TRAINING MATERIAL FOR

CONTROL VALVE

CONTROL VALVE CONCEPT

Control Valves Do What They Are

Told!

     Being the Final Control Element in a

system is not an easy job. To start with, you
are blamed for any and all problems that crop
up in the process. You are subjected to
corrosion, high velocity, cavitations, flashing
liquids, cryogenic temperatures, high
temperatures, abrasion, and thermal shock.
You are expected not only to throttle along
through all this, but most likely, you are
alsobeing asked to act as a block valve and
shut off tight.
     As you work with control valves always
keep in mind that a control valve only does
what it is told to do.
     A Control Valve is a power-operated
device used to modify the fluid flow rate in a
process system. Well, what happens if the
power is cut off? When a Control Valve is
sized or selected to do a particular job, one of
the first questions you should consider is how
that valve will respond in the event of a loss
of signal or power. This is called its "fail-safe
mode" and knowing the fail-safe mode is
the key to troubleshooting it.
     In most applications (about 80%), it is
desirable for valves to fail closed. In other
applications, you might want a valve to fail
open or fail in place. Safety concerns and
process requirements will mandate the fall
mode of the valve.
When a valve is not sitting in its fail
position, it is being told how and when to
move by some external signal.
     By the comments one hears, you would be
led to believe that control valves sit around
and think up things to do on their own.
Perhaps this will some day be true when all
control valves are "smart."
     If a Control Valve is observed in an
unstable condition or appears to not be
responding correctly to an input signal,
remember that something is telling the valve
to behave that way.
A control valve is only as strong as its
weakest link.
     When the 1965 Ford Mustang first
appeared, it was powered by a 6-cylinder
engine with a 3-speed transmission - but it
had a 140 m.p.h.(225 k.p.h.) speedometer.
The fact that it had a 140 m.p.h. (225 k.p.h.)
speedometer did not mean it could actually
travel that fast. In the same way, a control
valve with a 600# rated valve body cannot
throttle and shut off against 1440 pounds of
pressure.
     There are two basic types of control valves: rotary and linear. Linear-motion control valves
commonly have globe, gate, diaphragm, or pinch - type closures. Rotary-motion valves have
ball, butterfly, or plug closures. Each type of valve has its special generic features, which may, in
a given application, be either an advantage or a disadvantage.

Linear Valve Features

 TORTUOUS FLOW PATH
 LOW RECOVERY
 CAN THROTTLE SMALL FLOW RATES
 OFFERS VARIETY OF SPECIAL TRIM DESIGNS
 SUITED TO HIGH-PRESSURE APPLICATIONS
 USUALLY FLANGED OR THREADED

 SEPARABLE BONNET

 
Rotary Valve Features
 STREAMLINED FLOW PATH
 HIGH RECOVERY
 MORE CAPACITY
 LESS PACKING WEAR
 CAN HANDLE SLURRY AND ABRASIVES
 FLANGELESS
 INTEGRAL BONNET

 HIGH RANGEABILITY
 

     In addition to linear and rotary, control valves are also classified according to their guiding
systems and the types of services they are used in.
Control Valve Classification
 Face to Face Dimensions

ACTUATOR OPERATING MODES

Control Valve "Fail-Safe" Positions

     Cause of Fail-Safe Condition: Loss of Air Pressure

A. LINEAR SPRING/DIAPHRAGM ACTUATORS. Used with sliding stem control valves: i.e.
globe-style valves. Can be accomplished two ways:
1. Fixed seat ring/plug orientation. Springs are interchanged to either above or below
actuator diaphragm.

 
2. Fixed spring orientation. Plug and seat ring positions are reversed relative to each other.
 In the Fail Open design, plug travel is above the valve seat. In the Fail Closed design, plug
travel is below the seat.

 
Rotary Spring/Diaphragm Actuators

     Used with rotary control valves; i.e. butterfly, eccentric plug. Reversing the fail mode for this
type of valve is normally accomplished by reversing the location of lever arm and plug. In order to
maintain consistency, ATO-FC action will be considered as "Reverse" action for rotary or sliding-
stem control valves.

 
Actuators

Feature Comparison
Spring and Diaphragm
Advantages Disadvantages
Lowest Cost Limited Output Capability
Can Throttle Without a Positioner Large Size and Weight

Simplicity
Inherent Fail-Safe Action

Low Supply Pressure Required

Adjustability

Easily Maintained

Pneumatic Piston
Advantages Disadvantages
High Torque Capability Fail-Safe Requires Accessories or Addition of Spring
Compact Positioner Required for Throttling
Lightweight Higher Cost
Adaptable to High Ambient Temperature High Supply Pressure Required

Fast Stroking Speed

Relatively High Actuator Stiffness

Electric Motor
Advantages Disadvantages
Compactness High Cost
Very High Stiffness Lack of Fail-Safe Action
High Output Capability Limited Duty Cycle
Slow Stroking Speed

Electrohydraulic
Advantages Disadvantages
High Output Capability High Cost
High Actuator Stiffness Complexity and Maintenance Difficulty
Excellent Throttling Ability Large Size and Weight
Fast Stroking Speed Fail-Safe Action Only With Accessories
 
Control Valve ATO-FC Action
Control Valve ATC-FO Action
Benchset Range - ATO-FC
Benchset Range - ATC-FO

Valve Positioners
     A valve Positioner is a device used to increase or decrease the air pressure operating the actuator until
the valve stem reaches the position called for by the instrument controller.
     Positioners are generally mounted on the side or top of the actuator. They are connected
mechanically to the valve stem so that stem position can be compared with the position dictated by the
controller.
     A positioner is a type of air relay which is used between the controller output and the valve
diaphragm. The positioner acts to overcome hysteresis, packing box friction, and valve plug unbalance
due to pressure drop. It assures exact positioning of the valve stem in accordance with the controller
output.
Reasons To Use Positioners
Increase control system resolution: i.e. fine control.
Allow use of characteristic cams.
Minimize packing friction effects: i.e. high-temperature packing.
Negate flow-induced reactions to higher pressure drops.
Increase speed of response to a change in process.
Allow split ranging.
Overcome seating friction in rotary valves.
Allow distances between controller and control valve.
Allow wide range of flow variation: i.e. operate at less than 10% travel under normal conditions.
Allow increased usage of 4-20 mA electronic signal.
Increase fast venting (unloading) capability.
Permit use of piston actuators.
Facilitate operation when the higher number in the bench-set range is greater than 15 psig: i.e.
10-30 psig, 6-30 psig, etc.

