X. Liu et al.

/International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 1

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–99 4

Contents lists availableScienceDirec

at t

International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage:www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhm
t

Thermo-hydro-mechanical properties of bentonite-sand-graphitepolypropylene

fiber mixtures as buffer materials for a high-level radioactive waste repository
Xiaoyan Liu a, Guojun Cai a,⇑, Lulu Liu a, Songyu Liu a, Anand J. Puppala b
a
Institute of Geotechnical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China b Box 19308, Department of Civil Engineering, The
University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, United States

article info abstract

Article history: In accordance with the conception of repository, the performance of buffer materials around the canister are critical to the
Received 16 February 2019 long-term safe operation of deep geological repositories for high-level radioactive waste (HLW). To investigate the thermo-
Received in revised form 1 July 2019 hydro-mechanical (THM) properties of bentonite-sand-graphite-poly propylene fiber (BSGF) mixtures as buffer material, the
Accepted 2 July 2019 Available thermal and hydraulic conductivity, swelling and cracking, strength tests were conducted in this paper. From the
online 12 July 2019
microscopic, the heat transfer mechanism, penetration mechanism, swelling mechanism and shear mechanism of BSGF
mixtures were investigated in detail. Results revealed that the addition of graphite and polypropylene fiber (PPF) can
significantly improve thermal conductivity and strength of BSGF mixtures. Compared with bentonitesand mixtures, the
Keywords:
thermal conductivity, the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and shear strength (cohesion) of BSGF mixtures increased
BSGF mixtures
by 20–68%, 12–23% and 21–48%, respectively. Nevertheless, the internal friction angle had little change. The addition of PPF
Thermal conductivity
Strength characteristics controlled the width, area, and propagation of the cracks through the interlacing effect of the fibers. However, the addition
Swelling pressure and cracking of graphite and PPF can also hinder the development of swelling pressure and improve the hydraulic conductivity of BSGF
Hydraulic conductivity mixtures. In addition, for BSGF mixtures used as buffer material of HLW storage, the sand content should be retained below
Sand content 31% and 32% respectively to ensure the maximum swelling pressure and hydraulic conductivity to meet the requirements of
the specification. From the view of heat dissipation and strength, sand content shall not exceed 30% and 27%, respectively.
Therefore, the effective sand content should not exceed 27% considering the THM properties. This study provides a new
buffer material for HLW deep geological repository and enhances the stability and functionality of HLW deep geological
repository.
2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction canisters, buffer/backfill materials, and natural

geological structures [4]. As an important part
As a worldwide problem, the nuclear waste
of the barrier system in the deep geological
disposal has gradually aroused wide public
disposal repository of HLW, the buffer material
concern. HLW has a high radioactivity hazard
is the last artificial barrier between the waste
and a long decay cycle. Currently, many
and geological disposal repository. It plays a
countries believe that geological disposal of
significant role in engineering barrier, hydraulic
HLW is a feasible and safe technology [1–3].
barrier, chemical barrier, conduction and
The capabilities of a repository in a geologic
dissipation of radioactive waste decay heat [5].
structure depends on a multi-barrier system,
Specifically, it can delay the chemical erosion
which generally consists of vitrification, metal
of groundwater and prolong the life of
⇑ waste
radioactive waste containers, prevent the
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: 37598086@qq.com (G. Cai).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.07.015 0017-
9310/ 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 2

migration of nuclear species, and provide the from being too high [5,10]. In addition, the
support for waste containers. In addition, the pure bentonite has very high plasticity and is
excessive stress from dislocation of prone to agglomeration in the process of
surrounding rock layers can be absorbed. The water-soil mixing, which will lead to non-
dissipation of heat energy released from uniform wetting of bentonite and hinder the
radioactive waste attenuation to surrounding sealing ability of buffer materials. In the
rock mass is an effective guarantee for the process of construction, if the ambient
safety and stability of geological repositories. humidity becomes lower, pure bentonite may
Therefore, it is necessary to select appropriate be dry and lose water [11,12]. Even during the
buffer materials according to the functional operation of the disposal repository, the buffer
requirements of the multi-barrier system. barrier near the side of the encapsulated
container of the repository will become dry
Buffer/backfill materials play a significant part
and lose water due to the radiation heat [12].
in guaranteeing the long-term isolation
It is inevitable that the bentonite barrier will
performance of the engineering barrier system
shrink and crack in the process of drying and
in the deep geological disposal repository of
losing water. Shrinkage enlarges the gap
HLW. Therefore, determining the basic
between buffer barrier and surrounding rock,
characteristics of the buffer/backfill material is
buffer barrier and encapsulated container.
critical for the design, fabrication, construction,
Cracking can produce mechanical defects,
and integrity assessment. Sodium bentonite
hydraulic defects, which seriously damage the
produced by GMZ deposit in northern Inner
basic function of the buffer barrier, or even
Mongolia Autonomous Region of China is
lead to barrier failure [13,14]. Additionally,
called GMZ bentonite, which has been selected
previous studies have found that the addition
as the typical buffer/backfill material in China
of quartz sand can reduce the shrinkage of clay
[3,6]. The physicochemical properties of
to a certain extent [15] and can enhance its
bentonite include the ability to absorb water
thermal conductivity [16–18]. Quartz sand
and expand, the extremely low permeability
particles are considered to be non-expansible.
indicated by the high plasticity index, the high
If quartz sand is mixed into bentonite, the sand
cation exchange capacity and the high
will play a skeleton supporting role in the
adsorption capacity for many radioactive
shrinkage process, thus limiting the dry
elements [3,4]. However, due to the low
shrinkage cracking of soil. Emiroglu [19] proved
thermal conductivity of pure bentonite, the
that the addition of sand could reduce the
heat produced by radioactive decay in the
shrinkage of clay and inhibit the development
repository gathers together and improves the
of dry cracks. The results revealed that adding
temperature of the storage. Disposal
a certain amount of quartz sand to bentonite
repository near temperature may reach 140 C
could improve its thermal conductivity [16–18]
[5]. Excessive temperatures can lead to the
and strength properties [5,20]. At the same
inversion of montmorillonite (the main
time, it can maintain good permeability [21–
component of bentonite) into illite, as well as
23], expansibility [24–26] of bentonite, making
increase the vapor pressure due to the liquid
it an ideal buffer/backfill material. Therefore,
gasification, thereby generate a threat the
adding quartz sand into GMZ bentonite can
stability and functionality of the repository [7–
improve the thermal conductivity and inhibit
9]. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of the
the shrinkage cracking of barrier of buffer
buffer material must be sufficient to prevent
material. Bentonite sand mixtures have been
the near-field temperature of the repository
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 3

used as buffer/backfill materials in other the width, area and propagation of fracture
countries. Table 1 summarizes the composition through fiber bridging. Moreover, the
of buffer/backfill materials in other countries connectivity of the crack network was
[3,27]. reduced. Studies by Al-Wahab et al. [36]
showed that due to the fiber reinforcement
Some researchers have tried various methods,
of compacted clay, the dry fracture index
such as surface moisture barrier [28] and
(the ratio of fracture area to total surface
chemical stabilization, to alleviate the drying
area) decreased by 25–45%, the shrinkage
cracking of clay barriers. Soil shrinkage
and expansion decreased by 30–35%.
potential was significantly reduced by chemical
However, there are few studies on fiber
stabilization of the soil with additives
bentonite as a buffer material for disposal
repository of HLW. In addition, the fiber as a
Table 1 buffer material reinforcement material has
Summarizes the composition of other national buffer/backfill materials [3,27].
Country Bentonite types Bentonite content Sand content Other additives
France Fo-Ca 100% 0 0
Switzerland Montigel 100% 0 0
German Montigel 100% 0 0
USA MX-80 85–90% 10–15% 0
Japan Kunigel V1 70% 30% 0
Canada Avon seal 50% 50% 0
Belgium Fo-Ca 60% 35% 5% graphite

such as lime, cement and sand [29,30]. In not been given enough attention. Therefore,
these cases, the shrinkage behavior it is necessary to evaluate the potential of
decreased, but in some cases, the soil PPF in inhibiting BSGF mixtures in drying
hydraulic conductivity increased due to the cracking and enhancing its strength.
aggregation of clay particles. Previous
In general, the thermal conductivity of
studies have shown that natural fiber or
bentonite increases with the incorporation
synthetic fiber in soil can enhance the
of quartz sand. However, the improvement is
bearing capacity and shear strength of soil.
limited, especially at high temperature
The initial application of fiber reinforcement
[16,37]. Jobmann et al. [38] obtained that
was to improve the shear strength and
the thermal conductivity of bentonite mixed
stability of the slope [31,32]. Fiber
with 50% quartz sand can only be increased
reinforcement can help to prevent the
from 0.92 W/m∙K to 1.35 W/m∙K at 100 C,
formation of tensile crack and reduce the
which was still less than that of ordinary
swelling potential, liquefaction potential,
granite (wall rock). Moreover, the thermal
thermal conductivity and brittle behavior of
conductivity of bentonite mixture decreased
the material [33,34]. Cai et al. [35] studied
when the bentonite content was more than
the effect of PPF reinforcement on the
50% due to the skeleton effect between sand
expansion performance of bentonite. The
grains. Cui et al. [8] also found that even the
results presented that the addition of fiber
bentonite with high density and low sand
enhanced the compressive strength of the
content still had a large number of
compacted clay, and reduced its tensile
macroscopic pores after expansion and self-
cracking and expansion potential. Chaduvula
healing, which indicated that the traditional
et al. [12] found that the cracking mode of
sand-soil mixing method was difficult to
expansive clay changed significantly due to
guarantee uniform compaction and
the addition of fiber. It not only controlled
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 4

