Block 1

MEVE 011
Indira Gandhi National Open University

School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies

Indira Gandhi National Open University
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
Dr. Himanshu Pathak, Prof. P.A. Azeez Prof I.S. Thakur
Director, ICAR-National Director, SACON, School of Environmental
Rice Research Institute Coimbatore Sciences, JNU, New Delhi
Cuttack, Odisha
Prof Uma Melkania Prof. Nidhi Rai Prof. Jitendra Pandey,
Dean, College of Basic University College of Department of Botany,
Sciences and Humanities, Science, M.L. Sukhadia Faculty of Science, BHU
GBPUAT, Pantnagar University, Udaipur
Prof. R. Baskar Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar, Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya,
Dept. of Environmental School of Environment & Department of Civil and
Science & Engineering, Natural Resources, Doon Environmental Engineering,
Guru Jambheshwar University, Dehradun Birla Institute of
University of Science & Technology, Mesra, Ranchi
Technology, Hisar, Haryana
Dr. Pulak Das Prof. Jaswant Sokhi Prof Neera Kapoor
School of Human Ecology, SOS, IGNOU SOS, IGNOU
Ambedkar University, Delhi New Delhi. New Delhi.
Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik, Prof. P.K. Biswas Prof. S.K.Yadav
SOS, IGNOU STRIDE, IGNOU SOA, IGNOU
New Delhi. New Delhi. New Delhi.
Prof. Shachi Shah Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor, Prof. Shubhangi Vaidya,
Director SOITS, IGNOU, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi. SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
New Delhi.
Prof. B. Rupini Dr. Sadananda Sahoo, Dr. Sushmitha Baskar,
SOITS, IGNOU, New SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi. SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Delhi.
Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, Dr. Deeksha Dave Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
SOITS, IGNOU SOITS, IGNOU SOITS, IGNOU
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, Dr. Deeksha Dave
School of Interdisciplinary School of Interdisciplinary School of Interdisciplinary
and Trans-disciplinary and Trans-disciplinary and Trans-disciplinary
Studies, IGNOU Studies, IGNOU Studies, IGNOU
COURSECOORDINATOR
Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU,
New Delhi.
CONTENT EDITORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan,
School of Interdisciplinary and Trans- School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi.
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Units Contributors
1, 3, 4 Dr. Ragini Kumari, ARD, IGNOU, New Delhi.
2 Dr. Ujjwal Kumar, SENR - School of Environment & Natural Resource,
Doon University, Dehradun
5 Dr. Omkar Verma, (Adopted from MEV 021),
School of Science, IGNOU, New Delhi
6 Dr. Sandhya Misra (Adopted from MEV 021), Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeosciences, Lucknow.
Dr. Krishna G. Misra (Unit 6), Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences,
Lucknow.
Dr. Vikram Singh Negi (Unit 6), Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences,
Lucknow.
Dr. Akhilesh Kumar Yadava (Unit 6), Birbal Sahni Institute of
Palaeosciences, Lucknow.
7 Dr. Puneeta Pandey, Assistant Professor, Centre for Environmental
Sciences and Technology, School of Environment and Earth Sciences,
Central University of Punjab, Bathinda.
8 Dr. Puneeta Pandey, (Adopted from MEV 021), Assistant Professor,
Centre for Environmental Sciences and Technology, School of
Environment and Earth Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda.
9 Dr. Nisha Varghese, (Adopted from MEV 022), SOEDS, IGNOU
10 Dr. Shiv Prasad, (Adopted from MEV 022), Principal Scientist, CESCRA,
IARI New Delhi.
Dr. K.R. Sheetal, (Unit 10), ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Regional Research Station Bikaner, Rajasthan.
Dr. P.S. Renjith, (Unit 10), ICAR-Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Regional Research Station Bikaner, Rajasthan.
11 Dr. Shresth Tayal, Area Convener, Centre for Himalayan Ecology,
Adjunct Faculty, TERI University.
12 Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, (Unit 12), Environmental Studies, SOITS, IGNOU,
New Delhi.
13 Prof. Shachi Shah, (Adopted from MEV 023), Environmental Studies,
SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
14, 15 Dr. Umesh Chandra Pandey, Regional Director, IGNOU, New Delhi.
16 Dr. G. Uma, SOGDS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
FORMAT AND LANGUAGE EDITORS

Prof. Shachi Shah, School of Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, Environmental
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi. Trans-disciplinary Studies, IGNOU, New
Delhi.
PRODUCTION
Mr. Tilak Raj
Assistant Registrar
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
January, 2022
©Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
All rights reserved No part of this work may be reproduced in any from, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission is writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further Information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from
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Printed and publish on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University by Registrar, MPDD,
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Contents
Page
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Unit 1 Atmosphere and Climate
Unit 2 Physical Basis of Climate Change
Unit 3 Natural Causes of Climate change
Unit 4 Anthropogenic Causes of Climate change
BLOCK 2 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE – PAST AND FUTURE
CLIMATE
Unit 5 Account of Past Climate
Unit 6 Environmental Indicators and Instrumental Records
Unit 7 Climate Variability and Extreme Weather Events
Unit 8 Predicting Future Climate
BLOCK 3 IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Unit 9 Agriculture
Unit 10 Ocean Ecosystem
Unit 11 Mountain and Hill Ecosystems
Unit 12 Human Health
BLOCK 4 RESPONSE STRATEGIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Unit 13 Adaptive Strategies and Capacities
Unit 14 Mitigation Strategies
Unit 15 Education and Capacity Building
Unit 16 Climate Change Policy
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Earth is a constantly changing planet since its formation around 4.6 billion
years ago and hence, its climate is also witnessing changes from time to time.
Weather and climate have a profound influence on life on earth. Over time,
the earth has developed a climate that nurtures the life system and the planet
is flourished with a whole lot of flora, fauna and human beings. The survival
of human beings is solely dependent on the conducive climate that the earth
provides. However, human intervention has changed the climate system
adversely.Climate change as science has received unprecedented attention
from both scientific institutions and academia. Climate change is a global
issue that requires worldwide cooperation and negotiations for developing the
necessary actions to combat its effects. This requires the integration of
adaptation into existing policies and processes, taking into account the
broader policy objectives and wider costs and benefits.This course covers
climate system, causes of climate change, past and future climate, impacts of
climate change and conventions on climate change.
Objectives
After studying this course, you should be able to:
• discuss the structure and composition of the atmosphere;
• discuss the global energy budget;
• discuss the climate forcing mechanism;
• explain the natural and anthropogenic causes of climate change;
• describe the sources of palaeoclimate information;
• explain the significance of instrumental records and proxy climate
indicators;
• discuss the extreme weather events;
• explain the emission scenarios;
• explain the impacts of climate change on agriculture, ocean ecosystem,
mountain ecosystems and human health;
• explain the adaptive strategies from the perspective of climate change;
• discuss the mitigation strategies;
• discuss climate change education;
• explain the significance of the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement on
Climate Change; and
• describe National Action Plan on Climate Change.
We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.

Wishing you success in this endeavour!
BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL CLIMATE
CHANGE
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION
Weather and climate have a profound influence on life on earth. Over time,
the earth has developed a climate that nurtures the life system and the planet
is flourished with a whole lot of flora, fauna and human beings. The survival
of human beings is solely dependent on the conducive climate that the earth
provides. However, human intervention has changed the climate system
adversely. This block covers the climate system, the physical basis of climate
change and natural and anthropogenic causes of climate change.
Unit 1 "Atmosphere and Climate" deals with the structure and composition of
the atmosphere and global energy budget.
Unit 2 “Physical Basis of Climate Change” deals with radiative forcing,
radiation balance and climate forcing mechanism.
Unit 3 “Natural Causes of Climate Change” deals with the natural causes of
climate change like earth’s obliquity, eccentricity, precession, volcanic
eruptions, changes in ocean currents, etc.
Unit 4 “Anthropogenic Causes of Climate Change” deals with the role of
urbanization, deforestation and desertification on climate change.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this block, you should be able to:
• discuss radiation balance;
• discuss the climate forcing mechanism;
• explain the Earth’s tilt, rotation and orbital changes;
• explain the role of volcanic eruptions on climate change;
• explain the El Niño, La Niña Cycle and the Arctic Oscillation;
• explain the role of tectonic plates movement on climate change;
• explain the role of urbanization on climate change;
• explain the role of deforestation and desertification on climate change;
and
• explain the greenhouse gases emissions from the agriculture and
livestock sector.
We hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of
the climate system.
Wishing you success in this endeavour!
Atmosphere and
UNIT 1 ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE Climate
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 The Atmosphere
1.3.1 Thermal Stratification of Earth’s Atmosphere
1.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure
1.3.3 Composition of the Atmosphere
1.3.3.1 Greenhouse Gases

1.3.3.2 Aerosols
1.4 Solar Radiation
1.4.1 Global Energy Budget
1.5 Weather and Climate
1.5.1 Climate Variables
1.5.2 Climate Classification

1.5.3 Climate Change and Climate Variability
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Suggested Further Reading/References
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Weather and climate have a profound influence on life on earth. They affect
landforms, soil types and vegetation. They are part of the daily experience of
human beings and are essential for their health, food production and
wellbeing. To understand the science of climate change, it is important to
study the structure of the atmosphere, atmospheric composition, Global
Energy Budget, climate variables and climate classification. Through this
unit, we would be discussing the structure and composition of atmosphere,
and global energy budget, identify climate variables, differentiate between
climate change and climate variability.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define the atmosphere and climate;

9
Introduction to
Global Climate • identify the climate variables; and
Change
• differentiate between climate change and climate variability
1.3 THE ATMOSPHERE

Earth came to existence about 4.5 billion years ago and scientist found no
existence of atmosphere at that point. Then, natural volcanic activity was a
continuous phenomenon and the Earth existed in the form of hot gaseous
mass having surface temperature more than 80000C. The gases captured
inside the magma slowly released. Major gases emitted then were carbon
dioxide (CO2), water vapour and ammonia and the atmosphere were devoid
of oxygen i.e., reducing atmosphere. Later, as Earth started to cool down,
cloud started to form and as a result, the Earth experienced rain and water
bodies like ocean basins got filled up. CO2 present in the atmosphere
dissolved with water and carbonic acid so formed poured down on the Earth
and that’s how carbonate rock would have formed. Scientists have given
many theories behind the formation of Earth’s atmosphere and life in
particular. It was water and presence of sunlight that has made possible the
formation of oxygen over geological time scale and so to the life of the Earth.
On planet Earth, life became possible as a result of having blanket of gases

called atmosphere which extends up to 9600Km from the Earth’s surface. An
interesting question comes to our mind. What makes possible the gaseous
blanket, called atmosphere to surround the Earth? Any guess? Of course, the
gravitational pull of the Earth makes atmosphere inseparable from the mother
Earth.
As, we move higher in altitude, the density of air declines. Since, atmosphere
is made up gases so it can be compressed. Atmosphere has not only provided
the adequate temperature to sustain life but also given other suitable
conditions to flourish. Trenberth and Guillemot, 1994,estimated the total dry
mass of the atmosphere as 5.13 x 1018 Kg. More than 97% of the air is
concentrated up to 29km from the Earth’s surface. In spite of lesser density to
that of land (lithosphere) or water (hydrosphere), air exerts pressure on the
surface which is called as atmospheric pressure.
Is it good to have atmosphere on the Earth?
Undoubtedly you will respond, yes! It is this blanket of gases which provides
us O2 to breath and CO2 to plants to photosynthesize and much more. Ozone
made life possible by absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Over geographical
time scale i.e., millions of years the atmosphere got thermally stratified which
has impacted its composition and vice-versa.
10
1.3.1 Thermal Stratification of Earth’s Atmosphere Atmosphere and
Climate
Earth’s atmospheric temperature varies with height from the ground. The
atmosphere can be divided into five layers. Starting from the Earth’s surface,
these are troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and
exosphere.
Troposphere
The troposphere is the layer nearest to Earth's surface. The height of the
troposphere varies with location, being higher over warmer areas and lower
over colder areas. The boundary where troposphere ends is called the
tropopause. It varies with location ie., from 5-6 km at colder areas like pole
and 18 km at the warmer area like equator. This layer has the highest density
in comparison to the rest and contains 80% of the atmospheric mass.
Nitrogen is predominant (78% by volume) followed by oxygen (20.9%),
argon (0.93% by volume), carbon dioxide (0.04%), etc. This layer is very
turbulent and has strong vertical movement of air. Due to this vertical
movement of air mass, air pollution gets diluted from the point of its origin
and settles to the ground as a result of precipitation. All weather phenomena
occur in this layer. As you go up in the troposphere, atmospheric temperature
decline at the rate of 6.50C per km.
As we move up the air mass get colder in this layer and so it becomes heavier
and tries to push down air mass beneath which is warmer and that’s how
creates the vertical movement of air mass.
Fig.1.1: The layers of atmosphere.

Source: https://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/lectures/33.html
11
Introduction to
Global Climate
Change
Fig. 1.2: Relationship of temperature (0C) and pressure (mb) with height (km)
a) The Stratosphere
The Stratosphere is the layer next to the troposphere. “Strat” means layer and
this layer of our atmosphere has its own set of layers.This layer has
increasing temperature trend with height and air mass becomes stable. The
boundary where stratosphere ends is called the stratopause. This layer ends at
about 50 km above ground. Ozone (O3) is predominant in the stratosphere. O3
absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun that causes heating of air and so
temperature increases with height and temperature inversion got noticed. The
air mass in this layer is much drier and much less dense than troposphere.
b) The Mesosphere
The layer next to stratosphere is called mesosphere. It starts from about 50

km and extends until 85 km from the ground. The upper most part of the
mesosphere is called the mesopause. The temperature in this layer decreases
with height like troposphere. This layer has nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2)
but the concentration are 1000 times less and with little water vapor present,
there occurs no weather phenomena. The mesopause becomes the coldest part
of Earth's atmosphere having temperature records of about - 900C. There is
much work to be done by the meteorologists because it’s difficult to collect
data at such a height where even meteors coming from outer space even
burns up.
c) The Thermosphere (Ionosphere)
The thermosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. In this layer the
temperature increases with height because it is being directly heated by the
sun. It extends from about 90 km to between 500 and 1,000 km. It is so close
to the Sun that temperatures can be as high as 1,5000C and as a result
ionization occurs. Ionization is the process of conversion of atoms or
12 molecules into ions in the presence of solar radiation.This layer has minimal
air density and so looks at par with the outer space. This is the layer where Atmosphere and
horizontal layers get formed and as a result radio wave gets reflected from Climate
this layer. This is the layer from where the aurorae occur too. Aurorae are the
natural light displaying phenomena in the Earth’s sky called as, northern
polar lights i.e., in Arctic as Aurora Borealis and in Antarctic, southern lights
as Aurora Australis.
How Aurora are formed?
This layer is so close to the Sun that particles from space gets charged and
they collide with atoms and molecules, exciting them into higher energy
states. The atoms in the excited states release this surplus energy by emitting
photons of light, which we visualize as the colourful Aurora Borealis and
Aurora Australis.
d) The Exosphere
The last layer, the exosphere, the last-layer, is quite thin and is where the
atmosphere mingles into the outer space. It consists of very widely dispersed
particles of hydrogen and helium.
1.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure

Like temperature, as we move higher in altitude, atmospheric pressure
declines but rate of decline reduces with height. Table 1.1 shows the changes
in sea-level pressure with altitude.
Table 1.1: Changes in Sea-level pressure (%) with Altitude
Altitude (km) Percentage of Sea-level pressure

0 100
5.6 50
16.2 10
31.2 1
65.1 0.01
Why do temperature and pressure decrease with height?
The molecules that make up the atmosphere are pulled close to the earth's
surface by gravity. This causes the atmosphere to be concentrated at the
Earth's surface and thin rapidly with height. Air pressure is a measure of the
weight of the molecules above you. As you move up in the atmosphere there
are fewer molecules above you, so the air pressure is lower. For example, at
10 miles up, 90% of the atmosphere is below you. At the peak of Mount
Everest, the air pressure is 70% lower than it is at sea level. This means when
mountain climbers breathe air on top of the mountain, they are only inhaling
30% of the oxygen they would get at sea level. It is no surprise that most
climbers use oxygen tanks when they climb Mt. Everest.
13
Introduction to
Global Climate Temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. This is true for a
Change couple of different reasons. First, even though the sun's energy comes down
from the sky, it is mostly absorbed by the ground. The ground is constantly
releasing this energy, as heat in infrared light, so the troposphere is actually
heated from the ground up, causing it to be warmer near the surface and
cooler higher up. Another reason is the decreasing air pressure with height. If
the warm air at the surface gets blown upward into the cooler air above it, the
surface air will continue to rise. As air rises into areas of lower pressure it
expands because there are less molecules around it to compress it. The
molecules in the air use some of their energy to move apart from each other,
causing the air temperature to decrease. The constantly decreasing air
pressure in conjunction with the ground-up heating keeps the temperature in
the troposphere decreasing with height.
In the real atmosphere, the actual vertical temperature structure depends on

air masses with specific properties of temperature and humidity being blown
into the area as well as effects of daytime heating. If you have a layer of air
with warm temperatures above the surface, we call that an "inversion". That
layer can act as a cap which prevents clouds and sometimes severe weather
from forming.
1.3.3 Composition of the Atmosphere

Earth’s atmosphere consists of gases, water vapour and dust particles. The
major constituents of Earth’s atmosphere are molecular gases like nitrogen
(N2), oxygen (O2), followed by argon (Ar). These three gases together share
99.9% of total by volume. Three transition gases carbon dioxide (CO2), neon
(Ne), and helium (He) account for 0.04% and remaining 0.06% accounts
more than hundreds of trace gases including methane (CH4). Other minor
gaseous constituents are CO2 0.04% by volume, whose share is continuously
increasing with the industrialization as a result of consumption of fossil fuel.
Fossil fuel alone has contributed more than 6x1015g carbon per year to the
atmosphere followed by deforestation and changes in land use.
Concentrations of CO2 is generally expressed in percentages (%) as well as in

mixing ratio of it to total air volume, such as parts per million (ppm). The
percentages are the percentage of the atmosphere made up by these gases. For
example, in 2009, CO2 concentration was 385ppm (10-6v/v); which means for
every million molecules; about 385 of them are CO2. Concentration of CO2
has increased from 280 ppm to 410 ppm (10-6v/v) post-industrialization.
Argon, neon, krypton, xenon are chemically inert and present in traces in the
atmosphere. Apart from these gases, water vapour and particulate matter
(dust) also present in the atmosphere. Methane (CH4), commonly known as
swamp gas has present in traces and has shorter life i.e., 10 years to that of
CO2 having 150-200 years. The global warming potential of CH4 is 21 times
to that of CO2 over 100 years of time scale. India having agriculturally based
14 economy makes it of further interest since wetlands, submerged rice-fields
and domestic cattle are dominant sources of methane emission followed by Atmosphere and
biomass burning, landfills, coal mines, etc. Tropospheric O3, contributing Climate
towards the formation of smog and so it’s of importance. Particulate matter