How Positioners Work

     Although there are many different types of positioners, the basic principles of operation are similar
for all of them.
Principle of Operation:
     The positioner is mechanically connected to the stem of the valve. This stem position is compared
with the position called for by the instrument controller, i.e. by the instrument output air signal. A
separate air supply is brought into the positioner for positioning the valve at exactly the point called for
by the controller.
 Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting Positioners

     The terms "direct" and "reverse" are frequently used when discussing control valves, positioners, and
controllers. While the definitions of direct and reverse seem pretty straightforward, they cause quite a bit
of confusion - especially when split-ranging is done.
     The key to working with control valves and controllers is to remember that there must always be a
balance maintained in the system. "Direct" and "reverse" are kind of like "positive" and "negative" in
that where you find one you will usually find the other.
     While control valve bodies and control valve actuators can be described as being direct acting or
reverse acting, thinking about such things when working through a system problem only adds to the
confusion. Therefore, it is always best to consider the FAIL SAFE mode of the valve and simply let the
control valve be what it may be.
     Positioners, 99% of the time, will usually mimic the input signal from the controller. That is, they
will be DIRECT ACTING.
Direct-Acting Positioner
Input Decreases
Input Increases Output Decreases
Output Increases  
  Equals
 Equals Decreasing
Decreasing 
Signal
Output From
Increasing Signal from Increasing Output from From 
Positioner
Controller Positioner Controller
   
   
 
     Another reason the direct-acting pneumatic positioner is so popular is that it can be by-passed and the
control valve will respond to the input signal from the controller as though the positioner were in the
control loop. If a positioner malfunction occurs or if the positioner causes the control valve to become
unstable, it can be easily by-passed. Many control valves in the field are operating with a by-passed
positioner.
     Reverse-acting positioners are sometimes used on control valves, but their appearance is rare.
Occasionally one will be found in a split-ranging sequence.
Reverse-Acting Positioner
Input Decreases
Input Increases Output Increases
Output Decreases  
  Equals
Equals
Decreasing
Increasing 
Increasing Signal from Decreasing Output from Signal
Output From
Controller Positioner From 
Positioner
  Controller
   
 
 
Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting Controllers

     Controllers can be set up in either direct or reverse modes. It was stated that 99% of the positioners
are direct acting, and it follows that if a balance is to be maintained in the control loop that 99% of the
controllers will be reverse acting. If the control valve and its controller are not in balance, the control
valve will either go to the wide-open position and stay there, or it will stay closed and act as though it is
not responding. This situation can normally be corrected by reversing the action of the controller.
Direct-Acting Controller 
Setpoint Increases Setpoint Decreases
Output Increases Output Decreases
   
Equals Equals

Increase Increase Decrease  Decrease 

in in in  in 
Setpoint Output Setpoint Output
   
    
 
Reverse-Acting Controller
Setpoint Increases Setpoint Decreases
Output Decreases Output Increases
   
Equals Equals

Increase Decrease Decrease  Increase 

in in in  in 
Setpoint Output Setpoint Output
   
   
 

     Two of the more common control valve uses are for pressure control. In both instances, the
controllers are reverse acting. Most pressure-reducing valves will be fail-closed and most back-pressure
control valves will be fail-open. If the pressure-reducing valve were fail-open or the back-pressure valve
fail-closed, then the controllers would have been direct acting.
The key is to start with the fail-safe mode of the control valve.

Control Valve Flow Characteristics

     Trim design will affect how the valve capacity changes as the valve moves through its complete
travel. Because of the variation in trim design, many valves are not linear in nature. THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VALVE CAPACITY AND VALVE TRAVEL IS KNOWN AS THE
FLOW CHARACTERISTIC OF THE VALVE. Valve trims are specially designed, or characterized, in
order to meet the large variety of control application needs. This is necessary because most control loops
have some inherent nonlinearities, which you can compensate for when selecting control valve trim.
     Charts similar to Figure 1 (see below) are used to illustrate various control valve flow characteristics.
The percent of full flow through the valve is plotted against valve stem position. The curves shown are
typical of those available from valve manufacturers. These curves are based on CONSTANT
PRESSURE DROP across the valve and are called INHERENT FLOW CHARACTERISTICS.
The quick-opening characteristic provides large changes in flow for very small changes in lift. It usually
has too high a valve gain for use in modulating control. So it is limited to on-off service, such as
sequential operation in either batch or semi-continuous processes.
The majority of control applications are valves with linear, equal-percentage, or modified-flow
characteristics.
 Linear - flow capacity increases linearly with valve travel.
 Equal percentage - flow capacity increases exponentially with valve trim travel; equal
 increments of valve travel produce equal percentage changes in the existing Cv.

 A modified parabolic characteristic is approximately midway between linear and equal-

percentage characteristics. It provides fine throttling at low flow capacity and approximately
linear characteristics at higher flow capacity.
     When valves are installed with a pump, pipes, fittings, and other process equipment, the pressure
drop across the valve will vary as the plug moves through its travel. When the actual flow in a system is
plotted against valve opening, the curve is called the INSTALLED FLOW CHARACTERISTIC.
Figure 1
Inherrent Flow Characteristics For Common Valve Trim Designs

Seat Leakage Classifications

Rule of Thumb:
There is no such thing as "Bubble Tight."
     Control valves are designed to throttle. However, this is not a perfect world, and control valves are
also usually expected to provide some type of shut-off capability. A control valve's ability to shut off has
to do with many factors. The type of valves for instance. A double-seated control valve will usually have
very poor shut-off capability. The guiding, seat material, actuator thrust, pressure drop, and the type of
fluid can all play a part in how well a particular control valve shuts off.
     There are actually six different seat leakage classifications as defined by ANSI/FCI 70-2-1976. But
for the most part you will be concerned with just two of them: CLASS IV and CLASS VI. CLASS IV is
also known as METAL TO METAL. It is the kind of leakage rate you can expect from a valve with a
metal plug and metal seat. CLASS VI is known as a SOFT SEAT classification. SOFT SEAT VALVES
are those where either the plug or seat or both are made from some kind of composition material such as
Teflon.
Valve Leakage Classifications
 Class I. Identical to Class II, III, and IV in construction and design intent, but no actual shop test
is made.
Class II. Intended for double-port or balanced singe-port valves with a metal piston ring seal and
metal-to-metal seats. Air or water at 45 to 60 psig is the test fluid. Allowable leakage is 0.5% of
the rated full open capacity.
Class III. Intended for the same types of valves as in Class II. Allowable leakage is limited to
0.1% of rated valve capacity.
Class IV. Intended for single-port and balanced single-port valves with extra-tight piston seals
and metal-to-metal seats. Leakage rate is limited to 0.01% of rated valve capacity.
Class V. Intended for the same types of valves as Class IV. The test fluid is water at 100 psig or
operating pressure. Leakage allowed is limited to 5 X 10 ml per minute per inch of orifice
diameter per psi differential.
Class VI. Intended for resilient-seating valves. The test fluid is air or nitrogen. Pressure is the
lesser of 50 psig or operating pressure. The leakage limit depends on valve size and ranges from
0.15 to 6.75 ml per minute for valve sizes 1 through 8 inches.
 