weakened the self-healing and anti-seepage In conclusion, graphite can improve the
ability of bentonite. At present, the most thermal conductivity of bentonite more
commonly method adopted is to improve effectively than quartz sand. The addition of
the thermal conductivity of a high thermal PPF can inhibit the cracking of bentonite and
conductivity additive material. Graphite is an improve its strength. However, the changes in
easy-to-obtain high thermal conductivity the expansibility and hydraulic conductivity of
material with high temperature resistance, bentonite-sand mixtures after the addition of
corrosion resistance and low thermal graphite and PPF need to be further studied. In
expansion. In recent years, researches have light of this, comprehensive and comparative
focused on various forms of graphite, and knowledge of the THM properties of the BSGF
few literatures have reported that adding mixtures for using as buffer materials should
graphite can significantly improve the be investigated in further researches. A series
thermal conductivity of bentonite [41]. The of thermal and hydraulic conductivity, swelling
results showed that adding graphite to and cracking, strength tests were conducted in
bentonite can successfully improve the this paper. In addition, the heat transfer
overall thermal conductivity [42,43]. mechanism, shear mechanism, expansion
Jobmann et al. [38] compared and analyzed mechanism and penetration mechanism of
the thermal conductivity of specimens with BSGF mixtures were analyzed in detail from
different bentonitequartz and bentonite- the microscopic. At the same time, from the
graphite mixture at different temperatures, perspective of thermo-hydraulic performance,
water content and dry densities. It was the optimal scheme of sand content in the
derived that the thermal conductivity of mixture as buffer material was determined.
bentonite can be significantly improved by
adding graphite. Moreover, the thermal
conductivity of graphite was hardly affected 2. Materials
by temperature. Pacovsky et al. [44] and
Vzsieek [45] first tested the graphite as an 2.1. Bentonite
additive to Czech clay and found that it
improved the thermal conductivity. At
present, many scholars have studied adding
different forms of graphite to geothermal
grouting materials to enhance the thermal
conductivity [39,40,42,46,47]. However,
there are few studies on graphite as a buffer
material additive in nuclear waste repository.
Jobmann et al. [37] showed that in the
current concept of clay stratum disposal, it
was assumed that the rock-soil barrier had
roughly the same thermal conductivity as the
main clay rock, so as to achieve appropriate
heat dissipation. Adding 15% graphite was
enough to obtain suitable thermal
conductivity.
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 5

The sodium bentonite used in this study is a Particle size (mm)

commercial bentonite with general Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of sand [48], bentonite and graphite.

Table 4
cal composition and particle distribution of the
, respectively.
sodium Physical parameters of sand [48].
bentonite
Parameters Lianyungang sand
are summarized in Tables 2 and 3, and Fig. 1 Constrained particle size, D60 (mm) 0.20
[48] Medium particle size, D50 (mm ) 0.31
Effective particle size, D10 (mm ) 0.11
The sodium bentonite contains about 69.76% of Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 1.82
1.12
montmorillonite and other mineral components (such Coefficient of curvature, Cc
1.45
Mass density, q (g/cm3) qdmax
as illite, feldspar, quartz, alumina and hematite) (g/cm3) qdmin (g/cm3)
1.76
53]. 1.43
Higher content of montmorillonite can ensure
bentonite has high swelling property (fine sealability)
even in the case of low dry density. The swelling
capacity and advantageous compaction of sodium
bentonite is higher than that of calcium bentonite
(because Na+ has a larger hydration radius than Ca
[50]. Therefore, sodium bentonite was selected as one
of the main barrier components in HLW repository

Table 2
Basic physical properties of sodium bentonite.
Particle size Montmorillonite content (%) Plastic limit (%) Liqui limit (%) Plasticity index Specific gravity
Main < 2 mm 69.76 35.16 241 205.84 2.71

Table 3
Chemical composition of sod ium bentonite.
Chemical composition SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O FeO SO3 TiO2
Characteristic (%) 57.2 19.6 6.3 2.4 0.76 0.94 1.42 0.21 1.32 0.68

engineering application value produced in Gao

Miaozi, Inner Mongolia. The basic physical
2.2. Quartz sand
properties, chemi-
The quartz sand used in this experiment was
Lianyungang sand from Jiangsu, China [48]. It is
a kind of natural quartz sea sand with SiO 2 >
96%. Particle size distribution, coefficient of
uniformity (CC) and coefficient of curvature
(CU) of sand used in BSGF mixtures in T1, T2
and T3 are shown in Fig. 1 [48] and Table 4
[48].

2.3. Graphite

Graphite is one of the most promising thermal

conductive materials in recent years owing to
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 6

its low density, high temperature resistance, force with bentonite surface, which can
low thermal expansion coefficient and good improve the strength of bentonite. But the
high temperature mechanical properties. The heat transfer performance of the PPF is poor,
thermal conductivity of graphite powder and the thermal conductivity was only 0.19
reaches 12 W/(m∙K). Graphite used in this W/m K [54]. The properties of the PPF used in
experiment was industrial pure graphite the test are shown in Table 6.
powder. Generally, graphite with maximum
particle size (Dmax) of 50 mesh, 100 mesh, 200 3. Specimen preparation and test method

Table 5
Particle size of graphite.
Material Maximum mesh size/mesh Corresponding maximum particle size/lm Uniformity coefficient Curvature coefficient

Graphite 325 45 3.76 0.92

Table 6
Properties of polypropylene fibers. 3.1. Specimen preparation
Property Value
Shape Triangular In this study, bentonite, sand and two additives
Diameter (lm) 33
(graphite and PPF) were selected as the main
Length 12
Density (g/cm3) 0.91 materials of buffer/backfill materials in HLW
Elastic modulus (MPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)
3850
repositories. To investigate the effect of
500–600
Ignition temp (C) 590
graphite and PPF on the HTM properties of
Melting point (C) 171 bentonite sand mixtures, three control
Elongation (%) 10–28
Water absorption None experiments were designed. According to Eq.
Solubility in water Not soluble in water (1), the target amount of bentonite, sand,
mesh and 325 mesh are widely used. The graphite and PPF were fully mixed in a certain
specific gravity of graphite is 2.23, and the
T1 T2 T3
Sand content Bentonite content Sand content Bentonite content Graphite content Sand content Bentonite content Graphite content Polypropylene fiber content
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
0 100 0 95 5 0 94.5 5 0.5
10 90 10 85 5 10 84.5 5 0.5
20 80 20 75 5 20 74.5 5 0.5
30 70 30 65 5 30 64.5 5 0.5
40 60 40 55 5 40 54.4 5 0.5
50 50 50 45 5 50 44.5 5 0.5

carbon content is 98.5%. The size and proportion to obtain homogeneous mixtures
distribution of graphite powder particles are with sand content of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%,
shown in Fig. 1 [48] and the maximum particle respectively. Graphite was added in T2, and
size, uniformity and curvature coefficient are the graphite content was uniformly set at 5%
described in Table 5. (by weight) [37,51,55]. In T3, graphite and PPF
were added. The
2.4. Polypropylene fibers
Table 7
The 12 mm chopped PPF was selected as the Composition (by weight) of the buffer/backfill materials.

added fiber in the test. PPF is a transparent graphite content was uniformly set at 5% (by
smooth cylinder with low density, no water weight) and PPF was uniformly set at 0.5%
absorption and excellent dispersion. (by weight) [56]. Then, the mixtures were
Additionally, PPF have a high strength and sealed in a plastic bag and maintained in the
elastic modulus, and strong surface wrapping curing room for 72 h to make the mixtures
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 7

evenly distributed. The proportions of the powder to compact the next section,
solid of the buffer/backfill materials (by carefully scratch the surface of the
weight) are revealed in Table 7. compacted section to ensure the uniformity
mb of the specimen [4]. To ensure the accuracy
Rb ¼ ð1Þ ms þmb þmG þmF of test results, three parallel specimens
should be made for each specimen, and the
where Rb is the bentonite content of the average value of the three parallel
mixtures; ms, mb, mG and mF are the weight of specimens should be taken as the final data
sand, bentonite, graphite and PPF, of the experiment. All tests were carried out
respectively, at room temperature of 20 ± 0.1 C.