(PM) in atmosphere is defined as any dispersed matter, solid or liquid.
Particle size and number density vary spatio-temporally. PM size varies from
0.1-10µ in the atmosphere. Composition of PM varies from urban to rural
environment as well. The particulate mass level ranges from 10 µg/m3 in
clean air to 60-2000 µg/m3 in the polluted air in urban areas.
Table1.2: Constituents of the Atmosphere in % by Volume
Gas Percentage by Volume

N2 78.1
O2 20.9
Ar 0.9
CO2 0.03
Ne 0.0018
He 0.00005
CH4 Trace
H2 0.00005
O3 0.00006
Kr Trace
Xe Trace
NMHCs Trace
Halocarbons Trace
Where, NMHCs= Non-Methane Hydrocarbons;
1.3.3.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are gases that absorb reradiated (long wave)
radiation from the earth and emit it back to the atmosphere. Increase in
GHGs in atmosphere enhances trapping of radiation and so add on to
warming of the Earth and vice versa. CO2, CH4, N2O, water vapour, Black
carbon (BC) etc. are responsible for warming of the Earth. Concentrations of
GHGs are commonly given in percentages as well as mixing ratios of gases
to total air volume (v/v), such as parts per trillion (ppt), parts per billion
(ppb), and parts per million (ppm). Potential sources of GHGs are burning of
fossil fuel. Fossil fuel is any hydrogen and carbon rich substance that was
created by the decomposition of prehistoric plants and animals that can be
burned to produce heat or energy. This includes coal, petroleum, and natural
gas products.
15
Introduction to
Global Climate GHGs like CO2, CH4, etc. whose percentages vary diurnally, seasonally, and
Change annually, interact with incoming solar radiation (insolation) and infrared
radiation which is also called long wave radiation re-emitted from the earth
which affect the energy balance. Even though, the GHG concentration is in
ppm levels, they can significantly alter the global energy balance and
temperature over a period of time. The CO2 concentration, in 2009, was
about 385ppm, and is increasing at an average global rate of 1.9ppm per
annum. Presently, the carbon dioxide concentration is about 410 ppm.
a) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
CO2 is the most dominant GHG in the atmosphere (excluding water vapor).
In its natural occurrence it helps keep the earth at a comfortable and life-
sustaining temperature. However, it is also registered to be the main culprit
behind global warming. Anthropogenic activities like burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation, biomass-burning and cement production are notable sources of
CO2 production. Natural sources include respiration and volcanic eruptions.
CO2 is removed predominantly from the ecosystem as a result of
photosynthesis by plants and through oceanic absorption. From year 1957,
atmospheric CO2 is measured at the South Pole and 1958 at Mauna Loa,
Hawaii.
b) Methane (CH4)
CH4 is more commonly known as swamp gas. This is the second most
abundant greenhouse gas and it is 21 times more efficient at warming than
CO2. CO2 is much more abundant in the atmosphere and remains in the
atmosphere for a much longer period of time than methane and therefore has
a larger overall warming effect in the atmosphere than methane does.
Methane is produced anthropogenically by landfills, ruminant livestock,
biomass burning and natural gas systems. Some natural sources are wetlands
and termites. Methane is the largest component of natural gas, which is used
as a fuel source once the contaminants are removed.
The atmospheric lifespan of a molecule of methane is estimated to be around

12 years. Until industrial revolution, CH4 concentration recorded was 730ppb
but it has increased more than three times in the last decade, 1774ppb. Total
annual emission of CH4 has been estimated as 600 Tg, 60% of the total share
is by anthropogenic activities like agriculture, burning of fossil fuel and from
waste. CH4 has a mean absorption band at 7.7µm and has residence time of 9
to 15 years.
c) Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Nitrogen being dominant in share by volume, formation of nitrous oxide

(N2O) also known as laughing gas is one of the naturally occurring
greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. This is 200 times more
powerful GHG than a unit of CO2 in terms of global warming potential
16 calculated over a period of 100 years. In recent past, its concentration has
increased from 275ppb to 320ppb. Ocean and wet forest soils (9 Tg/year) are Atmosphere and
two predominant natural sources of nitrous oxide emission followed by Climate
anthropogenic i.e., deforestation and nitrogenous fertilizer (6Tg/year) to

atmosphere. Nitrous oxide has an absorption band at 7.8µm and 8.6 µm.
d) Halocarbons (CFCs)
Halocarbons are the substances responsible for the hole in the ozone layer.
Though they have been heavily regulated, they are still responsible for some
amount of global warming. Halocarbons are mostly man-made gases
consisting of both carbon and at least one of the halogens (fluorine, chlorine,
iodine, and bromine). The majority of them fall into the category of
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs. It is carbon-to-fluorine bonds in halocarbons
that oscillate and hence absorb at 9µm. It has ability to destroy stratospheric
ozone, but they are also very strong greenhouse gases. On average, they are
thousands of times more efficient at warming than CO2. Fortunately, their
concentrations are very small, so their powerful greenhouse effect is limited.
Their atmospheric lifespan can range from 1 to 50,000 years. The sources
include refrigerants and propellants. Most of these gases have been highly
regulated by the Montreal Protocol (1989) and the vast majority of them are
decreasing. Though emissions of CFC-12 have almost stopped, it is such a
long-lived gas that it is still responsible for some global warming as well as
the ozone hole.
Table1.3: Few examples of Halocarbons with their atmospheric lifetime

(years)
Formula Designation Atmospheric

Lifetime (Years)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFCl3 CFC-11 50
CF2Cl2 CFC-12 102
CF2ClCFCl2 CFC113 85
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) CHFC-22 12.1
CHF2Cl
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
CF3CH2F HFC134a 14.6
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
C2F6 Perfluoroethane 10,000
CF4 Tetrafluoromethane 50,000
Halons
CF3Br H-1301 65
Others
CH3Br Methyl bromide 0.7
CCl4 Carbon 26
tetrachloride
17
Introduction to
Global Climate You might know that CFCs are banned now, but do you know why? It is
Change because CFCs are depleting stratospheric ozone. It is the photolysis process
by which chlorine gets freed and it is the chlorine that destroys stratospheric
ozone.Molina and Rowland, 1974 were the first who has hypothesized that
CFCs are posing threat to the ozone layer.
e) Ozone (O3)
Ozone (O3) present in small quantity and not uniformly distributed and
highest concentration is around 10ppm found in stratosphere at a height 20-
25km. It has a strong absorption band at 9 µm. It acts as a UV-light filter at
that height by strongly absorbing UV in the region 220-330nm and hence
only small fraction of UV reaches the ground. O3 in the troposphere is
formed by photochemical reaction that accomplishes in the presence of short-
lived precursor gases like NOx, NMHCs and CO. Tropospheric ozone is
responsible for the formation of photochemical smog.
Formation of tropospheric ozone
O2 + hυ (242nm) → O + O
O + O2 +M (N2 or O2) → O3 + M
Where, M is the 3rd body which absorbs the excess energy emitted by the
above reaction and hence stabilizes the O3 molecule.
1.3.3.2 Aerosols
Aerosols are defined as microscopic liquid or solid particles of less than 10
µm diameter, dispersed in the atmosphere. Aerosols are non-uniform in shape
and size so equivalent aerodynamic diameter determined by comparing them
with perfect spheres having same settling velocity. Aerosols come from
volcanoes, dust storms, fires, vegetation, sea spray, burning of fossil fuels
and land use. Aerosols live only for days to weeks in comparison to other
GHGs in the troposphere.
Aerosols are more complicated than the typical greenhouse gas. It can do
both the cooling and heating of the atmosphere. They affect the Earth’s
energy balance in three ways: by enhancing albedo i.e., by reflecting back the
incoming solar radiation, by providing cloud condensation nuclei and by
more absorption of incoming solar radiation. Sulphate aerosols and sea spray
increases albedo and hence causes cooling. Black carbon (BC) and dark
sootenhances absorption of incoming solar radiation and its deposition over
snow-covered area changes the albedo as well. So, BC contributes to overall
warming of the Earth’s atmosphere by these two processes. BC being darker
in colour can absorb insolation 3-times to that of sulphate aerosols which are
lighter in colour and reflects light.
Aerosols having hydrophilic property support the growth of cloud droplets.

Abundance of aerosols is inversely proportional to the formation of cloud
18
droplets. Sulphate aerosols being light reflecting do not produce much Atmosphere and
precipitation. Silver iodide is used as cloud seeding which helps clouds to Climate
form droplets and causes increased rainfall.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What do you know about the vertical structure of the atmosphere?
……………………………………………………………………………
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1.4 SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion
(hydrogen into helium) reaction that creates electromagnetic energy. This
indicates the surface temperature of Sun as about 5800 K. Sun emits not only
in visible range but also UV-rays, infrared ray, X-rays, and even radio waves.
Out of these, about half of the radiation is in the visible range only. The other
half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part of the
spectrum. UV-rays range from 0.1 to 0.4 µm., visible (VIBGYOR) ranges
from 0.4-0.7 µm and infrared ray varies from 0.7 µm -1mm.
The direct solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere, ionosphere varies by
about 6.9% during a year. It is 1.412 kW/m² in early January whereas
1.321 kW/m² in early July because the distance between Earth and the Sun
varies.
Solar irradiance is measured by satellites above Earth's atmosphere, and is

then adjusted using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar
irradiance at one Astronomical Unit (AU) to evaluate the solar constant.
Roughly, one astronomical unit (AU) represents the mean distance between
the Earth and Sun. An AU is approximately 150 million km (93 million
miles).The diameter of the Sun is about 1382400 km. The mass of Sun is
about 332000 times more than the Earth. The angular diameter of the Earth as
seen from the Sun is about 1/11,700 radians, meaning the solid angle of the
Earth as seen from the Sun is about 1/175,000,000 of a steradian. Thus, the
Sun emits about 2.2 billion times the amount of radiation that is caught by
Earth, which is about 3.846×1026 watts.
19
Introduction to
Global Climate 1.4.1 Global Energy Budget
Change
a) Energy received by Earth
The earth received only a small fraction of the energy radiated by the Sun.
But this becomes the sole source of energy to sustain biological processes on
the Earth. Apart from sustaining biological processes, this energy is
potentially harvested as solar energy. The annual average radiative solar flux,
energy received per unit area of the earth at the top of the Earth's atmosphere
(=1360W/m2) is also referred to as the Solar Constant. The annual average
radiative solar flux is moreover constant,increasing by only 0.2% at the peak
of each 11-year solar cycle. Sunspots block out the light and reduce the
emission by a few tenths of a %, but bright spots, called plages, that are
connected with solar activity which are longer lived, so their overall
brightness compensates for the darkness of the sunspots. Moreover, as the
Sun burns up its hydrogen, the solar constant increases by about 10 % every
billion (109) years. In addition, Milankovitch cycles affect the solar irradiance
and amount of solar energy received on the earth’s surface.
Table 1.3: Important facts about the Earth-Sun System
Facts Units
Distance between Earth and Sun 150x 106 km
(Astronomical Unit, AU)
The annual average radiative solar flux 1360 W/m2
(Solar Constant)
The mass of Sun (Msun) About 332000 times to that of
mass of the Earth (MEarth)
Perihelion 147x106 km
Aphelion 152x106 km
The axis of rotation of the Earth is tilted 23.5 degrees
at an angle
Solar cycle 11-years
Periodicity of burning of hydrogen by the billion (109) years
Sun
What are the factors that affect amount of energy transferred from the Sun to
Earth?
Angle of incidence, duration of sunshine, solar constant, distance between the
earth and sun etc. Let’s discuss more about it.
i) Effect of elliptical shape of Earth-Sun orbit
The radiation at the top of the atmosphere varies by about 3.5% over the
year, as the Earth spins around the Sun. This is because the Earth's orbit is
not circular but elliptical, with the Sun located in one of the foci of the
ellipse. The Earth is closer to the sun at one time of year (called perihelion)
20 than at the "opposite" time (called aphelion). In Greek, "helios" mean Sun,
"peri" means near, and "apo" means away from.The distance between the Atmosphere and
Earth and Sun will be 147x106 km at perihelion and 152x106 km on 4th July Climate
called aphelion.
Fig. 1.3:Position and path of Earth-Sun system
ii) Effect of Earth's spherical shape
The Earth would have received uniform amount of energy equal to solar
constant (1360 W/m2) provided its shape would have been a disc. But the
Earth is a sphere and hence the part closest to the sun, where the rays of
sunlight are perpendicular to the ground receives maximum energy whereas
farthest point did not receive significant part of it at all.
iii) The tilt of the Earth's axis and the seasons
The axis of rotation of the Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees away
from vertical, perpendicular to the plane of Earth’s orbit around the sun.The
tilt of the earth's axis is important, in that it governs the warming strength of
the Sun's energy. The tilt of the surface of the Earth causes light to be spread
across a greater area of land, called the cosine projection effect.
If the axis of Earth was 900 to the plane of its orbit (and the direction of
incoming solar radiation), then the radiative energy flux (Irradiance) would
drop as the cosine of latitude as we move from equator towards the pole.
However, the Earth axis tilts at an angle of 23.5° with respect to its plane of
orbit, pointing towards a fixed point in space as it moves around the sun. As
a result of tilt of 23.5° with respect to its plane of orbit, earth’s rotation and
axial revolution, etc., seasonal changes occur. Days and nights are of 12
hours at the equator. Since, mid-day Sun is over head on 21st September
(autumnal equinox) and 21st March (vernal equinox) and on these days across
the earth, days and nights are equal. On both types of equinoxes insolation
received is highest at the equator. Starting from 22nd December until 21st June
21
Introduction to
Global Climate day length increases in the northern hemisphere whereas opposite happens in
Change the southern part of the Earth.
Once a year, on the Summer Solstice (on or about the 21st of June), the North
Pole points directly towards the Sun and the South Pole is entirely hidden
from the incoming radiation. Half a year from that day, on the Winter
Solstice (on or about the 21st of December) the North Pole points away from
the Sun and does not receive any sunlight while the South Pole receives 24
hours of continuous sunlight.
During Solstices, incoming radiation is perpendicular to the Earth surface on

either the latitude of Cancer or the latitude of Capricorn, 23.5° north or south
of the equator, depending on whether it is summer or winter in the Northern
Hemisphere, respectively. During the spring and fall (on the Equinox days,
the 21st of March and 23rd of September) the Earth's axis tilts in parallel to
the Sun and both Polar Regions get the same amount of light. At that time the
radiation is largest at the true equator. Averaged over a full 24-hour period,
the amount of incoming radiation varies with latitude and season. At the
poles, during solstice, the earth is either exposed to sunlight over the entire
(24-hours) day or is completely hidden from the Sun throughout the entire
day. This is why the poles get no incoming radiation during their respective
winter or more than the maximum radiation at the equator during their
respective summer.
b) Factors affecting amount of energy flux received at the Earth’s

surface.
The Earth receives a total amount of radiation determined by its cross section
(π·RE²), but as it rotates this energy is distributed across the entire surface
area (4·π·RE²). We already discussed how, the angle at which the rays strike
impacts the amount of energy received and that at any one moment half the
planet does not receive any solar radiation, is one-fourth the solar constant
(about 340 W/m²). The amount reaching the Earth's surface (as insolation) is
further reduced by atmospheric attenuation, which varies. At any given
moment, the amount of solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's
surface depends on the state of the atmosphere, the location's latitude, and the
time of day.
1) The Earth's albedo
The Earth's surface reflects (that is, returns the radiation back to space in
more or less the same spectrum) part of the solar energy. This is what makes
the part of the Earth lit by the sun visible from space in the same way that the
moon and the other members of the solar system are visible to us, despite
their lack of an inner source of visible radiation.
The reflectivity of a planet is referred to as the albedo and is expressed as a

fraction. The albedo for the Earth as an entity, also called as the planetary
22 albedo is 0.30. This fraction of incoming radiation is reflected back into
space. The other 0.7 part of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the Atmosphere and
Earth. The albedo of Earth depends on the geographical location, surface Climate
properties, and the weather.
2) Effective temperature (Te)
By absorbing the incoming solar radiation, the Earth warms up, like a black
body and its temperature rises. If the Earth would have had no atmosphere or
ocean, as is the case for example on the moon, it would get very warm on the
sunlit face of the planet and much colder than we experience presently, on the
dark side (the little warmth on the dark side would come from the limited
amount of heat stored in the ground from the previous daytime - this is, to
some extent, what we experience in a cloud-free, land locked desert climate).
c) A Simple Global Temperature Model
All heated objects must emit electromagnetic radiation, particularly so if they

are surrounded by empty space. This radiation is referred to as outgoing
radiation. As long as the incoming radiative flux is larger than the outgoing,
the radiated object will continue to warm, and its temperature will continue to
increase. This in turn will result in an increase in the outgoing radiation
(according to the Stefan-Boltzman law, the outgoing radiation increases
faster than the temperature).
At some point the object will emit as much radiation as the amount of
incoming radiation and a radiative equilibrium will be attained. Using what
we have learned about radiative heat transfer and some geometric calculation
we can calculate the equilibrium temperature of an object if we know the
amount of incoming energy.
Here is how we do that in the case of the Earth rotating around the Sun:
First let us denote the solar radiative flux at the top of the Earth’s atmosphere
by So (for solar constant) and the albedo of the Earth by “a”.
Rate of incoming solar radiation at the Earth = SπR2 (watts).
Where,
S= the Solar Constant (1370W/m2)
R= the Radius of the Earth (m)
Then let us figure out the total amount of radiation absorbed by the planet.
The Earth is spherical and its surface tilts with respect to the incoming
radiation, the amount distributed over the sphere is equal the amount that
would be collected on the Earth’s surface, a disk (with the same radius as the
sphere), placed perpendicular to the sunlight.
If the Earth’s radius is R, the area of that disk is πR2.
Thus: 23
Introduction to
Global Climate Heat reflected by planet Earth= πR2Soa
Change
Where, a= the albedo of the Earth (=0.31)
Heat absorbed by planet Earth= (1 - a) πR2So
The total heat radiated from the planet is equal to the energy flux implied by
its temperature, Te(from the Stefan-Boltzman law) times the entire surface
(spherical) of the planet.
Heat radiated from planet = (4πR2) σTe4
Where,
4πR2= Area of the Earth
σ =Stefan-Boltzman constant= 5.6 × 10-8 W/m2-K4
Te= Earth’s “effective” blackbody temperature (Kelvin)
In radiative balance assuming steady-state conditions, i.e., Earth’s

temperature is not changing with time, we thus have:
(4πR2) σTe4 = (1 - a) πR2So
Solving this equation for temperature we obtain:
Te = [(1-a)So / 4σ] 1/4
We have added a subscript “e” to the temperature to emphasize that this

would be the temperature at the surface of the Earth if it had no atmosphere.
It is referred to as the effective temperature of the Earth.
According to this calculation, the effective temperature of Earth is about 255

K (or -18 °C). But, the Earths average surface temperature is about 288K
(150C). So, we need to know the reason behind factors that has not made our
Earth so cold (-18 °C) but liveable (150C).
d) The Green House Effect
The effective temperature of Earth is much lower than what we experience.