Nominal Port Diameter Allowable Leakage
(Inches)  (ml Per Minute)  (*Bubbles Per Minute) 

1 0.15 1
1.5 0.30 2
2 0.45 3
2.5 0.60 4
3 0.90 6
4 1.70 11
6 4.00 27
8 6.75 45
10 9.00 63
12 11.5 81
   
 
*Bubbles per minute as tabulated are a suggested alternative based on a suitable calibrated measuring
device, in this case a 0.25-inch O.D. X 0.032-inch wall tube submerged in water to a depth of from 1/8
to 1/4 inch. The tube end shall be cut square and smooth with no chamfers or burrs. The tube axis shall
be perpendicular to the surface of the water. Other measuring devices may be constructed and the
number of bubbles per minute may differ from those shown as long as they correctly indicate the flow in
milliliters per minute.
Note: Provisions should be made to avoid overpressuring of measuring devices resulting from
inadvertent opening of the valve plug. 
Taken from ANSI B16.104-1976

Control Valve Packing

     Packing is a sealing system which normally consists of a deformable material such as TFE, graphite,
asbestos, Kalrez, etc. Usually the material is in the form of solid or split rings contained in a packing
box. Packing material is compressed to provide an effective pressure seal between the fluid in the valve
body and the outside atmosphere.
     At one time it was believed that the more packing you had in a control valve the better it would seal.
Since FUGITIVE EMISSIONS has become a concern, extensive studies have been made which have
shown that better sealing can be obtained by minimizing the number of packing rings.
     New standards are being developed to which manufacturers will be asked to test their control valves.
Test results from using these standards will allow a user to predict with some certainty how well a
particular valve and packing combination will hold up.
Definitions
Consolidation: Packing consolidation is the shortening of a packing stack under load due to the
elimination of voids in, between, and around the packing rings. This causes a reduction in packing stress
(Radial Load) and consequently an increase in leakage. Consolidation can occur when the packing
wears, cold flows, is subjected to thermal gradients, or if a non-uniform stress distribution in the packing
exists.
Extrusion: When packing is loaded to its proper stress level it has a tendency to cold flow and will
extrude between the stem and the follower. Any increase in temperature will increase the tendency of
the packing to cold flow. PTFE is very susceptible to this because the hotter it is the quicker it will cold
flow and because PTFE has an expansion rate roughly ten times that of carbon steel. As the packing tries
to expand in the fixed volume of the packing gland, extrusion will occur. This material loss due to
extrusion will relieve the axial stress, which relaxes the radial stress and results in a loss of seal.
Migration: Packing migration occurs when a portion of the packing is caught by a rough stem and is
removed from the packing box as the stem slides in and out of the packing box. (Applies only to Linear
Valves.)
Packing System Design Principles
1. In order to minimize stem friction and wear on the packing, the stem surface finish should be
in the 8 to 16 RMS range.
2. The stem of the valve should be held concentric with the packing bore. This helps to
uniformly compress the packing. This is best accomplished by guiding the stem at the top and
the bottom of the packing bore.
3. To minimize packing extrusion under load, the inner diameter of packing spacers should be
held as close to the stem diameter as possible. Anti-extrusion washers can also be helpful in
minimizing extrusion.
4. It is desirable to use a wiping mechanism. The stem-wiping device should be at least a stroke
distance away from the packing to prevent damage to the stem and packing by dragging particles
and deposits into the packing area.
Live-Loaded Packing Arrangements
  Internal Live-Loading

External Live-Loading
Spring-Loaded Packing

Jammed Packing
  

   The live-loading packing spring is replaced by a fixed spacer of the same material as the trim material.

Dual Packing

     Pressure inside the valve is alternately greater than or less than (i.e. vacuum) ambient pressure.
 Dual Packing With Leak-Off Connection

     Valve has a 1/4" (6mm) NPT tapped opening on its bonnet. Complete with removable steel plug for
all body materials. The opening is located between primary and secondary packing sets when the valve
is equipped with dual packing.

Internally Pressurized Bellows Stem Seal

     Although it is the most expensive way in which to seal off the bonnet assembly from escaping fluids,
it is also the most effective way of handling lethal, toxic, explosive, and corrosive fluids. As we head
toward "ZERO EMISSIONS" control requirements, the bellows seal will become more popular.

Seat Leakage Classifications

Rule of Thumb:
There is no such thing as "Bubble Tight."
     Control valves are designed to throttle. However, this is not a perfect world, and control valves are
also usually expected to provide some type of shut-off capability. A control valve's ability to shut off has
to do with many factors. The type of valves for instance. A double-seated control valve will usually have
very poor shut-off capability. The guiding, seat material, actuator thrust, pressure drop, and the type of
fluid can all play a part in how well a particular control valve shuts off.
     There are actually six different seat leakage classifications as defined by ANSI/FCI 70-2-1976. But
for the most part you will be concerned with just two of them: CLASS IV and CLASS VI. CLASS IV is
also known as METAL TO METAL. It is the kind of leakage rate you can expect from a valve with a
metal plug and metal seat. CLASS VI is known as a SOFT SEAT classification. SOFT SEAT VALVES
are those where either the plug or seat or both are made from some kind of composition material such as
Teflon.
Valve Leakage Classifications
Class I. Identical to Class II, III, and IV in construction and design intent, but no actual shop test
is made.
Class II. Intended for double-port or balanced singe-port valves with a metal piston ring seal and
metal-to-metal seats. Air or water at 45 to 60 psig is the test fluid. Allowable leakage is 0.5% of
the rated full open capacity.
Class III. Intended for the same types of valves as in Class II. Allowable leakage is limited to
0.1% of rated valve capacity.
Class IV. Intended for single-port and balanced single-port valves with extra-tight piston seals
and metal-to-metal seats. Leakage rate is limited to 0.01% of rated valve capacity.
Class V. Intended for the same types of valves as Class IV. The test fluid is water at 100 psig or
operating pressure. Leakage allowed is limited to 5 X 10 ml per minute per inch of orifice
diameter per psi differential.
Class VI. Intended for resilient-seating valves. The test fluid is air or nitrogen. Pressure is the
lesser of 50 psig or operating pressure. The leakage limit depends on valve size and ranges from
0.15 to 6.75 ml per minute for valve sizes 1 through 8 inches.
 
Nominal Port Diameter Allowable Leakage
(Inches)  (ml Per Minute)  (*Bubbles Per Minute) 

1 0.15 1
1.5 0.30 2
2 0.45 3
2.5 0.60 4
3 0.90 6
4 1.70 11
6 4.00 27
8 6.75 45
10 9.00 63
12 11.5 81
   
 
*Bubbles per minute as tabulated are a suggested alternative based on a suitable calibrated measuring
device, in this case a 0.25-inch O.D. X 0.032-inch wall tube submerged in water to a depth of from 1/8
to 1/4 inch. The tube end shall be cut square and smooth with no chamfers or burrs. The tube axis shall
be perpendicular to the surface of the water. Other measuring devices may be constructed and the
number of bubbles per minute may differ from those shown as long as they correctly indicate the flow in
milliliters per minute.
Note: Provisions should be made to avoid overpressuring of measuring devices resulting from
inadvertent opening of the valve plug. 

ACTUATOR: A fluid-powered or electrically powered device that supplies force and motion to a
VALVE CLOSURE MEMBER. 

AIR SET: Also SUPPLY PRESSURE REGULATOR. A device used to reduce plant air supply to valve
POSITIONERS and other control equipment. Common reduced air supply pressures are 20 and 35 psig. 

AIR-TO-CLOSE: An increase in air pressure to the ACTUATOR is required to cause the valve to
close. This is another way of saying the valve is Fail Open or Normally Open. 

AIR-TO-OPEN: An increase in air pressure to the ACTUATOR is required to cause the valve to open.
This is another way of saying the valve is FAIL CLOSED or NORMALLY CLOSED. 

ANSI: An abbreviation for the American National Standards Institute. 