Table 8
Maximum dry density and optimum water content of BSGF mixture in T1, T2 and T3.
T1 T2 T3
Sand content Optimum water Maximum dry Sand content Optimum water Maximum dry Sand content Optimum water Maximum dry
(%) content (%) density (g/cm3) (%) content (%) density (g/cm3) (%) content (%) density (g/cm3)
0 16.8 1.73 0 16.8 1.73 0 16.8 1.73
10 13.6 1.82 10 13.6 1.82 10 13.6 1.82
20 12.5 1.84 20 12.5 1.84 20 12.5 1.84
30 12.1 1.87 30 12.1 1.87 30 12.1 1.87
40 11.3 1.92 40 11.3 1.92 40 11.3 1.92
50 8.4 2.08 50 8.4 2.08 50 8.4 2.08

g.
3.2. Thermal conductivity test
To satisfy the practical operating criteria for
The thermal conductivity of BSGF mixtures in
bentonite sand mixtures in buffer/backfill
T1, T2 and T3 under different densities (1.7,
materials of nuclear waste, the dry density
1.8, 1.9 and 2.0 g/cm3) and water contents
was suggested to be in the range from 1.70
(0, 5, 10 and 15%) were obtained with the
to 2.0 g/cm3 [3,4]. For the UCS and shear
utilization of multifunctional thermal needle
strength tests, mixtures need to be sampled
system (MTN01), which was manufactured
according to the optimum moisture content
in Delft, the Netherlands. CRU01 software is
and the corresponding maximum dry density
used for data acquisition and processing. The
(as shown in Table 8). Due to the low
sensor is provided by Hukseflux. The probe
addition of graphite and PPF and for the
has an outer diameter of 3.5 mm and a
convenience of experiments, the optimal
length of 120 mm. Its working principle is
water content and maximum dry density of
based on the transient line heat source and
BSGF mixtures in T2 and T3 were considered
unsteady state theory, assuming an infinite
unchanged. For swelling pressure, hydraulic
and homogeneous space in soil, the
conductivity, and thermal conductivity tests,
temperature of the soil depends on the
the mixtures should be prepared according
heating time of the thermal needle and the
to dry density (1.7, 1.8, 1.9 and 2.0 mg/m 3)
thermal conductivity of the soil, which meets
and water content (0%, 5%, 10% and 15%)
the ASTM D5334-08 [57]. Considering the
[4]. It should be noted that in order to make
size effect of the thermal needle, the
the dry density uniformly distributed along
diameter of the cylindrical container should
the specimen height, the compaction
be 10 times larger than the needle.
process was divided into three steps. At each
Therefore, the BSGF mixtures should be
step, one third of the specimen height is
prepared into a cylinder with a diameter of 5
compacted. Before pouring the mixtures
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994
cm and a height of 15 cm and maintained in
the curing room (the temperature of 20 ± 2 C
and the relative humidity of 95%) for 24 h
before conducting the thermal test [58,59].
Vaseline was evenly coated on the thermal
probe prior to testing to ensure good
thermal contact between the needle and the
specimen, and the thermal needle was
inserted vertically and slowly along the
central axis of the specimen through the
penetration device. The entire insertion
process should avoid any damage to the
specimen [58,59]. Due to the small diameter
of the thermal needle, the compaction effect
is negligible when the needle is inserted into
the specimen. If there are large pores
between the needle and the specimen, the
soil specimen should be compressed again to
the preset initial density. Thermal balance
treatment of thermal needle is needed
before testing. It takes a certain time for the
needle to enter the soil from the room to
adapt to the change of temperature. The
thermal balance time of MTN01 testing
equipment is 60 s. After 60 s, the thermal
conductivity of soil is tested. The whole test
process took less time, automatically
completed for 300 s. In order to ensure the
accuracy of the test results, each sample is
tested only once in the center. Three parallel
samples are made under each scheme, and
the average value is taken as the test result
of thermal resistance coefficient of soil
samples. Standard deviation test results
should be less than 0.1. On the contrary, the
test equipment should be re-checked and re-
measured.
3.3. Unconfined compressive strength test
According to ASTM D2166-06 [60], the UCS
tests were carried out on BSGF mixtures in T1,
T2 and T3, respectively. Sampling equipment
was used to prepare specimens in accordance
with the test specifications, which requires
8
that the height-diameter ratio of the
specimens should between 2.0 and 2.5. The
diameter and height of the specimens
prepared in this experiment are 35 mm and 71
mm, respectively. The specimens were loaded
until the strain reached 15%. Standard
deviation test results should be less than 10%.
On the contrary, the test should be re-
measured.
3.4. Shear strength test
Shear strength parameters (cohesion and
friction angle) are important parameters in
geotechnical stability analysis. Direct shear
tests on BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3 were
conducted according to ASTM D6528-07 [61].
For each direct shear test, five normal stresses
(50, 100, 200, 300 and 400 kPa) were used to
shear the soil specimens at a rate of 1.2
mm/min, which resulted in shear failure within
3–5 min.
3.5. Swelling pressure and cracking test
In the light of ASTM D4546-08 [62], swelling
pressure tests were conducted on BSGF
mixtures in T1, T2 and T3. Swelling
characteristics of BSGF mixed specimens at
different water contents (0, 5, 10 and 15%) and
dry densities (1.7, 1.8, 1.9 and 2.0 g/cm3) were
measured by routine consolidometer. The
swelling pressure was regarded as a vertical
pressure that kept specimens free of volume
change under transverse restraint and axial
loading.
To study whether PPF can inhibit the cracking
of BSGF mixtures, BSGF mixtures specimens in
T2 and T3 were selected to observe the
cracking after drying. The initial water content
of the specimens was 30%. The dry shrinkage
cracking effect of sand and PPF can be
enlarged by using specimens with higher
humidity, which makes the inhibition of sand
and PPF on the dry shrinkage cracking of
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994
mixtures more obvious. To prepare the
specimens, dry bentonite, sand and graphite
were mixed according to the set mass ratio,
and then the solid mixtures was added to the
water to make the solid-liquid mixtures
uniform. Place the mixtures in an airtight
container for 24 h to make it uniformly wet.
Finally, the mixtures were sampled in a ring
knife. Vaseline was evenly coated inside the
ring knife to reduce friction between the
specimen and the inner wall of the ring knife.
Mixtures were evenly squeezed into the ring
knife. Bubble formation was avoided as far as
possible by beating and vibration. Then, the
top of the specimen was scraped with a knife,
and the specimen was extruded into a tray.
Finally, the specimen was dried in the oven
together with the tray for 3 days.
3.6. Hydraulic conductivity test
In the light of ASTM D5856-95 [63], hydraulic
conductivity tests were carried out on
cylindrical specimens obtained by flexible-wall
permeameter, which can be used for
environmental geotechnical permeability test.
The system is mainly composed of control
panel, flexible wall permeation chamber and
pore pressure measuring device (which can
choose axial strain measuring device). The
number of permeation chambers and control
panels can be selected as required. The flexible
and convenient experimental device can test
specimens with a diameter of 50, 70 or 100
mm. In this experiment, BSGF mixtures of T1,
T2 and T3 were used to prepare specimens
with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 70
mm according to water contents (0, 5, 10 and
15%) and dry densities (1.7, 1.8, 1.9 and 2.0
g/cm3) for permeability test. The pressures
needed for hydraulic conductivity
measurement were provided by air pressure
source. Hydraulic gradient was determined by
pressure difference between outflow and
inflow. Research and experience revealed that,
9
due to the high accuracy and convenient use of
flexible wall permeameter, it was especially
suitable for the use of hydraulic conductivity
less than 107 m/s [64].
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Thermal conductivity properties
Fig. 2(a) presented that the thermal
conductivity of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3
increased significantly with the increase of
sand content. However, the growth rate of
thermal conductivity decreased when the sand
content exceeded 40%. When the sand content
reached 50%, the thermal conductivity
decreased, which was consistent with the
conclusion of Moss et al. [18]. Moreover, the
higher the dry density was, the more obvious
the thermal conductivity increased with the
increase of sand content. This improvement of
thermal conductivity with the addition of sand
content can interpreter as the difference of
thermal conductivity between sand particles
and bentonite particles. Villar et al. [65]
indicated the measured value of 0.75 W/mK
for the pure bentonite when the water content
ranged from 10 to 13%. As illustrated by Zhang
et al. [66] the thermal conductivity of the sand
was around 7.9 W/m∙K. The thermal
conductivity of sand particles was much larger
than that of bentonite [16]. At the same time,
with the increase of dry density, the contact
among particles of BSGF mixtures were
strengthened, which promoted the better heat
transfer performance of BSGF mixtures.
However, with the further increase of sand
content, the formation of sand skeleton led to
the increase of macropores in the mixtures.
Due to the low thermal conductivity of air, the
thermal conductivity increased slowly or even
decreased. Xu et al [4] verified that the thermal
conductivity of bentonite varied similarly with
sand content.
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 10