Averaged over all seasons and the entire Earth, the surface temperature of our
planet is about 288 K (or 15°C). This difference is the effect of the heat
absorbing components of our atmosphere. This effect is known as
the greenhouse effect, referring to the farming practice of warming garden
plots by covering them with a glass (or plastic) enclosure.
Here is how the greenhouse effect works: The Earth's atmosphere contains
many trace gases and particulates. Major atmospheric components (nitrogen
and oxygen) absorb insignificantly whereas trace components are effective
absorbers. Particularly effective is water vapor, which absorb effectively in
the IR wavelength range.
24
Because the atmosphere is almost transparent to sunlight all that is absorbed Atmosphere and
at the surface results in warming and the emission of IR radiation; this Climate
radiation cannot freely escape into space because of absorption in the

atmosphere by trace gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO2).
These absorbing gases and their surrounding air warm up and so emitting
radiation towards the Earth's surface, as well as upward, towards space. This
effectively traps part of the IR radiation between ground and the lower 10 km
of the atmosphere. This reduction in the efficiency of the Earth to lose heat
causes the surface temperature to rise above the effective temperature
calculated above (Te) until finally, enough heat is able to escape to space to
balance the incoming solar radiation. The effect is analogous to that of a
blanket that traps the body heat preventing it from escaping into the room and
thus keeps us warm in colder nights.
All that the IR absorbing gases do is make it more difficult for heat to escape,
they don't (and can't) stop the heat output, because half of their emission is
directed upward towards space. The greenhouse effect forced the planet to
raise its surface temperature until the amount of heat radiated from the top of
the absorbing layer is equal to the solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
It is at the top of the absorbing layer that the effective temperature is reached,
while down at the surface of the Earth it is much warmer.
e) Global Energy budget
The balance between the amount of insolation received (short wave radiation)
from the Sun and the outgoing radiation (longwave radiation) is known as
Earth’s energy balance. Longwave radiation is usually defined as
outgoing infrared energy leaving the planet.
In spite of the enormous transfer of energy into and from the Earth, it
maintains a relatively constant temperature because, as a whole, there is little
net gain or loss: Earth emits via atmospheric and terrestrial radiation (shifted
to longer electromagnetic wavelengths) to space about the same amount of
energy as it receives via insolation (all forms of electromagnetic radiation).
Fig. 1.2:Earth’s energy budget (Source:

https://ag.tennessee.edu/solar/Pages/What%20Is%20Solar%20Energy/Earth-Energy-
Budget.aspx) 25
Introduction to
Global Climate
Change
To quantify Earth's heat budget or heat balance, let the insolation received at
the top of the atmosphere be 100 units (100 units = about 1,360W/m2 facing
the sun), as shown in the Fig.1.2.
Reflectivity –About 35 units of insolation is reflected back to space.
• Reflection by clouds = 27units

• Reflection by snow and ice-covered areas= 2 units
• Reflection by other parts of the atmosphere= 6 units
Absorption –About 65 units of insolation is absorbed by the atmosphere and

Earth’s surface.
• Within the atmosphere =14 units

• Earth’s surface= 51 units
Earth’s surface - 51 units,
• Radiated back directly to space= 17 units,

• Directly absorbed by the atmosphere = 34 units (19 through latent heat of
condensation, 9 through convection and turbulence, and 6 directly
absorbed).
Total units absorbed by the atmosphere= 48 units (34 units from terrestrial
radiation and 14 from insolation) are finally radiated back to space.
Net energy radiated back= 65 units (17 from the ground and 48 from the
atmosphere) equals to the 65 units absorbed from the sun.
So, net gain of energy by the Earth ideally becomes zero.
a) Incoming radiant energy
The total amount of energy received per second at the top of Earth's
atmosphere is measured in watts and is given by the solar constant
(1370W/m2) times the cross-sectional area of the Earth corresponded to the
radiation.
• Cross-sectional area of Earth irradiated by Sun = πr2

• Surface area of Earth = 4πr2
Fraction of solar constant received by Earth = πr2/4πr2 = 1/4 x 1370 W/m2 =

342 W/m2
Here comes the calculation of about 342 W/m² of solar radiation received by
the Earth:
• Clouds reflect back an average of ~78 W/m² into space and the
atmosphere
26
• Surface of the Earth reflects about 24 W/m² Atmosphere and
Climate
• Net solar energy input to the Earth's energy budget becomes ~235 W/m²
Hence, the Earth net albedo is 0.306.
b) Earth's internal heat and other small effects
The geothermal heat flux from the Earth's interior is estimated to be

47 terawatts and split approximately equally between radiogenic heat and
heat leftover from the Earth's formation. This comes to 0.087 W/m2, which
represents only 0.027% of Earth's total energy budget at the surface. Human
production of energy is even lower, at an estimated 18 TW.
1.5 WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather is the atmospheric event experienced on day-to-day basis. Factors
that control the weather are temperature, air-pressure, precipitation, wind
speed and direction, humidity, length and intensity of sunshine, cloudiness,
dust, chemistry of atmosphere, etc. Troposphere experiences most of the
weather phenomena. Example: Thunder, rain, heat.Weather varies from one
place to other and changes over minutes, hours, days, and weeks. Weather in
morning time can be different from that of afternoon and so.
Climate is generally defined as the mean of the weather variables over an

area for three decades or more years. The three-decade averages of weather
observations are also called as “Climate Normal”. Factors that control the
climate is same to that of weather. Climate events like El Niño happen over
several years, with larger fluctuations happening over decades. And, even
larger climate change happens over hundreds and thousands of years. Climate
can be classified further into global, regional and local level depending upon
what span in terms of geographical area one covers while taking mean of
three-decadal climate-variables.
1.5.1 Climate Variables

There are more than 50 essential climate variables identified by the Global
Climate Observing System for worldwide monitoring. In brief, temperature,
air-pressure, precipitation, wind speed and direction, humidity, length and
intensity of sunshine, cloudiness, dust etc. are important variables that
decides climate of a place. Let’s discuss in brief about these variables. Air
temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, air pressure, wind and water
vapour are called surface air variables whereas cloud properties correspond to
upper air variables.
A) Surface Air Variables
a) Air Temperature
Surface air temperature is the temperature of the air at a height of around two
meters above the Earth’s surface. It is measured by a “thermometer” which is 27
Introduction to
Global Climate shielded from direct solar radiation. The most commonly used thermometer
Change is the liquid-in-glass thermometer. More precise thermometers measure air
temperature by checking how much electricity can pass through a sample of
pure metal. Mesopause has the coldest temperatures whereas the warmest
temperatures can be noticed in the thermosphere, which receives very
strong ionizing radiation at the level of the Van Allen radiation belt.
b) Precipitation
Precipitation is defined as the amount of water received either in liquid or

solid form onto the Earth's surface. It can be in the form of rain, drizzle,
snow, ice, freezing rain, or hail. The most commonly used instrument to
measure rainfall is “Rain gauge”. A rain gauge is an open-at-the-top
container which is calibrated to measure the depth of water (liquid)
deposited. In India, the depth of precipitation is reported in centimetre (cm).
Satellite instruments are also used to estimate amount of precipitation.
c) Solar Radiation
Solar radiation is energy emitted from the sun. Solar radiation is the main
source of energy for the Earth-Atmosphere system. On the ground, an
instrument called a “Solar pyranometer” measures the amount of incoming
solar radiation that reaches Earth.
d) Air Pressure
Air pressure is the weight (mg)-per-unit area of the column of air above it.
Since, air consists of various gaseous molecules which is always moving in
random direction so air pressure remains the same in all directions.
Barometers are used to measure it. The most common type of barometer is a
sealed flexible container of air. When the air pressure outside the container
changes, the container either contracts or expands in reciprocity. This change
gets noted by a needle or digital readout. These values are expressed in
millibars or in Pascal (Pa). A millibar is a unit of pressure commonly used in
aviation and meteorology.
1 millibar = 100 Newtons per square meter (100 N/m2).
1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre, (1 N/m2)
One thousand millibars is the average pressure at sea level. Changes in

atmospheric pressure can indicate a change in weather.
e) Wind speed and direction
Wind is air in horizontal motion relative to the Earth's surface. It is described

in terms of both speed and direction of motion. Wind speed gets measured by
“Anemometers” whereas wind direction by “wind vanes”. Wind moves from
a high pressure zone to low-pressure. Wind directions refer to where the wind
is coming from; for example, a Westerly wind gets started from the west and
28
blowing towards the East. Wind direction is measured in degrees clockwise Atmosphere and
from north. Consequently, a wind blowing from the north has a wind Climate
direction of 0° (360°); a wind blowing from the east has a wind direction of
90°; a wind blowing from the south has a wind direction of 180°; and a wind
blowing from the west has a wind direction of 270°. In general, wind
directions are measured in units from 0° to 360°.
f) Water Vapour
Water vapour is water present in the atmosphere in the gaseous form. Water
vapour is the ingredient from which cloud gets formed. It cannot be seen
through our naked eyes but it absorbs and emits infrared radiation, which
traps insolation near Earth's surface.
Absolute humidity is the measure of the amount of water vapor in air.

Relative humidity tells how much water vapor is in the air relative to the
amount it has the potential to hold at a given temperature and pressure. The
instrument used to measure water vapor content in the air is called a
hygrometer. The simplest type of hygrometer is made from human hair,
which swells and lengthens as it absorbs water vapor from the air.
B) Upper Air Variables
a) Cloud Properties
A cloud is an aerosol consisting of a visible mass of minute liquid droplets,

frozen crystals, or other suspended particles in the Earth’s atmosphere. As
the air is cooled to its dew point and becomes saturated, water vapour gets
condensed and cloud drops formed. The condensation occurs on cloud
condensation nuclei such as salt or dust particles that are of 0.2 µm which
aloft by normal circulation of the air.The type of clouds in the sky is an
indicator of the atmospheric processes occurring where they formed. Cloud
properties include ice crystal size and type, temperature, and thickness. On
the basis of height of origin, clouds can be classified into high-level (5-13
km), cirrocumulus, cirrus, and cirrostratus., mid-level (2-7 km), altocumulus,
altostratus, and nimbostratus and low-level (0-2 km), stratus, cumulus,
cumulonimbus, and stratocumulus. Stratocumulus clouds are often associated
with precipitation as they are fluffy and closer to the ground.
Other important upper air variables are Earth Radiation Budget, lightning,
temperature (upper-air), water vapour (upper air), wind speed and direction
(upper-air). Earth’s radiation budget, temperature profile has already been
discussed in this Unit.
b) Atmospheric Composition
Atmospheric composition plays an important role as climate variables.

Aerosols not only changes albedo but also insolation as well as play
important role in cloud condensing nuclei. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) present
in troposphere and stratosphere are another group that plays an important role 29
Introduction to
Global Climate deciding local to global climate. Ozone (O3) column in troposphere and upper
Change strato-and mesosphere has its role to play. Secondary organic aerosol (SOA)
is particulate matter composed of compounds formed from the atmospheric
transformation of organic species, accounts for a substantial fraction of
tropospheric aerosol which affects the global radiation budget.
1.5.2 Climate Classification

Climate classification systems are methods of classifying the world's
climates. It has close correlation with a biome type. There are many ways by
which geographers attempted to divide the biome taking into account
temperature and precipitation mean. Let us discuss about three important
types of climate classifications.
A) The Köppen Climate Classification System
The Köppen system is the most widely and popularly used system for
categorizing the world's climates. Its types are based on the annual and
monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. It recognizes five
major climatic types; each type is designated by a capital letter from A-E and
H.
Table1.5 The Köppen Climate Classification depicting symbol

corresponding to climate type
Symbol Climate types

A Tropical Wet Climates
B Dry Climates (both desert and semi‐desert)
C Mesothermal (mid‐latitude or subtropical
seasonal)
D Microthermal (humid continental)
E Polar
H Highlands
B) The Thornthwaite Climate Classification System
This classification was devised in 1931 and revised in 1948 by C.

W. Thornthwaite, the American climatologist. A climate was divided into
groups according to the vegetation characteristic. The type of occurrence of
vegetation being determined by precipitation effectiveness (P/E), where P is
the total monthly precipitation, and E is the total monthly evaporation.
The sum of the monthly P/E values gives the P/E index, which is used to
define five humidity provinces, with associated vegetation.
30
Table 1.6: The Thornthwaite Climate Classification showing P/E index, Atmosphere and
Climate
climate type and vegetation type
P/E index Climate type Vegetation type

>127 Wet Rain forest
64–127 Humid Forest
32–63 Subhumid Grassland
16–31 Semi-arid Steppe
< 16 Desert Thorny plants
In 1948 the system was modified to incorporate a moisture index, which

relates the water demand by plants to the available precipitation, by means of
an index of potential evapotranspiration (PE), calculated from measurements
of air temperature and day length.
C) The Trewartha Climate Classification
It is a climate classification system first published by American geographer

Glenn Thomas Trewartha in 1966. It is a modified version of the Köppen
system which covered shortfall of that system. It gives much more realistic
classification of the global climate.
He has classified world climates into seven climatic groups based upon
temperature criteria, namely A, C, D, E, F and H, and the seventh one as B,
the basis of precipitation.
1.5.3 Climate Change and Climate Variability

Climate change can be referred to as any change in climate over time,
ascribed mainly to natural variability. However, because of changes in the
earth’s climate since the pre-industrial era it is also attributable to human
activities. Whereas, climate variability can be defined as variations in the
mean state of the climatic parameters of a region or place. Annual rainfall
received at aparticular place may be different. Some years may register
scanty rainfall, average or above average rainfall. It means the average
rainfall of a place may register as 1000mm, but this does not guarantee that
1000mm rainfall will be received every year. One can expect to receive from
a range (500mm to 1500mm) and so the deviation from the annual mean can
be calculated. Deviation from mean value (mm) can be referred as climate
variability of a place at particular point of time. Climate variability is
measured by these deviations, which are usually called as
anomalies. Variability may be registered due to internal or external factors.
An internal factor corresponds to processes within the climate system
whereas external variability attributes to external factors may be natural or
man-made.
31
Introduction to
Global Climate Check Your Progress 2
Change
1) What is the difference between weather and climate?
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2) What is the difference between climate change and climate variability?
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1.6 LET US SUM UP

Earth came to existence about 4.5 billion years ago. Subsequently, a blanket
of gases called atmosphere was formed. To understand the thermal
stratification of the atmosphere, the atmosphere is divided into layers namely
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
The troposphere is the layer nearest to Earth's surface. The height of the
troposphere varies with location, being higher over warmer areas and lower
over colder areas. This layer has the highest density in comparison to the rest
and contains 80% of the atmospheric mass. Due to the vertical movement of
air mass, air pollution gets diluted from the point of its origin and settles to
the ground as a result of precipitation. All weather phenomena occur in this
layer. The Stratosphere is the layer next to the troposphere. This layer has
increasing temperature trend with height and air mass becomes stable. O3 in
the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun that causes heating
of air and so temperature increases with height. The layer next to stratosphere
is called mesosphere. The temperature in this layer decreases with height like
troposphere. The thermosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. In
this layer the temperature increases with height because it is being directly
heated by the sun. Besides, the thermal stratification of earth’s atmosphere,
we have discussed the composition of the atmosphere including the
greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are gases that absorb long-wave
radiation from the earth and emit it back to the atmosphere. CO2, CH4, N2O,
water vapour, Black carbon (BC), etc., are responsible for warming of the
Earth. Further, in this unit, we have discussed global energy budget including
32
the factors influencing the amount of energy flux received on earth surface. Atmosphere and
Weather, climate and climate variables are also discussed in this unit. Climate
1.7 KEY WORDS

Climate: Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average
weather, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean
and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from
months to thousands or millions of years.
Climate System: The climate system is the highly complex system

consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the
cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere, and the interactions between
them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own
internal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic
eruptions, solar variations and anthropogenic forcings such as the changing
composition of the atmosphere and land use change.
Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth. The dry

atmosphere consists almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio)
and oxygen (20.9% volume mixing ratio), and a number of trace gases, such
as argon (0.93% volume mixing ratio), helium and radiatively active
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone.
Troposphere: The lowest part of the atmosphere, from the surface to about
10 km in altitude at mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km at high latitudes to 16
km in the tropics on average), where clouds and weather phenomena occur.
In the troposphere, temperatures generally decrease with height.
Stratosphere: The highly stratified region of the atmosphere above the

troposphere extending from about 10 km (ranging from 9 km at high latitudes
to 16 km in the tropics on average) to about 50 km altitude.
Climate Change: Climate change refers to a change in the state of the

climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the
mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended
period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural
internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar
cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere or in land use.
Climate Variability: Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state

and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes,
etc.) of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of
individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal
processes within the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in
natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability).
33
Introduction to
Global Climate 1.8 SUGGESTED FURTHER READING/
Change
REFERENCES
IPCC, (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis.
Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K.
Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and
P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.
IPCC, (2018) Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An
IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-
industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the
context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change,
sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte,
V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W.
Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y.
Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T.
Waterfield (eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,
32 pp.
IPCC, 2012: Glossary of terms. In: Managing the Risks of Extreme Events
and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation [Field, C.B., V.
Barros, T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, D.J. Dokken, K.L. Ebi, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J.
Mach, G.-K. Plattner, S.K. Allen, M. Tignor, and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. A
Special Report of Working Groups I and II of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and
New York, NY, USA, pp. 555-564.
IPCC, 2013: Annex III: Glossary [Planton, S. (ed.)]. In: Climate Change
2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A.
Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
IPCC, 2014: Annex II: Glossary [Agard, J., E.L.F. Schipper, J. Birkmann, M.
Campos, C. Dubeux, Y. Nojiri, L. Olsson, B. Osman-Elasha, M. Pelling, M.J.
Prather, M.G. Rivera-Ferre, O.C. Ruppel, A. Sallenger, K.R. Smith, A.L. St.
Clair, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, and T.E. Bilir (eds.)]. In: Climate
Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional
Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field,
D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L.
Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S.
MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp.
1757-1776.
Fletcher C (2018) Climate Change: What the science tells us. 2nd
34 Edition.John Wiley & Sons. Pp.336. ISBN: 978-1-118-79306-0
Dessler A (2016) Introduction to Modern Climate Change. 2nd Atmosphere and
Edition.Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978-521-17315-5 Climate
Houghton JT (2015) Global Warming: The complete briefing. 5th

Edition.Cambridge University Press. Pp.456. ISBN: 978-0-521-70916.
Burroughs WJ (2007) Climate Change: A multidisciplinary approach. 2nd

Edition.Cambridge University Press. Pp.390. ISBN: 978-0-521-69033-1
Barry RG and Chorley RJ.(2010). Atmosphere, weather and climate.8th