ANTI-CAVITATION TRIM: A special trim used in CONTROL VALVES to stage the pressure drop
through the valve, which will either prevent the CAVITATION from occurring or direct the bubbles that
are formed to the center of the flow stream away from the valve BODY and TRIM. This is usually
accomplished by causing the fluid to travel along a torturous path or through successively smaller
orifices or a combination of both. 

API: An abbreviation for the American Petroleum Institute. 

ASME: An abbreviation for the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 

ASTM: An abbreviation for the American Society for Testing and Materials. 

BALANCED TRIM: A trim arrangement that tends to equalize the pressure above and below the valve
plug to minimize the net static and dynamic fluid flow forces acting along the axis of the stem of a
GLOBE VALVE. Some regulators also use this design, particularly in high pressure service. 

BELLOWS SEAL BONNET: A BONNET which uses a BELLOWS for sealing against leakage
around the valve plug stem. 

BENCH SET: The proper definition for bench set is the INHERENT DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE
RANGE, which is the high and low values of pressure applied to the diaphragm to produce rated valve
plug travel with atmospheric pressure in the valve body. This test is often performed on a work bench in
the instrument shop prior to placing the valve into service and is thus known as Bench Set. 
BODY: The body of the valve is the main pressure boundary. It provides the pipe connecting ends and
the fluid flow passageway. It can also support the seating surface and the valve CLOSURE MEMBER. 

BONNET: The bonnet or bonnet assembiy is that portion of the valve pressure retaining boundary
which may guide the stem and contains the PACKING BOX and STEM SEAL. The bonnet may be
integral to the valve body or bolted or screwed. The bonnet, if it is detachable, will generally provide the
opening to the valve body cavity for removal and replacement of the internal TRIM. The bonnet is
generally the means by which the actuator is connected to the valve body. 

BOOSTER: A pneumatic relay that is used to reduce the time lag in pneumatic circuits by reproducing
pneumatic signals with high-volume and or high-pressure output. These units may act as volume
boosters or as amplifiers. A 1:2 booster will take a 3 to 15 psig input signal and output a 6 to 30 psig
signal. It has also been shown that a booster may improve the performance of a control valve by
replacing a positioner. It can provide the same stroking speed and can isolate the controller from the
large capacitive load of the actuator. 

BUBBLE TIGHT: A commonly used term to describe the ability of a control valve or regulator to shut
off completely against any pressure on any fluid. Unfortunately, it is completely unrealistic. Control
valves are tested to ANSI B16.104 and FCI 70-2-1976 which is the American National Standard for
Control Valve Seat Leakage. This standard uses 6 different classifications to describe the valves seat
leakage capabilities. The most stringent of these is Class VI which allows a number of bubbles per
minute leakage, depending on the port size of the valve. The correct response to the question "Will that
valve go "Bubble Tight"? is to say this valve is tested to meet Class VI shutoff requirements. 

BUTTERFLY VALVE: A valve with a circular body and a rotary motion disk closure member which
is pivotally supported by its stem. Butterfly valves come in various styles including eccentric and high-
performance valves. Butterfly valves are HIGH RECOVERY valves and thus tend to induce
CAVITATION in liquid services at much lower pressure drops and fluid temperatures than the globe
style valve. Due to instability problems with the older design butterfly valves, many people will limit the
travel of the valve at 60 degrees of rotation on throttling services. This can also help keep the valve out
of CAVITATION problems. 

CAGE: A hollow cylindrical trim element that is sometimes used as a guide to align the movement of a
VALVE PLUG with a SEAT RING. It may also act to retain the seat ring in the valve body. On some
types of valves, the cage may contain different shaped openings which act to characterize the flow
through the valve. The cage may also act as a NOISE ATTENUATION or ANTI-CAVITATION
device. 

CAGE GUIDED VALVE: A type of GLOBE STYLE valve trim where the valve plugs with the seat. 

CAVITATION: Occurs only in liquid service. In its simplest terms cavitation is the two-stage process
of vaporization and condensation of a liquid. Vaporization is simply the boiling of a liquid, which is also
known as FLASHING. In a control valve this vaporization takes place because the pressure of the liquid
is lowered, instead of the more common occurrence where the temperature is raised. As fluid passes
through a valve just downstream of the orifice area, there is an increase in velocity or kinetic energy that
is accompanied by a substantial decrease in pressure or potential energy. This occurs in an area called
the VENA CONTRACTA. If the pressure in this area falls below that of the vapor pressure of the
flowing fluid, vaporization (boiling) occurs. Vapor bubbles then continue downstream where the
velocity of the fluid begins to slow and the pressure in the fluid recovers. The vapor bubbles then
collapse or implode. Cavitation can cause a Choked Flow condition to occur and can cause mechanical
damage to valves and piping. 

CHOKED FLOW: Also known as CRITICAL FLOW. This condition exists when at a fixed upstream
pressure the flow cannot be further increased by lowering the downstream pressure. This condition can
occur in gas, steam, or liquid services. Fluids flow through a valve because of a difference in pressure
between the inlet (Pl) and outlet (P2) of the valve. This pressure difference (Delta-P) or pressure drop
isessential to moving the fluid. Flow is proportional to the square root of the pressure drop. Which
means that the higher the pressure drop is the more fluid can be moved through the valve. If the inlet
pressure to a valve remains constant, then the differential pressure can only be increased by lowering the
outlet pressure. For gases and steam, which are compressible fluids, the maximum velocity of the fluid
through the valve is limited by the velocity of the propagation of a pressure wave which travels at the
speed of sound in the fluid. If the pressure drop is sufficiently high, the velocity in the flow stream at the
VENA CONTRACTA will reach the velocity of sound. Further decrease in the outlet pressure will not
be felt upstream because the pressure wave can only travel at sonic velocity and the signal will never
translate upstream. Choked Flow can also occur in liquids but only if the fluid is in a FLASHING or
CAVITATING condition. The vapor bubbles block or choke the flow and prevent the valve from
passing more flow by lowering the outlet pressure to increase the pres-sure drop. A good Rule Of
Thumb on Gases and Steam service is that if the pressure drop across the valve equals or exceeds one
half the absolute inlet pressure, then there is a good chance for a choked flow condition. 
Example: 

P1 100 psig 
P2 25 psig 
_________ 
Delta P = 75 
P1 (ABS) = 100 + 14.7 or 114.7 1/2 of 114.7 = 57.35 
Actual pressure drop = 75 
Choked Flow is probable. 

The style of valve (that is whether it is a HIGH RECOVERY or a LOW RECOVERY style) will also
have an effect on the point at which a choked flow condition will occur. 

CLOSURE MEMBER: The movable part of the valve which is positioned in the flow path to modify
the rate of flow through the valve. Some of the different types of closure members are the Ball, Disk,
Gate, and Plug. 

COEFFICIENT FLOW: A constant (Cv) that is used to predict the flow rate through a valve. It is
related to the geometry of the valve at a given valve opening. See Cv. 

CONTROL VALVE: Also known as the FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT. A power-operated device
used to modify the fluid flow rate in a process control system. It usually consists of a BODY or VALVE
and an ACTUATOR, which responds to a signal from the controlling system and changes the position of
a FLOW CONTROLLING ELEMENT in the valve. 