Curves in Fig. 2(b) reveled that the thermal BSGF mixtures could be significantly improved
conductivity of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3 by adding graphite and slightly reduced by
increased with sand content change from 0 to adding PPF (Fig. 2(a) and (b)). To facilitate the
30%. While the growth rate relied on the water analysis of the effect of graphite and PPF on
content. It was noteworthy that for the thermal conductivity of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2
specimens with lower water content, the heat and T3, specimens with dry density of 1.8
transmission decreased, which generated a g/cm3 and water content of 10% were selected
reduction of growth rate. In particularly, for for comparative analysis (Fig. 2(c)). For the
specimens with water content of 0, its thermal BSGF mixtures in T1, adding sand could
conductivity began to decrease after sand improve the heat transfer performance of the
content exceeding 30%, which was consistent mixtures. However, the
with the conclusion in reference [18]. This was
attributed to that the thermal conductivity of
sand particles was relatively high (the thermal
conductivity of water and air were 0.6 and
0.024 W=m K, respectively) [58], and the
increase of sand content first enhanced the
heat transfer capacity of the mixtures.
Nevertheless, with the continuous addition of
sand content, the formation of sand skeleton
led to the formation of large pores in the
mixtures, which caused the slow increasing
even decreasing of the thermal conductivity of
BSGF mixtures. However, with adding water
content, bentonite expanded in the presence
of water, resulting in the reduction of voids in
the mixtures and enhancement of contact
between particles. Thus, the thermal
conductivity of the mixtures was improved and
finally stabilized. Similarly, Cho et al. [16] and
Xu et al. [4] gave the same interpretation for
the variation of thermal conductivity of
bentonite-sand mixtures with sand content at
different water content.

During the operation of the disposal

repository, highradioactive waste will
continuously decay and release a lot of heat.
Therefore, the buffer/backfill materials should
posses good thermal stability and thermal
conductivity to ensure the safe operation of
the disposal repository and keep the
temperature of engineering barrier system
under 100 C [67]. The experimental results
presented that the thermal conductivity of
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 11

barrier. However, the addition of sand and

graphite will weaken the expansion and hydro-
mechanical characteristics of the barrier.
Therefore, it is necessary to find a suitable
proportion of bentonite, sand, graphite and
PPF. According to the principle proposed by Xu
et al. [4] that the growth rate of thermal
conductivity ok (%) (ok was equal to the
difference of adjacent thermal conductivity
divided by the difference of corresponding
sand content) was the priority of selecting the
sand content. The variation of thermal
conductivity growth rate with sand content for
BSGF mixtures in T3 was shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3
Sand content (%) indicated that although the addition of sand
(c) Water content, 10%; Dry density, can improve the thermal conductivity of the
1.8g/cm3 mixtures, the most effective sand content
Fig. 2. Relationships between thermal conductivity and sand content for BSGF should be less than 30% from the perspective
mixtures in T1, T2 and T3.
of heat dissipation of the buffer material.
Otherwise, the increase rate of thermal
improvement was not obvious. Sufficient
conductivity will decrease, and other
sand was added to significantly improve the
properties such as expansion, shear,
thermal conductivity of the mixtures, which
permeability and so on will deteriorate with
was 62.5% higher than that of pure
the increase of sand content.
bentonite with 50% sand. For BSGF mixtures
in T2, the thermal conductivity was
4.2. Unconfined compressive strength
significantly improved after adding 5%
properties
graphite. When the sand content was 20%, it
was 41.3% higher than T1, and when the Fig. 4 depicted that sand content had a great
sand content was 30%, it was 39.9% higher effect on the UCS of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2
than T1. For BSGF mixtures in T3, adding and T3. With the addition of sand content, the
0.5% PPF could slightly reduce the heat UCS of BSGF mixtures increased significantly
transfer of the mixtures, up to 5.85%. This up to maximum at 10%. This was owing to the
was mainly due to the difference of thermal larger friction resistance of sand particles,
conductivity of each component. The which made the bite between sand particles
thermal conductivity of bentonite, sand, closer and the resistance to vertical pressure
graphite, PPF, water and air has the stronger. In addition, due to the larger
following relationship, kG >kS >kB >kwater >kPPF hardness of sand particles, the skeleton
>kair. formed in the soil act as a support. Therefore,
From Fig. 2, the thermal conductivity of BSGF the UCS increased greatly after adding
mixtures in T3 was significantly higher than appropriate amount of sand. As sand content
that in T1, indicating that the addition of sand continued to change from 10% to 30%, the
and graphite can effectively improve the UCS decreased significantly. When the sand
thermal conductivity of the engineering content increased from 30% to 50%, the UCS
decreased gradually and
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 12

weakened the lateral constraint of clay

particles on soil. Under the vertical pressure,
the middle part of the specimen gradually
expanded and cracked due to lateral extrusion
deformation, leading to a rapid decrease in
compressive strength.

In addition, it can be obtained from Fig. 4 that

the UCS of BSGF mixtures decreased with the
addition of graphite. This was attributed to
that graphite possessed good lubricity
property, and the addition of graphite to BSGF
mixtures increased the contact area between
Sand content (%)
graphite. Under the external pressure, the
Fig. 3. Relationship between the increasing rate of thermal conductivity and
sand content for BSGF mixture in T3.
cohesive force between BSGF mixtures
particles decreased, which led to the decrease
of UCS. However, the UCS of BSGF mixtures
increased significantly after the addition of
PPF. The UCS of PPF-soil (T3) was greater than
that of BSGF mixtures in T1 and T2. And the
UCS of BSGF mixed specimens in T3 were >200
kPa, meeting the UCS standard [68]. It showed
that the fiber reinforcement technology could
improve the UCS of BSGF mixtures under
certain fiber addition scheme. This was mainly
due to the relatively good dispersion of

Sand content (%) H1 H2

Fig. 4. Relationships between the unconfined compressive strength and sand
content for BSGF mixtures.

the curve tended to be stable. This indicated

that the UCS of expansive soil was less affected
by further adding sand. Moreover, the UCS of
BSGF mixtures was smaller than that of pure
bentonite with sand content was more than
(a) (b) (c)
30%. The reason for this phenomenon was that
when sand content exceeded a certain limit, Fig. 5. Destroyed specimens of BSGF mixture in T1, T2 and T3: (a) BSGF mixture
with the continuous increase of sand content, in T1; (b) BSGF mixture in T2; (c) BSGF mixture in T3.

the clay content in the specimen would be

greatly reduced. Finally, it was almost
completely covered by sand particles, which
led to reduced contact with the particles,
leading to a rapid decrease in UCS. As shown in
Figs. 5 and 6, excessive addition of sand
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 13

Fig. 6. Destroyed specimens of BSGF mixture in T3 with different sand content: (a) Rs = 0; (b) Rs = 10%; (c) Rs = 20%; (d) Rs = 30%; (e) Rs = 40%; (f) Rs = 50%.