Edition. Routledge, New York. pp.421.
Web Links
http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/
http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/
https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/
https://www.globalchange.gov/climate-change/glossary
https://health2016.globalchange.gov/glossary-and-acronyms
1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) The vertical structure of the atmosphere includes different layers with

different atmospheric characteristics particularly with respect to the
climate variables like temperature and density. The atmospheric column
can be studied by dividing it into different layers based on the
temperature characteristics. The vertical structure of the atmosphere is
divided into layers namely troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere.
The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is called as troposphere. The

average height of the troposphere is about 13 km, varying from 18 km at
the equator and 8 km at the poles. This layer contains about 75 per cent
of the mass of the atmosphere. The atmospheric temperature in this layer
decreases at the rate of 1ºC for every 165m of height. The atmosphere is
heated due to the turbulent heat transfer from the earth’s surface. The
zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere is called as the
tropopause, wherein the air temperature is about minus 45ºC over the
poles. The tropopause is an inversion level. The air temperature in the
tropopause is nearly constant.
The stratosphere extends up to a height of 50 km. It accounts for about

10 percent of the total molecular mass of the atmosphere. It contains
most of the total atmospheric ozone and the maximum temperature,
nevertheless, occurs at the stratopause, which lies between the
stratosphere and the mesosphere. Ozonosphere absorbs harmful ultra-
35
Introduction to
Global Climate violet radiation from the Sun and shields life on the earth from intense
Change and harmful forms of energy from the Sun. The occurrence of the polar
stratospheric clouds in the circumpolar low-pressure vortex at the poles
in the stratosphere are important with respect to the depletion of
stratospheric ozone.
The mesosphere layer extends above the stratosphere and the average
temperature in this layer decreases with height. Lowest temperature of
minus 130 ºC is observed at a height of 90 km above the earth surface.
The pressure of the air in the mesosphere layer is about 0.01mb at 90 km.
Just above 80 km, average air temperature start decreasing due to the
presence of molecular oxygen and ozone, which absorbs heat. This zone
is called mesopause.
The thermosphere layer which extends above the mesopause, is

predominantly composed of nitrogen, molecular oxygen and atomic
oxygen. The average air temperature rises with height in this layer,
mainly due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation by the molecular
oxygen and atomic oxygen. Above 100 km from the earth’s surface, the
short-wave radiation from the Sun causes ionization. Exosphere lies
between 500 km and 750 km. This layer is predominantly composed of
oxygen, hydrogen and helium atoms.
1) Weather and climate are different from the perspective of space and
time.
• Weather involves day to day conditions and it reflects the state of

atmosphere on a small area.
• Climate involves averages over a long period of time. It gives the
conditions prevalent in that area.
2) Climate change is referred to as a “change in the state of the climate that

can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or
external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic
eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the
atmosphere or in land use”. Climate variability refers to variations in the
mean state and other statistics of the climate on all spatial and temporal
scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due
to natural internal processes within the climate system (internal
variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing
(external variability).
36
UNIT 2 PHYSICAL BASIS OF CLIMATE Atmosphere and
Climate
CHANGE
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Radiation Balance and Radiative Forcing
2.4 Climate Forcing Mechanism: External and Internal Forcing
2.4.1 Orbital Variations
2.4.2 Solar Variations
2.4.3 Volcanic Eruptions
2.4.4 Atmospheric Composition

2.5 Role of Greenhouse Gases and Greenhouse Effect
2.6 Global Warming Potential
2.7 Drivers of Climate Change
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Key Words
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Climate change refers to significant, long-term changes in the global climate
system. In this vastness of the universe, so far earth is the only planet known
to support, sustain and nourish the life-system. Over time, earth has
developed a climate that nurtures the life-system and the planet is flourished
with whole lot of flora, fauna and human beings. The survival of human
beings is solely dependent on the conducive climate that the earth provides.
This conducive climate needs to be sustained in order to support the human
civilisation. Unfortunately, recent reports suggest that human intervention has
changed this climate system adversely. To quote the IPCC (2013a) report,
“Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many
of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The
atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have
diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases
have increased” (IPCC, 2013a). It pretty much underlines the importance of
studying the phenomena of climate change. In this unit, the focus is on
scientific analysis of the climate change. We’ll first discuss the basic
concepts like radiative forcing, external forcing – solar variability,
greenhouse effect, etc., that are required in order to understand the science of
climate change. Throughout the unit, these concepts will be used to explain
the phenomenon of global climate change. 37
Introduction to
Global Climate 2.2 OBJECTIVES
Change
• define radiative forcing and global warming potential;

• discuss radiation balance; and
• discuss the climate forcing mechanism.
2.3 RADIATION BALANCE AND RADIATIVE

FORCING
Earth continuously receives the radiation (mostly in the form of shortwave)
from
rom the sun, part of these radiation gets reflected back by the atmosphere
(by clouds, aerosols) and part by the earth’s surface. The part of the solar
radiation gets absorbed by the gases of the atmosphere and part by the earth’s
surface. After absorption of the solar radiation by the earth’s surface or the
atmosphere, they reradiate/emit the energy mainly in the form of longwave
radiation. This creates a system of radiation balance for the earth and
atmosphere system, i.e., the total amount of radiation rreceived (incoming
radiation) by the sun is equal to the total amount of radiation reflected and
emitted (outgoing radiation). Fig. 2.1 shows the radiation budget for the earth
+ atmosphere system. Please note that the total incoming solar radiation is
equall to the total outgoing solar radiation (reflection + radiation).
Fig. 2.1 clearly depicts that the incoming solar energy absorbed by the Earth
and its atmosphere is exactly balanced by the outgoing long
long-wave radiation.
If, for some reason, an additional amount of energy is added to the incoming
energy, then the balance will be temporarily upset. Over time, however, the
climate system will adjust to that change either by increasing or decreasing
the surface temperature of Earth until a balance is once agai
again attained.
Fig. 2.1.. Earth’s Energy Budget. (Source: Reproduced from

38 https://marine.rutgers.edu/cool/education/class/yuri/erb.html)
Mathematically, we can represent that process as follows. In Fig. 2.2, the Atmosphere and
incoming energygy absorbed, and outgoing energy being radiated, are shown as Climate
they exist at the top of the troposphere

troposphere—that is, at the tropopause. Initially,
the balanced system has energy absorbed equal to energy radiated:
�� = �� ------------- (2.11)
Fig. 2.2 : Balanced radiation system before perturbation
When the system is perturbed by adding radiative forcing, Δ� (� /�� ), to

the incoming absorbed energy, a new equilibrium will eventually be
established so that
(�� ) � �� = (�� )------------ (2.2)
where the deltas (Δ) refer to changes in the quantity in question. Subtracting
(2.2) from
(2.1) gives
�� = �� − �� ----------- (2.3)
Thus, radiative forcing is the difference between the changes in radiation

absorbed by the Earth and the changes in energy radiated back to space where
these changes have been introduced by some agent such as greenhou
greenhouse gases.
Positive radiative forcing means Earth receives more incoming radiation than
it used to receive in earlier radiation balance system which causes warming
of the earth. Conversely, negative radiative forcing means that Earth loses
more energy to space ace than it used to radiate in earlier radiance balance
system, which causes cooling of the earth. The concept of radiative forcing
is one of the central concepts in climate change science because it provides a
common currency for comparing the impacts of changes in individual
greenhouse gases and aerosols, changes in albedo, and changes in the sun’s
radiation. Determining the radiative forcing associated with these has been
one of the most important research areas for the atmospheric scientists.
39
Introduction to
Global Climate
Change
Fig. 22.3 : The balanced radiation system after radiative forcing is added
2.4 CLIMATE FORCING MECHANISM:

EXTERNAL FORCING AND INTERNAL
FORCING
External forcing’ is a term used by climate scientists to refer to a forcing
‘External
agent outside th
thee climate system causing a change in the climate system
(IPCC, 2013). Volcanic eruptions, solar variations, and anthropogenic
changes in the atmosphere’s composition and land use are climate forcings.
Orbital forcing is also an external forcing because the insolation changes with
orbital parameters such as eccentricity, tilt, and precession of the equinox.
Internal forcing
‘Internal forcing’’ operates from within the climate system, for example the
change in the global energy balance due to changes in the composition of the
atmosphere.
2.4.1 Orbital Variations

Variations:: There are a number of different changes in the
Earth's orbit around the Sun that have been investigated as possible
external forcings. The overall theory of astronomical causes of
climate variations is known as the Milankovi
Milankovitch theory, and evidence
has been found to support the ideas in the theory. There are three
major variations - the tilt of the Earth's axis, it's precession, and
eccentricity of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The Milankovitch
Cycles force the changes be between
tween ice age and warmer conditions on
Earth, on time scales of 10,000 to 100,000 years. The last Ice Age
occurred 18,000 years ago.
2.4.2 Solar Variations
Variations:: Variations in the amount of solar energy being
released from the Sun at a given point in time has been cconsidered as
an external forcing factor. However, a connection between the cycles
of output from the Sun and climate cycles has not been firmly
established. The total solar energy received by the Earth, or solar
constant, has only been measured accurately since the advent of the
satellite era. In addition, changes which have been detected over the
past 20 years are small in magnitude (<<1%), potentially too small to
act as a mechanism of climate change. While the change in solar
energy may be greater on lonlonger
ger time scales, this is only a speculative
possibility.
40
2.4.3 Volcanic eruptions:: Volcanic eruptions might also introduce changes Atmosphere and
in the climate system. Fig. 2.4 illustrates part of a fingerprint Climate
assessment of global temperature change at the surface during th

the late
20th century. The naturally forced surface cooling observed during
1982 and 1991 are attributed to the changes introduced after major
volcanic eruptions occurrences [El Chichon (Mexico) eruption in
1982 and Mount Pinatubo (Philippines) eruption in 11991] (Robock,
2000).
Fig. 2.4 : Time series of global and annual

annual-averaged surface temperature change from
1860 to 2010. The figure shows results from two ensemble of climate models driven with
just natural forcings (adapted from IPCC, 2013b).
2.4.4 Atmospheric Composition: The changing composition of the

atmosphere, particularly its greenhouse gas (explained later in the
next section) content, is a well
well-known example of internal climate
forcing. A change in the greenhouse gas content of the atmosphere
significantly affects the energy balance of the climate system.
It is well known that two gases – nitrogen and oxygen – make up 99 percent
of the volume of clean, dry air of the atmosphere
atmosphere. Although these gases are
the most plentiful components
nents of the atmosphere and are of great significance
to life on Earth, they are of little or no importance in affecting weather
phenomena and the radiation balance of the earth atmosphere system. Even
among the remaining 1 percent of dry air, 0.93 percent is mostly the inert gas
argon which also has no role in radiation balance or weather phenomena.
Among the remaining (0.07%), the gases like CO2, water vapour, O3, trace
gases (CO, methane and others) etc., although present only in tiny quantities
but, particularly
ticularly greenhouse gases, play very significant role in affecting the
weather phenomena and the radiation balance of the earth. Aerosols
(including black carbon) are another important constituent of the atmosphere
that play significant role in radiation balance.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide (CO2), although present in only minute amounts [currently

stands at about 412 parts per million (ppm)], is nevertheless a
meteorologically important constituent of air. This is because it is an 41
Introduction to
Global Climate efficient absorber of energy emitted by Earth and thus influences the heating
Change of the atmosphere. Although the proportion of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere is relatively uniform, its percentage has been rising steadily for
more than a century [it is about 412 ppm today (2019) while it was only 370
ppm in 2000 (11% increase since 2000) and notably, it was only 280 ppm in
the pre-industrial age, so about 47% increase in CO2 since pre-industrial age
(Buis, 2019)].
Water Vapour
The amount of water vapor in the air varies considerably, from practically
none at all up to about 4 percent by volume. Why is such a small fraction of
the atmosphere so significant? The fact that water vapor is the source of all
clouds and precipitation would be enough to explain its importance.
However, water vapor has other roles too. Like carbon dioxide, it has the
ability to absorb heat given off by Earth, as well as some solar energy. It is
therefore important when we examine the heating of the atmosphere.
Ozone
Another important component of the atmosphere is ozone. It is a form of

oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms into each molecule (O3). There is
very little ozone in the atmosphere. Overall, it represents just 3 out of every
10 million molecules. Moreover, its distribution is not uniform. In the lowest
portion of the atmosphere, ozone represents less than 1 part in 100 million. It
is concentrated well above the surface in a layer called the stratosphere
(stratospheric ozone), between 10 and 50 kilometres. Stratospheric ozone is
very important as it absorbs almost all the harmful UV-B rays coming from
the sun.
Aerosols
Collectively, all solid or liquid particles suspended in air are called aerosols.
Aerosols are most numerous in the lower atmosphere near their primary
source, Earth’s surface. Nevertheless, the upper atmosphere is not free of
them, because some dust is carried to great heights by rising currents of air,
and other particles are contributed by meteorites that disintegrate as they pass
through the atmosphere.
From a meteorological standpoint, these tiny, often invisible particles can be

significant. First, many act as surfaces on which water vapor may condense,
an important function in the formation of clouds and fog. Second, aerosols
can absorb or reflect incoming solar radiation. Thus, when an air-pollution
episode is occurring or when ash fills the sky following a volcanic eruption,
the amount of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface can be measurably reduced.
42
Atmospheric Trace Constituents Atmosphere and
Climate
Atmospheric trace constituents (ATCs) are present only in trace amount and
highly variable in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, they play very significant
role in the atmospheric chemical processes. Virtually every element in the
periodic table is found in the atmosphere; however, when classifying
atmospheric species according to chemical composition, it proves to be
convenient to use a small number of major groupings such as (Seinfeld and
Pandis, 2006)
1) Carbon-containing compounds.
2) Sulfur-containing compounds.
3) Nitrogen-containing compounds.
4) Halogen-containing compounds
Some of the important trace constituents which play significant role as

greenhouse gases are discussed below:
Methane
Methane (CH4) is the most abundant hydrocarbon in the atmosphere. It is the

second most important greenhouse gas after CO2 (IPCC, 2013). In 2011, the
concentration of CH4 was 1803 ppb which exceeded the pre-industrial levels
by about 150% (IPCC, 2013).
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important atmospheric gas that is emitted

predominantly by biological sources in soils and water. Although by
comparison to CO2 and H2O, N2O has a far lower concentration, it is an
extremely influential greenhouse gas. This is a result of its long residence
time and its relatively large energy absorption capacity per molecule. Nitrous
oxide is inert in the troposphere; its major atmospheric sink is
photodissociation in the stratosphere (about 90%) and reaction with excited
oxygen atoms (about 10%). Oxidation of N2O by excited oxygen atoms
yields NO, providing the major input of NO to the stratosphere.
2.5 ROLE OF GREENHOUSE GASES AND

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The Radiatively active gases that absorb wavelength longer than 4�� are
called greenhouse gases. In other words, greenhouse gases absorb longwave
radiation and allow shortwave radiation to pass. Solar radiation coming from
very high temperature source (i.e., Sun) is dominated by short-wave
radiation (incoming) while Earth being at low temperature emits long-wave
radiation (outgoing). These long-wave radiation emitted from the earth get
absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and keeps the earth
warm. The phenomenon is known as greenhouse effect.
43
Introduction to
Global Climate How gases ((particularly,
particularly, greenhouse gases) interact with the short
Change wavelength incoming solar radiation and the long wavelength outgoing
radiation emitted by Earth is particularly important in order to explain the
phenomena of greenhouse effect. Fig. 2.5 shows the rad
radiation (radiative flux)
emitted by the sun and the earth at different wavelengths. It clearly depicts
that radiation emitted by sun (solar radiation) is dominated by short
wavelengths while radiation emitted by the earth (terrestrial radiation) is
dominate
dominated by long wavelengths.
Fig. 2.
2.5:: The radiation vs. wavelength for the Sun and Earth (Source:
https://scienceofdoom.com/2010/06/01/the
https://scienceofdoom.com/2010/06/01/the-sun-and--max-planck-agree/)
44
Atmosphere and
Climate
Fig. 2.6 : Top panel shows the radiatio

radiation emitted by the sun and earth at different
wavelengths, the lower panels show the absorption of radiation by different greenhouse
gases (Source: http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa
http://www.ces.fau.edu/nasa/module-2/how-greenhouse-effect-
works.php
works.php)
Fig. 2.6 shows the radiation absorbed by different gases at different

wavelengths. It clearly depicts that for the atmosphere as a whole, none of the
gases are effective absorbers of radiation with wavelengths bebetween 0.3 and
0.7 micrometre. This region of the spectrum corresponds to the visible light
band, which constitutes about 43 percent of the energy radiated by the Sun.
Because the atmosphere is a poor absorber of visible radiation, most of this
energy is transmitted
ansmitted to Earth’s surface. Thus, we say that the atmosphere is
nearly transparent to incoming solar radiation and that direct solar energy is
not an effective “heater” of Earth’s atmosphere.
It can also be seen in Fig. 2.b that the atmosphere is gener

generally a relatively
efficient absorber of longwave (infrared) radiation emitted by Earth. Water
vapor and carbon dioxide are the principal absorbing gases, with water vapor
absorbing about 60 percent of the radiation emitted by Earth’s surface.
Therefore, water
ter vapor, more than any other gas, accounts for the warm 45
Introduction to
Global Climate temperatures of the lower troposphere, where it is most highly concentrated.
Change
Atmospheric Window
Although the atmosphere is an effective absorber of radiation emitted by