CONTROL VALVE GAIN: The relationship between valve travel and the flow rate through the valve.
It is described by means of a curve on a graph expressed as an INSTALLED OR INHERENT
CHARACTERISTIC. 

CONTROLLER: A device which tells a CONTROL VALVE what to do. Controllers can be either
pneumatic or electronic. There are pressure, temperature, ph, level, differential, and flow controllers.
The job of the controller is to sense one of the above variables and compare it to a set point that has been
established. The controller then outputs a signal either pneumatic or electronic to the control valve,
which then responds so as to bring the process variable to the desired set point. 

CRITICAL FLOW: See the definition for CHOKED FLOW. 

CV: The VALVE FLOW COEFFICIENT is the number of U.S. gallons per minute of 60 degree F water
that will flow through a valve at a specified opening with a pressure drop of 1 psi across the valve. 

DELTA-P: Differential Pressure. The inlet pressure (Pl) minus the outlet pressure (P2). 
Example: 

P1 = 100 psig 
P2 = 25 psig. 
___________ 
Delta-P = 75 
DIAPHRAGM: A flexible pressure-responsive element that transmits force to the diaphragm plate and
actuator stem. 

DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR: Is a fluid (usually pneumatic) pressure-operated, spring-opposed

diaphragm assembly which positions the valve stem in response to an input signal. 

DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE: See Bench Set. 

DIAPHRAGM VALVE: A valve with a flexible linear motion CLOSURE MEMBER that is forced
into the internal flow passageway of the BODY by the ACTUATOR. Pinch or Clamp valves and Weir-
type valves fall into this category. 

DIRECT ACTING: This term has several different meanings depending upon the device it is
describing. A DIRECT-ACTING ACTUATOR is one in which the actuator stem extends with an
increase in diaphragm pressure. A DIRECT-ACTING VALVE is one with a PUSH-DOWN-TO-C
LOSE plug and seat orientation. A DIRECT-ACTING POSITIONER or a DIRECT-ACTING
CONTROLLER outputs an increase in signal in response to an increase in set point. 

DIRECT ACTUATOR: Is one in which the actuator stem extends with an increase in diaphragm
pressure. 
DUAL SEATING: A valve is said to have dual seating when it uses a resilient or composition material
such as TFE, Kel-F, or Buna-N, etc. for its primary seal and a metal-to-metal seat as a secondary seal.
The idea is that the primary seal will provide tight shut-off Class VI and if it is damaged the secondary
seal will backup the primary seal with Class IV shut-off. 

DYNAMIC UNBALANCE: The total force produced on the valve plug in any stated open position by
the fluid pressure acting upon it. The particular style of valve, i.e. single-ported, double-ported, flow-to-
open, flow-to-close, has an effect on the amount of dynamic unbalance. 

EFFECTIVE AREA: For a DIAPHRAGM ACTUATOR, the effective area is that part of the
diaphragm area that is effective in producing a stem force. Usually the effective area will change as the
valve is stroked - being at a maximum at the start and at a minimum at the end of the travel range. Flat
sheet diaphragms are most affected by this; while molded diaphragms will improve the actuator
performance, and a rolling diaphragm will provide a constant stem force throughout the entire stroke of
the valve. 

ELECTRIC ACTUATOR: Also known as an Electro-Mechanical Actuator uses an electrically

operated motor-driven gear train or screw to position the actuator stem. The actuator may respond to
either a digital or analog electrical signal. 

END CONNECTION: The configuration provided to make a pressure-tight joint to the pipe carrying
the fluid to be controlled. The most common of these connections are threaded, flanged, or welded. 

EQUAL PERCENTAGE: A term used to describe a type of valve flow characteristic where for equal
increments of valve plug travel the change in flow rate with respect to travel may be expressed as a
constant percent of the flow rate at the time of the change. The change in flow rate observed with respect
to travel will be relatively small when the valve plug is near its seat and relatively high when the valve
plug is nearly wide open. 

EXTENSION BONNET: A bonnet with a packing box that is extended above the body to bonnet
connection so as to maintain the temperature of the packing above (cryogenic service) or below (high-
temp service) the temperature of the process fluid. The length of the extension depends on the amount of
temperature differential that exists between the process fluid and the packing design temperature. 

FACE-TO-FACE: Is the distance between the face of the inlet opening and the face of the outlet
opening of a valve or fitting. These dimensions are governed by ANSI/ISA specifications. 

The following Uniform Face-to Face Dimensions apply. 

SPECIFICATION VALVE TYPE 

ANSI/ISA S75.03 INTEGRAL FLANGED GLOBE STYLE CONTROL VALVES 

ANSI/ISA S75.04 FLANGELESS CONTROL VALVES ANSUISA S75.20 SEPARABLE
FLANGE GLOBE STYLE CONTROL VALVES 
FAIL-CLOSED: Or NORMALLY CLOSED. Another way of describing an AIR-TO-OPEN actuator.
Approximately 80% of all spring return diaphragm operators in the field are of this construction. 
FAIL-IN-PLACE: A term used to describe the ability of an actuator to stay at the same percent of
travel it was in when it lost its air supply. On SPRING RETURN ACTUATORS this is accomplished by
means of a LOCK-UP VALVE. On PISTON ACTUATORS a series of compressed air cylinders must
be employed. 

FAIL-OPEN: Or NORMALLY OPEN. Another way of describing an AIR-TO-CLOSE actuator. 

FAIL-SAFE: A term used to describe the desired failure position of a control valve. It could FAIL-
CLOSED, FAIL-OPEN, or FAIL-IN-PLACE. For a spring-return operator to fail-in-place usually
requires the use of a lock-up valve. 

FEEDBACK SIGNAL: The return signal that results from a measurement of the directly controlled
variable. An example would be where a control valve is equipped with a positioner. The return signal is
usually a mechanical indication of valve plug stem position which is fed back into the positioner. 

F1: Or PRESSURE RECOVERY FACTOR. A number used to describe the ratio between the pressure
recovery after the VENA CONTRACTA and the pressure drop at the vena contracta. It is a measure of
the amount of pressure recovered between the vena contracta and the valve outlet. Some manufacturers
use the therm Km to describe the pressure recovery factor. This number will be high (0.9) for a GLOBE
STYLE VALVE with a torturous follow path and lower (0.8 to 0.6) for a ROTARY STYLE VALVE
with a streamlined flow path. On most rotary products the F1 factor will vary with the degree of opening
of the VALVE CLOSURE MEMBER. Note! F1 does not equal Km. 

FLANGELESS: A valve that does not have integral line flanges. This type of valve is sometimes
referred to as a Wafer Style valve. The valve is installed by bolting it between the companion flanges
with a set of bolts or studs called line bolting. Care should be taken that strain-hardened bolts and nuts
are used in lieu of all-thread, which can stretch when subjected to tempera-ture cycling. 

FLANGELESS BODY: See FLANGELESS for a definition. This type of valve is very economical
from a manufacturing and stocking standpoint because a valve that is rated as a 600# ANSI valve can
also be used between 150# and 300# ANSI flanges thus eliminating the need to manufacture three
different valve bodies or stock three different valve bodies. The down side is that valves with flangeless
bodies are not acceptable in certain applications - particularly in refinery processes. 