PPF, which were evenly dispersed and Fig. 6 presented the failure state of PPF
interwoven in the BSGF mixtures. When the reinforced soil (T3) with different sand content.
specimen was subjected to lateral expansion When the sand content was 10% (Fig. 6(b)), the
deformation due to axial pressure, the fiber specimen possessed the highest strength.
would exert tension and transfer force and There were no obvious shear failure surfaces
play a role of stirrup on the BSGF mixtures. or bulging cracks on the surface of the
Furthermore, it changed the specimen from specimen, only small cracks. With the increase
one-way stress state to three-directional stress of sand content, the cracks on the cross section
state and improved its compressive strength. of the specimen began to increase radially,
Moreover, the fiber stress net limited the creating thin and short dense cracks. When the
deformation and displacement of the BSGF sand content was 30% (Fig. 6(d)), some cracks
mixtures, prevented the further development at the edge of the specimen began to expand
and extension of cracks, improving the upward along the specimen, the cracks
integrity of the BSGF mixtures. became longer and wider, and the specimen
further bulged and deformed. The damage
Fig. 5 showed the destruction of BSGF mixtures
degree of the specimen was more serious than
in T1, T2 and T3 under the same vertical
the sand content of 0 (Fig. 6(a)), which was
pressure, respectively. The middle part of the
consistent with the conclusion of Fig. 4. With
specimen in T1 bulged gradually to one side
the further increase of sand content (Fig. 6(e)
due to lateral extrusion deformation, and
and (f)), the middle part of the specimen
several small cracks were generated on the
gradually bulged and cracked due to lateral
surface of the specimen. The specimen in T2
extrusion deformation. There were cracks on
showed obvious shear surface in the middle
the surface of the specimen, which would
and lower part, resulting in ‘‘peeling”
penetrate and generate obvious shear failure
phenomenon of the specimen and serious
surface of the specimen. Fiber connection
damage. While short and shallow cracks
between the broken clods showed the
appeared in the lower edge section of the
characteristics of breaking but not falling off.
specimen in T3, and fiber connections were
found in the mixtures between the cracks, 4.3. Shear strength properties
generating wider cracks than T1. However, the
overall deformation and failure degree of T3 4.3.1. Shear strength analysis
was smaller than that of T1 and T2, which was Fig. 7 provided the relationship of shear
consistent with the conclusion in Fig. 4. strength and sand content of BSGF mixtures in
Additionally, Fig. 5 also illustrated that PPF can T1, T2 and T3. Fig. 7(a) indicated that the
effectively reduce the brittle failure of BSGF internal friction angle of BSGF mixtures
mixtures. increased with the addition of sand content.
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994
The internal friction angle of BSGF mixtures in
T1, T2 and T3 increased from 24.72 to 28.34,
23.96 to
(a) Angle of internal friction against sand
content
Sand content (%)
(b) Cohesion against sand content
Fig. 7. Relationships between the Shear strength and sand content for BSGF
mixtures in T1, T2 and T3.
27.32 and 23.26 to 25.42 with the increase of
sand content, respectively. The increase was
relatively small, indicating that sand had little
effect on the internal friction angle of BSGF
mixtures. However, adding graphite and PPF
to BSGF mixtures, the internal friction angle
decreased. This was due to the friction
coefficient of graphite was very small almost
close to zero, which could adsorbe on the
surface of sand particles and bentonite
14
particles, reducing the bite force between
sand particles and made the mixture
particles more prone to slide, thus resulting
in the reduction of internal friction angle.
The PPF had a smooth surface and poor
mosaication effect with other particles.
Therefore, the friction and bite force
between the PPF and the particles of BSGF
mixtures were small, which led to the
reduction of the internal friction angle.
Fig. 7(b) revealed the cohesion of BSGF
mixtures in T1, T2 and T3 increased first and
then decreased with the increasement of sand
content. The cohesion reached its peak when
the sand content increased to 10%. As the
sand content of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3
were more than 33%, 30% and 31.5%, the
corresponding cohesion were less than that of
the initial BSGF mixtures. In addition, with
adding sand, the trend of cohesion of BSGF
mixtures changed gradually. This indicated that
appropriate sand content would not reduce
the cohesion of the mixtures, but improve the
cohesion to a certain extent. This was because
the addition of sand enhanced the strength of
the clay under the interaction of an
appropriate amount of sand and clay particles,
while clay particles limited the relative sliding
of sand in the specimens. The deformation and
displacement of BSGF mixtures particles were
more effectively restrained, and the integrity
of BSGF mixtures specimens were increased.
Another knowledge can be obtained from Fig.
7(b) was that the cohesion of BSGF mixtures
decreased after adding graphite, while
increased significantly after adding PPF. The
reason for this phenomenon was similar to
that of UCS. Due to the cohesive force was
mainly provided by bentonite (clay particles),
the cohesive force in T2 was smallest, while
that of T3 was the largest. Fig. 8 exhibited the
SEM distribution of PPF in BSGF mixtures. The
PPF not only owned a larger contact area with
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994
the soil, but also formed many interleaving
points in the soil and interweaves into a
network structure. The stress and deformation
of any cross-section would affect the fibers in
all directions intersecting with it, thus forming
the stress zone in space. When the BSGF
mixtures was stretched by external force, the
bending concave side of the fiber would
generate pressure and friction on the BSGF
mixture particles, thus enhancing the effect.
4.3.2. Microstructure and interface mechanics
of fiber-reinforced BSGF mixtures
The reinforcement effect of fiber mainly
depends on the mechanical action of fiber-soil
interface. According to Tang [69,70], the effect
of fiber reinforcement depended on the
strength of the interface between the fiber and
the soil, the mechanical interaction between
Polypropylene fiber
interleaving point
Fig. 8. SEM photomicrograph of polypropylene fibers distribution in BSGF mixtures.
15
the fiber and the soil had two main forms:
friction force and bonding force. There are
many influencing factors of interfacial friction,
the size of interfacial bonding force mainly lies
on clay content and natural cementing
material characteristics. To study the
microstructures and mechanical properties of
fiber reinforced soil in BSGF mixtures, the
surface morphological characteristics of PPF
and the generation and transmission of
interfacial forces with soil were analyzed by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Figs. 9
and 10).
In the shear test, the friction between soil
particles and fiber surface is not negligible.
According to the SEM photographs of Fig. 9,
the fibers were coated with interlocking or
interlocking BSGF mixtures particles after
compaction. After the fibers being pulled
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 16

Fig. 9. SEM photomicrograph of soil particles attached on polypropylene fibers surface after shear stress test.

Pits formed by extrusion deformation

Fig. 10. SEM photomicrograph of grooves formed on polypropylene fibers surface after shear stress test.

out, some particles adhered to the surface of particles in the soil. From the perspective of
the fibers. It concluded that the interface soil mechanics, this undoubtedly increased the
structure was disturbed and destroyed evenly contact area and degree of occlusion between
during the shear process. Thus, interfacial the fiber surface and BSGF mixtures. In
friction largely depended on the resistance to addition, the cohesion and friction force also
rearrangement and rotation of BSGF mixtures increased correspondingly. Tang et al. [72]
particles as shear occurred. Generally, the confirmed this phenomenon by investigating
lower the possibility of rearrangement in the the interface morphology of fiber-reinforced
shear process, or the higher the degree of clay.
interlocking between soil particles, the higher
Many visible scratches along the longitudinal
the shear resistance of the interface was [71].
direction of the surface of the fibers were also
In the compaction, the hardness of sand in
clearly shown in Fig. 10. This may be due to the
BSGF mixtures was higher than that of PPF,
hard-angular particles being ploughed into the
which might cause the plastic deformation of
fibrous body during the shear process. It was
PPF. Especially under high pressure, severe
confirmed again that the interlocking force
extrusion deformation would occur on the PPF
between the particles and the surface of the
surface (Fig. 10) [70]. The regular smooth
fiber was produced. When the fiber being
cylindrical filaments became deformed and
pulled or pulled out in BSGF mixtures, the
uneven when extruded against the hard
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994
adhesive friction force of clay particles, the
adhesive force between sand, fiber and other
hard particles in specimens and the failure
resistance of fiber surface should be overcome.
While the BSGF mixtures specimen deformed
or presented tensile cracks under load, the PPF
across the pores or cracks could bear greater
tensile stress and improve the strength and
toughness of the soil specimen. Tang [70] also
found that the surface of the fiber-reinforced
polymer left some scratches after the
interfacial test. Dove et al. [73] pointed out
that if the soil particles were much harder than
the manufacturing materials, the
manufacturing materials would suffer wear
and tear. Wear often resulted in groove-type
surface damage if soil particles were little or no
deterioration.
4.4. Swelling pressure and cracking properties
4.4.1. Swelling pressure analysis
Fig. 11(a) revealed the maximum swelling
pressure of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3
decreased exponentially with the increasing
sand content. The addition of sand to BSGF
mixtures could effectively inhibit the maximum
swelling pressure, while the inhibition of
maximum swelling pressure was weakened
with further increase of sand content. From
the point of restraining
(a) Under different dry density
17
(b) Dry density, 1.8g/cm3
Fig. 11. Relationships between the maximum swelling pressure and sand
content for BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3.
excessive swelling pressure caused by water
absorption of buffer backfill material, the
addition of sand was obviously very
convenient for the design of bentonite buffer
backfill material. The results of this study
were identical to previous conclusions
[26,74,75]. Cui et al. [8] studied the swelling
properties of GMZ bentonite-sand mixtures
at low dry density. The results indicated that,
for specimens with dry density varied from
1.4 to 1.6 g/m3, the maximum swelling
pressure of BSGF mixtures decreased
significantly while the sand content
increased from 10% to 50%, which confirmed
appreciable influence of sand content on the
swelling properties. For BSGF mixtures with
certain sand content, the maximum swelling
pressure increased with the increase of dry
density. In fact, the addition of dry density
meant the increase of bentonite content per
unit volume. That was to say, more water
was hydrated during expansion, the greater
the repulsive force between particles, and
the higher the dry density, the better the
expansibility. Sand was added to the BSGF
mixtures, and the clay content decreased
with the increase of the sand content. The
influence of sand content on the dry density
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994
of BSGF mixtures and the corresponding clay
content finally led to the influence on the
swelling pressure. Komine et al. [24] and
Zhang et al. [3] obtained that the bentonite
in the mixtures played a dominant role in the
swelling characteristics. Adding sand would
reduce the expansion potential of the
mixtures.
It is generally believed that for engineering
barriers, the lower limit of swelling pressure
should be ensured to slow down the migration
of radioactive materials and fill the cracks in
the repository. Some scholars have pointed
out that the swelling pressure of the buffer
material should be greater than 1.0 MPa in
order to guarantee the sealing capacity of the
repository [76]. From Fig. 11(a), the BSGF
mixtures in T1 could not meet the requirement
of maximum swelling pressure of buffer
material when the dry density was 1.7 g/cm 3
and sand content was over 38.3%. In T2, the
maximum swelling pressure of the buffer
material could not be satisfied as the dry
density was 1.7 g/cm3, sand content exceeded
34.6% and dry density was 1.8 g/cm3, sand
content exceeded 47.7%. While in T3, the
maximum swelling pressure of the buffer
material could not be met when the dry
density was
1.7 g/cm3, sand content exceeded 31.7% and
dry density was 1.8 g/cm3, sand content
exceeded 42.4%. Fig. 11(b) exhibited the
relationship between the maximum swelling
pressure and sand content as dry density was
1.8 g/cm3. It also could be seen that adding
graphite and PPF to BSGF mixtures in T2 and
T3 could reduce the maximum swelling
pressure of BSGF mixtures. When graphite was
added into BSGF mixtures, the swelling
property decreased, which was mainly due to
that graphite was a nonexpansive natural
material and hardly absorbs water. It mainly
acted as skeleton or filling in BSGF mixtures.
18
The PPF acted as a constraint on soil
deformation. When the matrix absorbed water
and swelled, the interface between the PPF
and the matrix generated shear stress, which
limited the further expansion of the matrix.
4.4.2. Cracking analysis
In the repository, due to the large amount of
heat generated during the decay process of
nuclear waste, the temperature surrounding
soil increases sharply, and the maximum
temperature may exceed 100 C [77]. Under the
action of temperature gradient, the buffer
backfill material will also undergo significant
shrinkage deformation due to drying and water
loss, and increase the gap between the
artificial barrier and surrounding rock [12,25].
This provided a fast channel for groundwater
infiltration and radionuclide migration to the
disposal repository system, which affected the
safety and functionality of the disposal
repository system [25]. Therefore, the buffer
material should have the ability to resist
fracture.
Previous studies have found that addition of
sand could reduce the shrinkage of buffer
backfill material to a certain extent [15]. This
mainly attributes to that the sand particles are
nonexpansive. If sand is added to the
bentonite, sand will play a skeleton supporting
role in the shrinkage process, thus restricting
the dry shrinkage cracking of the soil. Emiroglu
[78] proved that sand could reduce the
shrinkage of clay and inhibit the development
of dry cracks. Prakasha [79] analyzed the
mechanism of limiting the cracking of clay with
sand by triaxial test. In order to verify that
adding PPF to bentonite could reduce its
tensile cracking and contraction deformation,
the BSGF mixtures in T2 and T3 was used as
the experimental control group. The changes
of each group of specimens were observed
under the same drying conditions.
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 19