Earth’s surface, it is nevertheless quite transparent to the band of radiation
between 8 and 12 micrometres. Please notice in Fig. 2.6 (lower right) that the
gases in the atmosphere (N2, CO2, H2O) absorb minimal energy in these
wavelengths. Because the atmosphere is transparent to radiation between 8
and 12 micrometres, much as window glass is transparent to visible light, this
band is called the atmospheric window. Although other “atmospheric
windows” exist, the one located between 8 and 12 micrometres is the most
significant because it is located where Earth’s radiation is most intense.
By contrast, clouds that are composed of tiny liquid droplets (not water
vapor) are excellent absorbers of the energy in the atmospheric window.
Clouds absorb outgoing radiation and radiate much of this energy back to
Earth’s surface. Thus, clouds serve a purpose similar to window blinds
because they effectively block the atmospheric window and lower the rate at
which Earth’s surface cools. This explains why night-time temperatures
remain higher on cloudy nights than on clear nights.
Lapse Rate
Because the atmosphere is largely transparent to solar (shortwave) radiation

but more absorptive of the longwave radiation emitted by Earth, the
atmosphere is heated from the ground up. This explains the general drop in
temperature with increased altitude in the troposphere. The farther from the
“radiator” (Earth’s surface), the colder it gets. On average, the temperature
drops 6.5°C for each kilometre increase in altitude, a figure known as the
normal lapse rate. The fact that the atmosphere does not acquire the bulk of
its energy directly from the Sun but is heated by Earth’s surface is of utmost
importance to the dynamics of the weather machine.
The Greenhouse Effect
As discussed earlier, cloudless air is largely transparent to incoming

shortwave solar radiation and, hence, transmits it to Earth’s surface. By
contrast, a significant fraction of the long-wave radiation (Infra-red (IR))
emitted by Earth’s land–sea surface is absorbed by water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and other trace gases (Greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere (Fig.
2.7). This energy heats the air and increases the rate at which it radiates
energy, both out to space and back toward Earth’s surface. Without this, the
Earth’s average temperature would be –19°C rather than the current
temperature of 15°C. These absorptive gases in our atmosphere make Earth
habitable for humans and other life forms.
46
Atmosphere and
Climate
Fig. 2.7 : A Simplified representation of Greenhouse effect process
This natural phenomenon was named the greenhouse effect because

greenhouses are heated in a similar manner the glass in a greenhouse allows
shortwave solar radiation to enter and be absorbed by the objects inside.
These objects, in turn, radiate energy but at longer wa wavelengths, to which
glass is nearly opaque. The heat, therefore, is “trapped” in the greenhouse.
Although this analogy is widely used, it has been shown that air inside
greenhouses attains higher temperatures than outside air in part due to the
restricted exchange of warmer air inside and cooler air outside. Nevertheless,
the term “greenhouse effect” is still used to describe atmospheric heating.
ii) Check your answers with those gi

given at the end of the unit.
1) What is the status of water vapour as a greenhouse gas?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2) What are the important

ortant greenhouse gases?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
47
Introduction to
Global Climate ……………………………………………………………………………
Change
……………………………………………………………………………
2.6 GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL

The heating rate and its effect by different greenhouse gases are different.
Global warming potential is a dimensionless quantity that helps in comparing
the warming potential of different greenhouse gases.
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) is a weighting factor that allows

comparisons to be made between the cumulative global warming impact over
a specified period of time of some greenhouse gas and a simultaneous
emission of an equal mass of CO2.
There are three primary factors that affect GWPs:
i) The first is the radiative forcing associated with the addition to the
atmosphere of a unit mass of each greenhouse gas.
ii) The second is based on estimates of the rate at which that unit mass
injected decays over time.
iii) The third is related to the cumulative radiative forcing that the unit
addition to the atmosphere will have over some period of time into the
future.
Table 2.1 shows the global warming potential of different greenhouse gases.
The synthetic gases CFCs, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) such as HCFC-123,
and SF6 have large GWPs because they absorb in the atmospheric window.
The GWP of HFCs is less than that of CFCs because HFCs have shorter
atmospheric lifetimes. CO2 is less efficient than other greenhouse gases
because its atmospheric concentration is high and hence its absorption bands
are nearly saturated. Over a 100-year time horizon, reducing SF6 emissions
by 1 kg is as effective from a greenhouse perspective as reducing CO2
emissions by 24,900 kg. Such considerations are important in designing
control strategies to meet regulatory goals!
Table 2.1: Global warming potentials from the instantaneous injection of

1 kg of a trace gas, relative to carbon dioxide
Global warming potential over

integration time horizon
Gas Lifetime, years 20 years 100 years 500 years
CO2 ~ 100 1 1 1
CH4 10 62 25 8
N2O 120 290 320 180
48
CFC-12 102 7900 8500 4200 Atmosphere and
Climate
HCFC-123 1.4 300 93 29
SF6 3200 16500 24900 36500
Source: Adapted from

http://acmg.seas.harvard.edu/people/faculty/djj/book/bookchap7.html
2.7 DRIVERS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Natural and anthropogenic substances (such aas greenhouse gases and
aerosols) and processes that alter the Earth’s energy budget are drivers of
climate change. Radiative forcing (RF) quantifies the change in energy fluxes
caused by changes in these drivers for 2011 relative to 1750, unless otherwise
indicated. Positive RF leads to surface warming, negative RF leads to surface
cooling. RF is estimated based on inin-situ and remote observations, properties
of greenhouse gases and aerosols, and calculations using numerical models
representing observed processes
esses (IPCC, 2013a). Fig. 2.8 (adapted from IPCC
(2013a)) shows the impact of each of the drivers on climate (in terms of
heating and cooling of the climate).
Fig. 2.8 : Radiative forcing estimates in 2011 relative to 1750 and ag

aggregated
uncertainties for the main drivers of climate change. Values are global
average radiative forcing (RF14), partitioned according to the emitted
compounds or processes that result in a combination of drivers. The best
estimates of the net radiative forcing are shown as black diamonds with
corresponding uncertainty intervals; the numerical values are provided on the 49
Introduction to
Global Climate right of the figure, together with the confidence level in the net forcing (VH –
Change very high, H – high, M – medium, L – low, VL – very low). Albedo forcing
due to black carbon on snow and ice is included in the black carbon aerosol
bar. Small forcings due to contrails (0.05 Wm–2, including contrail induced
cirrus), and HFCs, PFCs and SF6 (total 0.03 Wm–2) are not shown.
Concentration-based RFs for gases can be obtained by summing the like-
coloured bars. Volcanic forcing is not included as its episodic nature makes it
difficult to compare to other forcing mechanisms. Total anthropogenic
radiative forcing is provided for three different years relative to 1750. For
further technical details, see IPCC (2013) report on Climate change 2013:
Physical Science Basis (Summary for Policy Makers) and AR5 WG1
Technical Report (figure adapted from IPCC, 2013a)
Fig. 2.8 clearly shows that total radiative forcing is positive, and has led to an
uptake of energy by the climate system. The largest contribution to total
radiative forcing is caused by the increase in the atmospheric concentration of
CO2 since 1750. Simply put, CO2 is the major cause of global warming since
the pre-industrial era till date mostly coming from anthropogenic sources.
IPCC (2013a) puts it very clearly, “Carbon dioxide concentrations have
increased by 40% since pre-industrial times, primarily from fossil fuel
emissions and secondarily from net land use change emissions.”
Some significant points deduced from the study of radiative forcing and
climate drivers are as follows:
• Emissions of CO2 alone have caused an RF of 1.68 [1.33 to 2.03] Wm–2

(Fig. 2.8). Including emissions of other carbon-containing gases, which
also contributed to the increase in CO2 concentrations, the RF of CO2 is
1.82 [1.46 to 2.18] W m–2.
• Emissions of CH4 alone have caused an RF of 0.97 [0.74 to 1.20] Wm−2

(Fig. 2.8). This is much larger than the concentration-based estimate of
0.48 [0.38 to 0.58] Wm−2 (unchanged from AR4). This difference in
estimates is caused by concentration changes in ozone and stratospheric
water vapour due to CH4 emissions and other emissions indirectly
affecting CH4.
• Emissions of stratospheric ozone-depleting halocarbons have caused a

net positive RF of 0.18 [0.01 to 0.35] Wm−2 (Fig. 2.8). Their own
positive RF has outweighed the negative RF from the ozone depletion
that they have induced. The positive RF from all halocarbons is similar
to the value in AR4, with a reduced RF from CFCs but increases from
many of their substitutes.
• Emissions of short-lived gases contribute to the total anthropogenic RF.

Emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) are virtually certain to have induced
a positive RF, while emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) are likely to
have induced a net negative RF (Fig. 2.8).
50
• The RF of the total aerosol effect in the atmosphere, which includes Atmosphere and
cloud adjustments due to aerosols, is –0.9 [–1.9 to −0.1] Wm−2 (medium Climate
confidence), and results from a negative forcing from most aerosols and
a positive contribution from black carbon absorption of solar radiation.
There is high confidence that aerosols and their interactions with clouds
have offset a substantial portion of global mean forcing from well-mixed
greenhouse gases. They continue to contribute the largest uncertainty to
the total RF estimate.
2.8 LET US SUM UP

Climate change refers to significant, long-term changes in the global climate
system. Over time, earth has developed a climate that nurtures the life-system
and the planet is flourished with whole lot of flora, fauna and human beings.
The survival of human beings is solely dependent on the conducive climate
that the earth provides. However, IPCC reports state that anthropogenic
intervention has changed the climate system adversely. In this unit, we have
discussed the basic concepts like radiation balance, radiative forcing and
climate forcing mechanisms. While ‘External forcing’ refer to a forcing agent
outside the climate system causing a change in the climate system, the
‘Internal forcing’ operates from within the climate system. The forcing
mechanisms include orbital variations, solar variations, volcanic eruptions,
change in atmospheric composition, etc. Further, we have discussed the role
of greenhouse gases, greenhouse effect, global warming potential and drivers
of climate change.
2.9 KEY WORDS

Albedo: The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object, often
expressed as a percentage. Snow-covered surfaces have a high albedo, the
albedo of soils ranges from high to low, and vegetation-covered surfaces and
oceans have a low albedo.
Greenhouse Effect: The infrared radiative effect of all infrared-absorbing

constituents in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases, clouds, and (to a small
extent) aerosols absorb terrestrial radiation emitted by the earth’s surface and
elsewhere in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse Gases: Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the

atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at
specific wavelengths within the spectrum of terrestrial radiation emitted by
the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes
the greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous
oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse
gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely
human-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons
and other chlorine- and bromine containing substances.
51
Introduction to
Global Climate Global Warming Potential (GWP): An index, based on radiative properties
Change of greenhouse gases, measuring the radiative forcing following a pulse
emission of a unit mass of a given greenhouse gas in the present-day
atmosphere integrated over a chosen time horizon, relative to that of carbon
dioxide.
2.10 SUGGESTED FURTHER

READING/REFERENCES
Buis, A., 2019, The Atmosphere: Getting a Handle on Carbon Dioxide,
https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2915/the-atmosphere-getting-a-handle-on-
carbon-
dioxide/#:~:text=The%20concentration%20of%20carbon%20dioxide,it%20w
as%20near%20370%20ppm.
IPCC, 2013a: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The
Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPCC, 2013b: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis.

Robock, A. (2000). Volcanic eruptions and climate change. Reviews of

Geophysics, 38(2), 191–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_227
Seinfeld, J. H., Pandis, S. N., 2006, Atmopsheric Chemistry and Physics:

From Air Pollution to Climate Change, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
Ela, Wendell P., Masters, Gilbert M., 2014, Introduction to Environmental

Engineering and Science, Third Edition, Pearson Education Limited.
Lutgens, F. K., Tarbuck, E. J., 2013, The Atmosphere: An Introduction,

Pearson Education Limited
Wallace, J. M., Hobbs, P. V., 2016, Atmospheric Science: An Introductory

Survey, Elsevier Amsterdam
52
2.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Atmosphere and
Climate
1) Water vapour is the most important greenhouse gas. It is produced

continually by evaporation from water bodies and constitutes more than
50% of the GHGs. Its abundance is not a problem because it is short
lived and can diminish rapidly by condensation or rain. Its importance
lies in the fact that it amplifies temperature rise by creating a positive
feedback loop in the atmosphere. As temperature rises, more water
evaporates and more water vapour raises the temperature further. A
feedback loop also increases the heating effect of other gases.
2) The important greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide,

methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs and ozone.
53
Introduction to
Global Climate
Change
UNIT 3 NATURAL CAUSES OF CLIMATE
CHANGE
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Earth’s tilt, Rotation and Orbital Changes
3.3.1 Earth’s Obliquity
3.3.2 Earth’s Eccentricity

3.3.3 Earth’s Precession
3.3.4 Sunspot Activity

3.4 Meteors and Volcanic Eruptions
3.4.1 Meteors

3.5 Changes in Ocean Currents
3.6 El Niño, La Niña Cycle and the Arctic Oscillation (AO)
3.6.1 El Niño
3.6.2 La Niña Cycle

3.6.3 Arctic Oscillation (AO)
3.7 Tectonic Plates Movements
3.8 Greenhouse Gases Emissions
3.8.1 Emissions from Wetlands
3.8.2 Emissions from Soils

3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Earth's climate is determined by a compilation of many things and factors.
These effects include effects from the primary factors of Earth's axial tilt
angle, Earth's orbital eccentricity, and the precession, as well as some
secondary, external effects, such as meteorite/asteroid impacts on the earth's
surface and solar activity from the sun, including sunspots, solar flares, and
solar winds/geomagnetic storms. The Sunspot activities occurs on 11-year
cycle and during this time the Earth receives more shoots off solar flares, and
blasts with solar wind and geomagnetic activity from the Sun. Natural
catastrophes like meteors and volcanic eruptions plays important role in
54 bringing climate change. Volcanic eruptions have played important role in
making life possible on the Earth. Ashes and sulphate aerosols from the Atmosphere and
volcanoes play significant role in reducing insolation to the Earth and hence Climate
caused negative radiative forcing. Both surface ocean currents and deep
ocean currents plays important role in distribution of temperature across the
globe. Phenomena like El Niño, La Niña cycle and the Arctic oscillation
(AO) contributes significantly in perturbing global climate as well. The
tectonic plate movement’s theory was proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener
in 1912. The movement of tectonic plates has contributed to the climate
change in terms of geological time scale i.e., between 3.3 to 3.5 billion years
ago. Breaking up of Pangaea has created to shift some continents nearer to
the Equator whereas drifting away for others. Formation of mountains
seaway, ocean etc. has made changes in the climate what is today. Last but
not the least, wetlands which is also called “nature’s kidney” plays significant
role in carbon sequestration i.e., trapping of carbon in the form of biomass
and nutrient cycling. Water saturation of soil makes the place conducive to
form methane and nitrous oxide. Like, wetlands, soil plays a great role in
carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling too. In this unit, we would be
discussing the natural causes of climate change like earth’s obliquity,
eccentricity, precession, volcanic eruptions, changes in ocean currents, etc.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
• explain the Earth’s tilt, rotation and orbital changes;

• explain the role of volcanic eruptions on climate change;
• explain the El Niño, La Niña Cycle and the Arctic Oscillation and
• explain the role of tectonic plates movement on climate change.
3.3 EARTH’S TILT, ROTATION AND ORBITAL

CHANGES
The Sun is the source of all life on Earth, and it is an important factor in
climate change. The total amount of solar radiation in the uppermost
atmosphere depends not only on how much energy the Sun emits at any
given time, but also on the position and tilt of the Earth in relation to the Sun.
It is these variations in the position and tilt of the Earth which explain the
long-term changes in climate on Earth, including the large changes observed
during the Ice Ages.
3.3.1 Earth’s Obliquity

The angle made between the Earth's axes of rotation with the vertical is
defined as Earth's obliquity. It ranges from 22.3 degrees to 24.5 degrees with
the vertical. It oscillates by 1.5 degree every 41,000 years. Today the
obliquity is about 23.5 degrees. This tilt decides the spatial difference of
incoming solar radiation during different months and so decides seasons on 55
Introduction to
Global Climate various locations at the Earth. More is the tilt greater is the extremes of the
Change climate. Increase in Earth's axial tilt with an angle more than 45 degrees can
lead to hotter summers and extremely cold in the northern hemisphere as
sunlight will be available for longer period of time and becoming closer to
the sun made it a better receptor of sunlight. In last 6,000–7,000 years, the tilt
of the Earth’s axis has decreased resulting in decrease solar irradiance during
the summer in the Northern Hemisphere, while the Tropics received less
incoming solar radiation.
Why tropics were colder at ancient times than now? One of the reasons
behind it was the larger axial tilt and as result had stronger monsoon
downpour than now and so the Sahara was a lush rainforest at that point of
time. Situation was reverse in case of northern hemisphere and so the
seasonal variations were much more then in comparison to now and so place
like Norway slowly started to form large glaciers and one of the such
examples could be Folgefonna which exists today but were not present in the
past.
3.3.2 Earth’s Eccentricity

Earth moves around the Sun in an elliptical path. The eccentricity in the orbit
of rotation makes the Earth as a whole sometime nearer and sometimes
farther from the Sun. Currently, Earth's eccentricity is about 0.0167, that is
nearer to the circular side of the eccentricity range Earth cycles through. In
last 100,000 years, Earth's eccentricity varied within the range of 0.005 to
0.0607. Eccentricity along with the axial tilt gives the seasonal variation to
the planet Earth.
3.3.3 Earth’s Precession

The Earth functions like a spinning top, rotates completely on its own axis in
24 hours. Earth’s spin axis never points towards the same direction relative to
the fixed stars. Instead, it slowly rotates. Due to this phenomenon, called
the precession of the equinoxes, the season (or day) when the Earth is at
perihelion (the point on the orbit that places Earth closest to the Sun) changes
with a periodicity of about 26,000 years. This precession movement is the
result of two other processes. “The first is Earth's wobbling motion
(slow axial precession), Ruddiman likens it to a top, how the top spins
rapidly, revolves around a point on the surface it's spinning on, and also
‘wobbles’ at the top of the top. Axial change of the Earth on its axis as it
rotates is called wobbling. The second process is called to as apsidal
precession i.e., the precession of the ellipse. In this second process, the entire
ellipse of Earth's orbital path rotates around the sun. When these two
processes are put together, they cause the solstices and equinoxes to
effectively move around the earth's orbital path to change how much solar
irradiation the hemispheres get during any given season”
(https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-climate.html).
56
The precession of solstices and equinoxes plays an important role in Earth’s Atmosphere and
climate change. The solstices and equinoxes cause the seasons to occur at Climate
different times in Earth's revolution around the sun throughout a cycle at a

periodicity of about every 26,000 years. For example, in the Northern
Hemisphere, when the Earth is at its aphelion, farthest from the sun causes
the less temperature variation between winter and summer and vice-versa is
the case in the southern part. On the contrary, when the earth is at its
perihelion, closest to the sun, about 5,750 years later, then the differences are
most remarkable. At present the Earth is at aphelion, so the southern
hemisphere climate is more extreme whereas in the northern hemisphere
summers and winters are moderate.
3.3.4 Sunspot Activity

The total solar irradiance varies over time and can be related to the well-
known 11-year sunspot cycle. Higher sunspot activity yields increased solar
irradiance towards Earth, and vice versa. Actual observations of sunspots on
the sun’s surface reveal that the last half of the 1600s were a period of
abnormally little sunspot activity. Following this period, called the “Maunder
minimum”, sunspot activity has increased. However, direct measurements of
solar irradiance by satellites have not indicated any positive trends since
1978. This means that changes in solar irradiance alone cannot explain the
recent observed global warming.
“Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the
sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind
and geomagnetic activity. Despite the appearance that these events seem
random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11
years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due
to these ‘random’ events, though, is merely 0.1%. Overall, the total
irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor
affecting Earth climate” (https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-
climate.html). The total solar irradiation received by Earth's surface can be
calculated mathematically.
This can be done through the following equation:
Gt = GND + Gd + GR …………………………………………….3.1
Where,
Gt = Total solar irradiation received by Earth's surface;
GND = Direct irradiation from the sun;
Gd = Diffuse irradiation from nearby surroundings being heated up by the

sun; and
GR = The reflected irradiation from other nearby surfaces.