FLASHING: Is the boiling or vaporizing of a liquid. See the definition of CAVITATION. When the
vapor pressure downstream of a control valve is less than the upsteam vapor pressure, part of the liquid
changes to a vapor and remains as a vapor unless the downstream pressure recovers significantly, in
which case CAVITATION occurs. Flashing will normally cause a CHOKED FLOW condition to occur.
In addition the vapor bubbles can also cause mechanical damage to the valve and piping system. 

FLOW CHARACTERISTIC: The relationship between valve capacity and valve travel. It is usually
expressed graphically in the form of a curve. CONTROL VALVES have two types of characteristics
INHERENT and INSTALLED. The INHERENT characteristic is derived from testing the valve with
water as the fluid and a constant pressure drop across the valve. When valves are installed into a system
with pumps, pipes, and fittings, the pressure dropped across the valve will vary with the travel. When
the actual flow in a system is plotted against valve opening, the curve is known as the INSTALLED
flow characteristic. Valves can be characterized by shaping the plugs, orifices, or cages to produce a
particular curve. Valves are characterized in order to try to alter the valve gain. 

Valve gain is the flow change divided by the control signal change. This is done in an effort to
compensate for nonlinearities in the control loop. 

FLOW COEFFICIENT: See the definition for Cv. 

GAIN: The relationship of input to output. If the full range of the input is equal to the full range of the
output, then the gain is 1. Gain is another way to describe the sensitivity of a device. 

GLOBE VALVE: A valve with a linear motion, push-pull stem, whose one or more ports and body are
distinguished by a globular shaped cavity around the port region. This type of valve is characterized by a
torturous flow path and is also referred to as a LOW RECOVERY VALVE because some of the energy
in the flow stream is dissipated; and the inlet pressure will not recover to the extent that it would in a
more streamlined HIGH RECOVERY VALVE. 

HANDWHEEL: A manual override device used to stroke a valve or limit its travel. The handwheel is
sometimes referred to as a hand jack. It may be top mounted, side mounted, in-yoke mounted or shaft
mounted and declutchable. 

HARD FACING: A material that is harder than the surface to which it is applied. It is normally used to
resist fluid erosion or to reduce the chance of galling between moving parts. Hard facing may be applied
by fusion welding, diffusion, or spray coating the material. Alloy #6 or Stellite is a common material
used for this purpose. 

HARDNESS: A property of metals that is discussed frequently when speaking of various component
parts used in valve construction, particularly valve trim. There are two hardness scales which are
commonly used, Rockwell & Brinell. 
 

HARDNESS COMPARISON
ROCKWELL BRINELL
316 SST 76B 137
17-4 PH 34-38C 352
Hardened Inconel X-750
38-42C 401
#6 Stellite (Alloy 6) 40-44C 415
Chrome Plating 59-67C 725

Note that 316 SST is on the Rockwell B scale which means it is a much softer material than the others
shown. 
HIGH RECOVERY VALVE: A valve design that dissipates relatively little flow stream energy due to
streamlined internal contours and minimal flow turbulence. Therefore, pressure down stream of the
valve VENA CONTRACTA recovers to a high percentage of its inlet value. These types of valves are
identifiable by their straight-th rough flow paths. Examples are most rotary control valves, such as the
eccentric plug, butterfly, and ball valve. 

HYSTERESIS: The difference between up-scale and down-scale results in instrument response when
subjected to the same input approached from the opposite direction. Example: A control valve has a
stroke of 1.0 inch and we give the valve a 9 psig signal. The valve travels 0.500 of an inch. We then give
the valve a 12 psig signal, and the valve travels to 0.750 of an inch. When the valve is then given a 9
psig signal, the stroke is measured at 0.501. That represents hysteresis. Hysteresis can be caused by a
multitude of variables, packing friction, loose linkage, pressure drop, etc. If someone asks you what the
hysteresis of your control valve is, it is a bum question because hysteresis is more aptly applied to an
instrument than to a control valve. There are simply too many variables in the valve and the system to
answer the question properly. The control valve only responds to the controller signal and will move to a
position to satisfy the controller - thus negating the effects of hysteresis. 

INCIPIENT CAVITATION: Is a term used to describe the early stages of CAVITATION. At this
point the bubbles are small, and the noise is more of a hiss, like the sound of frying bacon. There is
normally no mechanical damage associated with incipient cavitation although it could have an effect on
the corrosive properties of some fluids. 

INHERENT DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE: The high and low values of pressure applied to the
diaphragm to produce rated valve plug travel with atmospheric pressure in the valve body. This is more
commonly referred to as BENCH SET. 

INHERENT FLOW CHARACTERISTIC: It is the relationship between valve capacity and valve
travel and is usually expressed graphically. It is derived from testing a valve with water as the fluid and
with a constant pressure drop across the valve. The most common types of inherent flow characteristics
are LINEAR, EQUAL PERCENTAGE, MODIFIED PARABOLIC, and QUICK OPENING. 

INSTALLED DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE: The high and low values of pressure applied to the
diaphragm to produce rated travel with stated conditions in the valve body. The "stated conditions"
referred to here mean the actual pressure drops at operating conditions. Example: A control valve may
have an INHERENT DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE or BENCH SET of 8 to 15 psig. But when subjected
to a 600 psig. inlet pressure, it may start to open at 3 psig. and be full open at 15 psig. It is because of the
forces acting on the valve plug and the direction of flow through the valve (FLOW-TO-OPEN or
FLOW-TO-CLOSE) that the installed diaphragm pressure will differ from the inherent diaphragm
pressure. 

INSTALLED FLOW CHARACTERISTIC: The flow characteristic when the pressure drop across
the valve varies with flow and related conditions in the system in which the valve is installed. The
purpose of characterizing a control valve is to help compensate for nonlinearities in the control loop. 

INSTRUMENT PRESSURE: The output pressure from an automatic controller that is used to operate
a control valve. It is the input signal to the valve. 
INTEGRAL SEAT: The flow control orifice and seat that is an integral part of the valve body or cage.
The seat is machined directly out of the valve body and is normally not replaceable without replacing
the body itself - although some can be repaired by welding and remachining. 

INTEGRAL FLANGE: A valve body whose flange connection is an integral or cast part of the body.
Valves with integral flanges were traditionally known to have the ANSI short FACE-TO-FACE
dimension ANSI/ISA S75.03. However many manufacturers now produce valve bodies with both
integral and SEPARABLE FLANGES that will meet both the ANSI short and long face-to-face
dimensions. 

I/P: An abbreviation for current-to-pneumatic signal conversion. This term is commonly used to
describe a type of transducer that converts an electric (4-20 m.a) input signal to a pneumatic (3-15 psig.)
output signal. 

LANTERN RING: A rigid spacer used in the packing with packing above and below it. The lantern
ring is used to allow lubrication to the packing or allow access to a leak off connection. On some of the
new fugitive emission packing systems, it also acts as a stem guide. 

LAPPED-IN: A term that describes a procedure for reducing the leakage rate on metal-to-metal seated
valves and regulators. The plug and seat are lapped together with the aid of an abrasive compound in an
effort to establish a better seating surface than would normally be achieved by means of machining. 

