when some change is made in the
connected system (say, change in valve opening, pipe size, length,
etc.), does the operating point shift along the compressor curve.
Otherwise, the compressor will continue to operate at that fixed flow
and pressure.

Fig. 2c. The operating point is obtained by superimposing

 the system and compressor curves.

So, it can be noted that although a system is quite independent of its

upstream source equipment, in this case the compressor, compressor
operation is very much dependent on its downstream connected
system.

Compressor behavior in common applications. The figures

shown later are only schematics of the most common compressor
configurations. They are neither complete in all details, nor do they
represent all possible configurations. Several variations and different
control system arrangements are also possible, although not shown
here.

1. Single-speed compressor drive with suction / discharge pressure

control. Fig. 3 shows the typical arrangement of a single-speed
(motor-driven) compressor. In this configuration, a compressor
operates similarly to a motor-driven pump. The compressor takes
suction from the suction drum and discharge into the piping system.

Fig. 3. In this configuration, a compressor operates

similarly to a motor-driven pump.

The main objective of any compressor control is to maintain a balance

between discharge and incoming flows. This is done by tracking
pressure in the suction drum by means of a pressure controller, which
regulates a control valve mounted either on the suction or discharge
line. In some installations, a pressure controller is also installed on the
compressor discharge line, which works in conjunction with the
suction side pressure controller through a signal selector or a
microprocessor-based control module. In case of low pressure gas, it
is more common to provide the control valve on the discharge line.

Scenario 1.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. Consider that

at a particular instance flow coming into the drum drops. Outgoing
flow being higher than incoming flow, suction drum pressure falls
momentarily. The pressure instrument mounted on the suction drum
senses this drop. The pressure controller takes action by closing the
control valve on the discharge line (or suction line) to reduce the flow.
As the control valve closes, the system curve shifts to the left (Fig.
4a).

Fig. 4a. As the control valve closes, the system curve shifts
to the left.

Consequently, the operating point (a) also shifts to the left along the
compressor curve to the point of intersection (b) with the modified
system curve, where the compressor flow equals the reduced incoming
flow. So, in this type of arrangement, compressor capacity control is
achieved by shifting the system curve along the compressor curve
backward and forward, as shown by arrows in Fig. 4a.

Scenario 1.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. As

incoming flow drops, the compressor will try to find the operating
point in the way described in scenario 1.1. If, however, flow drops
below the surge control point, the compressor surge control system
sends a signal to the recycle valve (also called antisurge valve (ASV),
a quick-acting control valve) to open. Part of the outlet flow is then
returned back to the suction side via the ASV. Thus, the inlet flow
(incoming + recycle) is never allowed to fall below the surge control
point to avoid surge (Fig. 4b).

Fig. 4b. Inlet flow is never allowed to fall below the surge
control point.

In this case both the ASV and pressure control valves mounted on the
compressor discharge line take action simultaneously, i.e., the former
opens and the latter closes.

Scenario 1.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. In most of

these cases, the online valve at the consumer end is throttled, either
manually or through the process control system, to achieve the desired
flow reduction. For example, in case of gas supply to a boiler, heater
or gas turbine, the control valve at the inlet of the equipment is
throttled matching the equipment load. The valve may even close if
the equipment trips. This event in effect changes the system curve,
shifting the operating point to the left until the desired lower flow is
achieved (similar to scenarios 1.1 and 1.2). The control valve on the
compressor outlet line will, however, open instead of closing, in
contrast with scenarios 1.1 and 1.2. The reverse phenomenon follows
when gas demand increases. The same control sequence would also
follow when gas is to be delivered to a consumer at a constant
pressure.

In summary, for all single-speed compressors, variation in flow is

achieved only by varying the system curve position backward and
forward. The operating point shifts along the compressor curve, as
shown in Figs. 4a to c.

Fig. 4c. The online valve at the consumer end is throttled

to achieve the desired flow reduction.

2. Variable-speed compressor drive with speed controller. Fig. 5

shows a general arrangement of a compressor driven by a gas turbine
driver. The compressor control module varies gas turbine speed
through the speed control module, matching the process requirement.
 Fig. 5. The compressor control module varies gas turbine
speed.

As explained earlier, the system curve is independent of the

compressor curve and the points at which the system curve cuts the set
of compressor curves are the corresponding operating points at
different speeds. The speed is changed by a variable-speed driver to
achieve varying flow–pressure requirements. The driver is often a gas
or steam turbine, although variable-speed electric motors are also used
in certain cases. In this type of arrangement, a pressure controller
mounted on the suction line controls the speed of the variable-speed
driver. In some installations, pressure controllers mounted on both
suction and discharge lines control the driver speed through a signal
selector. Microprocessor-based advanced compressor control systems
are also used instead of a simple PID controller.