From Fig. 12(a), it can be seen that the BSGF
mixtures exhibited volume shrinkage during
the drying process, and the internal stress
distribution was not uniform due to the
different water loss rate. When the surface
tension load was greater than the material
strength, the BSGF mixtures would produce
dry cracks. When the sand content was 0, the
crack completely penetrated the whole
specimen vertically, and even cut into two
parts in the radial direction. With further
addition of sand content, the development
depth of the crack gradually decreased, and
the crack failed to penetrate the specimen. As
sand content reached 50%, the cracks were
obviously reduced and the specimen was
relatively complete. Therefore, with addition
of sand content, the vertical and radial
development of cracks in mixtures were
Rs=0% Rs=10%
be seen on the surface of the specimens, and
the whole specimen was relatively complete.
When sand content reached 50%, no obvious
cracks appeared on the surface of the
specimens. Therefore, the addition of PPF to
bentonite mixtures could reduce the
expansion of the buffer barrier, but could
effectively reduce its cracking and ensure the
safety and functionality of the artificial buffer
barrier.
4.5. Hydraulic conductivity properties
Fig. 13 reveled that the hydraulic conductivity
of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3 increased
exponentially with the increase of sand
content. At sand content of 0, the hydraulic
conductivity of BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3
was very small, which was less than or around
1E13 m/s. After adding sand, the hydraulic
Rs=30% Rs=50%

(a) Unreinforced BSGF mixture in T2

Rs=0% Rs=10% Rs=30% Rs=50%

(b) Reinforced BSGF mixture in T3 Fig.

12. Cracks in specimens at the end of desiccation.

inhibited. Fig. 12(b) showed that when the
sand content was 0, there were fewer cracks
and the whole specimen was not penetrated.
With the increase of sand content, the depth
and number of cracks decreased obviously. As
sand content was 30%, only small cracks could
conductivity presented a slight increase at first,
but it increased significantly with further
addition of sand content. Especially, the
smaller the dry density was, the faster the
hydraulic conductivity increased. However,
hydraulic conductivity remained at a low level
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 20

(around or below 1E12 m/s). Many scholars to Fig. 13(a), when dry density was 1.7 g/cm3
had reached a consistent conclusion by and the sand content was greater than 39.1%,
studying the permeability of bentonite sand the BSGF mixtures in T1 could not meet the
mixtures [4,6]. Cho et al. [80] discovered that requirement of low level of hydraulic conduc-
the hydraulic conductivity increased
exponentially (one to two orders of magnitude)
and was at a low level (<1E11 m/s) when the
sand content in bentonite increased from 0%
to 70%. However, Zhang et al. [3] obtained the
hydraulic characteristics of GMZ bentonite
sand mixtures through a series of experiments.
The test results showed that with the increase
of sand content from 0% to 50%, the hydraulic
conductivity increased slightly, and the
maximum hydraulic conductivity value was less
than 1E10 m/s. This may be due to the larger
Sand content (%)
sand particles used in the test (0.5–1.0 mm),
(a) Under different dry density
which leads to the formation of more and
more water transport channels. Abichou et al.
[22] obtained similar conclusions by studying
the hydraulic conductivity of bentonite sand
mixtures. Abichou believed that the reason
why the initial addition of sand could not
improve the hydraulic conductivity was that
bentonite still played a major role. However,
with the increase of sand content, the pore
space and soil structure will gradually be
occupied by sand grains, which caused the
formation of large sand void in the mixtures,
thus significantly improved the hydraulic Sand content (%)
conductivity. (b) Water content, 10%; Dry density,
1.8g/cm3
Another crucial function of HLW repository is
Fig. 13. Relationships between the hydraulic conductivity and sand content for
to establish a low permeability zone to prevent BSGF mixtures in T1, T2 and T3.
or limit the release of radioactive materials
into the underground environment [4,81].
Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the tivity of the buffer material. For the BSGF
hydraulic conductivity of buffer materials in mixtures in T2, when the dry density was 1.7
order to prevent groundwater migration in g/cm3, the sand content exceeded 34.1%,
storage. Practice has proved that hydraulic and the dry density was 1.8 g/cm3, the sand
conductivity of the buffer material should not content exceeded 45.9%, the low level of
exceed 1E12 m/s, which can be sufficiently safe hydraulic conductivity could not meet
to ensure the availability of the buffer/backfill demand. For the BSGF mixtures in T3, when
materials in reducing the migration of water, the dry density was 1.7 g/ cm3, the sand
chemicals and radionuclides [67,82]. According content exceeded 32.1%, and the dry density
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 21

was 1.8 g/cm3, the sand content exceeded 5. Summary and conclusions

42.6%, the low level of hydraulic conductivity

In this paper, a series of laboratory tests and
of the buffer material could not be satisfied.
systematic analysis were carried out on the
Fig. 13(b) displayed the relationship between
THM properties of BSGF mixtures as buffer
hydraulic conductivity and sand content at a
material for HLW repository. The main
dry density of 1.8 g/cm3. It revealed that the
conclusions are as follows:
addition of graphite and PPF to the BSGF
mixtures in T2 and T3 could enhance the (1) The addition of graphite and PPF can
hydraulic conductivity of the BSGF mixtures. significantly improve the thermal
This was mainly due to that both graphite conductivity of BSGF mixtures. The
and PPF increased the void of BSGF mixtures
thermal conductivity of BSGF mixtures
in T1 and T2 by reducing the expansibility of
increase by 20–68% compare with that
bentonite, resulting in an increase in
of bentonite sand mixtures. With the
hydraulic conductivity. Furthermore, at low
density, the addition of graphite and PPF had increase of sand content, the thermal
a significant effect on the hydraulic conductivity of BSGF mixtures
conductivity of BSGF mixtures. increases. However, with the further
increase of sand content, the increase
Considering the recommended sand content
rate of thermal conductivity tends to
previously determined in accordance with
stabilize or decrease.
thermal conductivity (<30%), the strength
(2) The UCS and shear strength (cohesion)
(<27%), maximum swelling pressure (<31%)
and hydraulic conductivity (<32%) tests, the of BSGF mixtures improve by 12–23%
preferred selection of the sand content in and 21–48% by adding graphite and
the mixtures as a buffer material should not PPF compared with the bentonite sand
exceed 27% from the perspective of THM buffer materials. However, the internal
properties. Pacovsky [55] studied the friction angle has little change. In the
thermal conductivity of RMN bentonite. process of shear, the PPF interlacing
Quartz and graphite were important effect limits the deformation and
materials to improve the thermal displacement of the BSGF mixtures,
conductivity of bentonite. The effect of prevents the further development and
additive content on thermal conductivity was
extension of cracks. Interface bond
also studied. The suitable mass ratio of RMN
strength and friction are the main
bentonite, quartz sand and graphite were
mechanisms to control the effect of
85%:10%:5%. In this paper, it is suggested
that the proportion of bentonite, sand, reinforcement.
graphite and PPF should be 74.5, 20, 5 and (3) The maximum swelling pressure and
0.5%, respectively. Nevertheless, the long- hydraulic conductivity of BSGF all
term behavior of BSGF mixtures or PPF at present an exponential change with
high temperature and the ir exposure to high sand content. The addition of graphite
radiation have not been investigated. and PPF reduce the maximum swelling
pressure of the buffer material and
improves its hydraulic conductivity. In
the process of permeation, graphite
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994 22