LEAKAGE CLASSIFICATION: A term used to describe certain standardized testing procedures for
CONTROL VALVES with a FLOW COEFFICIENT greater then 0. 1 (Cv). These procedures are
outlined in ANSI Standard d B16.104-1976, which gives specific tests and tolerances for six seat
leakage classifications. It should be remembered that these tests are used to establish uniform acceptance
standards for manufacturing quality and are not meant to be used to estimate leakage under actual
working conditions. Nor should anyone expect these leakage rates to be maintained after a valve is
placed in service. There is no standard test for SELF-CONTAINED REGULATORS at this time. Note!
You will see many instances where regulators are specified using the above criteria. 

LEAK-OFF: A term used to describe a threaded connection located on the BONNET of a valve that
allows for the detection of leakage of the process fluid past the packing area. 

LINEAR FLOW CHARACTERISTIC: A characteristic where flow capacity or (Cv) increases

linearly with valve travel. Flow is directly proportional to valve travel. This is the preferred valve
characteristic for a control valve that is being used with a distributive control system (DCS) or
programmable logic controller (PLC). 

LINEAR VALVE: Another name for a GLOBE VALVE. It refers to the linear or straight-line
movement of the plug and stem. 

LIQUID PRESSURE RECOVERY: See (F1). 

LOADING PRESSURE: The pressure used to position a pneumatic actuator. It is the pressure that is
actually applied to the actuator diaphragm or piston. It can be the INSTRUMENT PRESSURE if a valve
positioner is not used or is bypassed. 

LOCK-UP VALVE: A special type of regulator that is installed between the valve POSITIONER and
the valve ACTUATOR, where it senses the supply air pressure. If that pressure falls below a certain
level, it locks or traps the air loaded into the actuator causing the valve to FAIL-IN-PLACE. 

LOW RECOVERY VALVE: A valve design that dissipates a considerable amount of flow stream
energy due to turbulence created by the contours of the flow path. Consequently, pressure downstream
of the valve VENA CONTRACTA recovers to a lesser percentage of its inlet value than a valve with a
more streamlined flow path. The conventional GLOBE STYLE control valve is in this category. 

MODIFIED PARABOLIC: A FLOW CHARACTERISTIC that lies somewhere between LINEAR

and EQUAL PERCENTAGE. It provides fine throttling at low flow capacity and an approximately
linear characteristic at higher flow capacities. 

NORMALLY CLOSED: See AIR-TO-OPEN. 

NORMALLY OPEN: See AIR-TO-CLOSE. 

P1: Is used to designate Inlet Pressure. 

P2: Is used to designate Outlet Pressure. 

PACKING: A sealing system that normally consists of a deformable material such as TFE, graphite,
asbestos, etc. It is usually in the form of solid or split rings contained in a PACKING BOX that are
compressed so as to provide an effective pressure seal. 

PACKING BOX: The chamber located in the BONNET which surrounds the stem and contains the
PACKING and other stem-sealing components. 

PACKING FOLLOWER: A part that transfers a mechanical load to the PACKING from the packing
flange or nut. 

PISTON ACTUATOR: A fluid-powered, normally pneumatic device in which the fluid acts upon a
movable cylindrical member, the piston, to provide linear motion to the actuator stem. These units are
spring or air opposed and operate at higher supply pressures than a SPRING RETURN ACTUATOR. 

PLUG: See CLOSURE MEMBER. 

PORT-GUIDED: A valve plug that fits inside the seat ring, which acts as a guide bushing. Examples:
Splined Plug, Hollow Skirt, and the Feather-Guide Plug. 

POSITION SWITCH: A switch that is linked to the valve stem to detect a single, preset valve stem
position. Example: Full open or full closed. The switch may be pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric. 
POSITION TRANSMITTER: A device that is mechanically connected to the valve stem and will
generate and transmit either a pneumatic or electric signal that represents the valve stem position. 

POSITIONER: A device used to position a valve with regard to a signal. The positioner compares the
input signal with a mechanical feed back link from the actuator. It then produces the force necessary to
move the actuator output until the mechanical output position feedback corresponds with the pneumatic
signal value. Positioners can also be used to modify the action of the valve (reverse acting positioner),
alter the stroke or controller input signal (split range positioner), increase the pressure to the valve
actuator (amplifying positioner), or alter the control valve FLOW CHARACTERISTIC (characterized
positioner). 

POST GUIDE: A guiding system where the valve stem is larger in the area that comes into contact with
the guide busings than in the adjacent stem area. 

PUSH-DOWN-TO-C LOSE: A term used to describe a LINEAR or GLOBE STYLE valve that uses a
DIRECT ACTING plug and stem arrangement. The plug is located above the seat ring. When the plug is
pushed down, the plug contacts the seat, and the valve closes. Note! Most control valves are of this
type. 

PUSH-DOWN-TO-OPEN: A term used to describe a LINEAR or GLOBE STYLE valve that uses a
REVERSE ACTION plug and stem arrangement. The plug is located below the seat ring. When the plug
is pushed down, the plug moves away from the seat, and the valve opens. 

PRESSURE RECOVERY FACTOR: See (F1). 

QUICK OPENING: A FLOW CHARACTERISTIC that provides maximum change in flow rate at low
travels. The curve is basically linear through the first 40% of travel. It then flattens out indicating little
increase in flow rate as travel approaches the wide open position. This decrease occurs when the valve
plug travel equals the flow area of the port. This normally happens when the valve characteristics is used
for on/off control. 

RANGEABILITY: The range over which a control valve can control. It is the ratio of the maximum to
minimum controllable FLOW COEFFICIENTS. This is also called TURNDOWN although technically
it is not the same thing. There are two types of rangeability - inherent and installed. Inherent rangeability
is a property of the valve alone and may be defined as the range of flow coefficients between which the
gain of the valve does not deviate from a specified gain by some stated tolerance limit. Installed
rangeability is the range within which the deviation from a desired INSTALLED FLOW
CHARACTERISTIC does not exceed some stated tolerance limit. 

REDUCED TRIM: Is an undersized orifice. Reduced or restricted capacity trim is used for several
reasons. (1) It adapts a valve large enough to handle increased future flow requirement with trim
capacity properly sized for present needs. (2) A valve with adequate structural strength can be selected
and still retain reasonable travel vs. capacity relationships. (3) A valve with a large body using restricted
trim can be used to reduce inlet and outlet fluid velocities. (4) It can eliminate the need for pipe
reducers. (5) Errors in over sizing can be corrected by use of restricted capacity trim. 
REVERSE ACTING: This term has several deferent meanings depending upon the device it is
describing. A REVERSE-ACTING ACTUATOR is one in which the actuator stem retracts with an
increase in diaphragm pressure. A REVERSE-ACTING VALVE is one with a PUSH-DOWN-TO-
OPEN plug and seat orientation. A REVERSE-ACTING POSITIONER or a REVERSE-ACTING
CONTROLLER outputs a decrease in signal in response to an increase in set point. 

REVERSE FLOW: Flow of fluid in the opposite direction from that normally considered the standard
direction. Some ROTARY VALVES are considered to be bi-directional although working pressure drop
capabilities may be lower and leakage rates may be higher in reverse flow. 

ROTARY VALVE: A valve style in which the FLOW CLOSURE MEMBER is rotated in the flow
stream to modify the amount of fluid passing through the valve. 