57
Introduction to
Global Climate 3.4 METEORS AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Change
3.4.1 Meteors
Meteors or asteroids are two important external forces that affect Earth's
climate. Just to imagine, asteroids only about two km in diameter can create
craters of 40 km i.e., 20-times in diameter at Earth's surface. Phenomena of
such an impact could throw huge amount of dust into the atmosphere as well
that prevents incoming solar radiation to reach upon the earth. Further, it also
perturbs the sea level, precipitation, temperature, ocean currents, and
atmospheric circulation.
“Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect
Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about
climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun
activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar
radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which
together, act to affect Earth's climate”
(https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-climate.html).

Volcanic eruptions are one of important natural factors that impact the
weather and climate. Volcanic activities emit huge amount of ashes, SO2,
HCl, CO2 and steam into the atmosphere. The impact has been recorded for
two-years or even more after the eruption. The volcanic activities have not
only injected the SO2 gas directly into the atmosphere but also the
transformation of it into sulphate aerosols.
There are various ways through which volcanic forcing affects or impacts the
climate. There is 1st phenomenon called aerosol-radiation interaction.
Sulphate aerosols are tiny enough and scatter back the incoming solar
radiation and so contribute as negative radiative forcing (RF) agent. 2nd
phenomena created as a result of creation of differential vertical or horizontal
heating which produces gradients and changes the circulation. Thirdly,
interactions with other modes of circulation, such as El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) contribute to radiative forcing. 3rd impact is upon ozone
(O3) layer depletion. Depletion of stratospheric O3 triggers the heating up of
this layer provided availability of free-chlorine got enhanced and vice-versa.
Additionally, the reduced direct solar radiation impacts the vegetation and
hence impacts the global carbon cycle as well. Impact is not only upon the
carbon cycle but also upon hydrological cycle by impacting aerosol–cloud
interaction. The sulphate aerosols impact the clouds in the troposphere as
well. Lava, carbon dioxide (CO2), ash and particles got expelled under the
volcanic activity. Though CO2 has a positive radiative forcing effect but
average volcanic CO2 emissions contribution is less than 1% of emissions as
compared to anthropogenic contributions. Large volumes of gases, ash and
58 sulphate aerosols can influence climatic patterns for years by enhanced
planetary reflectivity causing overall atmospheric cooling i.e., negative Atmosphere and
radiative forcing. The last major volcanic eruption occurred was Mt Pinatubo Climate
in 1991and this has caused a decrease of 0.5 °C in the global temperature.

Even several volcanic eruptions of lesser magnitude have caused a RF for the
years 2008–2011 of –0.11 (–0.15 to –0.08) W m–2. This negative RF is
thought to have been an important factor in cooling the Earth’s surface during
the period called the little ice age (ca. 1550-1800AD).
3.5 CHANGES IN OCEAN CURRENTS

Hydrosphere in general and oceans in particular plays a crucial role in global
climate. The ocean has an interconnected current, or circulation system
powered by wind, tides, the Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect), the sun (solar
energy), and water density differences. Ocean currents are of two types i.e.,
surface current and deep water. The topography and shape of ocean basins
and nearby landmasses impacts ocean currents as well. Surface currents are
driven by global wind systems that are governed by insolation from the sun.
Factors like wind direction, Coriolis force and the position of landforms that
interact with the currents impacts the surface current. Surface wind-driven
currents forms upwelling currents along with landforms, creating deep water
currents. Surface currents are located at the ocean surface whereas deep
water currents prevail below 300 meters. Deep water current can move water
both horizontally and vertically and occurrences could be on both local and
global levels. Deep ocean currents are density-driven and differ from surface
currents in scale, speed, and energy. Water density is affected by the
temperature, salinity (saltiness), and depth of the water. The colder and saltier
the ocean water, the denser it is. The more is the density gradient between
different layers in the water column, the greater the mixing and so is the
circulation. Density differences in ocean water contribute to a global-scale
circulation system, also called the global conveyor belt. Together, these
currents transport heat from the tropics to the higher latitudes. Warm water
from the tropics flows towards the poles in wind-driven surface-currents. On
cooling, it becomes denser and heavier, and got sink which began flowing
back toward the equator in a relatively slower but deep in the ocean. The
global conveyor belt includes both surface and deep ocean currents that
circulate the globe in a 1,000-year cycle. The global circulation system of the
ocean not only plays a key role in distributing heat energy, regulating
weather and climate, but also in transportation of nutrients and oceanic
productivity. In recent past, scientists have observed that the Atlantic Ocean's
circulation has slowed by about 15 %, and if it continues then it can have
serious implications on Earth's inhabitants by having much colder winters
and hotter summers in Europe, altered rainfall patterns in the tropics, and
warmer water building up along the U.S. coast. In year 2015, decline in cod
fishery recorded as a result of rapidly warming water in the Gulf of Maine,
which fits the pattern of slowing Atlantic circulation. Recede of warm water
from the East Coast also got related to 2011's destructive Hurricane Irene, as
59
Introduction to
Global Climate well as Superstorm Sandy in 2012.
Change
3.6 EL NIÑO, LA NIÑA CYCLE AND THE
ARCTIC OSCILLATION (AO)
Changes in climate are not due to the external factor alone. Climate system
itself can trigger a change in climate as well and positive feedbacks could be
the one. Phenomena like El Niño–La Niña cycle, which can cause warming
and cooling for a shorter span.
3.6.1 El Niño
During an El Niño event, the surface waters in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean become warmer. El Nino is the “warm phase” of a
larger phenomenon called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). El Niño
has an impact on ocean temperatures, the ocean currents, coastal fisheries,
and local weather from Australia to South America and beyond. It occurs
irregularly at an interval of 2 to 7 years. However, El Niño is not a regular
cycle, or predictable in the sense that ocean tides are. It was first recognized
by fishers off the coast of Peru as the appearance of unusually warm water.
Spanish immigrants called it El Niño, meaning “the little boy” when
capitalized, it means “the Christ Child”, as this phenomenon often arrived
around Christmas-eve.
Later, Sir Gilbert Walker in the 1930s and other climatologists determined
that El Niño occurs in concurrence with the Southern Oscillation.
The Southern Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific
Ocean. Warmer the coastal water over the eastern tropical Pacific (El Niño)
lesser is the atmospheric pressure above the ocean. Climatologists define
these linked phenomena as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
The Oceanic Nino Index (ONI) is used to measure deviations from normal
sea surface temperatures. During El Niño events the sea surface temperature
increases of more than 0.9° Fahrenheit for at least five successive three-
month seasons. The intensity of El Niño depends upon the temperature
change. It can have moderate or local effect on climate if temperature
increases by about 4–5° F to global if temperature increases by 14–18° F.
In reverse, La Nina, the “cool phase” of ENSO, is a pattern that describes the
unusual cooling of the region’s surface waters. El Niño and La Niña are
considered the ocean part of ENSO, while the Southern Oscillation is
its atmospheric changes. El Niño devastated western South American
fisheries and fertilizer industry. The South American fertilizer industry is run
by the droppings of seabirds, whose population declines during El Niño
events due to a reduction in their food source (fish). Similarly, El Nino has
devastating impact on agricultural-based Indian economy too by suppressing
monsoon rainfall.
60 El Niño does not support Upwelling!
Strong trade winds blow westward across the tropical Pacific. The tropical Atmosphere and
pacific is the region of the Pacific Ocean which is located between the Tropic Climate
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. These strong trade winds push warm
surface water towards the western Pacific bordering Asia and Australia.
“Due to the warm trade winds, rise in ocean surface got recorded by about
0.5 m higher and 45° F warmer in Indonesia than Ecuador. As a result, it
pushes warmer water westward. Upwelling is defined as the westward
movement of warmer waters that causes cooler waters to rise up towards the
surface on the coasts of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. It elevates cold, nutrient-
rich water to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the ocean. Nutrients in the
cold water include nitrates and phosphates. Tiny organisms
called phytoplankton use them for photosynthesis, the process that creates
chemical energy from sunlight. Other organisms, such as clams, eat the
plankton, while predators like fish or marine mammals’ prey on clams.
Upwelling provides food for a wide variety of marine life, including most
major fisheries. Fishing is one of the primary industries of Peru, Ecuador,
and Chile. Some of the fisheries include anchovy, sardine, mackerel, shrimp,
tuna, and hake. The upwelling process also influences global climate. The
warm ocean temperature in the western Pacific contributes to increased
rainfall around the islands of Indonesia and New Guinea. The air influenced
by the cool eastern Pacific, along the coast of South America, remains
relatively dry” (https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/el-
nino/print/).
3.6.2 La Niña
La Niña is a weather pattern that occurs in the Pacific Ocean. In this pattern,
strong winds blow warm water at the ocean's surface from South America to
Indonesia. As the warm water moves west, cold water from the deep rises to
the surface near the coast of South America.
3.6.3 The Arctic Oscillation (AO)

The Arctic oscillation (AO), is a large-scale mode of climate variability
which is also called as the Northern Hemisphere annular mode. It is a climate
pattern associated with winds circulating counter clockwise around the
Arctic at around 55°N latitude. AO brings warmer weather to parts of Europe
and North America and colder Arctic than usual. In the other phase of the
AO, it resulted into the opposite conditions i.e., Arctic warmer-than-usual
and sub-polar regions became colder. Because of this see-saw effect, the AO
has little effect on global temperatures, but can significantly influence local
and regional weather.
3.7 TECTONIC PLATES MOVEMENTS 61

Introduction to
Global Climate The outer shell of the Earth is called the lithosphere which is divided into
Change pieces called tectonic plates. Tectonic movement led to crustal thickening,
isostatic uplift and deformation of lithosphere. The movement of tectonic
plates has contributed to the climate change in terms of geological time scale
i.e., between 3.3 to 3.5 billion years ago. The plate tectonic
movement theory was first proposed by the scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912.
Wegener proposed that the present continents were once a single landmass
called Pangaea. Breaking up of Pangaea has moved some continents nearer to
the Equator whereas drifting away for others.
At one place, plates converges and mountains formed whereas at places

where plates pulled apart oceans formed. The continents closer to the equator
received more insolation than those at a distance and so had differential
heating pattern. Continents even now continues to move at the rate of about 3
cm per year. Creation of ocean, mountains, etc., has created different level of
interactions:
• Land-ocean
The thermal retention property of land varies to that of ocean. The continental
region gets colder in winter and warmer in summer than an oceanic region.
Since, water absorbs heat during the day time and retains it for a longer
period than the land. So, difference registered in day and night temperature at
land is more to that of ocean.
• Rain shadow
Formation of mountain ranges as a result of plate tectonic activity changes

the rainfall through the effects of orography. This happens as a result of
formation of a rain shadow on the leeward side of mountain belts. The
mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a
"shadow" of dryness behind them.
• Ocean currents
Global climate is also strongly controlled by ocean currents. Ocean currents

depend on the geometry of the oceans and this is controlled by plate
tectonics. Hence, over geological timescales the movement of plates and
continents has a profound effect on the distribution of land masses, mountain
ranges and the connectivity of the oceans. As a consequence, plate tectonics
has a very direct and fundamental influence on global climate. We already
discussed about ocean currents, El Nino, La Nina and arctic oscillation.
• Formation of sea way
The climate of modern Antarctica is extreme. Being located over the South
Pole, the continent is covered by glacial ice. But case was not the same 50
million years ago. Possibly a shallow seaway between Antarctica and South
America was there but both continents were moving together. About 50
62 million years ago, both South America and Antarctica started moving
differentially and as a result split apart very rapidly and the subsequent Atmosphere and
formation of Drake Passage. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current that Climate
completely encircles Antarctica and gives rise to the stormy region of the
Southern Ocean known as the roaring forties. The Antarctic circumpolar
current facilitates inter-ocean exchange of seawater and have reduced heat
transport to Antarctica, triggering the Oligocene global cooling as a result of
sequestered atmospheric CO2, contributing to global cooling and Antarctic
glaciation.
1) What is Earth’s obliquity?
……………………………………………………………………………
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2) What is El Nino?
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3) What is Arctic Oscillation?
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3.8 GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSIONS

63
Introduction to
Global Climate 3.8.1 Emissions from Wetlands
Change
Wetlands are an interface between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They
are also called “nature’s kidney”. They are water saturated either throughout
the year or part of it. Swamps, marshes peat lands are those wetlands where
water remain available throughout the year whereas floodplains are those
where water saturation remain seasonally. Wetlands are sensitive ecosystem
and its role is prime in terms of carbon sequestration i.e., synthesis of
biomass and nutrient cycling and dynamics and greenhouse gases emission as
well. Growth of plants is faster in this ecosystem type so it scavenges CO2
from the atmosphere at a faster rate. But soil here is deficient of oxygen as a
result of water saturation. So, carbon that gets incorporated into the soil
decomposes at a very slow rate and can be trapped for hundreds or even
thousands of years. Meeting few favourable conditions like anaerobic
condition under high temperature condition leads to the production of two
prominent GHGs, like CH4 and N2O. Wetlands not only produce but also
store huge amount of CH4 as well. The potential of unit amount of CH4 to
cause global warming as compared to unit amount of CO2 is defined as
global warming potential (GWP) and it varied in terms of time scale we
compare. On a 100-year time scale, CH4 possesses 25 times higher global
warming potential than CO2. Natural wetlands release 177 to 284 Tg CH4
annually. Increase in temperature accelerates the production of CH4. Through
receipt of nitrogen in various forms from different sources like from run-off
of excess fertilizers from lands, decay of plant biomass or availability of
atmospheric nitrogen, nitrogen got fixed by the process of nitrification. In
nitrification NH4+ gets oxidized into nitrate (NO3−) via nitrite (NO2−). At the
same it also gets released through the process of denitrification i.e., reduction
of nitrate (NO3−) into nitrous oxide (N2O) and N2. N2O is a potential GHG
and it’s per molecule GWP is 298 times to that of CO2 over 100-year time
scale. Though, wetlands are evident in terms of GHG sink but interference of
human has destroyed this sensitive ecosystem and as a result it becomes one
of the potent contributors, about 1/3rd of total natural and anthropogenic
emissions of CH4 and N2O. Through models, scientists have predicted that
wetland CH4 feedbacks translate to an increase in additional global mean
radiative forcing of 0.04 W·m−2 to 0.19 W·m−2 by the end of the 21st century.
3.8.2 Emissions from Soils

Like wetlands, soils sequester considerable amount of terrestrial carbon and
nitrogen through the process of photosynthesis and nitrification respectively.
So, it reduces the atmospheric CO2 burden and enhances carbon and total
nitrogen stored in the soil. Terrestrial top soil accounts for 1500 Pg and 136
Pg, carbon and nitrogen pool respectively. But conversely, an unsustainable
agricultural practice has forced the soil to release carbon in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and emission of N2O through the process of
denitrification. Further, CH4 in soils gets generated under anaerobic condition
64
by methanogenesis and it is used as substrate by
methanotrophic microorganisms which use O2 and CH4 for their metabolism Atmosphere and
under aerobic conditions. Similarly, as already discussed the emission of N2O Climate
is produced mainly by denitrification under anaerobic conditions, where the

water-filled pore space is more than 50%.
3.9 LET US SUM UP

Earth's climate is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors. As
regards the natural causes of climate change, the factors such as Earth's axial
tilt angle, Earth's orbital eccentricity, and the precession, as well as external
effects, such as meteorite/asteroid impacts on the earth's surface and solar
activity from the sun, including sunspots, solar flares, and solar
winds/geomagnetic storms influence the earth’s climate. Earth's obliquity
ranges from 22.3 degrees to 24.5 degrees with the vertical. It oscillates by 1.5
degree every 41,000 years. Presently, the obliquity is about 23.5 degrees. As
regards the earth’s eccentricity, it is about 0.0167. The Sunspot activities
occurs on 11-year cycle and during this time the Earth receives more shoots
of solar flares, and blasts with solar wind and geomagnetic activity from the
Sun. Natural catastrophes like meteors and volcanic eruptions plays
important role in bringing climate change. Ocean currents play important role
in distribution of temperature across the globe. Also, phenomena like El
Niño, La Niña cycle and the Arctic oscillation (AO) contributes significantly
in perturbing global climate. In this unit, we have discussed the Earth’s tilt,
rotation and orbital changes, the role of volcanic eruptions on climate change,
the El Niño, La Niña Cycle and the Arctic Oscillation and also the role of
tectonic plates movement on climate change.
3.10 KEY WORDS

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): The El Niño was initially used to
describe a warm-water current that periodically flows along the coast of
Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. It has since become identified
with a basin-wide warming of the tropical Pacific Ocean east of the dateline.
This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of a global scale tropical
and subtropical surface pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This
coupled atmosphere–ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two to
about seven years, is known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Solar (‘11-year’) cycle: A quasi-regular modulation of solar activity with

varying amplitude and a period of between 8 and 14 years.
Sunspots: Dark areas on the Sun where strong magnetic fields reduce the
convection causing a temperature reduction of about 1500 K compared to the
surrounding regions. The number of sunspots is higher during periods of
higher solar activity, and varies in particular with the solar cycle.

65
Introduction to
Global Climate READING/REFERENCES
Change
Burroughs WJ (2007) Climate Change: A multidisciplinary approach. 2nd

Edition.Cambridge University Press. Pp.390. ISBN: 978-0-521-69033-1
Dessler A (2016) Introduction to Modern Climate Change. 2nd

Edition.Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978-521-17315-5
Fletcher C (2018) Climate Change: What the science tells us. 2nd
Edition.John Wiley & Sons. Pp.336. ISBN: 978-1-118-79306-0
Houghton JT (2015) Global Warming: The complete briefing. 5th

Edition.Cambridge University Press. Pp.456. ISBN: 978-0-521-70916.
IPCC, (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis.