[5] E. Ballarini, B. Graupner, S. Bauer, Thermal-hydraulic-mechanical behavior

and PPF improve the hydraulic of bentonite and sand-bentonite materials as seal for a nuclear waste
conductivity mainly by inhibiting the repository: numerical simulation of column experiments, Appl. Clay Sci.
135 (2017) 289– 299.
swelling of bentonite. [6] M. Zhang, H. Zhang, L. Zhou, B. Wang, S. Wang, Hydro-mechanical analysis
of GMZ bentonite-sand mixtures in the water infiltration process as the
(4) The addition of PPF controls the width, buffer/ backfill mixture in an engineered nuclear barrier, Appl. Clay Sci.
97–98 (2014) 115–124.
area and propagation of the cracks [7] A. Inoue, N. Kohyama, R. Kitagawa, T. Watanabe, Chemical and
morphological evidence for the conversion of smectite to illite, Clay. Clay
through the fiber interlacing effect, and Miner. 35 (2) (1987) 111–120.
reduce the connectivity of the crack [8] S.L. Cui, H.Y. Zhang, M. Zhang, Swelling characteristics of compacted GMZ
bentonite-sand mixtures as a buffer/backfill material in China, Eng. Geol.
network of BSGF mixtures. 141 (2012) 65–73.
[9] R. Gomez-Espina, M.V. Villar, Geochemical and mineralogical changes in
(5) For BSGF mixtures as buffer material compacted MX-80 bentonite submitted to heat and water gradients, Appl.
Clay Sci. 47 (3–4) (2010) 400–408.
for HLW repository, in order to ensure [10] X. Pintado, A. Lloret, Thermohydraulic test on bentonite, J. Therm. Anal.
Calorim. 84 (2) (2006) 325–330.
that the swelling pressure and [11] T. Sandén, U. Nilsson, L. Andersson, Investigation of parameters
hydraulic conductivity meet the influencing bentonite block quality, Laboratory investigation. SKB P-16-06,
Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB, 2016.
requirements of the specification, the [12] U. Chaduvula, B.V.S. Viswanadham, J. Kodikara, A study on desiccation
cracking behavior of polyester fiber-reinforced expansive clay, Appl. Clay
sand content should be kept below Sci. 142 (2017) 163–172.
[13] C.J. Miller, H. Mi, N. Yesiller, Experimental analysis of desiccation crack
31% and 32% respectively. For propagation in clay liners 1, J. Am. Water Resour. Ass. 34 (3) (1998) 677–
686.
maximum heat dissipation and [14] K. Witt, R. Zeh, Cracks due to desiccation in cover lining systems
strength, sand content should not phenomena and design strategy, in: International Workshop LIRIGM,
Grenoble University, France, Citeseer, 2005.
exceed 30% and 27%, respectively. [15] A. Sridharan, K. Prakash, Shrinkage limit of soil mixtures, Geotech. Test. J.
23 (1) (2000) 3–8.
From the perspective of THM [16] W.J. Cho, J.O. Lee, S. Kwon, An empirical model for the thermal
conductivity of compacted bentonite and a bentonite-sand mixture, Heat
properties, the sand content should not Mass Transfer 47 (11) (2011) 1385–1393.
be more than 27%. [17] M. Wang, Y.F. Chen, S. Zhou, R. Hu, C.-B. Zhou, A homogenization-based
model for the effective thermal conductivity of bentonite-sand-based
buffer material, Int. Commun. Heat Mass 68 (2015) 43–49.
[18] M. Moss, M.A. Molecke, Thermal conductivity of bentonite/quartz high-
level waste package backfill, Mrs Proceedings 15 (1982).
[19] M. Emirog˘lu, A. Yalama, Y. Erdog˘du, Performance of ready-mixed clay
Declaration of Competing Interest plasters produced with different clay/sand ratios, Appl. Clay Sci. 115
(2015) 221–229.
[20] H. Akgun, M. Ada, M.K. Kockar, Performance assessment of a bentonite-
The authors declared that there is no sand mixture for nuclear waste isolation at the potential Akkuyu Nuclear
conflict of interest. Waste Disposal Site, southern Turkey, Environ. Earth Sci. 73 (10) (2015)
6101–6116.
[21] S. Kaoser, S. Barrington, M. Elektorowicz, T. Ayadat, The influence of
hydraulic gradient and rate of erosion on hydraulic conductivity of sand-
Acknowledgements bentonite mixtures, Soil Sediment Contam. 15 (5) (2006) 481–496.
[22] T. Abichou, C.H. Benson, T.B. Edil, Micro-structure and hydraulic
conductivity of simulated sand-bentonite mixtures, Clay. Clay Miner. 50
Authors are very thankful for the technical and (5) (2002) 537– 545.
financial support provided by the National Key [23] P.V. Sivapullaiah, A. Sridharan, V.K. Stalin, Hydraulic conductivity of
bentonitesand mixtures, Can. Geotech. J. 37 (2) (2000) 406–413.
R&D Program of China (2016YFC0800200), the [24] H. Komine, Predicting hydraulic conductivity of sand-bentonite mixture
backfill before and after swelling deformation for underground disposal of
National Natural Science Foundation of China radioactive wastes, Eng. Geol. 114 (3–4) (2010) 123–134.
(No. 41672294, No. 41877231). [25] D.A. Sun, H. Cui, W. Sun, Swelling of compacted sand-bentonite mixtures,
Appl. Clay Sci. 43 (3) (2009) 485–492.
[26] D.a. Sun, J. Zhang, J. Zhang, L. Zhang, Swelling characteristics of GMZ
References
bentonite and its mixtures with sand, Appl. Clay Sci. 83–84 (2013) 224–
230.
[1] S.Y. Yang, H.D. Ye, et al., Modeling transient heat transfer in nuclear waste
[27] A. NEA, Engineered barrier systems and the safety of deep geological
repositories, J. Hazard. Mater. 169 (1–3) (2009) 108–112.
[2] J.O. Lee, K. Birch, H.J. Choi, Coupled thermal-hydro analysis of repositories, OECD-NEA Paris, 2003.
unsaturated buffer and backfill in a high-level waste repository, Ann. Nucl. [28] M.D. Abràmoff, P.J. Magalhães, S.J. Ram, Image processing with ImageJ,
Engery 72 (2014) 63–75. Biophoton. int. 11 (7) (2004) 36–42.
[3] M. Zhang, H. Zhang, S. Cui, L. Jia, L. Zhou, H. Chen, Engineering properties [29] M. Leung, C. Vipulanandan, Treating contaminated, cracked and
of GMZ bentonite-sand as buffer/backfilling material for high-level waste permeable field clay with grouts, in: Proceedings of the Specialty
disposal, Eur. J. Environ. Civ. En. 16 (10) (2012) 1216–1237. Conference on Geotechnical Practice in Waste Disposal. Geotechnical
[4] L. Xu, W.M. Ye, B. Chen, Y.G. Chen, Y.J. Cui, Experimental investigations on Special Publication, 1995, pp. 829–843.
thermo-hydro-mechanical properties of compacted GMZ01 bentonite-
sand mixture using as buffer materials, Eng. Geol. 213 (2016) 46–54.
 X. Liu et al. /International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 981–994
[30] G. Omidi, T. Prasad, J. Thomas, K. Brown, The influence of amendments
on the volumetric shrinkage and integrity of compacted clay soils used in
landfill liners, Water Air Soil Poll. 86 (1–4) (1996) 263–274.
[31] D.H. Gray, Role of woody vegetation in reinforcing soils and stabilizing
slopes, in: Proc. Symp. Soil Reinforcing and Stabilising Techniques, Sydney,
Australia, 1978, pp. 253–306.
[32] T.H. Wu, R.M. McOmber, R.T. Erb, P.E. Beal, Study of soil-root interaction,
J. Geotech. Eng. 114 (12) (1988) 1351–1375.
[33] S.M. Hejazi, M. Sheikhzadeh, S.M. Abtahi, A. Zadhoush, A simple review of
soil reinforcement by using natural and synthetic fibers, Constr. Build.
Mater. 30 (2012) 100–116.
[34] B. Viswanadham, B. Jha, S. Pawar, Influence of geofibers on the flexural
behavior of compacted soil beams, Geosynth. Int. 17 (2) (2010) 86–99.
[35] Y. Cai, B. Shi, C.W. Ng, C.S. Tang, Effect of polypropylene fibre and lime
admixture on engineering properties of clayey soil, Eng. Geol. 87 (3–4)
(2006) 230–240.
[36] R. Al Wahab, Using fibers to reduce tension cracks and shrink/swell in
compacted clays, Proc. of Geoenviron. 2000 (1) (1995) 791–805.