SEAT LOAD: The contact force between the seat and the valve plug. When an actuator is selected for a
given control valve, it must be able to generate enough force to overcome static, stem, and dynamic
unbalance with an allowance made for seat load. 

SEAT RING: A part of the flow passageway that is used in conjuction with the CLOSURE MEMBER
to modify the rate of flow through the valve. 

SELF-CONTAINED REGULATOR: A valve with a positioning actuator using a self-generated

power signal for moving the closure member relative to the valve port or ports in response and in
proportion to the changes in energy of the controlled variable. The force necessary to position the
CLOSURE MEMBER is derived from the fluid flowing through the valve. 

SEPARABLE FLANGE: Also known as a SLIP-ON FLANGE. A flange that fits over a valve body
flow connection. It is generally held in place by means of a retaining ring. This style of flange
connection conforms to ANSI/ISA 275.20 and allows for the use of different body and flange materials.
Example: A valve with a stainless steel construction could use carbon steel flanges. This type of valve is
very popular in the chemical and petro-chemical plants because it allows the use of exotic body
materials and low cost flanges. 

SOFT SEATED: A term used to describe valve trim with an elastomeric or plastic material used either
in the VALVE PLUG or SEAT RING to provide tight shutoff with a minimal amount of actuator force.
A soft seated valve will usually provide CLASS VI seat leakage capability. 

SPLIT BODY: A valve whose body is split. This design allows for easy plug and seat removal. Split-
bodied valves are made in both the straight-through and angle versions. The Masoneilan 2600 or
ANNIN is an example of a split body valve. 

SPRING RATE: A term usually applied to SELF-CONTAINED REGULATORS describing the range
of set point adjustment available for a particular range spring. 

STATIC UNBALANCE: The net force produced on the valve stem by the fluid pressure acting on the
CLOSURE MEMBER and STEM within the pressure retaining boundary. The closure member is at a
stated opening with a stated flow condition. This is one of the forces an actuator must overcome. 
STELLITE: Also called #6 Stellite or Alloy 6. A material used in valve trim known for its hardness,
wear and corrosion resistance. Stellite is available as a casting, barstock material and may be applied to
a softer material such as 316 stainless steel by means of spray coating or welding. 

STEM: The VALVE PLUG STEM is a rod extending through the bonnet assembly to permit
positioning of the plug or CLOSURE MEMBER. The ACTUATOR STEM is a rod or shaft which
connects to the valve stem and transmits motion or force from the actuator to the valve. 

STEM GUIDE: A guide bushing closely fitted to the valve stem and aligned with the seat. Good stem
guiding is essential to minimizing packing leakage. 

SUPPLY PRESSURE: The pressure at the supply port of a device such as a controller, positioner, or
transducer. Common values of control valve supply pressures are 20 psig. for a 3-15 psig. output and 35
psig. for a 6-30 psig. output. 

STROKE: See TRAVEL. 

THROTTLING: Modulating control as opposed to ON/OFF control. 

TRANSDUCER: An element or device which receives information in the form of one quantity and
coverts it to information in the form of the same or another quantity. (See I/P) 

TRAVEL: The distance the plug or stem moves in order to go from a full-closed to a full-open position.
Also called STROKE. 

TRIM: Includes all the parts that are in flowing contact with the process fluid except the body,
BONNET, and body flanges and gaskets. The plug, seats, stem, guides, bushings, and cage are some of
the parts included in the term trim. 

TRUNNION MOUNTING: A style of mounting the disc or ball on the valve shaft or stub shaft with
two bushings diametrically opposed. 

TURNDOWN: A term used to describe the ratio between the minimum and maximum flow conditions
seen in a particular system. Example: If the minimum flow were 10 G.P.M. and the maximum flow were
100 G.P.M. the turndown would be 10:1. This term is sometimes incorrectly applied to valves. See
RANGEABILITY. 

VALVE: A device which dispenses, dissipates, or distributes energy in a system. 

VALVE BODY: See BODY. 

VALVE FLOW COEFFICIENT: See Cv. 

VALVE PLUG: See CLOSURE MEMBER. 

VENA CONTRACTA: The location where cross-sectional area of the flow stream is at its minimum
size, where fluid velocity is at its highest level, and where fluid pressure is at its lowest level. The vena
contracta normally occurs just downstream of the actual physical restriction in a control valve

ADVANCED TOPICS

F1 - Pressure Recovery Factor

LOW-RECOVERY RATE: A valve design that dissipates a considerable amount of flow-stream
energy due to turbulence created by the contours of the flow path. Consequently, pressure
downstream of the valve vena contracta recovers to a lesser percentage of its inlet value than a
valve with a more streamlined flow path. The F factor does not vary with travel to any
1

significant degree.
HIGH-RECOVERY RATE: A valve design that dissipates relatively little flow-stream energy due to
streamlined internal contours and minimal flow turbulence. Therefore, pressure down stream of the
valve vena contracta recovers to a high percentage of its inlet value. The F factor of a high
1

recovery valve will vary with its plug travel.

Pressure Recovery Factor (F1)

The graph below represents actual test data of a butterfly valve showing change in F1 with plug
rotation. 
The data demonstrate why a rotary control valve can suddenly go into cavitation as the valve opens
up.

F1 - (Flow Recovery Coefficient)

F = The valve pressure recovery factor, a dimension less quantity. (Measured when valve is not
1

choked.)

 
The Vena Contracta is the place along the axis of flow, just beyond the orifice, where the jet steam
contracts to its minimum cross-sectional area. Note: It is at this point that the velocity is at its
highest, and the fluid pressure is at its lowest.
 
 

Pressure vs. Temperature for Selected Metals

  
 

Removing stuck packing

Problem: A piece of packing at the very back of a stuffing box has been ignored because no one could dig into it
to get it out. A removal tool was broken trying to remove it. Now it has really hardened.

Solution: Take the broken packing removal tool and braze a drill bit to the end of it. You can now easily drill into
the packing and gain a purchase with a packing hook or a new removal tool (the one you had to get anyway).
Keeping this extra tool in your packing kit means that the next time packing gets stuck, you won't have to leave it
for the next guy to worry about.  

Preventing bearing loss from cage damage

Problem: Bearing cage damage can shorten the useful life of bearings. How do you tell if a cage is bent, and
what's the best way to avoid the problem?

Solution: According to experts at The Timken Company, because cages are so susceptible to damage, great care
must be exercised at all times during bearing installation and removal. Simply dropping a bearing on the floor can
lead to cage damage that can dramatically shorten service life.

Because cages are not load-carrying,  mild strip steel is commonly used to produce them.
However, they also are made with precise tolerances and clearances to allow all bearing
components to work uniformly. It doesn't take much damage to end the
life of a bearing. Any visible damage or cage bending renders the
bearing as scrap, although larger bearings can be re-caged.

If you suspect a cage is bent but aren't sure, place the cone assembly in the cup and slowly
rotate it by hand. A visual bend, flat or follower skidding indicates a potentially bent cage.

To help maintain cage integrity, you should follow these tips suggested by Timken:

 always use cup and con drivers when installing bearings

 only drive cups and cones through faces
 never press through the cage
 allow cage clearance for the application
 never drop a bearing on the cage
 never try to straighten a bent cage.