IPCC, (2018) Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An

IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-
industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the
context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change,
sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte,
V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W.
Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y.
Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T.
Waterfield (eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,
32 pp.
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
Web Links
http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/
66
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/el-nino/ Atmosphere and
Climate
https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-climate.html
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/el-nino/print/
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/ocean-currents-and-climate/
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/ocean-currents-and-climate/
https://www.sofarocean.com/posts/understanding-surface-currents-vs-deep-
ocean-currents
https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

1) The angle made between the Earth's axes of rotation with the vertical is
defined as Earth's obliquity. It ranges from 22.3 degrees to 24.5 degrees
with the vertical. It oscillates by 1.5 degree every 41,000 years.
Presently, the obliquity is about 23.5 degrees. This tilt decides the spatial
difference of incoming solar radiation during different months and so
decides seasons on various locations at the Earth.
2) El Nino was first recognized by fishers off the coast of Peru as the
appearance of unusually warm water. Spanish immigrants called it El
Niño, meaning “the little boy” when capitalized, it means “the Christ
Child”, as this phenomenon often arrived around Christmas-eve. During
an El Niño event, the surface waters in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean become warmer. El Nino is the “warm phase” of a
larger phenomenon called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). El
Niño has an impact on ocean temperatures, the ocean currents, coastal
fisheries, and local weather from Australia to South America and
beyond. It occurs irregularly at an interval of 2 to 7 years. However, El
Niño is not a regular cycle, or predictable in the sense that ocean tides
are.
3) The Arctic oscillation (AO), is a large-scale mode of climate variability

which is also calledas the Northern Hemisphere annular mode. It is a
climate pattern associated with winds circulating counter clockwise
around the Arctic at around 55°N latitude. AO brings warmer weather to
parts of Europe and North America and colder Arctic than usual. In the
other phase of the AO, it resulted into the opposite conditions i.e., Arctic
warmer-than-usual and sub-polar regions became colder. Because of this
see-saw effect, the AO has little effect on global temperatures, but can
significantly influence local and regional weather.
UNIT 4 ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES OF

67
Introduction to
Global Climate CLIMATE CHANGE
Change
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Urbanization
4.3.1 Burning of fossil fuels
4.3.2 Waste Decomposition
4.3.3 Impact of Urbanization
4.3.3.1 Loss of Green Cover

4.3.3.2 The Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect
4.3.3.3 Greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions
4.3.4 Steps taken towards making of a sustainable city

4.4 Deforestation
4.5 Desertification
4.5.1 Processes and drivers of desertification
4.5.1.1 Soil erosion
4.5.1.2 Soil acidification, salinization and depletion of soil moisture
4.5.1.3 Enhanced atmospheric CO2 level

4.5.1.4 Forest Fires
4.6 Agriculture
4.6.1 Emissions
4.6.2 Mitigation technologies and practices
4.7 Livestock management
4.8 Aerosols
4.8.1 Pathways and Radiative forcing
4.8.2 Life time
4.8.3 Sources of Aerosols

4.8.3.1 Primary anthropogenic aerosols as Industrial dust
4.8.3.2 Primary anthropogenic aerosols as Carbonaceous aerosols
4.8.3.3 Nitrates Aerosol and its Radiative effects

4.8.3.4 Other important sources of primary aerosols
4.8.3.5 Secondary Organic Aerosols (SOA)
4.8.3.6 Effects of aerosol at a glance!

4.9 Let Us Sum Up
4.10 Key Words
68 4.11 Suggested Further Reading/References

4.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Atmosphere and
Climate
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The surface temperature of the earth is controlled by the balance between the
absorbed solar radiation and the emitted infrared radiation. During the past
150 years the amount of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere has increased from
280 parts per million (ppm) to more than 400 ppm by burning of fossil fuels.
Urbanization, deforestation and desertification, agriculture and livestock
activity have been categorized as important sectors in emitting CO2, CH4,
N2O, particulate matter containing Black Carbon (BC), volatile organic
carbon (VOCs), etc. In this unit, we endeavour to discuss the role of
urbanization, deforestation and desertification on climate change. Further, we
will discuss about the major greenhouse gases emissions from agriculture and
livestock sector.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
• explain the role of urbanization on climate change;

• explain the role of deforestation and desertification on climate change;
and
• explain the greenhouse gases emissions from agriculture and livestock
sector.
4.3 URBANIZATION
The world population has grown significantly and we have reached 7.8
billion by March 2020. Increasing population needs livelihood, good
education and other amenities to sustain and enjoy good life. As a result,
there is a constant process of inflow of population from the rural to urban
areas. In year 2007, world’s urban and rural populations were almost same at
3.33 billion each. But by 2016, world's urban populations increased to 4
billion whereas rural population has increased only marginally to 3.4 billion.
In the year 2009, megacities had 4.7 % of the world’s population, meaning
there by about one in every twenty people on Earth live in megacities. Large-
scale industrialization began in the 18th century that cities really began to
expand. UN reported that 54% of people in the world lived in urban areas in
2016. By 2030 the urban land use cover will be triple, increasing by 1.2
million km2.
By 2030 it is estimated thaturban land cover will nearly triple, increasing by

1.2million km2(Seto et al. 2012) and most of the world’spopulation will be
exposed to anthropogenic climatechange in urban areas (IPCC 2014).
Nearly half of all people now live in urban areas. Urbanization is on the rise
all over the globe without any exception. Urbanization has created megacities 69
Introduction to
Global Climate with high population density, where more than 10 million people live.
Change
Currently we have 33-megacities in the world as per United Nations report
and nine of the 10 cities projected to become megacities by 2030. Currently,
India has 5-major megacity that includes New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
Bengaluru and Chennai. Current population of New Delhi is 26.7 million and
10 million people are expected to join this city by 2030. Megacity dwellers
need infrastructure like housing, road, schools, hospitals, etc., and also need
energy for transportation and to sustain other household activities, waste
management. There are few examples of sustainable green megacity and
Yokohama, Japan kept its place on the top. By 2030, global energy demands
are expected to increase by 60 to 85 per cent. So, urbanization has impact
upon land-use and energy consumption pattern creating urban heat island.
Urban residents currently control on an average 22% of the land carbon
uptake (112 Pg C/year) and about 24% of the carbon emissions (117 Pg
C/year) from land globally (Churkina, 2016).
4.3.1 Burning of Fossil Fuels

Expansion of urbanization is progressing at a faster rate and so is the burning
of fossil fuel to meet the development goals. According to Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2018, urban areas consume between 67%
of total energy use and account for more than 3/4th of CO2 emissions from it.
In the last decade, the urban contribution in global carbon emissions from
burning of fossil fuels estimated to be ∼6.7 Pg C per annum. It is used in
domestic sector as well as in the transport sector. Urban transportation alone
shares 40% of global energy consumption that shares about 8% of the
world’s total energy consumption. The demand for mobility is growing and
the total number of urban passenger-kilometres travelled could be tripled
from 2010 to 2015. Urban areas are finding way to meet the mobility
challenges while strategies have been developed to reduce overall fuel
consumption. Energy efficiency in this sector is being looked at from three
perspectives i.e., to improve the system, to improve transport efficiency and
to improve vehicle efficiency.
4.3.2 Waste Decomposition

Urban inhabitants produce large amounts of both solid and liquid waste.
Various city has developed a robust way of collecting household solid waste
and segregating at source so that waste can be recycled, incinerated,
composted, or deposited in the landfills. Liquid waste from household either
left untreated and goes to natural aquifers or channelized to wastewater
treatment plants. Gases such as CO2, CH4, and volatile organic compounds
are emitted during decomposition of waste at landfills. Waste decomposition
accounts for 40–70% of total CH4 emissions. Global emissions of CH4 from
landfills and waste are estimated to 0.056 Pg C per year (Churkina, 2016).
70 4.3.3 Impact of Urbanization

4.3.3.1 Loss of Green Cover Atmosphere and
Climate
One of the visible changes in the land use change resulted as a result of
urbanization is loss of green cover. Urban expansion is constantly causing
destruction of green cover areas by clearing forest or by converting
agricultural land for creating infrastructures like housing, road, and other
infrastructure needed for human settlements. So, there is perturbation in
green areas and in urban areas it varies from city to city. In Europe, city like
Budapest shares 53% of total area as green space whereas Athens, Greece
merely shares 4% of the total area as green one. In general, the cities of the
US are greener on average than European ones. On an average, the urban tree
cover in the USA is about 27%. Under Indian situation, green cover of Delhi
shares 21.9% whereas Mumbai shares 18% area but share of Kolkata is far
less i.e., about 1% of the total area. Nowadays, efforts are being made
towards vertical greening of buildings and pillars as well. Inspired by the
initiative of Mexico Metro rail, the Bengaluru Metro and Kochi Metro have
already adopted the concept of greening the metro pillars and this has
recently been followed by Delhi metro too.
4.3.3.2 The Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) is defined as the difference in temperature of
the urban areas being warmer (0.6 to 1.30C) in comparison with the
surrounding rural areas. Reduction in green space and addition to higher
energy consumption alters the reflectivity of the urban space. Building
material and geometry of urban housing makes urban area relatively lower
(15-30%) reflector (albedo). These factors apart, other anthropogenic
activities as well contribute positively in enhancing the overall temperature of
the city in comparison to the neighbouring rural surrounding. Increase in
urban temperature acts as fine trap pollutants. So, it alters precipitation and
urban areas expect it more by 5% to 10% in comparison to rural
neighbouring areas. It not only affects the weather by declining cloud cover
and lowering of wind speed but also enhances the soil dryness and overall
anthropogenic heat. Moreover, UHI not only affects the climate but it has
also synergistic effect upon the health of the urban dwellers and specially the
urban poor.
4.3.3.3 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) Emissions

Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) resulted as a bi-product of fossil fuel
burning.According to the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2019)
urbanized areas contributed currently to more than 71% of energy-related
global greenhouse gases (GHGs) and this is expected to rise to 76% by 2030.
Taking consumption-oriented perspective (where emissions are allocated to
the persons whose consumption caused the emissions), total GHG emissions
rates would exceed.
4.3.4 Steps taken towards making of a sustainable city 71

Introduction to
Global Climate Cities around the world are pledging to make use of 100% clean energy.
Change Copenhagen pledges to be carbon-neutral by 2025, whereas Munich is
planning to have 100 % of its electricity powered by renewable energy by the
year 2025 as well (https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/05/the-
copenhagen-effect-how-europe-can-become-heat-efficient/).
Have you heard about Eco-cities?
Every bit of steps been taken to convert a city into eco-city by taking care to
be carbon neutral by depending upon renewable energy sources, effective
management of waste generated and treatment and recycling of water, etc.
City planners are opting for water-saving fittings, insulated walls, double-
glazed windows, south-face orientation to optimize passive heat, solar
photovoltaic roofs and walls, and on-site energy generating stations. With
advancing technology, there has been a constant rise in the number of eco-
cities around the world. Just to name few are Masdar City in Abu Dhabi and
PlanIT Valley in Portugal.
Green Building
A ‘green’ building can be defined as that building that reduce or negates the
negative impacts on our climate and natural environment in its design,
construction or operation. It includes efficient use of energy, water and other
natural resources. It also emphasises upon use of renewable energy, mostly
solar energy, abatement of pollution and waste management in place and
emphasis is upon recycling and re-use. It has selection of that non-toxic and
more sustainable material in construction of buildings. In a nutshell, every bit
of steps has been taken right from design of the building to construction and
its operation under this. It’s a win-win situation for both the occupant as well
for the mother Earth. These building hardly demand any resources from the
outside but are self-sustained. Government of India too is emphasising upon
green buildings for housing a school, a hospital, a community centre, or
home etc.
4.4 DEFORESTATION
Forests affect local, regional and global climates through multiple pathways,
beyond just carbon sequestration. Deforestation has several potential impacts
on climate through altering the biogeochemical cycle of carbon and nitrogen.
Atmospheric carbon gets sequestered in the form of plant biomass through
the process of photosynthesis and gets locked in soil as soil organic carbon.
Similarly, nitrogen present in the elemental form in atmosphere and made
available to plants through the process of nitrification by nitrifying bacteria.
Process of locking up these elements and unlocking is a continuous process
and it gets perturbed if human intervention exceeds the carrying capacity of
the ecosystem. Deforestation can contribute to warming or cooling by
changing the albedo, or how much sunlight is reflected; reducing
72 evapotranspiration, which cools the air; affecting the release of aerosols and
biogenic volatile organic compounds, which can affect cloud formation; and Atmosphere and
changing the roughness of Earth’s surface, which can affect wind speed. Climate
Mainly deforestation in the tropics accounts for up to one third of man-made

CO2 emissions. Annually, about 2 Gt of carbon gets added to the atmosphere
due to tropical deforestation. The rate of forest clearing is difficult to
estimate, probably until the mid-20th century, temperate deforestation and
the loss of organic matter from soils was a more important contributor to
atmospheric carbon dioxide than was the burning of fossil fuels. The global
C-sequestration potential of agricultural soils amounts to 0.73–0.87
Pg C/year. 30–35% of the soil carbon stored in the top soil (7 cm) is lost
within the first 30 years after converting forest into agricultural land.
4.5 DESERTIFICATION
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
established by United Nations in 1994 has defined desertification as “land
degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various
factors, including climatic variations and human activities”. The Convention
itself was a response to a call at the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in
1992 to hold negotiations for an international legal agreement on
desertification. Drylands currently cover about 46.2% of the global land area
and are home to 3 billion people. The multiplicity and complexity of the
processes of desertification make its quantification difficult. The UNCCD
estimates that around 12 million hectares of productive land are lost to
desertification and drought each year. This is an area that could produce 20m
tonnes of grain produced per year.
4.5.1 Processes and Drivers of Desertification

Desertification is a blend of physico-chemical and biological processes. The
number of desertification processes is large. Initial studies of desertification
during the early-to-mid 20th century attributed entirely due to human
interference. Processes of desertification and land degradation linked with
changing climate. Important processes related to land degradation and
desertification are discussed below-
4.5.1.1 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion refers to removal of top soil by the physical factors like water,
wind, or often caused by tilling. Deforestation, intensive grazing, loss of soil
moisture etc. are causes for it. The global estimates of soil erosion range
widely from 20 Gt/year to more than 200 Gt/year. Borrelli et al., 2013,
modelled that about 6.1% of the global land area experienced very high soil
erosion rates which is more than 10 Mg ha−1 yr−1 in year 2012, particularly in
South America, Africa, and Asia.
73
Introduction to
Global Climate 4.5.1.2 Soil Acidification, Salinization and Depletion of Soil
Change Moisture
Soil acidification is the build-up of hydrogen cations (H+) in the soil which
resulted into reduction of soil pH. Over use of Ammonium (NH4+) based
fertilisers are main cause to soil acidification. Available ammonium (NH4+)
nitrogen is readily converted to nitrate (NO3-) and hydrogen (H+) ions in
the soil. Nitrate (NO3-) ion gets leached out resulting in lowering of soil pH.
Soil salinity is defined as the amount of dissolved salts in the soil solution
whereas the process of accumulating soluble salts in the soil is known
as salinization. Salt content contribute significantly on the functions and
management of soil. Increase in atmospheric temperature fasten up the rate of
evapotranspiration and as a result salt gets accumulated in the top soil
especially in arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions worldwide.
In India nearly 9.38 million ha area is occupied by salt-affected soils and
states like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
are badly affected by it. Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal
and Rajasthan, together shares about 75% of saline soils in the country.
Climate change perturbs the hydrological cycle which can cause soil
salinization by enhancing the mineral content in the groundwater and
anthropogenic activities like poorly managed irrigation schemes makes the
situation even worse. Rise in sea level and seawater intrusion are getting
amplified as a result of climate change as well.
Low soil moisture content is expected to amplify the turnover of soil organic
carbon (SOC). The decomposition of the soil organic matter by microbial
activity starts with the availability of low soil water but this moisture does
not support plant productivity. As a result, rise in temperature of top-soil in
dryland areas causes transfer of carbon (C) from soil to the atmosphere.
4.5.1.3 Enhanced Atmospheric CO2 Level

Increase in CO2 levels supports the growth of invasive plant species. For
example, Great Basin region in western North America which has over 20%
of ecosystems as invasive plants like exotic annual grasses and conifers and
growth of these invasive plants have caused destruction of native plants and
so caused net loss of biodiversity. This land-cover conversion has resulted in
reductions in forage availability, loss of wildlife habitat, and decline in
overall biodiversity of niche.
4.5.1.4 Forest Fires

The forest fire is one of the important drivers of desertification. It reduces
vegetation cover and so increases surface runoff and soil erosion. As a result,
it reduces soil fertility and affects the soil microbial community as well.
Occurrence of forest fire especially in semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas
have been intensified due to predicted increases in temperature and the
74 severity of drought events across became frequent. In these areas, fire can
have a profound influence on observed vegetation and particularly on the Atmosphere and
relative abundance of grasses to woody plants. Climate
Anthropogenic activities like deforestation, cropland expansion,

unsustainable land management practices including overgrazing by livestock,
land use change due to urban expansion and infrastructure development, and
extractive industries like coal, iron ore etc. are creating pressure upon natural
vegetation and so causing land degradation and desertification. Climate
change can cause desertification but the process of desertification alters the
local climate as well by providing feedback (Sivakumar 2007). These
feedbacks can change the carbon cycle, and hence the level of atmospheric
CO2. They can alter the surface energy and water budgets and so directly
impacting the local climate. Desertification causes increasing surface albedo
especially in arid regions. This impacts the local climate, decreasing surface
temperature and precipitation, and gives positive feedback on the albedo in
desert regions worldwide.
4.6 AGRICULTURE
Agricultural lands account for about 40-50% of the Earth’s land surface.
Agricultural land occupied 5023 Mha in 2002 and over last four decades, it
gained about 500 Mha from other land uses. Agriculture sector plays a
significant role in emitting global warming gases like CO2, CH4, and N2O to
the atmosphere. CO2 emissions from agricultural soils are included in the
land use, land use change and forestry sector in national GHG inventories.
Agricultural lands generate very large CO2 fluxes both in terms of
sequestration and emission to the atmosphere, but the net flux is small.
Globally, agricultural CH4 and N2O emissions have increased by nearly 17%
from 1990 to 2005, an average annual emission increase of about 60 MtCO2-
eq/year (IPCC, 2018). India is the third highest greenhouse gas emitter after
China and the United States from agriculture and animal husbandry. Indian
agriculture sector contributes about 18% of gross national emissions after
energy and industry.
4.6.1 Emissions
CO2 emission takes place mainly through microbial decay, and burning of
crop residues whereas soil carbon gets sequestered through the process of
photosynthesis in which CO2 is taken up from the atmosphere and stored in
the soil carbon pool as soil organic carbon. Plant residues like dropped
leaves; twigs etc. as organic matter, through microbial action slowly gets
decomposed and makes nutrients available to plants and also releases CO2
into the atmosphere. Burning of crop residues becomes one of the important
sources of pollution in north-India. India, generated more than 488 Mt of total
crop residue in the recent past and more than 25% of crop residues is burnt in
field only. In spite of emission of black carbon (BC), particulate matter, CO2
etc. and related implications upon human health, local weather condition and
75
Introduction to
Global Climate environment at large this is yet in practice by farmers of northern India to
Change make field ready for the next crop without much investing on manual
labourers. Metropolitan city like Delhi being close to agricultural states
experiencing severe smog (smoke+ fog) in recent years during month of
October. Many campaigns have been taken up by the government as well as
the social sector to educate the farmers to convert crop residues into manure
or safer alternates. As regards methane emissions, it is produced as a result
of anaerobic decomposition of organic materials, notably from stored
manures and from rice grown under water stagnant conditions, etc. N2O gets
generated by the microbial transformation of nitrogen present in soils and
excess of nitrogen (N) present in the manures which is unutilized by the
plants under high soil moisture condition. Agricultural N2O emissions are
projected to increase by 35-60% up to 2030 due to increased nitrogen
fertilizer use and increased animal manure production (FAO, 2003).
4.6.2 Mitigation Technologies and Practices