[37] A. Karaipekli, A. Sarı, K. Kaygusuz, Thermal conductivity improvement of
stearic acid using expanded graphite and carbon fiber for energy storage
applications, Renew. Energ. 32 (13) (2007) 2201–2210.
[38] M. Jobmann, G. Buntebarth, Influence of graphite and quartz addition on
the thermo-physical properties of bentonite for sealing heat-generating
radioactive waste, Appl. Clay Sci. 44 (3–4) (2009) 206–210.
[39] P.G. Klemens, D.F. Pedraza, Thermal conductivity of graphite in the basal
plane, Carbon 32 (4) (1994) 735–741.
[40] L.R. Radovic, Chemistry & Physics of Carbon, vol. 31, CRC Press, 2012.
[41] Z.G. Chen, C.S. Tang, C. Zhu, B. Shi, Y.M. Liu, Compression, swelling and
rebound behavior of GMZ bentonite/additive mixture under coupled
hydromechanical condition, Eng. Geol. 221 (2017) 50–60.
[42] F. Delaleux, X. Py, R. Olives, A. Dominguez, Enhancement of geothermal
borehole heat exchangers performances by improvement of bentonite
grouts conductivity, Appl. Therm. Eng. 33–34 (2012) 92–99.
[43] E. Tiedje, P. Guo, Thermal conductivity of bentonite grout containing
graphite or chopped carbon fibers, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26 (7) (2014).
[44] J. Pacovsky´, J. Svoboda, L. Zapletal, Saturation development in the
bentonite barrier of the Mock-Up-CZ geotechnical experiment, Phys.
Chem. Earth 32 (8– 14) (2007) 767–779.
[45] R. Vasieek, Mock-up-CZ Experiment, CTU Prague, Faculty of Civil
Enginering Centre of Experimental Geotechnics, 2007.
[46] S. Erol, B. Francois, Efficiency of various grouting materials for borehole
heat exchangers, Appl. Therm. Eng. 70 (1) (2014) 788–799.
[47] I. Indacoechea-Vega, P. Pascual-Munoz, D. Castro-Fresno, D. Zamora-
Barraza, Durability of geothermal grouting materials considering extreme
loads, Constr. Build. Mater. 162 (2018) 732–739.
[48] L. Liu, G. Cai, S. Liu, Compression properties and micro-mechanisms of
rubbersand particle mixtures considering grain breakage, Constr. Build.
Mater. 187 (2018) 1061–1072.
[49] A.M. Tang, Y.J. Cui, T.T. Le, A study on the thermal conductivity of
compacted bentonites, Appl. Clay Sci. 41 (3–4) (2008) 181–189.
[50] J.K. Mitchell, K. Soga, Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 2005.
[51] D.A. Dixon, M.N. Gray, A.W. Thomas, A study of the compaction
properties of potential clay study buffer mixtures for use in nuclear fuel
waste disposal, Eng. Geol. 21 (3–4) (1985) 247–255.
[52] Y. Xu, D.A. Sun, Z. Zeng, H. Lv, Temperature dependence of apparent
thermal conductivity of compacted bentonites as buffer material for high-
level radioactive waste repository, Appl. Clay Sci. 174 (2019) 10–14.
[53] M.J. Kim, S.R. Lee, J.S. Jeon, S. Yoon, Sensitivity analysis of bentonite
buffer peak temperature in a high-level waste repository, Ann. Nucl.
Engery 123 (2019) 190–199.
[54] C.L. Yen, H.C. Tseng, Y.Z. Wang, K.H. Hsieh, Thermal conductivity of glass
fiber reinforced polypropylene under high pressure, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 42
(5) (1991) 1179–1184.
[55] J. Pacovsky, Some results from geotechnical research on bentonite, CTU
reports–experimental investigation of building materials and
technologies, Burges (2002) 107–116.
[56] M. Tuller, T.B. Gebrenegus, Polypropylene Fiber Amendments to Alleviate
Initiation and Evolution of Desiccation Cracks in Bentonite Liners, in: Agu
Fall Meeting, 2009.
[57] ASTM D5334-08. Standard Test Method for Determination of Thermal
Conductivity of Soil and Soft Rock by Thermal Needle Probe Procedure.
23
[58] T. Zhang, S. Liu, G. Cai, A.J. Puppala, Experimental investigation of thermal
and mechanical properties of lignin treated silt, Eng. Geol. 196 (2015) 1–
11.
[59] G. Cai, T. Zhang, A.J. Puppala, S. Liu, Thermal characterization and
prediction model of typical soils in Nanjing area of China, Eng. Geol. 191
(2015) 23–30.
[60] ASTM D2166-06. Standard Test Method for Unconfined Compressive
Strength of Cohesive Soil.
[61] ASTM D6528-07. Standard Test Method for Consolidated Undrained
Direct Simple Shear Testing of Cohesive Soils (Withdrawn 2016).
[62] ASTM D4546-08. Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Swell or
Collapse of Cohesive Soils.
[63] ASTM D5856-95. Standard Test Method for Measurement of Hydraulic
Conductivity of Porous Material Using a Rigid-Wall, Compaction-Mold
Permeameter.
[64] M. Kamon, H.Y. Zhang, T. Katsumi, N. Sawa, Redox effect on the hydraulic
conductivity of clay liner, Soils Found. 42 (6) (2002) 79–91.
[65] M.V. Villar, J. Cuevas, P.L. Martin, Effects of heat water flow interaction on
compacted bentonite: preliminary results, Eng. Geol. 41 (1–4) (1996) 257–
267.
[66] Z. Tao, G. Cai, S. Liu, A.J. Puppala, Investigation on thermal characteristics
and prediction models of soils, Int. Heat Mass Tran. 106 (2017) 1074–
1086.
[67] A. Hedin, Long-term safety for KBS-3 repositories at Forsmark and
Laxemar-a first evaluation. Main Report of the SR-Can project, Swedish
Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co., 2006.
[68] D.E. Daniel, Y.K. Wu, Compacted clay liners and covers for arid sites
closure, J. Geotech. Eng. 120 (8) (1994) 1461.
[69] C.S. Tang, J. Li, D.Y. Wang, B. Shi, Investigation on the interfacial
mechanical behavior of wave-shaped fiber reinforced soil by pullout test,
Geotext. Geomembr. 44 (6) (2016) 872–883.
[70] C.S. Tang, B. Shi, L.Z. Zhao, Interfacial shear strength of fiber reinforced
soil, Geotext. Geomembr. 28 (1) (2010) 54–62.
[71] J.D. Frost, J. Han, Behavior of interfaces between fiber-reinforced
polymers and sands, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. 125 (8) (1999) 633–640.
[72] C. Tang, B. Shi, W. Gao, F. Chen, Y. Cai, Strength and mechanical behavior
of short polypropylene fiber reinforced and cement stabilized clayey soil,
Geotext. Geomembr. 25 (3) (2007) 194–202.
[73] J.E. Dove, D.D. Bents, J. Wang, B. Gao, Particle-scale surface interactions
of nondilative interface systems, Geotext. Geomembr. 24 (3) (2006) 156–
168.
[74] H. Komine, Simplified evaluation for swelling characteristics of bentonites,
Eng. Geol. 71 (3–4) (2004) 265–279.
[75] M.V. Villar, A. Lloret, Influence of dry density and water content on the
swelling of a compacted bentonite, Appl. Clay Sci. 39 (1–2) (2008) 38–49.
[76] J.S. Kim, Geological storage of high level nuclear waste, KSCE J. Civ. Eng.
15 (4) (2011) 721–737.
[77] O.N.E. Agency, Radioactive Waste Management Engineered Barrier
Systems and the Safety of Deep Geological Repositories State-of-the-art
Report Edition complete – en angl. seulement, 2003.
[78] M. Emiroglu, A. Yalama, Y. Erdogdu, Performance of ready-mixed clay
plasters produced with different clay/sand ratios, Appl. Clay Sci. 115
(2015) 221–229.
[79] K.S. Prakasha, V.S. Chandrasekaran, Behavior of marine sand-clay
mixtures under static and cyclic triaxial shear, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. 131
(2) (2005) 213–222.
[80] W.J. Cho, J.O. Lee, C.H. Kang, Hydraulic conductivity of bentonite-sand
mixture for a potential backfill material for a high-level radioactive waste
repository, Nucl. Eng. Technol. 32 (5) (2000) 495–503.
[81] Q. Wang, Y.J. Cui, T. Anh Minh, J.-D. Barnichon, S. Saba, W.-M. Ye,
Hydraulic conductivity and microstructure changes of compacted
bentonite/sand mixture during hydration, Eng. Geol. 164 (2013) 67–76.
[82] H. Laine, P. Karttunen, Long-term stability of bentonite. A literature
review, Posiva Oy, 2010.