Scenario 2.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. As in the case

of a single-speed compressor, here also compressor suction and
discharge controllers are used through a low-signal selector or a
compressor control module to modulate the driver speed. As the
incoming flow to the suction drum decreases, compressor suction
pressure decreases. The pressure controller on the suction side detects
this pressure drop and sends a signal to the driver (turbine) to slow
down until a new operating point is reached where the discharge flow
equals the reduced incoming flow (point a to b in Fig. 6a).

Fig. 6a. The pressure controller sends a signal to the driver

to slow down.
In this case the system curve remains unchanged. Only the operating
point shifts down along the system curve, unlike in the similar
scenario using a single-speed drive (1.1) where the operating point
moves along the compressor curve (note the difference).

Scenario 2.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. In case
of a variable speed compressor, if the incoming flow decreases below
the surge control point, the compressor first slows down similarly to
scenario 2.1. The operating point starts to shift down along the system
curve until the minimum sustainable speed is reached (Fig. 6b). If the
corresponding flowrate is still not reached, the surge control valve
begins to open along the minimum speed curve. The surge control
valve continues to open until the sum of forward and recycle flow is
equal to the flow corresponding to the intersection point of the system
and compressor curves (at the minimum operating speed).

Fig. 6b. The operating point starts to shift down along the
system curve.

It should be noted that under certain circumstances like this, the ASV
might open even when the discharge flow is higher than the surge
flow at the minimum speed. However, this sequence of control takes
place only if the speed controller and the driver are fast enough to
respond and rectify the changing condition. If the flow change is very
rapid, the fast-acting antisurge control system acts through the ASV
ahead of the speed controller to save the compressor from surging.

Scenario 2.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. As in the

case of a single-speed compressor, the system curve also moves to the
left due to throttling of the consumer valve(s) to achieve flow
reduction. The suction pressure controller now starts sending a signal
for the driver to slow down. The operating point moves horizontally
from point a to be along the fixed-pressure line until it meets the
compressor curve at a speed that corresponds to the reduced flowrate
(Fig. 6c). If the flow increases the reverse phenomenon takes place.

Fig. 6c. The operating point moves horizontally from point

a to point b.

Scenario 2.4: Compressor delivers at a fixed pressure to consumer;

set pressure changed. When the compressor is connected to a piping
system to deliver gas at a constant pressure to a consumer, the static
pressure difference (P2– P3) in Figs. 1, 2a and 2c remains constant. In
fact, in all the scenarios described, this difference is assumed to be
constant. Now, if the pressure setting at the consumer end is lowered,
the static pressure curve in Fig. 2a moves down (Fig. 6d).
Correspondingly, the system curve also shifts down to the right,
although its slope remains unchanged. The shifted system curve now
meets the compressor curve at a new location on the right-hand side
of the original point. This means flow increases as discharge pressure
decreases. However, if the flow coming to the compressor suction
drum is not increased at the same rate (say, due to nonavailability of
excess gas), suction pressure would drop. The lower suction pressure
triggers the pressure controller to take effect through the compressor
control system to slow down the compressor. Thus, the operating
point shifts along the new system curve to meet the new speed curve at
a point where the flow equals the incoming flow. The reverse happens
when the pressure is increased.

Fig. 6d. If the compressor setting at the consumer end is

lowered, the static pressure curve moves down.

In summary, when a compressor is driven by a variable-speed drive

(gas turbine, steam turbine, etc.), the operating point may shift either
along the compressor curve, the system curve, the fixed pressure line,
or a combination of them depending on the nature of change as
discussed. This is quite different from a compressor driven by a
single-speed drive (electric motor) described earlier.

3. Gas molecular weight changes.

Scenario 3.1: MW decreases. Change in hydrocarbon gas

composition, hence in molecular weight (MW), is quite common.
Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure from the same
compressor at the same speed. The compressor curve shifts down as
shown in Fig. 7. The compressor in this case will speed up
automatically, through the suction / discharge pressure controller, to
develop the same pressure (point b back to a). If the compressor is
already at its maximum sustainable speed (say, at 105% of rated speed
as per API), the compressor flow drops to a value corresponding to the
intersection point of the system and the new compressor curves (point
b).
 Fig. 7. Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure.

This flow reduction may eventually increase the suction pressure, as

the compressor cannot cope with all the incoming gas. The excess gas
may then start to escape to the vent or flare, even though all operating
conditions may appear unchanged. This phenomenon of gas escaping
to flare is often experienced in process plants. If gas from a
compressor suction drum is suddenly found going to flare when the
compressor is running normally at its full speed, MW reduction is
often the first suspect.