Loss of carbon to the atmosphere is ever increasing as a result of increase in
pressure on the limited crop fields. There are other factors like deforestation,
biodiversity loss, accelerated soil erosion, loss of soil organic matter at a
faster rate, salinisation of soils, coastal water pollution and acidification of
the oceans and land use changes are also contributing significantly to climate
change. Following are list of practices to be followed to curtail the emission
from this sector are cropland management; grazing land management;
management of organic soils; restoration of degraded lands; manure/bio-solid
management and bio-energy production. Smith et al., 2007 estimated that a
global potential mitigation of 770 MtCO2-eq/year by 2030 can be achieved
from improving energy efficiency in this sector alone.
Box 4.1: Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
“The total GHG emissions due to anthropogenic action is about 49

gigatonne of CO2-equivalent per year (GtCO2-eq/yr) (IPCC 2014a). The
agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU)sector contributes about
10–12 gigatonne of CO2-equivalent per year. GHGs from agriculture are
mainly due to land use and land use changes and forestry related activities,
enteric fermentation in ruminants, biomass and biofuel burning, lowland
paddy cultivation, and use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers (Lipper et al.
2014; Smith et al. 2014). On account of land use and land use changes like
deforestation and degradation, CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere and the
atmospheric CO2 is sequestered by land use activities such as afforestation,
and reforestation. Global net CO2 emissions due to land use change from
2000-2009 is estimated at 1.1 + 0.8 Pg C yr–1 (Ciais et al. 2013).Increase in
atmospheric methane is mainly due to anthropogenic emissions.
Anthropogenic biogenic emissions of methane is important as it is increasing
due to the human activities like low land paddy cultivation, rearing of
ruminants, man-made lakes and waste management including the emissions
76
from landfills. Ruminants like cattle, sheep, goats, etc. produce CH4 due to Atmosphere and
food fermentation occurring in their anoxic rumen environment.Increase in Climate
atmospheric concentration of N2O after 1950’s is mainly due to agricultural

intensification which involves extensive use of synthetic N fertilizers and
manure application (Matson et al.1997). Soil microbial processes like
nitrification and denitrification are squarely responsible for increased
atmospheric N2O concentration. N2O emissions from soil processes may
increase on account of growing food demand and dependency of modern
agriculture on external inputs like nitrogenous chemical fertilizers (IPCC
2014a, b, c)”.
Source: Venkatramanan and Shah 2019
4.7 LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

Livestock, mainly ruminants such as cattle and sheep are contributing about
one-third of global anthropogenic emissions of methane (CH4). The CH4 is
produced primarily by enteric fermentation. All livestock generate N2O
emissions from manure as a result of excretion of N in urine and faeces. N2O
emissions from soils and CH4 from enteric fermentation constitute the largest
sources, 38% and 32% of total non-CO2 emissions from agriculture in 2005,
respectively (EPA, 2006). CH4 and N2O emissions from this sector can be
minimized by improved feeding practices, use of dietary additives; and
longer term management changes and animal breeding. CH4 emissions can be
reduced by replacing forages with concentrates. Optimizing protein intake
can reduce N excretion and N2O emissions as well. A wide range of specific
agents, like ionophores, antibiotics can reduce methane emissions. Use of
condensed tannins or essential oils has been proved as reducing methane
emissions. Increasing productivity through breeding and better management
practices, such as a reduction in the number of replacement heifers, often
reduces methane output per unit of animal product.
Animal manures can release significant amounts of N2O and CH4 during
storage, but the magnitude of these emissions varies. CH4 emissions from
manure stored in tanks can be reduced by cooling, use of solid covers,
mechanically separating solids from slurry, or by capturing the CH4 emitted.
The manures can also be digested anaerobically to maximize CH4 retrieval as
a renewable energy source. Handling manures in solid form (e.g.,
composting) rather than liquid form can suppress CH4 emissions, but may
increase N2O formation. Major transitions are required to exploit the large
potential for bioenergy. Improving agricultural efficiency in developing
countries is a key factor to reduce GHGs emission from this sector.
77
Introduction to
Global Climate 1) Write about the role of urbanization in causing climate change?
Change
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2) Write about the impacts of desertification?
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3) Write briefly the GHG emissions from agriculture and livestock sector?
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4.8 AEROSOLS
Aerosols are suspended solid or liquid particles, with a typical size between a
few nanometres and 10 μm. It may be generated due to natural processes like
volcanic eruption, mineral dusts from deserts, sea spray, vegetation, and wild
fire or anthropogenic mainly due to burning of fossil fuel and biomass
burning. Plants emit volatile organic gases that are precursors for secondary
aerosol formation.
4.8.1 Pathways and Radiative forcing

It is both the size and chemistry that influences the climate. Sulphate
aerosols scatter the incoming solar radiation whereas black carbon absorbs
the radiation. Sizes of aerosols decide the cloud microphysics and other
cloud properties. Ultrafine aerosols (<0.01µm) formed as a result of
nucleation of emitted precursor gases such as H2SO4, NH3, organic carbon
etc. act as cloud condensation nuclei and forms fine aerosols of 0.1 to 1 µm
in accumulation mode.
Aerosols in the accumulation mode are of most importance as these aerosols

78 can hydrate to diameters between 0.1 and 2 µm where their mass extinction
efficiency is largest. Accumulation mode aerosols not only have high Atmosphere and
scattering efficiency but also have the longest atmospheric lifetime. Since, Climate
smaller particles coagulate more quickly while nucleation to cloud drops or

impaction onto the surface removes larger particles efficiently through wet or
dry deposition. Accumulation mode aerosols form the majority of cloud
condensation nuclei (CCN). Hence, anthropogenic aerosol perturbations such
as sulphur emissions have the greatest climate impact when, as is often the
case, they produce or affect accumulation mode aerosols. Aerosols affect the
number concentration of cloud drops, thus the brightness (albedo) of clouds
gets altered. Aerosols may alter cloud lifetime as lesser number of
precipitation drops formed which increases the liquid water path. Thus,
aerosols reduce the precipitation efficiency so attributes to indirect radiative
forcing. Where, it has direct radiative forcing effect as well by changing the
albedo. Black Carbon (BC) aerosols not only absorb incoming solar radiation
but also upon deposition on snow or ice-covered surfaces reduce
their albedo where sulphate aerosols just do opposite to it. Not only the
chemical composition but also size distribution attributes to the scattering of
light. Sub-micrometre aerosols scatter more light per unit mass and have a
longer atmospheric residence time than larger ones. The number of cloud
condensation nuclei per mass of aerosol also depends on the chemical
composition of aerosols as a function of size. Therefore, it is essential to
understand the processes that determine these properties.
4.8.2 Life time

Life time of aerosol in the atmosphere depends upon emission, deposition
processes, and its rate of atmospheric transformation. Atmospheric
transformations include atmospheric chemical reactions and other physical
processes like secondary aerosol formation and growth of aerosol. Typical
residence time of aerosol particles ranges from few hours to about 2 weeks.
As a result of having low life time aerosols does not play much towards
radiative forcing.
4.8.3 Sources of Aerosols

4.8.3.1Primary Anthropogenic Aerosols as Industrial dust
Transportation, combustion of coal, metallurgical processes, cement
manufacturing units, and waste incineration are primary industrial sources
which produce primary particulate aerosols as industrial dust. Global dust
emission from industrial sources estimated more than 200 Tg/year.
4.8.3.2 Primary Anthropogenic Aerosols as Carbonaceous

aerosols
Carbonaceous aerosols consist of organic compounds and black carbon. Its
prime sources are biomass and fossil fuel burning, and the volatile organic
compounds (VOC) emitted by plants and other anthropogenic activities.
79
Introduction to
Global Climate Carbonaceous aerosols as a unit consist of compounds share a large but
Change highly variable fraction of the atmospheric aerosol. Biomass burning
produces the largest share of organic component in the sub-micron size
fraction of atmospheric aerosol. Presence of functional groups like carboxylic
(-HCOOH) and dicarboxylic acids in organics makes it water soluble and so
acts as cloud droplet nucleation as well. Hence organics also takes part in
indirect radiative forcing.
Second important part of carbonaceous aerosols is Black carbon (BC) which

is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon-based (fossil)
fuels. Though the life time of BC is about a week but yet these aerosols play
a crucial role in the climate change through absorption of solar radiation,
interaction with clouds, and deposition on snow and ice. Per unit of
mass, black carbon has a warming impact on climate that is 460-1,500 times
stronger than CO2. BC, suspended in the atmosphere contributes to warming
by trapping heat by converting incoming solar radiation to heat. It also
influences cloud formation and impacts regional circulation and rainfall
patterns. BC alone is estimated to be contributing about 15% of the current
excessive warming of global temperatures.
4.8.3.3 Nitrates Aerosol and its Radiative effects

Nitrates aerosols are formed as a result of conversion of NO2 to HNO3
mainly in the gas phase. HNO3 further reacts with NH3 to form ammonium
nitrate. Primary anthropogenic sources of this aerosol are combustion of
fossil fuel, from synthetic fertilizers, biomass burning, and natural processes
like lighting, as well. Whereas NH3 gets released from number of sources like
excreta from animals, synthetic fertilizers, oceans, biomass burning, crops,
human populations, soils, industrial processes and fossil fuels etc. Further,
NH3 reacts with sulphates and nitrates to form ammonium sulphate
(NH4)2SO4. Each sulphuric acid molecule (H2SO4) is looking for two
ammonia molecules and gets neutralized. But, in absence of enough
ammonia, H2SO4 exists either as H2SO4 (aq) or as NH4HSO4. Adams et al.
(1999) estimated the global nitrate (NO3−1) burden as of 0.17 Tg per annum.
Availability of nitrate is closely associated with the relative abundances of

ammonium and sulphate. Availability of ammonia in excess resulted into
neutralisation of sulphuric acid and hence resulted into lesser formation of
nitrate which is radiatively efficient aerosols. But, in the presence of
sulphuric acid containing aerosols, in the accumulation-mode, deposition of
nitric acid is greater on larger, alkaline mineral or salt particles. But coarse
mode particles are less efficient per unit mass at scattering light, so this
process reduces the radiative impact of nitrate.
4.8.3.4 Other important sources of primary aerosols

Other important sources of primary aerosols are soil dust and sea salt. But
Soil dust and sea salt are natural sources of aerosols. Sea salt aerosols are
80
generated especially by physical process like the bursting of entrained air Atmosphere and
bubbles during whitecap formation. It is the major contributor to both light Climate
scattering and cloud nuclei provided wind speeds are high and other aerosol
sources are insignificant. Since, it’s a very efficient Cloud Condensation
Nuclei (CCN), and so plays crucial role in indirect radiative effects. Even in
concentrations of 1 salt particle per litre, are able to modify cloud type
significantly, stratocumulus drizzle production and cloud albedo. Its size
roughly ranges from 0.05 to 10 µm diameter. As a result of presence of
submicron particles, it remains in atmosphere for longer time.
4.8.3.5 Secondary Organic Aerosols (SOA)

Oxidation of atmospheric hydrocarbons released by plants as well from
household products like use of paints, disinfectants and solvents and
combustion of hydrocarbons like gasoline and diesel used in vehicles and
industries, open burning, emission from commercial shops, from distribution
and transportation of fuels etc. forms volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
that readily form aerosols. Because of low volatility it is formed by
conversion of gas-to-particle (solid) stage and so is called secondary organic
aerosol (SOA). SOA is present in the sub-micron size fraction. SOA
formation from biogenic precursors alone contributes to a constant aerosol
yield of 5% for all terpenes. Terpenes consists of a basic five-carbon isoprene
unit i.e., 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene (C5H8). Isoprene is the largest non-methane
VOC emission. Terpenes generally are composed of one, two, three, four, or
six isoprene units and are called hemiterpene (C5H8), monoterpenes (C10H16),
sesquiterpenes (C10H24), diterpenes (C20H32), and triterpenes (C30H48),
respectively. Terpenes may contain a variety of functional groups and it has
the half-life of 30 min to 4 h in the troposphere.
Burning of petroleum forms alkanes, alkenes and aromatic compounds like

benzene (C6H6) having one ring and its alkyl derivatives like toluene which is
methyl benzene (C7H8); two-ring structure, Naphthalene (C10H8) and it’s
methyl derivatives (C11H10) and ortho, meta and para-cresols (C7H8O), 3-
benzene ring structure, anthracene (C14H10) and phenanthrene (C14H10) which
in presence of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), oxides of sulphur (SO42-) and UV
ray undergo chemical photo-oxidation to form SOA tracers as a group of
aromatic VOCs like Phthalic acid (C8H6O4), phenolic acid (C6H6O3), benzene
tri carboxylic acid (C9H6O6). SOA emissions are expected to rise as a
consequence of human activities and increasing global temperatures (IPCC
2007). Presuming the low yields, anthropogenic SOA formation was earlier
thought to significant only in urban areas and recently even benzene has been
reported as important source particularly in the presence of low nitrogen
oxide concentrations.
81
Introduction to
Global Climate 4.8.3.6 Effects of aerosol at a glance!
Change
• Aerosol particles interact with solar radiation mainly through absorption
and scattering and, to some extent with terrestrial radiation through
absorption, scattering and emission.
• It can serve as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and ice nuclei (IN) upon
which cloud droplets and ice crystals form.
• It plays a crucial role in atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical

cycles in the Earth system, like, by carrying nutrients to ocean
ecosystems.
• Its quantity and properties are extremely variable in space and time.
• Aerosols of anthropogenic origin are responsible for a radiative forcing

(RF) of climate change through their interaction with radiation (direct
RF), and also as a result of their interaction with clouds (indirect RF).
• Indirect RF by aerosols perturb the Earth-atmosphere radiation balance

by modulation of cloud albedo and cloud amount.
• Indirect RF can be viewed as a series of processes linking various

intermediate variables such as aerosol mass, cloud condensation nuclei
(CCN) concentration, ice nuclei (IN) concentration, water phase
partitioning, cloud optical depth, etc., which connect emissions of
aerosols (or their precursors) to the top of the atmosphere radiative
forcing due to clouds.
• PM is made up of many different chemical components with different

physical properties, some of which lead to warming of temperatures
(example: black carbon) by absorbing heat from the sun, whilst others
(example: sulphates) bring about cooling effects by reflecting sunlight.
• Black carbon (BC) alone is estimated to be responsible for about 15 % of

the current excessive warming of global temperatures. Additionally,
short-term reductions in BC can potentially delay the impact of global
warming by 10 years.
• The RF from absorbing aerosol on snow and ice is assessed separately to

be +0.04 W m–2.
• The RF due to aerosol–radiation interactions is assessed to be –0.35 W

m–2.
• The RF via sulphate aerosol: –0.4 W m–2, black carbon (BC) aerosol:
+0.4 W m–2, and primary and secondary organic aerosol: –0.12 W m–2,
nitrate aerosol: –0.11 W m–2, and mineral dust: –0.1 W m–2 although the
latter may not be entirely of anthropogenic origin.
• This RF has a 2 to 4 times larger global mean surface temperature

82 change per unit forcing than a change in CO2.
4.9 LET US SUM UP Atmosphere and
Climate
Climate change is a cause of concern. During the past 150 years the amount
of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere has increased from 280 parts per million
(ppm) to more than 400 ppm by burning of fossil fuels. Urbanization,
deforestation and desertification, agriculture and livestock activity have been
categorized as important sectors emitting greenhouse gases. In this unit, we
have discussed the role of urbanization, deforestation and desertification on
climate change. Also, we have discussed about the major greenhouse gases
emissions from agriculture and livestock sector.
4.10 KEY WORDS

Albedo: The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object, often
expressed as a percentage. Snow-covered surfaces have a high albedo, the
albedo of soils ranges from high to low, and vegetation-covered surfaces and
oceans have a low albedo.
Greenhouse Gases: Greenhouse gases are those gaseous constituents of the

atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at
specific wavelengths within the spectrum of terrestrial radiation emitted by
the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes
the greenhouse effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous
oxide (N2O), methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary greenhouse
gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover, there are a number of entirely
human-made greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons
and other chlorine- and bromine containing substances.
Urban heat island (UHI): The relative warmth of a city compared with
surrounding rural areas, associated with changes in runoff, effects on heat
retention, and changes in surface albedo.
Deforestation: Conversion of forest to non-forest.

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MEVE 011

Indira Gandhi National Open University

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

FORMAT AND LANGUAGE EDITORS

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

We hope that you would enjoy reading the self-learning material.

1.3.3 Composition of the Atmosphere

1.3.3.1 Greenhouse Gases

1.5.2 Climate Classification

• define the atmosphere and climate;

1.3 THE ATMOSPHERE

On planet Earth, life became possible as a result of having blanket of gases

Is it good to have atmosphere on the Earth?

Fig.1.1: The layers of atmosphere.

The layer next to stratosphere is called mesosphere. It starts from about 50

c) The Thermosphere (Ionosphere)

How Aurora are formed?

1.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure

Table 1.1: Changes in Sea-level pressure (%) with Altitude

Altitude (km) Percentage of Sea-level pressure

Why do temperature and pressure decrease with height?

In the real atmosphere, the actual vertical temperature structure depends on

1.3.3 Composition of the Atmosphere

Concentrations of CO2 is generally expressed in percentages (%) as well as in

towards the formation of smog and so it’s of importance. Particulate matter

Table1.2: Constituents of the Atmosphere in % by Volume

Gas Percentage by Volume

Where, NMHCs= Non-Methane Hydrocarbons;

1.3.3.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

a) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

The atmospheric lifespan of a molecule of methane is estimated to be around

c) Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Nitrogen being dominant in share by volume, formation of nitrous oxide

anthropogenic i.e., deforestation and nitrogenous fertilizer (6Tg/year) to

Table1.3: Few examples of Halocarbons with their atmospheric lifetime

Formula Designation Atmospheric

Formation of tropospheric ozone

Aerosols having hydrophilic property support the growth of cloud droplets.

form droplets and causes increased rainfall.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

1) What do you know about the vertical structure of the atmosphere?

1.4 SOLAR RADIATION

Solar irradiance is measured by satellites above Earth's atmosphere, and is

Table 1.3: Important facts about the Earth-Sun System

Fig. 1.3:Position and path of Earth-Sun system

ii) Effect of Earth's spherical shape

iii) The tilt of the Earth's axis and the seasons

During Solstices, incoming radiation is perpendicular to the Earth surface on

b) Factors affecting amount of energy flux received at the Earth’s

1) The Earth's albedo

The reflectivity of a planet is referred to as the albedo and is expressed as a

properties, and the weather.

2) Effective temperature (Te)

c) A Simple Global Temperature Model

All heated objects must emit electromagnetic radiation, particularly so if they

Rate of incoming solar radiation at the Earth = SπR2 (watts).

S= the Solar Constant (1370W/m2)

R= the Radius of the Earth (m)

If the Earth’s radius is R, the area of that disk is πR2.

Heat absorbed by planet Earth= (1 - a) πR2So