This problem is also faced when a compressor rated to handle heavy

saturated gas is operated in recycle mode for a long period through an
aftercooler. The gas continues to become leaner due to cyclic
compression and cooling, resulting in lower discharge pressure. At
this point, if the compressor has to feed forward, it fails to develop the
required discharge pressure. The recycle valve still remains partly
open, returning some gas to suction side. The incoming gas starts to
escape to flare from the suction drum, unless the vicious cycle is
interrupted manually. Sometimes while a compressor is running in
recycle mode, light seal gas leaks through worn out seals into the
compressor casing, which may result in a similar problem.

Scenario 3.2: MW increases. Conversely, an increase in MW results

in a higher discharge pressure. The compressor curve shifts up for the
same speed. The net result is an increase in compressor flow, of
course, if additional gas is available. If not, the compressor is slowed
down by the suction / discharge pressure controller. In case of a
single-speed compressor, flow is directly reduced by throttling the
control valve on the discharge (or suction) line.

Impact of MW variation on compressor stability. Note that unlike the

effects of suction pressure and temperature variations, MW change
has a much greater effect on performance and, hence, compressor
stability. This effect is more visible on multistage compressors. When
MW increases, the initial stage(s) may be operating at the rated (or
increased) flow, but subsequent stages may be operating at
progressively lower flow due to higher pressure from the preceding
stage. The flow in some of these stages may drop below the surge
point even when the inlet flow to the compressor is much higher than
the surge point. Incidentally, reducing MW does not have the reverse
effect, i.e., it does not enhance compressor stability.

Going to extremes, change in MW may decrease compressor stability

to such an extent that when some stages are at surge, others in the
same compressor may be at stonewall. Conventional compressor
control and surge protection systems fail to detect such instability. The
compressor map provided in the control system no longer holds good
as the flow-pressure-speed relationship is altered by the change in
MW.

This, however, should not give an impression that compressors can

operate only at a fixed (rated) MW. Compressor design normally
allows operation over a certain MW range without running into surge
in any stage (usually, there is enough distance between the surge and
normal operating points). In case of a substantial change in MW,
compressor performance and stability should be reassessed, preferably
with the assistance of the compressor vendor.

4. Compressor flow increases beyond rating. If the driver (motor,

steam or gas turbine) is sufficiently large and sufficient inlet gas is
available, it may often be possible to derive somewhat higher
throughput from a compressor without being unduly overloaded. The
throughput is increased automatically by the control system for
reasons described earlier. MW change is one main reason; the other
being actual system pressure drop lower than estimated in design.
Lower destination pressure or higher suction pressure may also cause
a flow increase, often to the operators’ benefit. In all these cases, the
system curve shifts to the right to meet the compressor curve at a
higher flowrate. This is true for both single- and variable-speed
compressors.

If all other compressor and driver operating parameters are within

acceptable limits (below alarm and trip points) and MW variation is
 within the specified design range, such operation at
increased flowrate is not expected to cause any
instability or mechanical problem in the compressor.
The operating point in this case is well within the
compressor design operating regime.

Barring the question of efficiency, a centrifugal compressor — like a

centrifugal pump — can be operated anywhere on its curve between
surge point (or surge control line, SCL) and stonewall by shifting the
system curve, provided the driver is adequately sized. However, if the
increase is due to a change in MW where the compressor curve itself
shifts, this should be limited to the specified MW variation range. In
fact, during a factory acceptance test (FAT), compressors are actually
operated at varying flowrates within the compressor map range to
verify the developed pressure and other parameters.

Besides the above many other scenarios are possible. It is not possible
to identify and discuss them all separately. However, some of the
common scenarios and problems presented will help to understand and
interpret the behavior of many others not described here.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Compressor Handbook for the Hydrocarbon Processing

Industries, Gulf Publishing Co., Book Division.

Lapina, Ronald P., Estimating Centrifugal Compressor

Performance, Volume-1.

Pichot, Pierre, Compressor Application Engineering, Volume-1.

The author

Kumares Majumdar is technical services manager at Abu Dhabi National

Oil Company (ADNOC). He has over 30 years of experience in the oil and
gas industry in the fields of process engineering design, commissioning and
operation. Mr. Majumdar has worked in many countries with internationally
reputed engineering and operating companies on oil, gas and pipeline
projects. He joined ADNOC in 1987 in its Gas Processing & Pipelines
Division, which operates one of the largest gas processing plants in the
world and an extensive pipeline network. Mr. Majumdar specializes in
process and systems engineering related to gas processing, utility plants
and pipeline transportation. He holds a BE degree in chemical engineering
from Jadavpur University, India, and has had several technical papers
published in leading journals and presented at symposiums.
    

Copyright © 1999 Hydrocarbon Processing

Copyright © 1999 Gulf Publishing Company